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= L 'Arianna =
L 'Arianna ( English : Ariadne ) ( SV 291 ) , composed in 1607 – 1608 , was the second opera by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi . One of the earliest operas , it was first performed on 28 May 1608 , as part of the musical festivities for a royal wedding at the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga in Mantua . All the music is lost apart from the extended recitative known as " Lamento d 'Arianna " ( " Ariadne 's Lament " ) . The libretto , which survives complete , was written in eight scenes by Ottavio Rinuccini , who used Ovid 's Heroides and other classical sources to relate the story of Ariadne 's abandonment by Theseus on the island of Naxos and her subsequent elevation as bride to the god Bacchus .
The opera was composed under severe pressure of time ; the composer later said that the effort of creating it almost killed him . The initial performance , produced with lavish and innovative special effects , was highly praised , and the work was equally well received in Venice when it was revived under the composer 's direction in 1640 as the inaugural work for the Teatro San Moisè .
Rinuccini 's libretto is available in a number of editions . The music of the " Lamento " survives because it was published by Monteverdi , in several different versions , independently from the opera . This fragment became a highly influential musical work and was widely imitated ; the " expressive lament " became an integral feature of Italian opera for much of the 17th century . In recent years the " Lamento " has become popular as a concert and recital piece and has been frequently recorded .
= = Historical context = =
In about 1590 Claudio Monteverdi , born in Cremona in 1567 , secured a position as a viol player at the Mantuan court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga . Over the following ten years he advanced to become the duke 's maestro della musica . During that time , significant developments were taking place in the world of musical theatre ; in 1598 the work generally recognised as the first in the new genre of " opera " — Jacopo Peri 's Dafne — was performed in Florence . The duke was quick to recognise the potential of this new musical form , and its potential for bringing prestige to those willing to sponsor it .
As part of his duties to the Gonzaga court , Monteverdi was often required to compose or arrange music for staged performances . These works included a fully @-@ fledged opera , L 'Orfeo , written to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio the Younger and presented before the court on 24 February 1607 . This performance pleased the duke , who ordered a repeat showing for 1 March . A contemporary account records that the piece " could not have been done better ... The music , observing due propriety , serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere " . Monteverdi was then required to write several pieces for performance at the wedding of the duke 's son and heir Francesco , planned for early May 1608 . These included a musical prologue for Battista Guarini 's play L 'idropica and a setting of the dramatic ballet Il ballo delle ingrate ( " Dance of the Ungrateful Ladies " ) , with a text by Ottavio Rinuccini . There was also to be an opera , though it was not initially certain that Monteverdi would provide this . Other works under consideration were Peri 's Le nozze di Peleo e Titede ( " The marriage of Peleus and Thetis " ) with a libretto by Francesco Cini , and a new setting of Dafne by Marco da Gagliano . In the event , the former was rejected and the latter designated for performance at the 1607 – 08 Carnival . The duke decreed that the wedding opera should be based on the myth of Arianna ( Ariadne ) , and that Rinuccini should write the text . Monteverdi was instructed to provide the music .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
At the time of his commission for L 'Arianna , Rinuccini was probably the most experienced and distinguished of all librettists . His writing career stretched back to 1579 , when he had written verses for the Florentine court entertainment Maschere d 'Amazzoni . He had become widely known through his verse contributions to the celebrated intermedi for Girolamo Bargagli 's play La Pellegrina ( The Pilgrim Woman ) , performed in May 1589 at the wedding of Ferdinando I de ' Medici and Christina of Lorraine . According to Gagliano , Rinuccini was a primary influence in the emergence of opera as a genre ; he adapted the conventions of his contemporary lyric poets to produce the librettos for two of the earliest operas , Dafne and Euridice — the latter set to music by both Peri and Giulio Caccini .
For his Arianna libretto Rinuccini drew on a variety of classical sources , notably the tenth book of Ovid 's Heroides , parts of the Carmina of Catullus , and the section in Virgil 's epic Aeneid dealing with Dido 's abandonment by Aeneas . He also used aspects of more recent literary works — Ludovico Ariosto 's Orlando Furioso , Torquato Tasso 's Gerusalemme liberata , and Giovanni Andrea dell ' Anguillara 's 1561 translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses . The libretto was extended during the rehearsals when Carlo de ' Rossi , a member of the duke 's court , reported the Duchess Eleonora 's complaint that the piece was " very dry " and needed to be enriched with further action . The libretto published in Venice in 1622 takes the form of a prologue and eight scenes , although other arrangements of the text have been suggested . For example , the musicologist Bojan Bujić has posited an alternative of a prologue and five scenes .
= = = Composition = = =
Monteverdi probably began composing in late October or early November 1607 , since Rinuccini 's arrival in Mantua can be dated to 23 October . With rehearsals due to begin in the new year , Monteverdi composed the work in a hurry and under considerable pressure ; nearly 20 years later he was still complaining , in a letter to Striggio , of the hardships he had been made to suffer : " It was the shortness of time that brought me almost to death 's door in writing L 'Arianna " .
Monteverdi had apparently completed the score by early January , and rehearsals began . However , his work was not over as he was required to write further music when the work was extended after Rossi 's intervention . Among the material added or lengthened were the early scene between Venus and Cupid , and Jupiter 's blessing from heaven at the end of the opera . In March 1608 , well into the rehearsal period , the opera 's scheduled performance was jeopardised by the death , from smallpox , of the leading soprano Caterina Martinelli . Fortunately a replacement was to hand , a renowned actress and singer , Virginia Ramponi @-@ Andreini , known professionally as " La Florinda " , who was performing in Mantua . A courtier , Antonio Costantini , later reported that she learned the part of Arianna in six days . The musicologist Tim Carter suggests that Arianna 's lament may have been added to the opera at this late stage , to exploit La Florinda 's well @-@ known vocal capabilities .
= = Roles = =
The casting for the opera 's premiere is uncertain . While the participation of singers such as La Florinda and Francesco Rasi can be established , sources have speculated on the involvement of other singers . There are several versions of the published libretto ; the list of roles is taken from the publication by Gherardo & Iseppo Imberti , Venice 1622 .
= = Synopsis = =
The action is preceded by a brief prologue , delivered by Apollo . Venus and Cupid are then discovered , in conversation , on a desolate seashore . Venus informs Cupid that Duke Theseus of Athens , together with Ariadne , will soon be arriving on the island of Naxos on their way to Athens . They are fleeing from Crete , where the pair have been complicit in the slaying of Ariadne 's monster half @-@ brother , the Minotaur , in the labyrinth below the palace of her father , King Minos . Venus is aware that Theseus intends to abandon Ariadne on Naxos , and to proceed to Athens alone . Cupid offers to rekindle Theseus 's passion for Ariadne , but Venus has decided to unite her with the god Bacchus , and asks Cupid to arrange this .
Cupid conceals himself , as Theseus and Ariadne arrive on the island a short distance away . Ariadne muses over her disloyalty to her father , but declares her love for Theseus . She departs to find shelter for the night , after which a fishermen 's chorus compares her eyes with the stars of heaven . Theseus , alone with his counsellor , discusses his abandonment of Ariadne , and is advised that this decision is justified , as she will not be acceptable to the people of Athens as their ruler 's consort .
A chorus greets the dawn as Ariadne , after a troubled night 's sleep , returns to the shore with her companion , Dorilla , to find that Theseus has departed . Dorilla offers her comfort . In despair at the thought that Theseus will not return , Ariadne nevertheless decides to go to the landing area to wait for him . In a pastoral interlude a chorus sings of the joys of rural life , and expresses the hope that Theseus will not forget Ariadne . Primed by an envoy with the news that Ariadne is alone and sorrowing , the chorus again sings in sympathy with her . On the beach , Ariadne sings her lament for her lost love and prepares to kill herself . At this point fanfares are heard heralding an arrival , causing Ariadne to hope that it is Theseus returning . In another interlude the chorus empathises , but a second envoy announces that it is Bacchus who has arrived , having taken pity on Ariadne . A sung ballo celebrates the anticipated betrothal of Bacchus and Ariadne . In the final scene Cupid reappears , and Venus rises from the sea before Jupiter speaks his blessing from the heavens . The union is sealed as Bacchus promises Ariadne immortality in heaven , and a crown of stars .
= = Performance history = =
= = = Premiere : Mantua , 1608 = = =
The date of the Gonzaga wedding was repeatedly postponed , because of diplomatic problems which delayed the bride 's arrival in Mantua until 24 May . The wedding festivities began four days later ; L 'Arianna was performed on 28 May 1608 , the first of the several spectacular entertainments . A large temporary theatre had been built for the occasion ; according to the court 's chronicler Federico Follino this held 6 @,@ 000 people — a figure which Carter deems unlikely . Whatever its size , the arena could not hold everyone who wished to be present . Follino 's account records that although the duke had strictly limited the numbers from his household entitled to be there , many distinguished foreign visitors could not be seated and were obliged to crowd around the doors .
Although contained within a single stage set , the production was lavish , with 300 men employed to manipulate the stage machinery . Follino 's report described the set as " a wild rocky place in the midst of the waves , which in the furthest part of the prospect could be seen always in motion " . As the action began , Apollo was revealed " sitting on a very beautiful cloud ... which , moving down little by little ... reached in a short space of time the stage and ... disappeared in a moment " . Thereafter , all the performers proved excellent in the art of singing ; " every part succeeded more than wondrously " . Follino 's enthusiasm was echoed in other reports made by dignitaries to their own courts . The ambassador for the House of Este , who referred to the work as " a comedy in music " , mentioned in particular Andreini 's performance which , in her lament , " made many weep " , and that of Francesco Rasi , who as Bacchus " sang divinely " . Monteverdi 's fellow composer Marco da Gagliano wrote that Monteverdi 's music had " moved the entire audience to tears " . In all , the opera lasted for two and a half hours .
= = = Revival : Venice , 1639 – 40 = = =
Despite the positive reception accorded to L 'Arianna at its premiere , the duke did not request a second showing , as he had with L 'Orfeo the previous year " . The next hint of a performance of L 'Arianna is in 1614 , when the Medici court in Florence requested a copy of the score , presumably with the intention of staging it . There is , however , no record of any such performance there . Early in 1620 Striggio asked Monteverdi to send him the music for a projected performance in Mantua as part of the celebration for the Duchess Caterina 's birthday . Monteverdi went to the trouble and expense of preparing a new manuscript with revisions ; had he had more time , he informed Striggio , he would have revised the work more thoroughly . Hearing nothing further from the Mantuan court , Monteverdi wrote to Striggio on 18 April 1620 , offering to help with the staging . A month or so later , however , he learned that the duchess 's celebrations had been scaled back , and that there had been no performance of L 'Arianna .
There is some evidence to suggest a possible performance in Dubrovnik , in or some time after 1620 ; a Croatian translation of the libretto was published in Ancona in 1633 . However , the only known revival of the work came in Venice , in 1640 . Public theatre opera had come to the city in March 1637 , when the new Teatro San Cassiano opened with a performance of L 'Andromeda by Francesco Manelli . The popularity of this and other works led to more theatres converting their facilities for opera ; L 'Arianna was chosen to inaugurate the Teatro San Moisè as an opera house during the 1639 – 40 Carnival ( the precise date of this performance is not recorded ) . A revised version of the libretto had been published in 1639 , with substantial cuts and revisions from the 1608 version to remove passages too specifically linked to the Mantuan wedding . The composer , who was by then 73 years old , had acquired considerable prestige in Venice , having been director of music at St Mark 's Basilica since 1613 . The dedication in the revised and republished libretto describes him as " [ the ] most celebrated Apollo of the century and the highest intelligence of the heavens of humanity " . The opera was received with great enthusiasm by a Venetian audience already familiar with the lament , which had been published in the city in 1623 . Within a few weeks the theatre replaced L 'Arianna with Monteverdi 's new opera Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria , which proved an even greater success .
= = Loss = =
After the Venice revival of 1639 – 40 there are no further records of performances of L 'Arianna . Rinuccini 's libretto , which was published on several occasions during Monteverdi 's lifetime , has survived intact , but the opera 's music disappeared some time after 1640 , with the exception of Ariadne 's Scene 6 lament , known as Lamento d 'Arianna . In the loss of its music the opera shares the fate of most of Monteverdi 's theatrical works , including six of his other nine operas . Carter 's explanation for the high rate of attrition is that " memories were short and large @-@ scale musical works often had limited currency beyond their immediate circumstances " ; such music was rarely published and quickly discarded .
= = " Lamento d 'Arianna " = =
The lament was saved from oblivion by Monteverdi 's decision to publish it independently from the opera : first in 1614 as a five @-@ voice madrigal , then in 1623 as a monody , and finally in 1641 as a sacred hymn , Lamento della Madonna . The five @-@ voice adaptation was included in the composer 's Sixth Book of Madrigals ; there is evidence that this arrangement was made at the suggestion of an unnamed Venetian gentleman who thought that the melody would benefit from counterpoint . In 1868 the lament was published in Paris , and in 1910 the Italian composer Ottorino Respighi issued an edited , orchestral transcription .
In her analysis of the lament , the musicologist Suzanne Cusick asserts that " [ T ] o a large extent Monteverdi 's fame and historical status rested for centuries on the universal appreciation of his achievement in the celebrated lament [ which ] was among the most emulated , and therefore influential , works of the early 17th century " . In Cusick 's view Monteverdi " creat [ ed ] the lament as a recognizable genre of vocal chamber music and as a standard scene in opera ... that would become crucial , almost genre @-@ defining , to the full @-@ scale public operas of 17th @-@ century Venice " and she concludes by noting that the women of Mantua would have recognised the transformations enacted in the lament as representative of their own life stories . Monteverdi , she believes , sought to represent in music the eventual triumph of female piety over promiscuity : " Arianna 's gradual loss of her passionate self in the lament constitutes a public musical chastening of this incautious woman who dared to choose her own mate " . In her study The Recitative Soliloquy , Margaret Murata records that laments of this kind became a staple feature of operas until about 1650 , " thereafter more rarely until the total triumph of the aria around 1670 " . Mark Ringer , in his analysis of Monteverdi 's musical drama , suggests that the lament defines Monteverdi 's innovative creativity in a manner similar to that in which , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half centuries later , the " Prelude " and the " Liebestod " in Tristan und Isolde announced Wagner 's discovery of new expressive frontiers .
In its operatic context the lament takes the form of an extended recitative of more than 70 vocal lines , delivered in five sections divided by choral comments . Some of the wording is prefigured in the immediately preceding scene in which the First Envoy describes Arianna 's plight to a sympathetic chorus of fishermen . The lament depicts Arianna 's various emotional reactions to her abandonment : sorrow , anger , fear , self @-@ pity , desolation and a sense of futility . Cusick draws attention to the manner in which Monteverdi is able to match in music the " rhetorical and syntactical gestures " in Rinuccini 's text . The opening repeated words " Lasciatemi morire " ( Let me die ) are accompanied by a dominant seventh chord which Ringer describes as " an unforgettable chromatic stab of pain " ; Monteverdi was one of the first users of this musical device . What follows , says Ringer , has a range and depth " comparable to Shakespeare 's most searching soliloquies " . The words " Lasciatemi morire " are followed by " O Teseo , O Teseo mio " ( O Theseus , my Theseus " ) ; the two phrases represent Arianna 's contrasting emotions of despair and longing . Throughout the lament indignation and anger are punctuated by tenderness , until the final iteration of " O Teseo " , after which a descending line brings the lament to a quiet conclusion .
Among other composers who adopted the format and style of Arianna 's lament were Francesco Cavalli , whose opera Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo contains three such pieces ; Francesco Costa , who included a setting of Rinuccini 's text in his madrigal collection Pianta d 'Arianna ; and Sigismondo d 'India , who wrote several laments in the 1620s after the monodic version of Arianna 's lament was published in 1623 . Monteverdi himself used the expressive lament format in each of his two late operas , Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria and L 'incoronazione di Poppea , for the respective characters of Penelope and Ottavia . In 1641 Monteverdi adapted Arianna 's lament into a sacred song with a Latin text , " Pianto dell Madonna " , which he included in Selva morale e spirituale , the last of his works published during his lifetime .
= = Recordings , " Lamento d 'Arianna " = =
Many recordings are available of both the five @-@ voice madrigal and the solo voice version of the " Lamento " . The solo recordings include several versions which use a tenor or baritone voice . Among leading singers who have issued recordings are the sopranos Emma Kirkby and Véronique Gens , and the mezzo @-@ sopranos Janet Baker and Anne Sofie von Otter .
= = Editions = =
At least eight versions of the libretto were published between 1608 and 1640 . The following is a list of the known editions :
Aurelio et Ludovico Osanna , Mantua , 1608 . Publication of the text included in Federico Follini 's report of the 1608 performance ;
Heredi di Francesco Osanna , Mantua , 1608 . Possibly the text circulated to the audience at the 1608 performance ;
I. Giunti , Florence , 1608 ;
Bernardo Giunti , Giovan Battista Ciotti & Co . , Venice , 1608 ;
Ghirardo et Iseppo Imberti , Venice , 1622 ;
G. F. Gundulić , Ancona , 1633 . Croatian translation , prepared for possible performance in Dubrovnik c . 1620 . ( 5 scenes version ) ;
Angelo Salvadori , Venice , 1639 . Revised version prepared for the 1640 revival ;
Antonio Bariletti , Venice , 1640 .
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= Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election , October 2015 =
An election for the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives took place on October 29 , 2015 , during the 114th U.S. Congress . The election was necessitated by the announcement of Speaker John Boehner 's resignation , set for October 30 . The Speaker of the House follows the Vice President in the line of succession to the presidency of the United States in accordance with the Presidential Succession Act .
Due to friction within the Republican Party caucus , Boehner decided to step down as speaker and resign his seat in Congress . He scheduled a Republican caucus non @-@ binding vote for speaker on October 8 , and a full floor vote on October 29 . Kevin McCarthy , the House Majority Leader and second @-@ in @-@ command to the Speaker , was initially viewed as the favorite to win the Speakership . However , due to the opposition of the Freedom Caucus , McCarthy dropped out of the race on October 8 , and the caucus vote was postponed .
Jason Chaffetz initially declared his candidacy to challenge McCarthy , and Bill Flores declared his candidacy after McCarthy withdrew , but both dropped out later to express their support for Paul Ryan , who entered the race after being widely viewed as a potential frontrunner . Daniel Webster of the Republican Party and former Speaker Nancy Pelosi of the Democratic Party were also declared candidates . Ryan won the rescheduled caucus vote on October 28 , and was elected Speaker of the House , receiving 54 @.@ 6 % of the House vote , on October 29 .
= = Background = =
= = = Process and conventions = = =
The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives , and is second in the United States presidential line of succession , after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the United States Senate . Though the Constitution does not require that the Speaker be an elected member of the House of Representatives , every Speaker to date has been elected from House membership .
The 435 members of the House of Representatives elect a Speaker by majority rule at the beginning of each session of the United States Congress , who serves until the end of the Congress . Typically , the election is a formality , as the majority party 's members vote as a bloc for their party 's previously @-@ chosen Speaker @-@ designate ( such as the speaker , majority leader , or minority leader from the previous term ) . Open elections are uncommon but have occurred . The last Speaker election to require multiple ballots occurred in 1923 .
= = = Speakership and resignation of John Boehner = = =
John Boehner , a member of the Republican Party from Ohio , served as the Majority Leader of the United States House of Representatives from February 2006 until January 2007 . As the Democratic Party assumed control of the House following the 2006 elections , Boehner served as Minority Leader from January 2007 until January 2011 . When Republicans reassumed control of the House of Representatives in January 2011 , Boehner was elected as Speaker , with the votes of all 241 of his fellow Republicans . In 2014 , some House Republicans reached out to Ben Carson about his interest in becoming Speaker should they be able to oust Boehner ; Carson declined , citing his impending candidacy for president . Boehner 's Republican opponents formed a congressional caucus , called the Freedom Caucus , in January 2015 to focus their opposition . Though Boehner was reelected as Speaker at the beginning of the 114th United States Congress that month , 25 conservative members of the Republican caucus did not vote for him . Daniel Webster , a Republican from Florida , received 12 votes .
Throughout 2015 , Boehner and the Freedom Caucus remained at odds . Boehner stripped his opponents of leadership posts and other perks , while the American Action Network , a group allied with Boehner , aired television ads against Freedom Caucus members in their home districts . Meanwhile , the Freedom Caucus opposing Boehner 's plans , forcing him to rely on Democratic votes to pass bills . Needing to pass a federal budget for the 2016 fiscal year beginning October 1 , the Freedom Caucus , now consisting of approximately 40 conservative Republicans affiliated with the Tea Party movement , threatened to block a resolution from passing unless it would defund Planned Parenthood and to initiate a vote to vacate the speakership if Boehner did not support their demands . The caucus sought the following promises : ( 1 ) the decentralization of the House Steering Committee , so that the Speaker and House Majority Leader are not solely in charge of committee assignments , ( 2 ) not supporting an increase in the U.S. debt ceiling without entitlement reform , ( 3 ) willingness to impeach John Koskinen , the Commissioner of Internal Revenue , and ( 4 ) passing spending bills approved by the caucus rather than a continuing resolution favored by Democrats in the United States Senate .
On July 28 , 2015 , Mark Meadows , a member of the Freedom Caucus from North Carolina , filed a motion to vacate the speakership , only the second time the motion had been filed . The next day , Boehner referred to the motion as " no big deal . " However , following continued pressure from the Freedom Caucus , and to avoid the vacation of his speakership , Boehner announced on September 25 that he would resign the Speakership and retire from Congress effective October 30 . Sources from his office indicated he chose to resign due to the increasing discord within the Republican caucus so that he could manage passage of a continuing resolution to fund the government and avoid a government shutdown .
= = Candidates = =
On September 28 , Kevin McCarthy of California , the House Majority Leader , and Webster announced that they would run for Speaker of the House . McCarthy was considered the presumptive favorite in the race . Jason Chaffetz , a Republican from Utah and the Chairman of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee , announced his candidacy on October 4 , claiming that McCarthy did not have the votes to win the election . Several Republicans urged Paul Ryan of Wisconsin , the running mate of Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election , to run for Speaker , but he declined , saying he is a " policy guy " with a preference to focus on his role as Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee .
Democrat Nancy Pelosi , who served as the Speaker from January 2007 through January 2011 , asked her Democratic colleagues for their vote in the election . Steny Hoyer , the House Minority Whip , said that he expects that the " overwhelming majority " of Democrats will vote for Pelosi . He said that if a Republican cannot get the votes needed , Democrats may consider their options .
On October 7 , the day before the Republican caucus scheduled a non @-@ binding vote for speaker , Ryan and former Vice President Dick Cheney endorsed McCarthy , as did 11 of the 13 House Republicans from Pennsylvania . The Freedom Caucus decided to endorse Webster in the race . Other Republicans said they would vote against McCarthy , including Thomas Massie of Kentucky , who called McCarthy " absolutely not an option " because of his previous role as Boehner 's " right @-@ hand man " . Also , Walter B. Jones , Jr. of North Carolina sent a letter to the Republican Conference Chairwoman Cathy McMorris Rodgers stating that any candidates for a leadership position with " misdeeds " should withdraw from the race . Jones has stated that his comment did not specifically refer to McCarthy , but it was widely seen as referring to rumors that McCarthy had been committing an extramarital affair with a fellow Representative , a rumor that both have denied ; the basis for such an allegation and interpretation is unclear .
Citing opposition from within the Republican Party , as well as fallout from controversial comments he made about the United States House Select Committee on Benghazi , McCarthy dropped out of the race on October 8 . Following McCarthy 's departure from the race , Republicans renewed their efforts to recruit Ryan as a candidate . Boehner personally called Ryan twice to ask him to run , and Chaffetz said that he would not run against Ryan if he chose to enter the race . Ryan also received calls from Mitt Romney and Trey Gowdy , among others , encouraging him to run for Speaker . Additional Ryan endorsements came from Wisconsin Senator Ron Johnson , 2016 Republican presidential frontrunner Donald Trump , and House Majority Whip Steve Scalise from Louisiana . On October 9 , close aides of Ryan confirmed that Ryan was reconsidering the possibility of a run .
A possible Ryan candidacy received support from the same Freedom Caucus that opposed Boehner and McCarthy , as Meadows said on October 11 that Ryan running would " definitely change the equation , " and Chairman Jim Jordan described Ryan as " a good man " and stated that the Freedom Caucus would view a Ryan run " favorably . "
Others who expressed their interest in running included Texas representatives Bill Flores and Michael McCaul , Georgia representative Lynn Westmoreland , Montana representative Ryan Zinke , and California representative and former Oversight Committee Chairman Darrell Issa . However , several candidates have made clear that they would only run if Ryan chooses not to , including Issa , McCaul , and Minnesota representative John Kline . On October 12 , Flores confirmed that he would run for Speaker . He stated that he would run only if Ryan stayed out of the contest .
Ryan held a closed @-@ door meeting with the Republican Caucus on October 20 , where he explained that he would run for Speaker if he could be guaranteed an overwhelming majority of the Republican caucus would support him . Specifically , Ryan requested an increased threshold for the political maneuver of vacating the Speakership , stated that he would not lessen the amount of time he spends with his family , and requested an official endorsement from the Freedom Caucus , Republican Study Committee , and The Tuesday Group by October 23 , before he could make his decision . Immediately after Ryan 's announcement , Chaffetz announced that he would be dropping out of the race to support Ryan . The next day , the Freedom Caucus held a vote to determine which of its members would support Ryan ; although the exact tally was not revealed , roughly two @-@ thirds of the caucus voted to endorse Ryan . Although this was shy of the 80 % vote needed for an official endorsement over Webster , both the caucus leaders and Ryan were satisfied with the result , and Ryan made efforts to move forward with a potential Speaker bid .
On October 22 , Ryan announced his bid for Speaker . Flores , who chairs the Republican Study Committee , dropped out of the race and endorsed Ryan . Mo Brooks of Alabama , a member of the Freedom Caucus , announced on the floor of the House on October 27 that Ryan had agreed not to advance immigration reform legislation while Barack Obama is President of the United States , or unless it meets the " Hastert Rule " , as it has the support of the majority of Republicans .
= = = Declared = = =
The following officially declared their candidacy :
Nancy Pelosi , ( Democratic Party ) , Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2011 ; 2003 – 2007 ) , United States representative for California 's 12th congressional district ( since 2013 ) , and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives ( 2007 – 2011 ) .
Paul Ryan , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Wisconsin 's 1st congressional district ( since 1999 ) , Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee ( since 2015 ) , Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States in the 2012 election .
Daniel Webster , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Florida 's 10th congressional district ( since 2013 ) .
= = = Publicly expressed interest = = =
The following publicly expressed interest in becoming candidates :
Darrell Issa , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for California 's 49th congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Oversight Committee ( 2011 – 2015 ) .
Newt Gingrich , ( Republican Party ) , Speaker of the United States House of Representatives ( 1995 – 1999 ) , House Minority Whip ( 1989 – 1995 ) , United States representative for Georgia 's 6th congressional district ( 1979 – 1999 ) .
Michael McCaul , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 10th congressional district ( since 2005 ) , Chairman of the House Homeland Security Committee ( since 2013 ) .
Mike Pompeo , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Kansas 's 4th congressional district ( since 2011 ) .
Lynn Westmoreland , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Georgia 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2007 ) .
Ryan Zinke , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Montana 's at @-@ large congressional district ( since 2015 ) .
= = = Received speculation = = =
The following received speculation about a possible candidacy in at least two reliable sources :
Diane Black , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Tennessee 's 6th congressional district ( since 2011 ) .
Mike Conaway , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 11th congressional district ( since 2005 ) .
Mike Kelly , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2011 ) .
John Kline , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Minnesota 's 2nd congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Education Committee ( since 2011 ) .
= = = Withdrawn = = =
The following were candidates , but subsequently withdrew :
Jason Chaffetz , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Utah 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2008 ) , Chairman of the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform ( since 2015 ) ( Withdrew on October 20 , 2015 ; endorsed Paul Ryan ) .
Bill Flores , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 17th congressional district since 2011 . ( Withdrew on October 22 , 2015 ; endorsed Paul Ryan ) .
Kevin McCarthy ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for California 's 23rd congressional district ( since 2013 ) , Majority Leader of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2014 ) . ( Withdrew on October 8 , 2015 ) .
= = = Declined to run = = =
The following received some speculation about a possible candidacy , but subsequently ruled themselves out :
Marsha Blackburn , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Tennessee 's 7th congressional district ( since 2003 ) .
Trey Gowdy ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for South Carolina 's 4th congressional district ( since 2011 ) , Chairman of the House Benghazi Committee ( since 2014 ) .
Jeb Hensarling ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 5th congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Committee on Financial Services ( since 2013 ) .
Cathy McMorris Rodgers ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Washington 's 5th congressional district ( since 2005 ) , Chairman of the House Republican Conference ( since 2013 ) .
Peter Roskam , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Illinois 's 6th congressional district ( since 2007 ) .
Steve Scalise ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Louisiana 's 1st congressional district ( since 2008 ) , Majority Whip of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2014 ) .
= = Election = =
House Republicans planned to hold a non @-@ binding caucus vote on October 8 , followed by the official floor vote on October 29 . The winning candidate requires a 218 @-@ vote majority to win . Multiple ballots may be cast if the majority of the House cannot agree on a candidate . While McCarthy and Chaffetz both said they would vote for the winner of the caucus vote in the floor vote , Webster did not make the same promise .
Following McCarthy dropping out of the race on October 8 , the caucus vote was indefinitely postponed . Massie and Peter T. King referred to the House as a " banana republic . " Massie also criticized Boehner for postponing the election , saying they " called off the election because they didn ’ t like the result , " which was echoed by Tom Rice , Louie Gohmert , and Justin Amash . McMorris Rodgers and Conference Vice Chairwoman Lynn Jenkins defended Boehner , saying the matter was handled properly , as conference rules give him sole discretion . Rich Lowry of National Review asked McCarthy in a phone interview if the House was governable , to which McCarthy replied " I don ’ t know . Sometimes you have to hit rock bottom . " Charlie Dent , a Republican from Pennsylvania who had supported McCarthy , suggested that if Republicans are unable to agree on a candidate , the best option might be for a bipartisan coalition to select a Speaker .
Once it appeared certain that Ryan would run , and win an overwhelming majority of the caucus 's votes , Boehner rescheduled the Republican caucus vote for October 28 . Ryan won the nomination , defeating Webster 200 to 43 in the secret ballot voting . Blackburn and McCarthy each received one vote . The next day , Webster reportedly urged Republicans to vote for Ryan instead of him .
= = = Final result = = =
On October 29 , Ryan was elected Speaker with 236 of the 432 votes cast . Others receiving votes were Pelosi ( 184 ) , Webster ( 9 ) , Jim Cooper , John Lewis , and Colin Powell ( 1 each ) . Votes were cast by 432 of the 435 House members .
Following the election , Raúl Labrador , a Freedom Caucus member from Idaho , said that Paul will need to " realize the honeymoon is over and start bringing us some conservative policy , " and that " the final exam for Paul Ryan will be in January 2017 , when there is a Speaker election , and we will look at his body of work and determine whether he gets a passing grade or not . "
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= Montana Vigilantes =
The history of vigilante justice and the Montana Vigilantes began in 1863 in what was at the time a remote part of eastern Idaho Territory . Vigilante activities continued , although somewhat sporadically , through the Montana Territorial period until the territory became the state of Montana in 1889 . Vigilantism arose because territorial law enforcement and the courts had very little power in the remote mining camps during the territorial period .
In 1863 – 1864 , Montana Vigilantes followed the model of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance that existed in 1850s California to bring order to lawless communities in and around the gold fields of Alder Gulch and Grasshopper Creek . There are estimates that over 100 persons were killed in " road agent " robberies in the fall of 1863 . The Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch organized in December 1863 , and in the first six weeks of 1864 at least 20 road agents of the infamous Plummer gang , known as the " Innocents " , were captured and hanged by the organization . Formal territorial law reached Alder Gulch in late 1864 with the arrival of Territorial Judge Hezekiah L. Hosmer and vigilante activity ceased in the region .
As the gold fields of Alder Gulch and Grasshopper Creek declined in 1865 , prospectors and fortune seekers migrated to newly discovered areas in and around Last Chance Gulch ( now Helena , Montana ) . As lawlessness increased , vigilante justice continued there with the formation of the Committee of Safety in 1865 . During the period 1865 – 1870 , at least 14 alleged criminals were executed by Helena 's vigilantes . In 1884 , ranchers in Central and Eastern Montana resorted to vigilante justice to deal with cattle rustlers and horse thieves . The best @-@ known vigilante group in that area were " Stuart 's Stranglers " , organized by Granville Stuart in the Musselshell region . As formal law enforcement became more prevalent in the region , vigilantism fell into decline .
Vigilantism in pre @-@ territorial and territorial Montana has been written about , romanticized and chronicled in personal memoirs , biographies , documentary and scholarly works , film and fiction for well over a century . The first book published in Montana was Thomas J. Dimsdale 's 1866 first edition of The Vigilantes of Montana , which was compiled from a series of newspaper articles he wrote for the Montana Post in 1865 . Historical analysis of the period ranges from disrepute to heroism , with debates over whether the lack of any functioning justice system and the understanding of due process at the time meant the vigilantes acted in a way they thought was best for their communities or if modern standards of due process should govern analysis of their actions .
= = Bannack and Virginia City = =
On July 28 , 1862 , gold was discovered along Grasshopper Creek , a tributary of the Beaverhead River , in a remote part of eastern Idaho Territory , leading to the establishment of the town of Bannack . Bannack was a gold rush boomtown that was the first territorial capital of Montana Territory for a brief period after the territory was established in 1864 . Less than a year after the Grasshopper Creek find , on May 26 , 1863 , gold was discovered along Alder Gulch , a tributary creek northeast of the Ruby River that lies between the Tobacco Root Mountains and the Gravelly Range and 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Bannack . The Alder Gulch find became one of the largest placer mining gold fields in the western U.S. The mining settlements of Virginia City and Nevada City , Montana , which sprang up in Alder Gulch , boasted thousands of prospectors and fortune seekers by the end of 1863 . These new settlements generally lacked justice systems found in populated portions of the territory , such as in the territorial capital in Lewiston , Idaho . In 1863 , gold was the preferred form of currency in western frontier communities and had a value , fixed and guaranteed by the U.S. Government , of $ 20 @.@ 67 per ounce . Almost all economic transactions in western mining communities were accomplished with gold nuggets , flakes or dust as currency and not surprisingly , the more gold one had , the more wealth one possessed . During the early years of the territory , there was no secure way to transport wealth out of the region . The only means of transporting wealth out of the Alder Gulch gold fields was via horseback or slow moving wagons and stagecoaches on a limited number of trails and primitive roads leading south and west to Salt Lake City and San Francisco or east to Minnesota . Roads and trails leading to Alder Gulch included the Bozeman and Bridger Trails connecting to the Oregon Trail from the east , the Mullan Road from points west and from Fort Benton , Montana the head of navigation on the Missouri River and the Corinne Road from Corinne , Utah and points south . Additionally , there was a single track , 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) stage road that connected Alder Gulch with Bannack . Several commercial freight and two passenger stage companies — Peabody and Caldwell 's and A.J. Oliver 's — operated on this route . Stagecoaches had to stop at several different ranches during the trip to water and change horses , feed passengers and provide overnight lodging . One of these ranches , the Rattlesnake Ranch , was owned by Bill Bunton and Frank Parish , who were later hanged by the vigilantes as road agents and members of the Plummer gang .
= = = Road agents and the Plummer gang = = =
In a region where valuable gold was plentiful , transportation was insecure and effective law and order was lacking , travelers became easy prey for robbers . By late 1863 , thefts and murders along the routes in and around Alder Gulch had become common . In their writings about the vigilantes , Thomas Dimsdale and Nathaniel P. Langford estimated that at least 102 travelers were killed by robbers in the fall of 1863 . Many more travelers left the region and were never heard from again . As this became a more frequent occurrence locals began suspecting that these crimes were being carried out by a single group of outlaws , known as " road agents " , under the control of Bannack sheriff Henry Plummer . The gang became known as the Innocents because of their passwords , I am innocent .
= = = = Notorious robberies , attempted robberies and murders in 1863 = = = =
On October 13 , 1863 , Lloyd Magruder was killed by road agent Chris Lowrie . Magruder was an Idaho merchant leaving Virginia City with $ 12 @,@ 000 in gold dust from goods he had sold there . Several of the men he hired to accompany him back to Lewiston , Idaho were in fact criminals . Four other men in the party were also murdered in camp — Charlie Allen , Robert Chalmers , Horace Chalmers and William Phillips — by Lowrie , Doc Howard , Jem Romaine and William Page .
On October 26 , 1863 , the Peabody and Caldwell 's stage was robbed between the Rattlesnake Ranch and Bannack by two road agents believed to be Frank Parish and George Ives . Bill Bunton , the owner of the Rattlesnake Ranch who joined the stage at the ranch was also complicit in the robbery . The road agents netted $ 2 @,@ 800 in gold from the passengers and threatened them all with death if they talked about the robbery .
On November 13 , 1863 , a teenage Henry Tilden was in the employ of Wilbur Sanders and Sidney Edgerton to locate and corral some horses owned by Sanders and Edgerton . Near Horse Prairie , Tilden was confronted by three armed road agents . He was carrying very little money and was allowed to depart unmolested , but with the warning that if he talked , he would be killed . He did not heed the warning and told Sanders ' wife , Hattie and Sidney Edgerton that he had recognized one of the road agents as sheriff Henry Plummer . Although Tilden 's report was discounted because Plummer was respected , this incident led to increased suspicion in the region that Plummer was the leader of a gang of road agents .
On November 22 , 1863 , the A.J. Oliver stage was robbed on its way to Bannack from Virginia City by road agents George Ives , " Whiskey Bill " Graves and Bob Zachary . The robbery netted less than $ 1000 in gold and treasury notes . One of the victims , Leroy Southmayd made the mistake of reporting the robbery and identifying the road agents to Bannack Sheriff , Henry Plummer . Members of Plummer 's gang confronted Southmayd on his return trip to Virginia City , but Southmayd was cunning enough to avoid injury or death .
In November 1863 , Conrad Kohrs traveled to Bannack from Deer Lodge , Montana with $ 5000 in gold dust to buy cattle . A conversation with Sheriff Plummer in Bannack led Kohrs to believe he might be robbed while on the trail back to Deer Lodge . While in an overnight camp his associates located road agents George Ives and " Dutch John " Wagner surveying the camp , armed with shotguns . A day or two later , Kohrs was on horseback returning to Deer Lodge when Ives and Wagner gave chase . Kohrs ' horse proved the faster and he evaded confrontation before reaching the safety of Deer Lodge .
In early December 1863 , a three wagon freight outfit organized by Milton S. Moody was going to Salt Lake City from Virginia City . Among the seven passengers was John Bozeman . The freight wagons were carrying $ 80 @,@ 000 in gold dust and $ 1500 in treasury notes . While camped on Blacktail Deer Creek , road agents " Dutch John " Wagner and Steve Marshland entered the camp , armed and ready to rob the train . Members of the camp had armed themselves well and Wagner and Marshland were able to escape , claiming they were just looking for lost horses . Two days later , Wagner and Marshland were both wounded in an unsuccessful attempt to rob the wagon train as it crossed the Continental Divide at Rock Creek .
On December 8 , 1863 , Anton Holter ( who later became a Montana Power Company executive and had Holter Dam named for him ) , who was taking oxen to sell in Virginia City , survived an attempted robbery and murder . When road agents George Ives and Aleck Carter , whom Holter recognized , discovered Holter was not carrying any significant wealth , they tried to shoot him . He was able to avoid being shot and escaped into the brush .
= = = The failure of miners ' courts = = =
Prior to the creation of the Montana Territory on May 26 , 1864 , and the arrival of the territorial courts , the only court system available for the residents of Bannack and Virginia City were the informal miners ' courts . The miners ' courts were a vehicle of the organized mining districts to resolve mining claims and disputes between miners in the district . When confronted with a major crime such as murder , they usually proved ineffective at resolving the crime to the satisfaction of the community .
While there are not many accounts of early courts in Alder Gulch , probably due to their informality and short existence , John X. Beidler recalled a murder trial in the Virginia City miners ' court in his memoirs . The trial recalled by Beidler occurred in the fall of 1863 . It concerned the matter of the murder of J.W. Dillingham . The trial was held outside , due to the fact that every resident took part . In the end all three defendants were set free . The first , Charley Forbes , was freed after he gave an eloquent and sentimental speech about his mother . The other two , Buck Stinson and Haze Lyons , were convicted and set to be the first men executed in what would become the state of Montana . However , at what would be a very public hanging friends and sympathizers of Stinson and Lyons convinced the crowd to vote again on the execution . Two attempts at counting the vote were made according to Beidler . The first people voting ' hang ' were to walk up @-@ hill while those voting ' no hang ' were to walk down @-@ hill . This vote was rejected and the next attempt had four men form two gates and people would cast their vote by walking through the ' hang ' gate or the ' no hang ' gate . Beidler claims that friends of the condemned men simply walked through the ' no hang ' gate multiple times casting multiple fraudulent votes that possibly allowed two murderers to walk free .
On December 19 – 21 , 1863 , a public trial was held for George Ives , the suspected murderer of a young Dutch immigrant Nicholas Tiebolt . Hundreds of miners from around the area attended the 3 @-@ day , outdoor trial . George Ives was prosecuted by Wilbur F. Sanders and Ives was convicted and hanged on December 21 , 1863 . Sanders played a prominent role in Montana history and eventually became the first U.S. Senator from Montana when the territory gained statehood in 1889 . While the Ives trial resulted in an execution many residents were frustrated by a cumbersome process that could easily be manipulated . This sentiment is illustrated by a quote from Thomas Dimsdale who wrote the first published account of the Montana Vigilantes , originally written in 1865 as a series of articles for the Montana Post and later compiled into a book .
Another powerful incentive to wrong @-@ doing is the absolute nulity of the civil law in such cases . No matter what may be the proof , if the criminal is well liked in the community ' Not Guilty ' is almost certain to be the verdict , despite the efforts of the judge and prosecutor .
= = = Formation of the Vigilance Committee = = =
On December 23 , 1863 , two days after the Ives trial , a group of five Virginia City residents , led by Wilbur F. Sanders , and including Major Alvin W. Brockie , John Nye , Captain Nick D. Wall and Paris Pfouts organized the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch . The committee was organized similar to the earlier San Francisco Committee of Vigilance ( 1851 – 56 ) in California of which some of the Alder Gulch organizers were familiar with . The original committee oath signed by its earliest members was :
We the undersigned uniting ourselves in a party for the laudable purpos [ sic ] of arresting thievs [ sic ] & murderers & recovering stollen [ sic ] property do pledge ourselves upon our sacred honor each to all others & solemnly swear that we will reveal no secrets , violate no laws of right & never desert each other or our standard of justice so help us God as witness our hand and seal this 23 of December ad 1863
Paris Pfouts was elected as the president of the committee which drafted and adopted a comprehensive set of by @-@ laws establishing a formal structure and process . The by @-@ laws established the position of president , an executive officer , an executive committee , a secretary , treasurer and positions of captains and lieutenants of companies . The most relevant process contained in the by @-@ laws was :
It shall be the duty of members to attach themselves to some company and whenever any criminal act shall come to their knowledge to inform his Captain or Lieutenant of the same , when the officers so informed shall call together the members of his Company , ( unless the Company has chosen a committee for such purpose ) when they shall proceed to investigate the case , and elicit the facts and should the said company conclude that the person charged with any offense should be punished by the committee , the Captain or Lieutenant will first take steps to arrest the Criminal and then report same with proof to the Chief who will thereupon call a meeting of the Executive Committee and the judgement of such Executive Committee shall be final . The only punishment that shall be inflicted by this Committee is death .
= = = Prominent members = = =
Although the vigilance committee started as a small secret institution in Virginia City , knowledge of it soon spread in the territory and membership grew . As a secret organization , exact accounts of membership vary , but many members became prominent in the history of the territory and state . Among those who were members include Wilbur Sanders ( 1st U.S. Senator from Montana ( 1890 ) ) , Sidney Edgerton ( first Governor of Montana Territory ( 1864 ) ) , Nelson Story ( famous for his 1866 cattle drive from Texas to Bozeman and prominent Bozeman merchant ) , John Bozeman ( founder of Bozeman , Montana ( 1864 ) and the Bozeman Trail ) , Nathaniel P. Langford ( first Yellowstone National Park superintendent ( 1872 – 1877 ) ) , James Stuart ( brother of Granville Stuart , who would form the Stuarts ' Stranglers in 1884 ) , Tom Cover ( one of the Alder Gulch prospectors who discovered the first gold there and alleged murderer of John Bozeman ( 1867 ) ) and Thomas Dimsdale ( editor of Montana 's first newspaper , the Montana Post and author of The Vigilantes of Montana ( 1866 ) ) .
Due to the secret nature of the organization it is difficult to be sure when an execution was carried out by the vigilance committee or another group of motivated citizens . In the months following the Ives trial many suspected road agents were hanged . Notably , Henry Plummer , the sheriff of Bannack , who was suspected by many of being the ringleader of the road agents . The Montana Vigilantes hanged men using the testimony of other men who faced their imminent executions as the sole evidence . Of the few accounts of the early actions of the Alder Gulch Vigilantes , Beidler and Dimsdale are the most complete , although they give little information about the secret trials conducted by the vigilantes . Estimates vary , but noted vigilante historian Frederick Allen believes that between the years 1863 and 1865 somewhere from 15 to 35 people were killed due to the actions of the Alder Gulch vigilantes .
= = = Vigilante justice = = =
Over of course of approximately six weeks between December 1863 and February 1864 , vigilante companies located , arrested and executed suspected members of the Plummer road agent gang in Bannack , Virginia City and Hellgate , Montana .
= = = = Bannack = = = =
Shortly after its formation , the Vigilance Committee dispatched a posse of men to search for Aleck Carter , " Whiskey Bill " Graves and Bill Bunton , known associates of George Ives . The posse was led by vigilante Captain James Williams , the man who had investigated the Nicolas Tiebolt murder by George Ives . Near the Rattlesnake Ranch on the Ruby River , the posse located " Erastus Red " Yeager and George Brown , both suspected road agents . While traveling back to Virginia City , Yeager made a complete confession , naming the majority of the road agents in Plummer 's gang , including Henry Plummer . After obtaining the confession , Yeager and Brown were found guilty by the posse and summarily hanged from a cottonwood tree on the Lorrain 's Ranch on the Ruby River . On January 6 , 1864 , " Dutch John " Wagner , a road agent wounded in the Moody robbery was captured by vigilante Captain Nick Wall and Ben Peabody on the Salt Lake City trail . The vigilantes transported Wagner to Bannack where he was hanged on January 11 , 1864 . By this time , Yeager 's confession had mobilized vigilantes against Plummer and his key associates , deputies Buck Stinson and Ned Ray . Plummer , Stinson and Ray were arrested on the morning of January 10 , 1864 and summarily hanged . On January 11 , 1864 , " Greaser Joe " Pizanthia , a road agent on Yeager 's list , was located in his cabin just outside Bannack . A gunfight ensued that took the life of one vigilante , George Copley . Pizanthia 's cabin was bombarded with three shells from a mountain howitzer belonging to Sidney Edgerton . The bombardment severely wounded Pizanthia and he was shot and killed as he was removed from the wreckage of the cabin .
= = = = Virginia City = = = =
After Wagner 's execution on January 11 , 1864 , the vigilantes who were mostly men from Virginia City , returned there to deal with the remaining road agents in the Plummer gang . On the evening of January 13 , 1864 , the Vigilance Committee voted to arrest and hang six road agents believed to be living in Virginia City — Frank Parish , Boone Helm , Hayes Lyons , Jack Gallagher , George " Clubfoot " Lane and Bill Hunter . On the morning of January 14 , 1864 , five of the six road agents were located in town and arrested . They were all summarily hanged from a beam in a building under construction on Wallace Street . Bill Hunter escaped capture in Virginia City , but was later arrested at a cabin on the Gallatin River and was hanged from a Cottonwood tree on February 3 , 1864 .
After the January 14 , 1864 hangings , the vigilante companies left Virginia City in search of the remaining road agents on Yeager 's list . The first to be located was Steve Marshland holed up in a cabin on the Big Hole River and was hanged on January 16 , 1864 . A posse led by Captain Williams found Bill Bunton at his Cottonwood Ranch on the Ruby River and hanged him on January 18 , 1864 .
= = = = Hell Gate = = = =
After the Bunton execution , the vigilante companies regrouped and made a 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) ride to Hell Gate , Montana where they believed more road agents were hiding . In Hell Gate , Captain William 's vigilante company located and arrested Cyrus Skinner , Aleck Carter , and John Cooper . A vigilante trial of Skinner and Carter was held in the Worden and Higgins dry goods store on January 24 , 1864 . Both men were found guilty and hanged outside the store . Later that same day , Cooper was tried , convicted and hanged . On January 25 , 1864 , the vigilantes located Bob Zachary in a cabin outside of Hell Gate and George Shears in another cabin in the Bitterroot Valley . Zachary was brought to Hell Gate and hanged . Shears was hanged outside the cabin he was captured in . As the vigilante companies were leaving Hell Gate to return to Virginia City , they received word that " Whiskey Bill " Graves was at Fort Owen , Montana . Three vigilantes located and arrested him on January 26 , 1864 . He was hanged the same day .
= = = Known road agents executed by the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch = = =
Henry Plummer , sheriff of Bannack , executed in Bannack on January 10 , 1864
Erastus " Red " Yeager , road agent and messenger , executed along the Ruby River , January 4 , 1864
George Brown , road agent and gang secretary , executed along the Ruby River , January 4 , 1864
" Dutch John " Wagner , road agent , executed in Bannack , January 11 , 1864
Ned Ray , executed in Bannack , January 10 , 1864
Buck Stinson , executed in Bannack , January 10 , 1864
" Greaser Joe " Pizanthia , road agent , shot and killed in Bannack , January 11 , 1864
Frank Parish , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Boone Helm , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Jack Gallagher , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
George " Clubfoot " Lane , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Hayes Lyon , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864
Steve Marshland , road agent , executed near the Big Hole River , January 16 , 1864
Bill Bunton , road agent , executed at Cottonwood Ranch on the Clark Fork River , January 18 , 1864
Cyrus Skinner , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864
Aleck Carter , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864
Johnny Cooper , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864
Bob Zachary , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 25 , 1864
George Shears , road agent , executed in the Bitterroot Valley , January 25 , 1864
" Whiskey Bill " Graves , road agent , executed near Fort Owen , January 26 , 1864
Bill Hunter , road agent , executed in Gallatin Valley , February 3 , 1864
= = = Other executions = = =
An unknown 19 @-@ year @-@ old boy was hanged on February 17 , 1864 , in Virginia City for shooting an unarmed man in a tavern .
Chris Lowrie , Doc Howard , and Jem Romaine were convicted of the Magruder murders by a Idaho Territorial court in Lewiston and hanged on March 4 , 1864 , based on the testimony of William Page . Page was not executed .
On March 10 , 1864 , vigilantes hanged J.A. Slade in Virginia City for serious drunken behavior , breaches of the peace and reckless gun play that endangered the communities ' citizens .
James Brady was hanged by vigilantes in Nevada City on June 15 , 1864 , for shooting another man .
Jem Kelly was apprehended near present day Jackson , Idaho Territory on the Snake River by Montana vigilantes for a series of petty thefts in Alder Gulch . He was hanged on September 5 , 1864 , along the Snake River in Idaho Territory .
On September 17 , 1864 , vigilantes hanged John " The Hat " Dolan in Virginia City for stealing $ 700 from a roommate .
On October 31 , 1864 , vigilantes captured and hanged J.C. Rawley in Bannack for his alleged spying on behalf of the road agent gang in 1863 . This was the last execution performed by the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch .
= = = Banishments and escapes = = =
Another tactic employed by the vigilantes was banishment from the territory . It is unknown how many men were given the warning to leave the territory or suffer execution for their misdeeds . Alexander Toponce , a merchant in Bannack at the time believed the number of banishments was high but wrote this in his autobiography : Reminiscences of Alexander Toponce ( 1923 ) :
I don 't think they [ the vigilantes ] made any mistake in hanging anybody . The only mistake they made was about fifty percent of those whom they merely banished should have been hung instead , as quite a number of these men were finally hung .
Some of the road agents in Plummer 's gang or on Yeager 's list were able to escape vigilante justice by fleeing the territory . Notable among these men were Augustus " Gad " Moore , Billy Terwilliger , William Mitchell , Harvey Meade , " Rattlesnake Dick " , " Cherokee Bob " , Tex Caldwell , Jeff Perkins , Samuel Bunton , " Irwin of the Big Hole " , William Moore and Charles Reeves .
= = = Establishment of Territorial Law = = =
During the summer of 1864 , Hezekiah L. Hosmer , a lawyer from Ohio , was working for the U.S. House of Representative Committee on Territories . After working on the formation of Montana Territory for the committee , he was formally appointed as the first Chief Justice of Montana Territory . He arrived in Montana in October 1864 . Prior to the first session of the Territorial Legislature which convened on December 12 , 1864 , in Bannack , Hosmer announced that he was adopting Common Law as the primary criminal and civil law and Idaho 's Territorial Law as a basis for criminal and civil procedure . On December 5 , 1864 , Hosmer boldly convened a public Grand Jury session in Virginia City and announced that the vigilantes had served their purpose and from this day forward , unilateral actions by the vigilantes would be considered criminal acts .
= = Helena vigilantism , 1865 – 1870 = =
On July 14 , 1864 , four prospectors — John S. Cowan , John Crab , Bob Staley and Daniel Jackson — found gold in a small creek they named " Last Chance Gulch " . As word of the strike spread throughout the area , prospectors and fortune seekers , including many from Alder Gulch and Bannack , migrated to Last Chance Gulch and the town of Helena , Montana was founded . By the middle of 1865 , many prominent vigilantes of Alder Gulch , including Wilbur Sanders , John X. Biedler , and Anton Holter , had moved to Helena . When the territory was formed , three judicial districts were established . The First District belonged to Judge Hosmer and included the towns of Bannack , Virginia City , Nevada City and Deer Lodge . The Third District encompassed the towns around Helena . From July 1864 , until August 1865 , the only justice system was the miners ' court ; the Third District did not get its first chief judge until August 1865 , when Judge Lyman Munson arrived from the east .
On June 8 , 1865 , John Keene and Harry Slater , two men who had an unresolved quarrel from their days in Salt Lake City , spotted each other in Sam Greer 's saloon on Helena 's Bridge Street . Keene shot Slater in the head , killing him instantly . Keene surrendered himself to Helena sheriff George Wood and freely admitted his guilt in the shooting . A two @-@ day trial ensued where some members of the jury were known vigilantes from Alder Gulch . Since there was no official trial judge , Stephan Reynolds , a respected member of the Helena community , presided . At the end of the trial , the jury returned a unanimous guilty verdict and Keene was hanged from the lone pine tree just outside town . The large tree , one of few that remained in proximity to Helena because most had been cut down for lumber , became known as the " Old Hangman 's Tree " . Although Keene 's trial and execution was not considered vigilantism , the Helena community , similar to the Alder Gulch community in 1863 , felt the need to establish a more reliable means of law and order .
= = = Committee of Safety = = =
Vigilante justice in Helena followed a pattern similar to that of Alder Gulch . Immediately after Keene 's hanging , leading members of the Helena community established the Helena Committee of Safety , akin to the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch . Although no records of the committee 's membership or bylaws exist , Nathaniel Langford , who had been asked to lead the organization but declined ( he did serve on its Executive Committee ) , reflected in his book Vigilante Days and Ways , that crimes of horse stealing , murder , and highway robbery would be punishable by death .
In July 1865 , the Helena vigilantes captured Jack Silvie in Diamond City , Montana and charged him with various crimes of robbery . Prior to his execution by hanging from Helena 's " Hangman 's Tree " , Silvie confessed to being a member of the Virginia City road agents and to at least a dozen murders in the territory .
Shortly after Judge Lyman Munson 's arrival in Helena , he convened a Grand Jury on August 12 , 1865 . However , unlike Judge Hosmer in Alder Gulch , Munson made no remarks about vigilantism nor did he threaten vigilantes with prosecution if they continued their activities . The vigilantes showed little respect for Munson 's court and proceeded to carry out at least 14 executions in the next eight months . No member of Helena 's vigilantes was ever indicted by Munson 's grand jury for executions carried out by the Helena Committee of Safety . The last execution by the Helena vigilantes occurred on April 27 , 1870 when Joseph Wilson and Arthur Compton were hanged from the " Old Hangman 's Tree " for the robbery and attempted murder of George Leonard . The double hanging is significant because it was photographed at the time and the image , widely circulated , had the effect of seriously dampening public sentiment for vigilantism .
= = Pax Vigilanticus = =
By the 1870s Montana as a whole was experiencing what Montana historian Frederic Allen described as a " sort of pax vigilanticus " Allen claims this was due to the reputation for summary executions but also linked to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory . This drew many of the prospectors and camp followers out of Montana , reducing the sector of the population more closely associated with crime .
= = Stockmen 's associations = =
By the 1870s , cattle ranching and related livestock raising was a large and prosperous business in Montana . Cattle and horses were valuable commodities and always subject to rustling by thieves . After 1879 , with the threat from the Indian wars diminished on the plains of Montana , stock ranches and open range cattle ranching moved east into Central and Eastern Montana . The DHS ranch , owned by Samuel Hauser , Andrew Davis and Granville Stuart was established in 1879 in the Musselshell region of Central Montana and became one of the largest open range ranches in Montana .
The first stockmen 's association in Montana was formed in Virginia City in 1873 . The association was established to discuss branding standards , how to deal with rustling and how to influence the territorial legislature to pass laws favorable to the cattle industry . This association did not survive , but led to the creation of other organizations in subsequent years . In 1878 , the Montana Stock Association of Lewis and Clark County was organized . One of its prominent members , Ross Deegan , editorialized about the need for extralegal action if the territorial legislature did not enact laws to protect the cattle industry :
Will [ our legislators ] give us ... protection , or shall we be compelled against our wishes to become judges and executors of what we deem a proper penalty for the commission of such infringement upon the rights of property ?
In July , 1879 , a Territorial Stock Association was formed that ultimately spawned a number of small county or district based associations throughout Montana . By 1883 , the value of cattle in Montana was estimated at greater than $ 25 million and annual losses from rustling exceeded three percent . By the summer of 1884 , cattle men resorted to vigilatism to deal with rustlers and the first recorded hanging occurred at Fort Maginnis on July 3 , 1884 , when Reese Anderson , a DHS ranch foreman , and several other ranch hands hanged Sam McKenzie for horse thievery .
= = = Stuart 's Stranglers = = =
The hanging of Sam McKenzie and other citizen justice in early July 1884 prompted many thieves and rustlers to leave the territory . However , a large band of horse thieves still operated in the Musselshell region . With the tacit approval of the stockgrower 's associations , Granville Stuart organized a small intelligence network and mobilized forces to go after the thieves . The group included many of Stuart 's ranch hands and stock detectives employed by various stock associations . Known as " Stuart 's Stranglers " , the vigilantes were responsible for the recovery of dozens of stolen horses and the deaths of at least 18 thieves in July 1884 , by hanging , shootings or fire . The last hanging occurred on August 1 , 1884 . In July 1884 , Theodore Roosevelt who later became the 26th President of the United States , was operating a cattle ranch in Medora , North Dakota along the Little Missouri River in cooperation with cattle merchant Marquis de Mores . His ranch was suffering from rustling as well . Both Mores and Roosevelt offered their services to the Stranglers , but Stuart declined the offer to avoid the undue notoriety they would bring . From that point forward , stock detectives , employed by the various stock associations , took responsibility for enforcing stock laws and deterring rustling . Although there was minor public outrage about the killings , none of Stuart 's Stranglers were ever brought to trial for their actions and editorials in regional newspapers praised their efforts . General acclamation of Granville Stuart 's actions was reflected by his election as the first president of the Montana Stockgrower 's Association in late July 1884 .
= = 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 77 = =
The numerical symbol 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 77 has long been associated with Montana vigilantes . Its meaning is unclear though many theories have been put forward trying to explain what it symbolized , none conclusive , including references to the dimensions of a grave , the amount of time a miscreant had to leave town , assorted Masonic symbolism , details of membership structure , and a simple copying of the symbol from organizations in Colorado and California . Although it has been associated with vigilantes in Alder Gulch , this is not supported by historical evidence . The first documented evidence of use of the symbol in a vigilante scenario occurred in November 1879 in Helena when it was mentioned in a newspaper article . A 1914 dissertation noted that it was simply used as part of a meeting notice . It was incorporated into the uniform patch of the Montana Highway Patrol ( MHP ) in 1956 . MHP administrator Alex Stephenson designed the insignia and explained , " we chose the symbol to keep alive the memory of this first people 's police force . "
= = Historiography = =
The first written account of the vigilantes was Thomas Dimsdale 's Vigilantes of Montana which first appeared as a series of articles in 1865 editions of the Montana Post , Virginia City 's and Montana 's first newspaper . Dimsdale was a member of the Alder Gulch Vigilance Committee and editor of the Montana Post . His early accounts of the Alder Gulch vigilante events are widely cited and the book version of his articles , the first book published in Montana Territory in 1866 , has been extensively reprinted since its first edition .
The value of Dimsdale 's work lies in the fact that the volume at first a series of articles for his own paper , The Montana Post is exactly what it purports to be . Truth than fiction is ever stranger , and no glorified romance of the old west has ever succeeded in echoing like authenticity . What we have in The Vigilantes is the statement of fact before it becomes fiction , the unadorned moment in history before hearsay , the folk imagination , and the teller of tales weaves it into saga .
X. Biedler , one of the Alder Gulch and Helena vigilante enforcers wrote about his vigilante activities in his personal journals . They weren 't available until well after his death when Helen F. Sanders , the daughter @-@ in @-@ law of Wilbur Sanders finally got them published in 1957 . Nathaniel Langford , also a member of the vigilantes , explorer of the upper Yellowstone ( 1870 ) , first superintendent of Yellowstone National Park ( 1872 – 1877 ) , territorial tax collector ( 1864 – 1869 ) and author published Vigilante Days and Ways @-@ Pioneers of the Rockies in 1893 after he returned to his home in Minnesota . In a 1912 speech to the Montana Historical Society , western historian , Olin Wheeler provided positive commentary on the Alder Gulch vigilantes in a tribute to the life of Nathaniel Langford .
... Under the domination of the Vigilantes the desperadoes were hung or banished , crime was actually and swiftly punished , life and property were rendered safe , and society was rescued from a state of anarchy . Some of the best citizens in the territory were Vigilantes . ... Mr. Langford himself , happily , in the Introduction to his Vigilante Days and Ways and a most valuable chronicle of the time of which it treats , has presented a statement of facts and of arguments justifying the Vigilante methods , that is impartial , honest , cogent , forceful , and convincing to an open and discriminating mind . Honor and praise , instead of adverse criticism , are due those men , and no apologies are necessary for what they did and dared .
Another account , not published until 1982 , is that of former Montana Supreme Court Justice ( 1922 – 1935 ) Lew L. Callaway . Edited by his son Lew Callaway Jr . , Montana 's Righteous Hangmen : The Vigilantes in Action stems from Callaway 's association with vigilante Captain James William in the late 1800s . Lew Callaway wrote extensively about the vigilantes and his stories which add more intimate details about how the vigilantes operated are captured in this volume . Although some vigilante activities during this period were criticized by citizens and civic leaders , there was a general affirmation of their purpose and contribution to law and order in a growing territory . Mark C. Dillon 's Montana Vigilantes 1863 – 1870 Gold , Guns and Gallows ( 2013 ) concludes that given the lawless environment and criminal activity in Alder Gulch and Helena at the time , the lack of any functioning justice system and the understanding of due process at the time , the vigilantes acted in a way they thought was best for their communities . He contends that judging the vigilantes by today 's understanding and standards of due process is problematic .
Justice Dillon 's book is the first work of its kind that examines western vigilante history through the prism of substantive , procedural , and constitutional law , and the role that lawyers and judges ultimately played in restoring a credible system of criminal justice to the region by the end of the decade . ... Universities only publish books that survive rigorous peer reviews . Historian Paul R. Wylie , who was among the historians that reviewed Dillon 's manuscript , predicts that the book " will be the best work on the Montana Vigilantes , and will likely be around for years to come . " Wylie describes the book as having a " careful , informative , judicial approach [ that is ] well @-@ written and very readable , " and that to his knowledge , " there has never been a work in the area quite like this . "
In 2004 , Frederick Allen , a journalist and historian , published A Decent and Orderly Lynching : The Montana Vigilantes reviewed as an up @-@ to @-@ day balanced account of Montana 's vigilante history ( 1864 – 1870 ) . Allen 's book reinforces the motivations and methods of the earliest vigilantes in Alder Gulch while commenting on the growing disdain for vigilantism in the late 1860s . More generalist works on Montana history such as Merrill G. Burlingame 's The Montana Frontier ( 1942 ) and Michael P. Malone 's Montana @-@ A History of Two Centuries ( 1991 ) adequately summarize the vigilante period largely based on earlier accounts by Dimsdale , Langford and Biedler . Additionally , many topical histories of Montana , such as novelist and Montana historian Dan Cushman 's Montana : The Gold Frontier ( 1973 ) cover the vigilante period .
Some works published in the late 20th century about vigilante activity in Alder Gulch portray the vigilantes and their leaders as conspirators with political motives rather than restoring law and order , making an argument that victims were not afforded due process prior to their execution and evidence was insufficient to prove their guilt or innocence . Two works , of Ruth E. Mather and F. E. Boswell , Hanging the Sheriff @-@ A Biography of Henry Plummer ( 1987 , 1999 ) and Vigilante Victims : Montana 's 1864 Hanging Spree ( 1991 ) have been criticized as revisionist , and received poor reviews by Montana historians such as Michael P. Malone and Richard B. Roeder . Additional criticism came from later authors such as Mark C. Dillon and Carol Buchanan .
Mather , R. E. ; Boswell , F. E. ( 1987 ) . Hanging the Sheriff @-@ A Biography of Henry Plummer . Salt Lake City , Utah : University of Utah Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9663355 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 .
In Hanging the Sheriff , R. E. Mather and F. E. Boswell have radically redrawn the portrait of Sheriff Henry Plummer and effectively challenged the conventional justification of the Montana vigilantes of 1863 – 64 . The authors reject the vigilante defenders assertion that Plummer 's reign of terror necessitated the formation of a vigilance committee to bring law and order to the area . First , law had been established at Bannack through the miners ' court , Plummer 's election , and the arrival of Judge Edgerton in September 1863 . Second , Plummer 's alleged leadership of the road agents was based on an unsubstantiated and unexamined accusation .
Mather , R. E. ; F. E. Boswell ( 1991 ) . Vigilante Victims : Montana 's 1864 Hanging Spree . San Jose , CA : History West Publishing .
This is a " revisionist " history of the Vigilante movement that claims the road agents were victims of a plot perpetrated in a struggle for power between two factions , one favoring the North and the other favoring the South . It overlooks the cooperation between Pfouts , a strong Confederate , and Sanders , a Union abolitionist , in the leadership of the Vigilantes , and that Jack Gallagher was a Union sympathizer , while Boone Helm died shouting , " Hoorah for Jeff Davis ! "
Another account from John C. Fazio , who writes for the Cleveland Civil War Roundtable , contends that the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch had more to do with national politics than with dealing with criminals . He contends that Sidney Edgerton and Wilbur Sanders were pawns of Abraham Lincoln and other unionists who sought ways to rid Montana gold fields of southerners and confederate sympathizers . His views have been rebutted by novelist Carol Buchanan .
= = = Mock trial of Henry Plummer and Plummer 's pardon request = = =
On May 7 , 1993 , the Twin Bridges , Montana public schools organized a mock trial of Henry Plummer at the Madison County courthouse in Virginia City . The trial received national media attention . Adults and students role played events using the accounts of Dimsdale , X. Biedler and Langford . After a six hour trial , the jury of four men and eight women was in deadlock , 6 @-@ 6 . The student playing the role of Henry Plummer was told he was " free " . Based in part on the notoriety of the mock trial , academics sympathetic to the view that Plummer was innocent , petitioned the Montana Board of Pardons and Parole to grant Plummer a pardon . Although supported by a number of prominent historians and scholars , the pardon was denied by the board as Plummer had never actually been convicted of a crime in Montana and therefore the board was without jurisdiction to act .
= = Montana Vigilantes in media and literature = =
Ernest Haycox 's 1942 novel Alder Gulch depicts Bannack Sheriff Henry Plummer as a cold and calculating murderer and thief .
John Dehner played Henry Plummer in an episode of the 1950s western television series , Stories of the Century , starring and narrated by Jim Davis .
Montana Territory is a 1952 Western film starring Wanda Hendrix , Clayton Moore , Hugh Sanders and Lon McCallister . It is a classic western movie , with bandits , a corrupt sheriff [ Plummer ] and a hero who falls for a beautiful woman .
An episode of the TV series Overland Trail , The Montana Vigilantes aired in April 1960 .
In " Two for the Gallows " ( April 11 , 1961 ) of NBC 's Laramie , series character Slim Sherman ( John Smith ) is hired under false pretenses to take a " Professor Landfield " , played by Donald Woods , into the Badlands to seek gold . Landfield , however , is really Morgan Bennett , a member of the former Plummer gang who has escaped from prison .
The Missouri Breaks is a 1976 American western action film starring Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson that portrays rustling and retribution in 1880s eastern Montana .
Buchanan , Carol ( 2008 ) . God 's Thunderbolt : The Vigilantes of Montana . Charleston , SC : BookSurge Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 4196 @-@ 9709 @-@ 9 . — An historical fiction novel set in Alder Gulch , Montana 1863
Little , Michael Edward ( 2010 ) . Twelve Quiet Men : The Story of the Cowboy Vigilantes Known as Stuart 's Stranglers at War with the Outlaws of Montana and Dakota in 1884 . Inkwater Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 59299 @-@ 548 @-@ 9 . — an historical fiction novel .
Scottish folk act , The David Latto Band , wrote a song about the story of Henry Plummer called ' Plummer 's Song ' released on their 2012 eponymous debut album . The song was written from the viewpoint of a member of the Bannack community who had reservation about Plummer 's alleged crimes .
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= Viewtiful Joe =
Viewtiful Joe ( ビューティフル ジョー , Byūtifuru Jō ) is a side scrolling beat ' em up video game developed by Team Viewtiful for the GameCube . It was originally released in 2003 as a part of the Capcom Five under director Hideki Kamiya and producer Atsushi Inaba . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 by the same design team under the name Clover Studio , subtitled Aratanaru Kibō ( 新たなる希望 , lit . " A New Hope " ) in Japan . The game 's story concerns Joe , an avid movie @-@ goer whose girlfriend Silvia is kidnapped during a film starring Joe 's favorite superhero , Captain Blue . Joe is shortly thereafter thrust into Movieland , where Silvia is taken by the villainous group known as Jadow . After accepting a special V @-@ Watch from Captain Blue , Joe transforms into the tokusatsu @-@ style persona " Viewtiful Joe " and sets out to rescue her .
The gameplay of Viewtiful Joe features traditional 2D platform side @-@ scrolling intermixed with 3D cel @-@ shaded graphics . Abilities known as " VFX Powers " grant the player special actions for combat and puzzle @-@ solving , such as slowing down or speeding up time . Viewtiful Joe was critically acclaimed for its unique visual style and gameplay , earning itself a number of awards from various media publications . A minor commercial success , the game spawned a few sequels with releases seen on other consoles such as the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) and Nintendo DS . An anime adaption of the game was also produced .
= = Gameplay = =
Viewtiful Joe 's core gameplay is similar to a traditional side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up . Taking control of Joe , the player is mostly limited to moving left , right , up , and down on a fixed 2D path . The game contains platforming elements such as the ability to jump and double jump . Combat consists of fighting multiple enemies on screen at once , with the enemies appearing from all directions , including the foreground and background . Joe has the ability to punch , kick , and dodge — which he can do by leaping upward or ducking . Dodging enemies ' attacks successfully temporarily dazes them , leaving them wide open for attack . The player has certain number of hit points in the form of " Life Marks " located above the VFX Gauge , which decrease whenever Joe takes damage . Health can be restored by picking up hamburgers .
Viewtiful Joe features unique gameplay elements in the form of Joe 's " Viewtiful Effects ( VFX ) Power " , which is designed to emulate camera tricks seen in films . VFX Power is used in both battling enemies and solving various puzzles . These three powers are limited by the " VFX Gauge " located at the top of the screen . Normally , the meter is full , giving the player access to Joe 's super powers via his Viewtiful Joe transformation . The meter slowly empties when an ability is in use . Once it depletes , Viewtiful Joe changes to normal Joe , lowering his attack and defense and leaving him temporarily devoid of VFX Power . The VFX Gauge automatically refills over time and can also be manually filled by picking up bottles of " VFX Juice " . The first VFX Power is " Slow " , which slows time , causing the player 's attacks to be more powerful , increasing Joe 's reflexes , and allowing him to dodge attacks more easily . The second VFX Power , " Mach Speed " , allows Joe to move at a faster speed , creating multiple after @-@ images of him when he unleashes a flurry of attacks on all enemies on the screen . It can additionally cause his attacks to envelop Joe in a temporary heat shield , rendering him immune to flame attacks and setting enemies on fire when struck . The last VFX Power , " Zoom In " , causes a camera close @-@ up of Joe , powering up his normal attacks , granting him a set of new attacks , and paralyzing all lesser foes in proximity to him . However , any damage dealt to Joe whilst zoomed in is increased too . Any two VFX Powers can be combined . The VFX Gauge can be extended by collecting a certain number of V @-@ Films present in each stage . The bar reverts to its normal length when a new stage begins .
Defeating enemies gives the player " V @-@ Points " in the form of small and large coins , while using special attacks gives them " V @-@ Marks " , or " Viewtifuls " , which can be converted into V @-@ Points . Viewtifuls can be quickly gained by using combos or long chains of attacks . For example , while using Slow , striking a dazed enemy sets up all other enemies on the screen for a chain reaction , causing all points accrued during the duration of Slow to be multiplied by the number of enemies struck . If used deftly , the player will accumulate a large number of Viewtifuls due to the multiplier effect called " X @-@ Bonus " . Each stage in Viewtiful Joe consists of several interconnected missions , or scenes , that the player must complete in order to advance . When completing the stage , the player is graded on the number of V @-@ Points earned , the amount of time taken , and how much damage Joe took . V @-@ Points can be used between stages to purchase new abilities , expendable weapons ( which include the " Voomerang " and " Shocking Pink Bombs " ) , more health , and health @-@ restorative items . Clearing the game on various difficulties allows players to play as different characters such as Silvia , Captain Blue and Alastor , with the PlayStation 2 version also allowing players to play as Devil May Cry 's Dante .
= = Plot = =
Viewtiful Joe is divided into seven stages , or " episodes " , interspersed with storyline cutscenes and bookended by an opening and ending cinematic . The setting is divided between Earth , or the real world , and " Movieland " , the game 's fictional world of films . The plot begins in a movie theatre on Earth in which the game 's central character Joe and his girlfriend Silvia are watching a tokusatsu drama starring the aged superhero Captain Blue . The movie 's antagonist , having seemingly defeated Captain Blue , suddenly reaches out of the screen and abducts Silvia , taking her into Movieland . Joe is likewise picked up and taken into Movieland by Captain Blue 's giant mecha . Inside the movie , Joe must rescue Silvia from the evil Jadow , the game 's organization of villains . To help him , Captain Blue entrusts him with a V @-@ Watch , a device Joe can use to transform into a superhero upon saying the word " henshin ( transform ) . " Joe promptly does so , inventing his own catchphrase : " Henshin @-@ a @-@ go @-@ go , baby ! "
With the guidance of Captain Blue , Joe fights his way through a number of Movieland 's locations such as cities , underground caves , an underwater base , and a submarine , often travelling via his trusty , robot aircraft " Six Machine " . One by one , Joe defeats the members of the Jadow , the game 's bosses . These include Dark Fiend Charles the 3rd , Iron Ogre Hulk Davidson , Aquatic Terror Gran Bruce , a doppelgänger of Viewtiful Joe , and Blade Master Alastor . Before fighting Alastor , he reveals that in order for the Jadow to break out of Movieland and into the land of humans , they need the " DNA of the Creator " , namely Silvia . Joe makes his way to her , trumping the Jadow 's leader Inferno Lord Fire Leo in combat , only to witness Silvia being kidnapped once again afterwards . Joe and Six Machine race off into outer space after her in the game 's final episode .
Finding Silvia atop the control room of a space station , Joe discovers that Captain Blue has been behind the plot the entire time . The former hero reveals that he is the creator of the film in which they currently exist and that he is Silvia 's seemingly @-@ deceased father . Transforming into the colossal robot King Blue , the villain proclaims that he will take Sylvia 's energy by force in order to break into the real world . Joe tells him off , telling him that he 's no hero . Joe summons a newly transformed mecha " Six Majin " , and the two engage in combat . When the fight ends , Captain Blue and Viewtiful Joe abandon their respective vehicles and face off in a final battle within the space station .
Joe is victorious , and Captain Blue , finally coming to his senses , thanks the young hero for stopping him . He explains that two decades earlier , Blue was a revolutionary film maker who was soon thought of as a fad . Wanting nothing more than to create heroes , Blue was sucked into one of his own films , allowing him to live out his dream as a hero . However , he had lost touch with reality and wanted revenge on the people who had betrayed him . As Captain Blue and Silvia embrace in a heartfelt reunion , the director tells Joe that the story is not complete . He snaps his fingers , and the space station 's onboard computer warns of a large number of UFOs heading towards Earth . Blue tells Joe that a hero will be needed twice more to save the world . Joe attempts to leave but not before Silvia requests a V @-@ Watch from her father and to accompany her boyfriend . Viewtiful Joe and a newly transformed Silvia head out to stop the impending threat together .
= = Development = =
Viewtiful Joe was developed by the design staff " Team Viewtiful " , a part of Capcom Production Studio 4 . The game was announced in late 2002 as part of the Capcom Five , a line @-@ up of five then @-@ upcoming GameCube games to introduce new content to the console . It was directed by Capcom alumnus Hideki Kamiya , whose previous credits include the planning of Resident Evil and Resident Evil 2 and the direction of Devil May Cry . It was produced by Atsushi Inaba , who previously worked on the Ace Attorney series and Steel Battalion . In its earliest stages of development , Viewtiful Joe went under the working title " Red Hot Man " , but the name was changed due to copyright conflicts with the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers . Viewtiful Joe 's development team initially consisted of six people working under a twelve @-@ month deadline . As work continued , the size of the team grew , and development ended up taking a full 21 months to complete . The game was conceived as a " staff @-@ focused project " aimed at increasing the skill of its creators , specifically director Kamiya .
Inaba stated , " We wanted to create was a challenging game with stunning visuals and fluid gameplay " . As a lifelong fan of superheroes , Inaba 's aim was to combine traditional Japanese tokusatsu with American comic books . The character designs created by Kumiko Suekane were inspired specifically by 1960s and 1970s Japanese @-@ costumed tokusatsu television shows such as Kamen Rider and Ultraman . Graphically , the game adopted a 2D side @-@ scrolling style mixed with 3D cel @-@ shaded animation . Despite many games in the then @-@ modern industry shying away from 2D graphical formats , Inaba said , " We have been able to breathe new life into the genre because we are using a new stylistic way that hasn 't been seen before . " The team chose the GameCube as its platform because of their target audience and because it lent itself well to Viewtiful Joe 's gameplay .
The musical score for Viewtiful Joe was co @-@ composed by Masakazu Sugimori and Masami Ueda . It was released alongside the score for Viewtiful Joe 2 on a double album titled Viewtiful Joe + Viewtiful Joe 2 Original Soundtrack in Japan on 22 December 2004 by Suleputer . A music video is played within the game featuring a rap vocal song titled " Viewtiful World " composed by D.A.I. The video features a group of people , including Inaba himself , motion captured as some of the game 's characters . On 11 June 2003 , Avex released the video on DVD and released the song as a single . Both the North American and Japanese releases of Viewtiful Joe feature English voice acting in order to keep a " western comic book feel to [ the game ] . " Voice @-@ over work in Viewtiful Joe was provided by Soundelux Design Music Group . Voice actors for the game include Dee Bradley Baker , Christina Puccelli , Gregg Berger , Mikey Kelley , Roger Rose , and Kevin Michael Richardson . Director Hideki Kamiya provides the voice for Six Machine .
A budget re @-@ release of the game for the GameCube titled Viewtiful Joe : Revival was released in Japan in late 2003 , adding a " Sweet Mode " to decrease the difficulty setting from the original game 's " Kids Mode " . A PlayStation 2 port of Viewtiful Joe was released by Clover Studio in 2004 . It was released in Japan with the subtitle A New Hope . The release added the character Dante of Devil May Cry as an unlockable character . The PlayStation 2 version does not feature progressive scan seen in the GameCube version . The game was also re @-@ released under Nintendo 's GameCube Player 's Choice label in 2004 in North America and Europe .
It is said that Director Kamiya based Joe 's run animation on how he got to work , and the bosses of the game are based on Capcom executives .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews and sales = = =
Viewtiful Joe received positive reviews upon its release . The GameCube version of the game currently holds a GameRankings aggregate score of 92 % , while its PlayStation 2 port holds a score of 88 % . Metacritic lists the GameCube and PlayStation 2 versions of the game at 93 out of 100 and 90 out of 100 , respectively . The game 's graphics , gameplay , and challenge have all been common areas of praise among many reviewers . IGN gave Viewtiful Joe an " Outstanding " rating , noting that the beautiful cel @-@ shaded graphics and high @-@ intensity action make it one of the best action games on the GameCube and PlayStation 2 . Likewise , Eurogamer called it " imaginative , beautiful , engaging and above all else entertaining " . Game Informer praised it as " a completely original and highly entertaining work of art " . Criticisms about Viewtiful Joe have been few but consistent among reviews . IGN complained of the game 's lack of boss variety . GameSpy has concurred , noting that the bosses were too easy due to a powerful attack that the player can perform . Reviewers have also criticized the lack of progressive scan in the game 's PlayStation 2 port . IGN and Eurogamer have additionally pointed out that the PlayStation 2 port suffers slowdown in later stages of the game .
In Japan , the GameCube version of Viewtiful Joe sold through its initial shipment of less than 100 @,@ 000 copies during the week of its release . Preorders of the GameCube version sold out on Capcom 's North American website prior to its ship date , and Viewtiful Joe debuted as the tenth best @-@ selling game in the region . The PlayStation 2 version sold a poor 9 @,@ 912 units in its first week of release in Japan . Worldwide , sales of the game reached 275 @,@ 000 copies on the GameCube and 46 @,@ 000 on the PlayStation 2 . Sales of the game in both North America and Europe were lower than what Capcom had predicted , but due to its small budget , the game was considered by Inaba to be relatively successful commercially .
= = = Legacy = = =
Viewtiful Joe garnered a number of awards and nominations from various magazines , popular gaming websites , and video game award programs . IGN named Viewtiful Joe " GameCube Game of the Year " and " Best Action Game of 2003 " . At GameSpot 's Best of 2003 , the game was nominated for " Best Artistic Achievement in a Game " , " Coolest New Character " , " Best GameCube Game " , " Readers ' Choice Best GameCube Action Game " , and " Readers ' Choice GameCube Game of the Year " . It was also named the fourth @-@ best GameCube game of 2003 by GameSpy , winning the website 's " Most Stylish " award for the year . Viewtiful Joe won " Most Innovative Game Design " in Nintendo Power magazine 's 2003 Player 's Choice Awards . It won " GameCube Game of the Year " awards for 2003 from both USA Today and GMR . The game was nominated by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for " Platform Action / Adventure Game of the Year " in 2003 and was nominated for three British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) Awards including " Best Design " , " Best Intro / Animation " , and " Best GameCube Game " . The game won " Unsung Hero Game of the Year " at the 2003 Golden Joystick Awards and " Best New Franchise " at the 2004 G @-@ Phoria awards . Finally , it was recognized at the 4th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards as one of three " Game Innovation Spotlights " .
Viewtiful Joe has been included in a number of " best games " lists in the years following its release . It was rated the 27th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list in February 2006 and the 10th best game on the GameCube in its August 2008 issue reflecting on the top 20 games for each system . Both GameSpy and the G4 television program X @-@ Play named Viewtiful Joe the ninth best game of all time for the GameCube . In 2007 , Viewtiful Joe was named the 17th best GameCube game of all time in IGN 's feature reflecting on the system 's long lifespan . Later in 2007 , ScrewAttack listed the game at seventh on their Top 10 GameCube Games of All Time .
Viewtiful Joe was successful enough to establish a franchise , and a few other related media titles were released . Viewtiful Joe was followed by a direct sequel titled Viewtiful Joe 2 — released for both the GameCube and PlayStation 2 — and two spinoffs : Viewtiful Joe : Red Hot Rumble for the PSP and GameCube and Viewtiful Joe : Double Trouble ! for the Nintendo DS . An anime adaption of the game was produced by Group TAC , airing on the Japanese television station TV Tokyo beginning in 2004 and being licensed for US distribution by Geneon Entertainment in 2005 . A set of Viewtiful Joe trading figures was released by Agatsuma Entertainment in October 2005 , while a series of action figures made by Jazwares was released in July 2006 .
In 2004 , Capcom registered the domain name ViewtifulJoe3.com , suggesting another sequel . Shortly thereafter , the website was devoid of content . In January 2006 , Atsushi Inaba expressed interest in developing a title in the series for the Wii . However , as none of Clover Studio 's games proved to be an outstanding financial success , Capcom officially dissolved the subsidiary in March 2007 after the release of its final two games , Ōkami and God Hand . Its key members left to form a new company called Platinum Games . Capcom producer Jun Takeuchi commented at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International that there have been currently no plans to continue with the series , although Viewtiful Joe has appeared as a playable character in Capcom 's 2008 Wii fighting game Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All Stars and is a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .
However , in 2012 , Platinum Games announced the development of The Wonderful 101 , then known as Project P @-@ 100 . This was the first project that reunited Kamiya and Inaba as director and producer on a title since the development of the Viewtiful Joe series . Furthermore , The Wonderful 101 uses the same tokusatsu thematics of the Viewtiful Joe series , and the two share a similar art style albeit different gameplay . This has led fans to hail The Wonderful 101 as a spiritual successor of sorts . The franchise would also later be featured in Archie Comics ' Worlds Unite crossover with several other Capcom and Sega series , taking place in the Sonic the Hedgehog and Mega Man comics .
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= Constitutional history of Zimbabwe =
The constitutional history of Zimbabwe starts with the arrival of white people to what was dubbed Southern Rhodesia in the 1890s . The country was initially run by an administrator appointed by the British South Africa Company . The prime ministerial role was first created in October 1923 , when the country achieved responsible government , with Sir Charles Coghlan as its first Premier . The third Premier , George Mitchell , renamed the post Prime Minister in 1933 .
The Rhodesian Prime Minister acted as Head of His or Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government , under the largely symbolic supervision of a British colonial Governor , until Rhodesia issued its unrecognised Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 . British @-@ appointed figures such as the Governor were thereafter ignored by Salisbury . The unrecognised state 's system of government , however , remained otherwise unchanged , right down to its declared loyalty to Elizabeth II , which Britain did not acknowledge . This situation remained until March 1970 , when Rhodesia adopted a republican system of government . In republican Rhodesia , the Prime Minister instead nominally reported to the President .
The Prime Minister was responsible for nominating the other members of the government , chairing meetings of the Rhodesian Cabinet , and deciding when to call a new general election for the House of Assembly . He retained this role following the reconstitution of Rhodesia under black majority rule , first into Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 , then into Zimbabwe the following year . The Zimbabwean government was headed by a Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 , when that post was superseded by an executive presidency . The former Prime Minister , Robert Mugabe , became President ; as of 2015 he retains this post .
= = 1890 – 1923 : British South Africa Company rule = =
= = = Context = = =
Having secured the Rudd Concession on mining rights from King Lobengula of Matabeleland on 30 October 1888 , Cecil Rhodes and his British South Africa Company were granted a Royal Charter by Queen Victoria in October 1889 . Under this charter , the Company was empowered to trade with indigenous rulers , form banks , own and manage land , and raise and run a police force . In return for these rights , the British South Africa Company would administer and develop any territory it acquired , while respecting laws enacted by extant African rulers , and upholding free trade within its borders . Though the Company made good on most of these pledges , the assent of Lobengula and other native leaders , particularly regarding mining rights , was often evaded , misrepresented or simply ignored . Lobengula reacted by making war on the new arrivals , their Tswana allies and the local Mashona people in 1893 . The resulting conflict ended with Lobengula 's torching of his own capital at Bulawayo , his death from smallpox in early 1894 , and the subsequent submission of his izinDuna ( advisors ) to the Company . Violent rebellion to the north @-@ east , in neighbouring Mashonaland , was forcibly put down by the Company during 1897 .
Following these victories , the British South Africa Company controlled a country equivalent to modern Zambia and Zimbabwe . This domain was initially referred to as " Zambesia " ( or Zambezia ) after the Zambezi , which bisected it ; however , the first immigrants almost immediately began instead calling their new home " Rhodesia " in honour of their Company benefactor , and this name was officially adopted in 1895 . Matabeleland and Mashonaland , both of which lay south of the Zambezi , were first formally referred to by Britain as " Southern Rhodesia " in 1898 , and were united under that name in 1901 . The areas to the river 's north , Barotziland @-@ North @-@ Western Rhodesia and North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia , were governed separately , and amalgamated in 1911 to form Northern Rhodesia .
= = = Company administrators = = =
The head of the southern territories ' government during this time was in effect the Company 's regional administrator . The first of these was appointed in 1890 , soon after the Pioneer Column 's establishment of Fort Salisbury , the capital , on 12 September that year . From 1899 , the administrator governed as part of a ten @-@ man Legislative Council , originally made up of himself , five other members nominated by the Company , and four elected by registered voters . The number of elected members rose gradually under Company rule until they numbered 13 in 1920 , sitting alongside the administrator and six other Company officials in the 20 @-@ member Legislative Council . The Company 's Royal Charter , which originally ran out in October 1914 , was renewed for a further ten years in 1915 .
The post of national administrator was held by three people , with three others holding the post while it only covered Mashonaland ; between 1898 and 1901 , a separate office existed in Matabeleland .
= = = Frontier politics : towards responsible government = = =
Southern Rhodesians of all races fought for Britain in the First World War , during which the Responsible Government Association ( RGA ) was formed in 1917 . By 1919 , Sir Charles Coghlan , a South African @-@ born Bulawayo lawyer , had become the RGA 's leader . The RGA sought self @-@ government for Southern Rhodesia within the British Empire — the same " responsible government " previously granted to Britain 's colonies in Australia , Canada , New Zealand and South Africa as a precursor to full dominion status — and opposed Southern Rhodesia 's proposed integration into the recently formed Union of South Africa . The accession of territories governed by the British South Africa Company was explicitly provisioned for by Section 150 of the South Africa Act 1909 , the British Act of Parliament which created the union in 1910 by consolidating the Empire 's Cape , Natal , Orange River and Transvaal Colonies into a unitary dominion . The Company originally stood against Southern Rhodesia 's addition , fearing the territory 's potential domination by Afrikaners , but changed its tune dramatically when , in 1918 , the Privy Council in London ruled that unalienated land in the Rhodesias was owned not by the Company but by the Crown .
The loss of the ability to raise funds through the sale of land hampered the Company 's ability to pay dividends to its shareholders , and caused its development of Southern Rhodesia to slow . Believing that membership in the union could help solve both problems , the Company now backed Southern Rhodesia 's incorporation as South Africa 's fifth province . However , this prospect proved largely unpopular among Southern Rhodesian settlers , most of whom wanted self @-@ government , and came to vote for the RGA in large numbers . In the 1920 Legislative Council election , the RGA won ten of the 13 seats contested . A referendum on the colony 's future was held on 27 October 1922 — at the suggestion of Winston Churchill , then Britain 's Colonial Secretary , continuing the initiative of his preprocessor Viscount Milner — and responsible government won the day by 59 % . Southern Rhodesia was duly annexed by the Empire on 12 September 1923 , and granted full self @-@ government on 1 October the same year . The new Southern Rhodesian government immediately purchased the land from the British Treasury for £ 2 million , and ten years later paid the same sum to the British South Africa Company for the country 's mineral rights .
= = 1923 – 1965 : colonial Prime Ministers = =
= = = Responsible government ; early years ( 1923 – 53 ) = = =
The RGA reorganised itself to become the governing Rhodesia Party , with Coghlan as Southern Rhodesia 's first Premier . The title was changed to Prime Minister in 1933 by George Mitchell , the third man to hold the office . In 1932 , the Southern Rhodesian leader was first invited to an Imperial Conference . Although Southern Rhodesia was not a dominion , it was seen elsewhere in the Empire as a sui generis case among Britain 's colonies , and worthy of inclusion , particularly as it was the only one which governed itself . Southern Rhodesian Prime Ministers thereafter became a regular fixture at such meetings and , from 1944 , at Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conferences .
The Rhodesia Party remained in power until September 1933 , when , despite narrowly topping the popular vote , it lost the month 's election , winning only nine of the 30 seats compared to the Reform Party 's 16 . Although the Reform Party was left @-@ wing in name , many of its leading members , including the new Prime Minister Dr Godfrey Huggins , were politically conservative ; the more rightist members of the party merged with the Rhodesia Party in 1934 to form the United Party , and , with Huggins at the helm , roundly defeated the rump left wing of the Reform Party to begin 28 years of uninterrupted stewardship .
Though uninvolved in foreign affairs , and therefore obliged to follow Britain 's lead , the colony enthusiastically supported the mother country during the Second World War , symbolically affirming the British declaration of war before any other part of the Empire . During the ensuing conflict over 26 @,@ 100 Southern Rhodesians of all races served in the armed forces , pro rata to white population a higher contribution of manpower than any other British colony or dominion , and more than the UK itself . George VI knighted Huggins in 1941 , and , with the war still ongoing , Britain made overtures towards dominion status . Huggins dismissed this , saying it was imperative to win the war first . The idea of dominionship was raised again in 1952 , but Salisbury once more did not pursue it , instead following the results of a referendum held early the next April to enter an initially semi @-@ independent Federation with the directly administered British colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland .
= = = As a territory in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ( 1953 – 63 ) = = =
A month after Southern Rhodesia , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland formed the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in August 1953 , Huggins became the amalgamated body 's first Prime Minister . Salisbury was designated the Federal capital , and the United Party renamed itself the United Rhodesia Party . Garfield Todd took over as Southern Rhodesia 's Prime Minister . Huggins headed the Federal government for three years , then retired in November 1956 after a combined 23 years as a national leader . The United Rhodesia Party merged with the Federal Party to become the United Federal Party ( UFP ) in November 1957 , and the liberal Todd was voted out of office by the more right @-@ wing members of his party four months later , in February 1958 . He was replaced by Sir Edgar Whitehead . Todd led his own version of the United Rhodesia Party against the UFP and the Dominion Party in June the same year , but failed to win a single seat — the UFP won 17 of the 30 seats , with the Dominion Party taking the remainder .
Whitehead served as Prime Minister for the next four years , under Federal leader Roy Welensky , as black nationalist ambitions and changing international attitudes propelled the Federation towards collapse . In Southern Rhodesia , constitutional changes adopted in 1961 as the result of a referendum split the heretofore non @-@ racial ( though qualified ) electoral roll into graduated " A " and " B " rolls ; the latter had lower qualifications , and was intended to cater for prospective black voters who had previously not qualified .
This plan was given assent by the Southern Rhodesian and British governments , and initially enjoyed support from black nationalists in the country , though the latter soon reversed their stance , saying the changes did not go far enough . Some government members opposed this partitioning of the electorate , which essentially divided it along ethnic lines ; the UFP 's chief whip in the Federal assembly , Ian Smith , resigned in protest , saying the new system was " racialist " . Former Dominion Party leader Winston Field formed the pro @-@ independence Rhodesian Front ( RF ) in 1962 to contest that November 's Southern Rhodesian election , with Smith running as his deputy , and in a shock result won 35 of the 50 territorial " A " -roll seats . Field and Smith became Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister respectively , and remained in office after the Federation 's dissolution on the last day of 1963 .
= = = From Federation to UDI ( 1964 – 65 ) = = =
After the Federation broke up on 31 December 1963 , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became independent during 1964 , respectively renamed Zambia and Malawi , and under black majority governments . Southern Rhodesia was denied the same under the ideal of " no independence before majority rule " that was newly ascendant in Britain and elsewhere . The RF was enraged by what it saw as British duplicity ; according to Field and Smith , Britain 's Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State R. A. Butler had verbally promised " independence no later than , if not before , the other two territories " at a meeting in 1963 , in return for Salisbury 's help in winding up the Federation . Butler denied having said this .
Under severe pressure from his ministers to resolve this issue , Field travelled to England in March 1964 to pursue sovereign statehood , but returned empty @-@ handed a month later . He resigned his position on 13 April ; this came as no surprise to many government insiders , but appeared sudden to most sections of the general public . Smith promptly accepted the cabinet 's invitation to take over , though he expressed surprise at the nomination . A farmer and erstwhile British Royal Air Force pilot from the rural town of Selukwe , Smith was Southern Rhodesia 's first native @-@ born head of government . He immediately promised to take a harder line on independence than his predecessor .
Only two months into his premiership , Smith was deeply offended when Whitehall informed him that , for the first time since 1930 , Southern Rhodesia would not be represented at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference . Huggins described this in 1969 as tantamount to " kicking [ Southern Rhodesia ] out of the Commonwealth " . When Northern Rhodesia became Zambia on 24 October 1964 , Southern Rhodesia dropped " Southern " from its name , and initiated legislation to this effect . Britain refused assent two months later , saying that although the colony was self @-@ governing , it did not have the power to rename itself . Salisbury continued using the shortened name anyway .
The Rhodesian government , which remained predominantly white , contended that it had almost complete support from all races in its drive for full statehood ; in October 1964 , a national indaba ( tribal conference ) comprising 622 black representatives unanimously backed independence under the 1961 constitution , and a month later a general independence referendum yielded an 89 % " yes " vote for the same . Harold Wilson 's British Labour Cabinet did not give credence to either of these tests of opinion , and continued to insist on an immediate shift to majority rule before the granting of sovereign independence . Campaigning on an election promise of independence , the RF called a new general election for May 1965 , and won all 50 " A " -roll seats .
Negotiations between Smith and Wilson took place throughout the rest of the year , but repeatedly broke down ; between July and September , a parallel development concerned Rhodesia 's opening of a representative mission in Lisbon , which Britain opposed , but proved unable to stop . Soon after Smith visited London in October 1965 , Wilson resolved to curb his rival 's ambitions . During his own visit to Salisbury later that month , he proposed to safeguard future black representation in the Rhodesian parliament by withdrawing control over the Rhodesian parliamentary structure to London . Salisbury had held these powers since 1923 . This proved the last straw for Smith 's Rhodesian government , which issued the Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) on 11 November .
= = 1965 – 80 : UDI era = =
= = = Unrecognised state ( 1965 – 79 ) = = =
The Rhodesians modelled their independence document on that of the American Thirteen Colonies in 1776 , which remains the only other such proclamation in the history of the British Empire . According to UDI — which went unrecognised by Britain , the Commonwealth and the United Nations , all of which declared it illegal and imposed economic sanctions — the Rhodesian government still professed loyalty to Elizabeth II , whom it called the " Queen of Rhodesia " . The British @-@ appointed Governor , Sir Humphrey Gibbs , remained at his post in Salisbury , but was now ignored by the local government , which appointed its own " Officer Administrating the Government " to fill his ceremonial role . Smith represented Rhodesia in two abortive rounds of talks with Wilson , first aboard HMS Tiger in 1966 , then on HMS Fearless two years later . Under Rhodesia 's 1965 constitution , the Prime Minister remained at the head of Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government until 2 March 1970 , when a republican constitution was adopted in line with the results of a referendum held the previous June . In the Republic of Rhodesia , the Prime Minister formally reported to the President .
Smith and the RF decisively won three more general elections during the 1970s . The Anglo @-@ Rhodesian Agreement of 1971 – 72 , which would have legitimised the country 's independence in Britain 's eyes , fell apart after a British test of Rhodesian national opinion reported most blacks to be against it . The Rhodesian Bush War , fought against the government by the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , the respective guerrilla armies of the Maoist Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) and its Warsaw Pact @-@ aligned Marxist rival , the Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) , intensified soon after , starting with ZANLA 's attack on Altena and Whistlefield Farms in the country 's north @-@ east in December 1972 . After a strong security force counter @-@ campaign , the South African détente initiative of December 1974 introduced a ceasefire , which the security forces respected , and the guerrillas ignored . This shifted the course of the war significantly in the nationalists ' favour .
Mozambican independence under a communist government in 1975 further assisted the cadres , and exacerbated the Rhodesian government 's economic dependency on South Africa . Unproductive talks between Smith and the guerrilla leaders took place at Victoria Falls in 1975 , then in Geneva the following year . In March 1978 , the Internal Settlement was agreed between the government and moderate nationalist parties , the most prominent of which was Bishop Abel Muzorewa 's United African National Council ( UANC ) . The militant nationalist campaigns continued , however , and indeed extended to attacks on civilian aircraft : ZAPU shot down Air Rhodesia Flight 825 in September 1978 , then Air Rhodesia Flight 827 in February 1979 . ZANU and ZAPU boycotted the elections held per the Internal Settlement in April 1979 , which UN Security Council Resolution 448 called " sham elections ... [ held ] in utter defiance of the United Nations " . In these elections , the UANC won a majority in the new House of Assembly , with 51 of the 72 common roll seats ( for which universal suffrage applied ) and 67 % of the popular vote . The RF took all 20 of the seats elected by white voters and also provided eight non @-@ constituency members . All of this settled , Rhodesia became black majority @-@ ruled Zimbabwe Rhodesia on 1 June 1979 , with Muzorewa replacing Smith as Prime Minister .
= = = Internal Settlement ; interim British control ( 1979 – 80 ) = = =
With Muzorewa and the UANC in government , Zimbabwe Rhodesia failed to gain international acceptance . ZANU leader Robert Mugabe publicly damned Muzorewa 's new order , dismissing the bishop as a " neocolonial puppet " ; he pledged to continue ZANLA 's campaign " to the last man " . Muzorewa took office at the head of a UANC – RF coalition cabinet made up of 12 blacks and five whites . " Instead of the enemy wearing a white skin , he will soon wear a black skin , " said Mugabe , just before the bishop took over . The Bush War went on until December 1979 , when Salisbury , Whitehall and the revolutionary nationalists signed the Lancaster House Agreement in London . Zimbabwe Rhodesia came under the temporary control of Britain , and a Commonwealth monitoring force was convened to supervise fresh elections , in which ZANU and ZAPU would take part for the first time . ZANU won , and , with Mugabe as Prime Minister , formed the first government of Zimbabwe following its recognised independence on 18 April 1980 .
= = Since 1980 : Zimbabwe = =
= = = Prime Minister and ceremonial President ( 1980 – 87 ) = = =
Seven years into Mugabe 's premiership , Zimbabwe scrapped the white seats amid sweeping constitutional reforms in September 1987 . The office of Prime Minister was abolished in October ; Mugabe became the country 's first executive President two months later . Mugabe and the ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo signed a unity accord at the same time merging ZAPU into ZANU – PF with the stated goal of a Marxist – Leninist one @-@ party state .
= = = Executive President ( since 1987 ) = = =
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= National Intercollegiate Band =
The National Intercollegiate Band ( NIB ) is a concert band , sponsored by honorary band fraternity and sorority Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma , that performs every two years at the national convention of the two organizations . Organized in 1947 , the NIB is the oldest national intercollegiate band in the United States , and is open to all collegiate band members regardless of membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma .
Since 1953 , the National Intercollegiate Band has been the resident ensemble of Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma 's Commissioning Program , which has added thirty new works to the band repertoire since its inception and is the longest @-@ running commissioning program for wind band music in the United States .
The National Intercollegiate Band has performed under the baton of some of the most renowned wind band conductors in the history of the ensemble , including William Revelli , Frederick Fennell , James Croft , and others , several of whom have been honored as inductees into the National Band Association Hall of Fame of Distinguished Band Conductors .
= = History = =
= = = Early steps , 1922 – 1947 = = =
In 1922 , Kappa Kappa Psi announced its plan to hold the first national intercollegiate band contest in American history . A brief dispatch in the 1922 Baton explained , " Sometime within the next two years the Kappa Kappa Psi Fraternity will hold a National Intercollegiate Band Contest . This enterprise will be the first of its kind ever attempted . As Music ( sic ) is becoming the foremost Art in America , our Fraternity aims to assist in so spreading the good work . " This early announcement did not culminate in a contest , and the idea of a national intercollegiate band was not revisited again by Kappa Kappa Psi until the 1940s .
In the meantime , the first Kappa Kappa Psi @-@ sponsored intercollegiate band was established by F. Lee Bowling in 1933 , with musicians from the University of Colorado ( home of the Alpha Iota chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi ) , the University of Denver ( Alpha Lambda ) , Colorado State College of Agricultural and Mechanical Arts ( Kappa ) , Colorado State College of Education ( Alpha Theta ) , the Colorado School of Mines ( Xi ) , and the University of Utah participating . In 1934 , the University of Utah left the intercollegiate band and the University of Wyoming ( Alpha Nu ) took its place . The concerts held by this Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Band were sponsored by the local chapters of Kappa Kappa Psi and many members of the fraternity participated in the ensemble . The first concert of the Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Band was held in February 1933 , and the band gave annual concerts during Denver Music Week . Bowling left the band 's managership in 1937 .
= = = National Intercollegiate Band established , 1947 = = =
Bowling was elected Grand President of Kappa Kappa Psi in 1941 and presented a plan to hold a national intercollegiate band concert , modeled after the Rocky Mountain intercollegiate bands . The delegation endorsed the plan , which was to be executed at the next biennial national convention in Stillwater in 1943 , the silver jubilee of the fraternity . However , due to World War II , the 1943 and 1945 national conventions were not held , and so the next biennial convention was held in 1947 . The first National Intercollegiate Band gave a concert on the evening of Friday , March 7 , 1947 . All delegates , officers , and visitors to the convention performed in the ensemble , which was augmented by Kappa Kappa Psi members from the Oklahoma A & M Symphonic Band so the band had a balanced instrumentation .
Grand First Vice @-@ President William A. Scroggs , founder of the fraternity , conducted the band in their first piece , Semper Fidelis . Max A. Mitchell , Grand Second Vice @-@ President , conducted Leonard Smith 's Spanish Caprice , a piece for band and solo cornet . Bohumil Makovsky , Past Grand President and Chairman of the Board of Trustees , conducted his march , Kappa Kappa Psi , and F. Lee Bowling conducted J. DeForest Cline 's Kappa Kappa Psi march . The 1947 NIB was recognized as the first @-@ ever intercollegiate band assembled with a national scope in the United States . Since 1947 , the fraternity has presented the F. Lee Bowling Participation Award to the college or university who has had the most students participate in the National Intercollegiate Band , regardless of membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma . In the case of a tie , multiple awards are presented .
The 1957 National Intercollegiate Band performed in the Salt Lake Tabernacle in Salt Lake City on August 24 , 1957 , under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel William F. Santelmann , retired director of the United States Marine Band . The band comprised 112 musicians from Utah , Florida , Maryland , Colorado , Ohio , Texas , Indiana , and New Mexico , and premiered Robert Russell Bennett 's new work Symphonic Songs for Band .
In 1969 , the fiftieth anniversary of Kappa Kappa Psi , there were enough performers to create two bands . The National Intercollegiate Symphonic Band , the top ensemble , was conducted by Norman Dello Joio and premiered his new work , Songs of Abelard . The Symphonic Band also performed several other Dello Joio works , including Scenes from the Louvre , Variants on a Mediaeval Tune , and Fantasies on a Theme by Haydn . The National Intercollegiate Concert Band was conducted by Past Grand President Jay L. Slaughter , and performed Makovksy 's Kappa Kappa Psi march and several other works .
= = = National Intercollegiate Marching Band , 2002 = = =
In June and July 2002 , Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma sponsored the first National Intercollegiate Marching Band , which traveled to the French Riviera , including the cities of Nice , Grasse , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , Cannes , Antibes , and the Principality of Monaco . The thirty @-@ five member band , directed by Past National President Dr. Michael Golemo , performed at Le Suquet in Cannes , in Nice , and in front of the Prince 's Palace of Monaco . Despite being billed as the " first biennial " intercollegiate marching band , the program was dissolved by the joint national councils after the inaugural trip due to its high cost and low attendance , which was believed to be caused by a fear of traveling abroad after the September 11 attacks .
= = Guest artists = =
= = = Featured composer = = =
In 1953 , Kappa Kappa Psi Grand President Hugh McMillen began the Commissioning Program to add new music to the band repertoire , beginning with a $ 500 commission of Don Gillis , who provided Ballet for Band for the NIB . The Commissioning Program is now the longest @-@ running commissioning program for wind band music in American history , and has produced works that have secured a place in the emerging band canon and have garnered critical acclaim , such as Robert Russell Bennett 's Symphonic Songs for Band and Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra .
= = = Guest conductors = = =
= = = Guest performers = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the National Intercollegiate Band featured professional guest artists as soloists with the band . Two of these , T. N. Retif and Raymond Crisara , were featured soloists in that year 's commissioned piece : Retif on Dello Joio 's Songs of Abelard and Crisara on Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra .
Sigurd Raschèr , saxophone ( 1967 )
Leonard B. Smith , cornet ( 1969 )
T. N. Retif , baritone voice ( 1969 )
John D. Mohler , clarinet ( 1971 )
Raymond Crisara , trumpet ( 1973 )
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= Hurricane Lily ( 1971 ) =
Hurricane Lily was a short @-@ lived Category 1 hurricane of August 1971 that devastated the city of Puerto Vallarta in Mexico . Forming from an area of cloudiness associated with former Atlantic Tropical Storm Chloe , the storm slowly intensified , building to peak intensity just before landfall northwest of Manzanillo , Colima on August 31 . The hurricane quickly weakened and became extratropical . After leaving land , the extratropical remnants of Lily dissipated on September 1 . The storm 's movement close to land affected shipping due to the limited warning , which was partially set back due to difficulties in clarifying the hurricane 's position on radar from reconnaissance aircraft .
The hurricane was Puerto Vallarta 's worst in two decades and the second hurricane of the season to heavily impact Mexico after Hurricane Bridget . The storm caused the Cuale River to overflow its banks , inundating the downtown section of Puerto Vallarta with water that was up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep in some sections . The Mexican army flew in aid after trucks were blocked by flooded roads . The hurricane claimed three lives on the mainland and nine lives when a boat capsized .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 25 , Tropical Storm Chloe made landfall on British Honduras ( present day Belize ) as a tropical depression . After dissipating , the remnants of the storm crossed into the Pacific Ocean , where they contributed to an area of shower activity that persisted over the Gulf of Tehuantepec . On August 28 , the tropical activity organized around a circulation which quickly developed into a tropical depression the same day . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 29 based on satellite presentation that depicted significant cirrus outflow and a comma – shaped cloud mass spanning 2 ° of latitude in diameter and was subsequently named Lily .
Following its upgrade to tropical storm intensity , Lily began developing a spiral cloud structure and heavy anticyclonic outflow on August 30 and was upgraded to a hurricane the same day . During its intensification , United States Air Force reconnaissance tried to fly into the hurricane , but penetration was rendered impossible due to the cumulonimbus clouds in the spiral bands , causing the aircraft to rely on radar readings , which showed an eye 40 miles ( 65 km ) in diameter . Following the flight , the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwestward towards the Mexican coast . On August 31 , a ship called the Turrialba reported a 980 @-@ millibar ( 29 inHg ) sea – level pressure while in the eye of the hurricane . Shortly after the report , the hurricane peaked in intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) just prior to landfall 30 miles ( 50 km ) northwest of Manzanillo . The cyclone quickly weakened overland , and after only six hours over land , its winds weakened to only 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) , a decline of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) and the cyclone became extratropical . The now – extratropical Lily continued to cross the Mexican coast , and shortly after emerging over water on September 1 , the cyclone dissipated .
= = Impact = =
The north @-@ northwestward track Lily took off the Mexican coast was not well @-@ forecast due in part to difficulties in interpreting the radar data from the reconnaissance flight . As a result , many ships got caught in hurricane @-@ force winds and high seas while trying to cross between it and the coastline . The Turrialba also reported that many exhausted tropical birds were taken aboard the ship while in the eye . The ship had to maneuver in order to avoid hitting other ships in the area . Another boat with twelve people aboard capsized off a beach near Puerto Vallarta while weathering wind gusts of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) from the hurricane . Nine aboard the ship were reported dead as a result , but four others were able to swim back to shore .
The hurricane was the worst to strike Puerto Vallarta in 20 years . 5 @,@ 000 people were evacuated due to the hurricane with an addition 500 people on vacation becoming stranded inside their hotels . At least 600 evacuees sought refuge in a customs house , with an additional 1000 more evacuating to an airport terminal . More evacuees sought shelter in schools and the city hall . Four major rivers , including the Cuale River , which flows into the city , overflowed their banks , inundating the city along with several neighboring communities . Some areas of downtown Puerto Vallarta were submerged in depths of up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) due to the flooding . Telephone lines in the city were suspended and highways were rendered impassable by the floods . One person died during a house collapse in the city and two others drowned . Another source reported five deaths from house collapses , although the post @-@ season report regards only three deaths in association with Lily in Mexico . The hurricane also passed over the nearby town of Barra de Navidad , where the residents took refuge inside the church of San Antonio . A local legend states that during the hurricane , the arms of Jesus Christ on the church 's crucifix broke and hung down . The moment the arms broke , the hurricane 's effects in the town stopped . The figure has since been known as the Christ of the Cyclone .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Relief efforts following the hurricane were mostly affected by the associated flooding . Trucks transporting food and medicine from the Jalisco state government were forced to turn back because of flooded roads . The army then decided on an aerial transport . This effort was hampered because , after three federal helicopters and Air Force planes touched down at the local airport , the road into the city was still flooded , meaning the aid could not be distributed .
Lily 's effects in Puerto Vallarta made it the second hurricane of the season to be declared the worst hurricane to strike a specific city in twenty or more years . The first was Hurricane Bridget , which struck Acapulco . Despite the damage , the name was not retired and was reused in 1975 , but due to a change in names lists in 1978 , the name Lily has not been used since .
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= Fidel Castro =
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz ( American Spanish : [ fiˈðel aleˈxandɾo ˈkastɾo ˈrus ] audio ; born August 13 , 1926 ) , commonly known as Fidel Castro , is a Cuban politician and revolutionary who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008 . Politically a Marxist – Leninist and Cuban nationalist , he also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011 . Under his administration Cuba became a one @-@ party communist state ; industry and business were nationalized , and state socialist reforms implemented throughout society .
Born in Birán as the son of a wealthy farmer , Castro adopted leftist anti @-@ imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana . After participating in rebellions against right @-@ wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia , he planned the overthrow of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista , launching a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953 . After a year 's imprisonment , he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group , the 26th of July Movement , with his brother Raúl Castro and Che Guevara . Returning to Cuba , Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batista 's forces from the Sierra Maestra . After Batista 's overthrow in 1959 , Castro assumed military and political power as Cuba 's Prime Minister . The United States was alarmed by Castro 's friendly relations with the Soviet Union , and unsuccessfully attempted to remove him by assassination , economic blockade , and counter @-@ revolution , including the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961 . Countering these threats , Castro formed an alliance with the Soviets and allowed them to place nuclear weapons on the island , sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis – a defining incident of the Cold War – in 1962 .
Adopting a Marxist @-@ Leninist model of development , Castro converted Cuba into a one @-@ party socialist state under Communist Party rule , the first in the Western hemisphere . Reforms introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by state control of the press and the suppression of internal dissent . Abroad , Castro supported anti @-@ imperialist revolutionary groups , backing the establishment of Marxist governments in Chile , Nicaragua , and Grenada , and sending troops to aid allies in the Yom Kippur War , Ethio @-@ Somali War , and Angolan Civil War . These actions , coupled with Castro 's leadership of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement from 1979 – 83 and Cuba 's medical internationalism , increased Cuba 's profile on the world stage and earned its leader great respect in the developing world . Following the Soviet Union 's dissolution in 1991 , Castro led Cuba into its " Special Period " and embraced environmentalist and anti @-@ globalization ideas . In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American Pink Tide – namely with Hugo Chávez 's Venezuela – and signed Cuba to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas . In 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice @-@ President Raúl Castro , who formally assumed the presidency in 2008 .
Castro is a controversial and divisive world figure . He is decorated with various international awards , and his supporters laud him as a champion of socialism , anti @-@ imperialism , and humanitarianism , whose revolutionary regime secured Cuba 's independence from American imperialism . Conversely , critics view him as a totalitarian dictator whose administration oversaw multiple human @-@ rights abuses , an exodus of more than one million Cubans , and the impoverishment of the country 's economy . Through his actions and his writings he has significantly influenced the politics of various individuals and groups across the world .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1926 – 47 = = =
Castro was born out of wedlock at his father 's farm on August 13 , 1926 . His father , Ángel Castro y Argiz , was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia , Northwest Spain . He had become financially successful by growing sugar cane at Las Manacas farm in Birán , Oriente Province , and after the collapse of his first marriage , he took his household servant , Lina Ruz González - also of Spanish origin , as his mistress and later on second wife ; together they had seven children , among them Fidel . Aged six , Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba , before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church aged eight . Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago , where he regularly misbehaved , and so was sent to the privately funded , Jesuit @-@ run Dolores School in Santiago . In 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit @-@ run El Colegio de Belén in Havana . Although Castro took an interest in history , geography and debating at Belén , he did not excel academically , instead devoting much of his time to playing sport .
In 1945 , Castro began studying law at the University of Havana . Admitting he was " politically illiterate " , he became embroiled in student activism , and the violent gangsterismo culture within the university . Passionate about anti @-@ imperialism and opposing U.S. intervention in the Caribbean , he unsuccessfully campaigned for the presidency of the Federation of University Students on a platform of " honesty , decency and justice " . Castro became critical of the corruption and violence of President Ramón Grau 's government , delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that received coverage on the front page of several newspapers .
In 1947 , Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People ( Partido Ortodoxo ) , founded by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás . A charismatic figure , Chibás advocated social justice , honest government , and political freedom , while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform . Though Chibás lost the election , Castro remained committed to working on his behalf . Student violence escalated after Grau employed gang leaders as police officers , and Castro soon received a death threat urging him to leave the university ; refusing , he began carrying a gun and surrounding himself with armed friends . In later years anti @-@ Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang @-@ related assassinations at the time , but these remain unproven .
= = = Rebellion and Marxism : 1947 – 50 = = =
In June 1947 , Castro learned of a planned expedition to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow the right @-@ wing military junta of Rafael Trujillo , a U.S. ally . Being President of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic , Castro joined the expedition . The invasion force consisted of around 1 @,@ 200 troops , mostly Cubans and exiled Dominicans , and they intended to sail from Cuba in July 1947 . However , under U.S. pressure , Grau 's government stopped the invasion , although Castro and many of his comrades evaded arrest . Returning to Havana , Castro took a leading role in student protests against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards . The protests , accompanied by a crackdown on those considered communists , led to violent clashes between activists and police in February 1948 , in which Castro was badly beaten . At this point his public speeches took on a distinctly leftist slant by condemning social and economic inequality in Cuba . In contrast , his former public criticisms had centered on condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism .
In April 1948 , Castro traveled to Bogotá , Colombia , with a Cuban student group sponsored by President Juan Perón 's Argentine government . There , the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting and clashes between the governing Conservatives – backed by the army – and leftist Liberals . Castro joined the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station , but subsequent police investigations concluded that he had not been involved in any killings . Returning to Cuba , Castro became a prominent figure in protests against government attempts to raise bus fares . That year , he married Mirta Díaz Balart , a student from a wealthy family through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite . The relationship was a love match , disapproved of by both families , but Mirta 's father gave them tens of thousands of dollars to spend on a three @-@ month New York City honeymoon .
That same year , Grau decided not to stand for re @-@ election , which was instead won by his Partido Auténtico 's new candidate , Carlos Prío Socarrás . Prío faced widespread protests when members of the MSR , now allied to the police force , assassinated Justo Fuentes , a socialist friend of Castro 's . In response , Prío agreed to quell the gangs , but found them too powerful to control . Castro had moved further to the left , influenced by the Marxist writings of Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , and Vladimir Lenin . He came to interpret Cuba 's problems as an integral part of capitalist society , or the " dictatorship of the bourgeoisie " , rather than the failings of corrupt politicians , and adopted the Marxist view that meaningful political change could only be brought about by proletariat revolution . Visiting Havana 's poorest neighborhoods , he became active in the student anti @-@ racist campaign .
In September 1949 , Mirta gave birth to a son , Fidelito , so the couple moved to a larger Havana flat . Castro continued to put himself at risk , staying active in the city ’ s politics and joining the September 30 Movement , which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo . The group ’ s purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university ; despite his promises , Prío had failed to control the situation , instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries . Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on November 13 , exposing the government ’ s secret deals with the gangs and identifying key members . Attracting the attention of the national press , the speech angered the gangs , and Castro fled into hiding , first in the countryside and then in the U.S. Returning to Havana several weeks later , Castro lay low and focused on his university studies , graduating as a Doctor of Law in September 1950 .
= = = Career in law and politics : 1950 – 52 = = =
Castro co @-@ founded a legal partnership that primarily catered for poor Cubans , although it proved a financial failure . Caring little for money or material goods , Castro failed to pay his bills ; his furniture was repossessed and electricity cut off , distressing his wife . He took part in a high @-@ school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950 , fighting with police in protest at the Education Ministry 's ban on student associations ; arrested and charged for violent conduct , the magistrate dismissed the charges . His hopes for Cuba still centered on Chibás and the Partido Ortodoxo , and he was present at Chibás ' politically motivated suicide in 1951 . Seeing himself as Chibás ' heir , Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections , though senior Ortodoxo members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him . Instead he was nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives by party members in Havana 's poorest districts , and began campaigning . The Ortodoxo had considerable support and was predicted to do well in the election .
During his campaign , Castro met with General Fulgencio Batista , the former president who had returned to politics with the Unitary Action Party ; although both opposing Prío 's administration , their meeting never got beyond polite generalities . In March 1952 , Batista seized power in a military coup , with Prío fleeing to Mexico . Declaring himself president , Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections , describing his new system as " disciplined democracy " : Castro , like many others , considered it a one @-@ man dictatorship . Batista moved to the right , solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups . Intent on opposing Batista , Castro brought several legal cases against the government , but these came to nothing , and Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the regime .
= = Cuban Revolution = =
= = = The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack : 1952 – 53 = = =
Castro formed a group called " The Movement " which operated along a clandestine cell system , publishing underground newspaper El Acusador ( The Accuser ) , while arming and training anti @-@ Batista recruits . From July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive , gaining around 1 @,@ 200 members in a year , the majority from Havana 's poorer districts . Although a revolutionary socialist , Castro avoided an alliance with the communist PSP , fearing it would frighten away political moderates , but kept in contact with PSP members like his brother Raúl . Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks , a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba , Oriente . Castro 's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on July 25 , seizing control and raiding the armory before reinforcements arrived . Supplied with new weaponry , Castro intended to spark a revolution among Oriente 's impoverished cane cutters and promote further uprisings . Castro 's plan emulated those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks ; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader José Martí .
Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission , ordering his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance . The attack took place on July 26 , 1953 , but ran into trouble ; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there . Reaching the barracks , the alarm was raised , with most of the rebels pinned down by machine gun fire . 4 were killed before Castro ordered a retreat . The rebels suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties , whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded . Meanwhile , some rebels took over a civilian hospital ; subsequently stormed by government soldiers , the rebels were rounded up , tortured and 22 were executed without trial . Accompanied by 19 comrades , Castro set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several miles to the north , where they could establish a guerrilla base . Responding to the attack , Batista 's government proclaimed martial law , ordering a violent crackdown on dissent , and imposing strict media censorship . The government broadcast misinformation about the event , claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients , although news and photographs of the army 's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente soon spread , causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval .
Over the following days , the rebels were rounded up ; some were executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago . Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone , the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement , putting 122 defendants on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice , Santiago . Acting as his own defense counsel , Castro cited Martí as the intellectual author of the attack and convinced the 3 judges to overrule the army 's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court , proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of " organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State " – was incorrect , for they had risen up against Batista , who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner . The trial embarrassed the army by revealing that they had tortured suspects , after which they tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further , claiming he was too ill . The trial ended on October 5 , with the acquittal of most defendants ; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years . Castro was sentenced on October 16 , during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me . Castro was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment in the hospital wing of the Model Prison ( Presidio Modelo ) , a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos .
= = = Imprisonment and the 26th of July Movement : 1953 – 55 = = =
Imprisoned with 25 comrades , Castro renamed his group the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) in memory of the Moncada attack 's date , and formed a school for prisoners . He read widely , enjoying the works of Marx , Lenin , and Martí but also reading books by Freud , Kant , Shakespeare , Munthe , Maugham and Dostoyevsky , analyzing them within a Marxist framework . Corresponding with supporters , he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me . Initially permitted a relative amount of freedom within the prison , he was locked up in solitary confinement after inmates sang anti @-@ Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954 . Meanwhile , Castro 's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior , something he discovered through a radio announcement . Appalled , he raged that he would rather die " a thousand times " than " suffer impotently from such an insult " . Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings , with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito ; this angered Castro , who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment .
In 1954 , Batista 's government held presidential elections , but no politician stood against him ; the election was widely considered fraudulent . It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced , and Castro 's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident 's perpetrators . Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity , and the Congress and Batista agreed . Backed by the U.S. and major corporations , Batista believed Castro to be no threat , and on May 15 , 1955 , the prisoners were released . Returning to Havana , Castro gave radio interviews and press conferences ; the government closely monitored him , curtailing his activities . Now divorced , Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters , Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde , each conceiving him a child . Setting about strengthening the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he established an 11 @-@ person National Directorate but retained autocratic control , with some dissenters labeling him a caudillo ( dictator ) ; he argued that a successful revolution could not be run by committee and required a strong leader .
In 1955 , bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent , with Castro and Raúl fleeing the country to evade arrest . Castro sent a letter to the press , declaring that he was " leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me ... As a follower of Martí , I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them , to fight instead of pleading for them . " The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico , where Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist @-@ Leninist named Ernesto " Che " Guevara . Fidel liked him , later describing him as " a more advanced revolutionary than I was . " Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo , who agreed to teach Castro 's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare . Requiring funding , Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers , there being monitored by Batista 's agents , who allegedly orchestrated a failed assassination attempt against him . Castro kept in contact with the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 in Cuba , where they had gained a large support base in Oriente . Other militant anti @-@ Batista groups had sprung up , primarily from the student movement ; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil ( DRE ) , founded by José Antonio Echevarría . Antonio met with Castro in Mexico City , but Castro opposed the student 's support for indiscriminate assassination .
After purchasing the decrepit yacht Granma , on November 25 , 1956 Castro set sail from Tuxpan , Veracruz , with 81 armed revolutionaries . The 1 @,@ 200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh , with food running low and many suffering seasickness . At some points , they had to bail water caused by a leak , and at another , a man fell overboard , delaying their journey . The plan had been for the crossing to take 5 days , and on the Granma ’ s scheduled day of arrival , November 30 , MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members under Frank Pais led an armed uprising in Santiago and Manzanillo . However , the Granma 's journey ultimately lasted 7 days , and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements , Pais and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks .
= = = Guerrilla war : 1956 – 59 = = =
The Granma ran aground in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas , close to Los Cayuelos , on December 2 , 1956 . Fleeing inland , its crew headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente 's Sierra Maestra , being repeatedly attacked by Batista 's troops . Upon arrival , Castro discovered that only 19 rebels had made it to their destination , the rest having been killed or captured . Setting up an encampment , the survivors included the Castros , Che Guevara , and Camilo Cienfuegos . They began launching raids on small army posts to obtain weaponry , and in January 1957 they overran the outpost at La Plata , treating any soldiers that they wounded but executing Chicho Osorio , the local mayoral ( land company overseer ) , who was despised by the local peasants and who boasted of killing one of Castro 's rebels . Osorio 's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals , although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries . As trust grew , some locals joined the rebels , although most new recruits came from urban areas . With volunteers boosting the rebel forces to over 200 , in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns , commanded by himself , his brother , and Guevara . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation , sending supplies to Castro , and on February 16 , 1957 he met with other senior members to discuss tactics ; here he met Celia Sánchez , who would become a close friend .
Across Cuba , anti @-@ Batista groups carried out bombings and sabotage ; police responded with mass arrests , torture , and extrajudicial executions . In March 1957 , the DR launched a failed attack on the presidential palace , during which Antonio was shot dead . Frank País was also killed , leaving Castro the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 's unchallenged leader . Although Guevara and Raúl were well known for their Marxist @-@ Leninist views , Castro hid his , hoping to gain the support of less radical revolutionaries . In 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo , Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos , authoring the Sierra Maestra Manifesto , in which they demanded that a provisional civilian government be set up to implement moderate agrarian reform , industrialization , and a literacy campaign before holding multiparty elections . As Cuba 's press was censored , Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message ; he became a celebrity after being interviewed by Herbert Matthews , a journalist from the New York Times . Reporters from CBS and Paris Match soon followed .
Castro 's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts , forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region , and by spring 1958 , the rebels controlled a hospital , schools , a printing press , slaughterhouse , land @-@ mine factory and a cigar @-@ making factory . By 1958 , Batista was under increasing pressure , a result of his military failures coupled with increasing domestic and foreign criticism surrounding his administration 's press censorship , torture , and extrajudicial executions . Influenced by anti @-@ Batista sentiment among their citizens , the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry . The opposition called a general strike , accompanied by armed attacks from the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Beginning on April 9 , it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba , but little elsewhere .
Batista responded with an all @-@ out @-@ attack , Operation Verano , in which the army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants , while 10 @,@ 000 soldiers commanded by General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra , driving north to the rebel encampments . Despite their numerical and technological superiority , the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare , and Castro halted their offensive using land mines and ambushes . Many of Batista 's soldiers defected to Castro 's rebels , who also benefited from local popular support . In the summer , the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 went on the offensive , pushing the army out of the mountains , with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago . By November , Castro 's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas , and divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines , severely disadvantaging Batista .
Fearing Castro was a socialist , the U.S. instructed Cantillo to oust Batista . Cantillo secretly agreed to a ceasefire with Castro , promising that Batista would be tried as a war criminal , however Batista was warned , and fled into exile with over US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on December 31 , 1958 . Cantillo entered Havana 's Presidential Palace , proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra to be President , and began appointing the new government . Furious , Castro ended the ceasefire , and ordered Cantillo 's arrest by sympathetic figures in the army . Accompanying celebrations at news of Batista 's downfall on January 1 , 1959 , Castro ordered the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 to prevent widespread looting and vandalism . Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on January 2 , while Castro entered Santiago and gave a speech invoking the wars of independence . Heading toward Havana , he greeted cheering crowds at every town , giving press conferences and interviews .
= = = Provisional government : 1959 = = =
At Castro 's command , the politically moderate lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó was proclaimed provisional president , with Castro erroneously announcing he had been selected by " popular election " ; most of Urrutia 's cabinet were MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members . Entering Havana , Castro proclaimed himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency , setting up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel . Castro exercised a great deal of influence over Urrutia 's regime , which was now ruling by decree . He ensured that the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy and that it attempted to remove Batistanos from positions of power by dismissing Congress and barring all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 from future office . He then pushed Urrutia to issue a temporary ban on political parties ; he repeatedly said that they would eventually hold multiparty elections . Although repeatedly denying that he was a communist to the press , he began clandestinely meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party to discuss the creation of a socialist state .
In suppressing the revolution , Batista 's government had killed thousands of Cubans ; at the time , Castro and influential sectors of the press put the death toll at 20 @,@ 000 , although more recent estimates place it between 1000 and 4000 . In response to popular uproar , which demanded that those responsible be brought to justice , Castro helped set up many trials , resulting in hundreds of executions . Although widely popular domestically , critics – in particular the U.S. press – argued that many were not fair trials . Castro responded that " revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts , but on moral conviction " . Acclaimed by many across Latin America , he traveled to Venezuela where he met with President @-@ elect Rómulo Betancourt , unsuccessfully requesting a loan and a new deal for Venezuelan oil . Returning home , an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out . He was infuriated that the government had left thousands unemployed by closing down casinos and brothels . As a result , Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned , going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti @-@ Castro movement .
= = Premiership = =
= = = Consolidating leadership : 1959 – 60 = = =
On February 16 , 1959 , Castro was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba . In April he visited the U.S. on a charm offensive where he met Vice President Richard Nixon , whom he instantly disliked . Proceeding to Canada , Trinidad , Brazil , Uruguay and Argentina , Castro attended an economic conference in Buenos Aires , unsuccessfully proposing a $ 30 billion U.S.-funded " Marshall Plan " for Latin America . In May 1959 Castro signed into law the First Agrarian Reform , setting a cap for landholdings to 993 acres ( 402 ha ) per owner and prohibiting foreigners from obtaining Cuban land ownership . Around 200 @,@ 000 peasants received title deeds as large land holdings were broken up ; popular among the working class , it alienated the richer landowners . Castro appointed himself president of the National Tourist Industry , introducing unsuccessful measures to encourage African @-@ American tourists to visit , advertising Cuba as a tropical paradise free of racial discrimination . Judges and politicians had their pay reduced while low @-@ level civil servants saw theirs raised , and in March 1959 , Castro declared rents for those who paid less than $ 100 a month halved .
Although refusing to categorize his regime as socialist and repeatedly denying being a communist , Castro appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions . Most notably , Che Guevara became Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries . Appalled , Air Force commander Pedro Luis Díaz Lanz defected to the U.S. Although President Urrutia denounced the defection , he expressed concern with the rising influence of Marxism . Angered , Castro in turn announced his resignation as Prime Minister , blaming Urrutia for complicating government with his " fevered anti @-@ Communism " . Over 500 @,@ 000 Castro @-@ supporters surrounded the Presidential Palace demanding Urrutia 's resignation , which he submitted . On July 23 , Castro resumed his Premiership and appointed Marxist Osvaldo Dorticós as President .
Castro 's government emphasised social projects to improve Cuba 's standard of living , often to the detriment of economic development . Major emphasis was placed on education , and during the first 30 months of Castro 's government , more classrooms were opened than in the previous 30 years . The Cuban primary education system offered a work @-@ study program , with half of the time spent in the classroom , and the other half in a productive activity . Health care was nationalized and expanded , with rural health centers and urban polyclinics opening up across the island to offer free medical aid . Universal vaccination against childhood diseases was implemented , and infant mortality rates were reduced dramatically . A third part of this social program was the improvement of infrastructure . Within the first six months of Castro 's government , 600 miles of roads were built across the island , while $ 300 million was spent on water and sanitation projects . Over 800 houses were constructed every month in the early years of the administration in an effort to cut homelessness , while nurseries and day @-@ care centers were opened for children and other centers opened for the disabled and elderly .
Castro used radio and television to develop a " dialogue with the people " , posing questions and making provocative statements . His regime remained popular with workers , peasants , and students , who constituted the majority of the country 's population , while opposition came primarily from the middle class ; thousands of doctors , engineers and other professionals emigrated to Florida in the U.S. , causing an economic brain drain . Productivity decreased and the country 's financial reserves were drained within two years . After conservative press expressed hostility towards the government , the pro @-@ Castro printers ' trade union disrupted editorial staff , and in January 1960 the government ordered them to publish a " clarification " written by the printers ' union at the end of articles critical of the government . Castro 's government arrested hundreds of counter @-@ revolutionaries , many of whom were subjected to solitary confinement , rough treatment , and threatening behavior . Militant anti @-@ Castro groups , funded by exiles , the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , and the Dominican government , undertook armed attacks and set up guerrilla bases in Cuba 's mountains , leading to the six @-@ year War against the Bandits .
By 1960 , the Cold War raged between two superpowers : the United States , a capitalist liberal democracy , and the Soviet Union ( USSR ) , a Marxist @-@ Leninist socialist state ruled by the Communist Party . Expressing contempt for the U.S. , Castro shared the ideological views of the USSR , establishing relations with several Marxist @-@ Leninist states . Meeting with Soviet First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan , Castro agreed to provide the USSR with sugar , fruit , fibers , and hides , in return for crude oil , fertilizers , industrial goods , and a $ 100 million loan . Cuba 's government ordered the country 's refineries – then controlled by the U.S. corporations Shell , Esso and Standard Oil – to process Soviet oil , but under U.S. pressure , they refused . Castro responded by expropriating and nationalizing the refineries . Retaliating , the U.S. cancelled its import of Cuban sugar , provoking Castro to nationalize most U.S.-owned assets on the island , including banks and sugar mills .
Relations between Cuba and the U.S. were further strained following the explosion of a French vessel , the Le Coubre , in Havana harbor in March 1960 . The ship carried weapons purchased from Belgium , the cause of the explosion was never determined , but Castro publicly insinuated that the U.S. government were guilty of sabotage . He ended this speech with " ¡ Patria o Muerte ! " ( " Fatherland or Death " ) , a proclamation that he made much use of in ensuing years . Inspired by their earlier success with the 1954 Guatemalan coup d 'état , in March 1960 , U.S. President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to overthrow Castro 's government . He provided them with a budget of $ 13 million and permitted them to ally with the Mafia , who were aggrieved that Castro 's government closed down their brothel and casino businesses in Cuba . On October 13 , 1960 , the U.S. prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba , initiating an economic embargo . In retaliation , the National Institute for Agrarian Reform INRA took control of 383 private @-@ run businesses on October 14 , and on October 25 a further 166 U.S. companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized . On December 16 , the U.S. ended its import quota of Cuban sugar , the country 's primary export .
In September 1960 , Castro flew to New York City for the General Assembly of the United Nations . Staying at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem , he met with journalists and anti @-@ establishment figures like Malcolm X. He also met Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev , with the two publicly condemning the poverty and racism faced by Americans in areas like Harlem . Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm ; they led the applause to one another 's speeches at the General Assembly . Subsequently visited by Polish First Secretary Władysław Gomułka , Bulgarian Chairman Todor Zhivkov , Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and Indian Premier Jawaharlal Nehru , Castro also received an evening 's reception from the Fair Play for Cuba Committee .
Back in Cuba , Castro feared a U.S.-backed coup ; in 1959 his regime spent $ 120 million on Soviet , French , and Belgian weaponry and by early 1960 had doubled the size of Cuba 's armed forces . Fearing counter @-@ revolutionary elements in the army , the government created a People 's Militia to arm citizens favorable to the revolution , training at least 50 @,@ 000 civilians in combat techniques . In September 1960 , they created the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution ( CDR ) , a nationwide civilian organization which implemented neighborhood spying to detect counter @-@ revolutionary activities as well as organizing health and education campaigns , becoming a conduit for public complaints . By 1970 , a third of the population would be involved in the CDR , and this would come to rise to 80 % . Castro proclaimed the new administration a direct democracy , in which Cubans could assemble at demonstrations to express their democratic will . As a result , he rejected the need for elections , claiming that representative democratic systems served the interests of socio @-@ economic elites . U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter announced that Cuba was adopting the Soviet model of rule , with a one @-@ party state , government control of trade unions , suppression of civil liberties , and the absence of freedom of speech and press .
= = = Bay of Pigs Invasion and " Socialist Cuba " : 1961 – 62 = = =
In January 1961 , Castro ordered Havana 's U.S. Embassy to reduce its 300 staff , suspecting many to be spies . The U.S. responded by ending diplomatic relations , and increasing CIA funding for exiled dissidents ; these militants began attacking ships trading with Cuba , and bombed factories , shops , and sugar mills . Both Eisenhower and his successor John F. Kennedy supported a CIA plan to aid a dissident militia , the Democratic Revolutionary Front , to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro ; the plan resulted in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961 . On April 15 , CIA @-@ supplied B @-@ 26 's bombed 3 Cuban military airfields ; the U.S. announced that the perpetrators were defecting Cuban air force pilots , but Castro exposed these claims as false flag misinformation . Fearing invasion , he ordered the arrest of between 20 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 suspected counter @-@ revolutionaries , publicly proclaiming that " What the imperialists cannot forgive us , is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses " , his first announcement that the government was socialist .
The CIA and Democratic Revolutionary Front had based a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ strong army , Brigade 2506 , in Nicaragua . In the night from April 16 to 17 , Brigade 2506 landed along Cuba 's Bay of Pigs , and engaged in a firefight with a local revolutionary militia . Castro ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch the counter @-@ offensive , before taking personal control himself . After bombing the invaders ' ships and bringing in reinforcements , Castro forced the Brigade 's surrender on April 20 . He ordered the 1189 captured rebels to be interrogated by a panel of journalists on live television , personally taking over questioning on April 25 . 14 were put on trial for crimes allegedly committed before the revolution , while the others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at U.S. $ 25 million . Castro 's victory was a powerful symbol across Latin America , but it also increased internal opposition primarily among the middle @-@ class Cubans who had been detained in the run @-@ up to the invasion . Although most were freed within a few days , many fled to the U.S. , establishing themselves in Florida .
Consolidating " Socialist Cuba " , Castro united the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , Popular Socialist Party and Revolutionary Directorate into a governing party based on the Leninist principle of democratic centralism : the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations ( Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas - ORI ) , renamed the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution ( PURSC ) in 1962 . Although the USSR was hesitant regarding Castro 's embrace of socialism , relations with the Soviets deepened . Castro sent Fidelito for a Moscow schooling , Soviet technicians arrived on the island , and Castro was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize . In December 1961 , Castro admitted that he had been a Marxist @-@ Leninist for years , and in his Second Declaration of Havana he called on Latin America to rise up in revolution . In response , the U.S. successfully pushed the Organization of American States to expel Cuba ; the Soviets privately reprimanded Castro for recklessness , although he received praise from China . Despite their ideological affinity with China , in the Sino @-@ Soviet Split , Cuba allied with the wealthier Soviets , who offered economic and military aid .
The ORI began shaping Cuba using the Soviet model , persecuting political opponents and perceived social deviants such as prostitutes and homosexuals ; Castro considered same @-@ sex sexual activity a bourgeois trait . Gay men were forced into the Military Units to Aid Production ( Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción - UMAP ) ; after many revolutionary intellectuals decried this move , the UMAP camps were closed in 1967 , although gay men continued to be imprisoned . In 2010 , Castro took responsibility for this persecution , regretting it as a " great injustice " . By 1962 , Cuba 's economy was in steep decline , a result of poor economic management and low productivity coupled with the U.S. trade embargo . Food shortages led to rationing , resulting in protests in Cárdenas . Security reports indicated that many Cubans associated austerity with the " Old Communists " of the PSP , while Castro considered a number of them – namely Aníbal Escalante and Blas Roca – unduly loyal to Moscow . In March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent " Old Communists " from office , labelling them " sectarian " . On a personal level , Castro was increasingly lonely , and his relations with Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti @-@ Soviet and pro @-@ Chinese .
= = = Cuban Missile Crisis and furthering socialism : 1962 – 68 = = =
Militarily weaker than NATO , Khrushchev wanted to install Soviet R @-@ 12 MRBM nuclear missiles on Cuba to even the power balance . Although conflicted , Castro agreed , believing it would guarantee Cuba 's safety and enhance the cause of socialism . Undertaken in secrecy , only the Castro brothers , Guevara , Dorticós and security chief Ramiro Valdés knew the full plan . Upon discovering it through aerial reconnaissance , in October the U.S. implemented an island @-@ wide quarantine to search vessels headed to Cuba , sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis . The U.S. saw the missiles as offensive ; Castro insisted they were for defense only . Castro urged Khrushchev to threaten a nuclear strike on the U.S. should Cuba be attacked , but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid nuclear war . Castro was left out of the negotiations , in which Khruschev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the U.S. would remove their MRBMs from Turkey and Italy . Feeling betrayed by Khruschev , Castro was furious and soon fell ill . Proposing a five @-@ point plan , Castro demanded that the U.S. end its embargo , withdraw from Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , cease supporting dissidents , and stop violating Cuban air space and territorial waters . Presenting these demands to U Thant , visiting Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , the U.S. ignored them , and in turn Castro refused to allow the U.N. ' s inspection team into Cuba .
In May 1963 , Castro visited the USSR at Khrushchev 's personal invitation , touring 14 cities , addressing a Red Square rally , and being awarded both the Order of Lenin and an honorary doctorate from Moscow State University . While there Castro was permitted to sign a Soviet R @-@ 16 intercontinental ballistic missile . Castro returned to Cuba with new ideas ; inspired by Soviet newspaper Pravda , he amalgamated Hoy and Revolución into a new daily , Granma , and oversaw large investment into Cuban sport that resulted in an increased international sporting reputation . Seeking to further consolidate control , in 1963 the government cracked down on Protestant sects in Cuba , with Castro labeling them counter @-@ revolutionary " instruments of imperialism " ; many preachers were found guilty of illegal U.S.-links and imprisoned . Measures were implemented to force perceived idle and delinquent youths to work , primarily through the introduction of mandatory military service , while in September the government temporarily permitted emigration for anyone other than males aged between 15 and 26 , thereby ridding the government of thousands of critics , most of whom were from upper and middle @-@ class backgrounds . In 1963 Castro 's mother died . This was the last time his private life was reported in Cuba 's press . In January 1964 , Castro returned to Moscow , officially to sign a new five @-@ year sugar trade agreement , but also to discuss the ramifications of the assassination of John F. Kennedy ; Castro had been deeply concerned by the assassination , believing that a far right conspiracy was behind it but that the Cubans would be blamed . In October 1965 , the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations was officially renamed the " Cuban Communist Party " and published the membership of its Central Committee .
Despite Soviet misgivings , Castro continued calling for global revolution , funding militant leftists and those engaged in national liberation struggles . Cuba 's foreign policy was staunchly anti @-@ imperialist , believing that every nation should control its own natural resources . He supported Che Guevara 's " Andean project " , an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of Bolivia , Peru and Argentina , and allowed revolutionary groups from across the world , from the Viet Cong to the Black Panthers , to train in Cuba . He considered Western @-@ dominated Africa ripe for revolution , and sent troops and medics to aid Ahmed Ben Bella 's socialist regime in Algeria during the Sand war . He also allied with Alphonse Massemba @-@ Débat 's socialist government in Congo @-@ Brazzaville , and in 1965 Castro authorized Guevara to travel to Congo @-@ Kinshasa to train revolutionaries against the Western @-@ backed government . Castro was personally devastated when Guevara was subsequently killed by CIA @-@ backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967 and publicly attributed it to Che 's disregard for his own safety . In 1966 Castro staged a Tri @-@ Continental Conference of Africa , Asia and Latin America in Havana , further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage . From this conference , Castro created the Latin American Solidarity Organization ( OLAS ) , which adopted the slogan of " The duty of a revolution is to make revolution " , signifying Havana 's leadership of Latin America 's revolutionary movement .
Castro 's increasing role on the world stage strained his relationship with the USSR , now under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev . Asserting Cuba 's independence , Castro refused to sign the Treaty on the Non @-@ Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons , declaring it a Soviet @-@ U.S. attempt to dominate the Third World . Diverting from Soviet Marxist doctrine , he suggested that Cuban society could evolve straight to pure communism rather than progressing through various stages of socialism . In turn , Soviet @-@ loyalist Aníbal Escalante began organizing a government network of opposition to Castro , though in January 1968 , he and his supporters were arrested for allegedly passing state secrets to Moscow . However , recognising Cuba 's economic dependence on the Soviets , Castro relented to Brezhnev 's pressure to be obedient , and in August 1968 denounced the leaders of the Prague Spring and praised the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Influenced by China 's Great Leap Forward , in 1968 Castro proclaimed a Great Revolutionary Offensive , closing all remaining privately owned shops and businesses and denouncing their owners as capitalist counter @-@ revolutionaries . The severe lack of consumer goods for purchase led productivity to decline , as large sectors of the population felt little incentive to work hard . This was exacerbated by the perception that a revolutionary elite had emerged consisting of those connected to the administration ; they had access to better housing , private transportation , servants , and the ability to purchase luxury goods abroad .
= = = Economic stagnation and Third World politics : 1969 – 74 = = =
Castro publicly celebrated his administration 's 10th anniversary in January 1969 ; in his celebratory speech he warned of sugar rations , reflecting the nation 's economic problems . The 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane , and to meet its export quota , the government drafted in the army , implemented a seven @-@ day working week , and postponed public holidays to lengthen the harvest . When that year 's production quota was not met , Castro offered to resign during a public speech , but assembled crowds insisted he remain . Despite the economic issues , many of Castro 's social reforms were popular , with the population largely supportive of the " Achievements of the Revolution " in education , medical care , housing , and road construction , as well as the policies of " direct democratic " public consultation . Seeking Soviet help , from 1970 to 1972 Soviet economists re @-@ organized Cuba 's economy , founding the Cuban @-@ Soviet Commission of Economic , Scientific and Technical Collaboration , while Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin visited in 1971 . In July 1972 , Cuba joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( Comecon ) , an economic organization of socialist states , although this further limited Cuba 's economy to agricultural production .
In May 1970 , the crews of two Cuban fishing boats were kidnapped by Florida @-@ based dissident group Alpha 66 , who demanded that Cuba release imprisoned militants . Under U.S. pressure , the hostages were released , and Castro welcomed them back as heroes . In April 1971 , Castro was internationally condemned for ordering the arrest of dissident poet Heberto Padilla ; Padilla was freed , but the government established the National Cultural Council to ensure that intellectuals and artists supported the administration .
In 1971 , he visited Chile , where Marxist President Salvador Allende had been elected as the head of a left @-@ wing coalition . Castro supported Allende 's socialist reforms , but warned him of right @-@ wing elements in Chile 's military . In 1973 , the military led a coup d 'état and established a military junta led by Augusto Pinochet . Castro proceeded to Guinea to meet socialist President Sékou Touré , praising him as Africa 's greatest leader , and there received the Order of Fidelity to the People . He then went on a seven @-@ week tour visiting leftist allies : Algeria , Bulgaria , Hungary , Poland , East Germany , Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union , where he was given further awards . On each trip , he was eager to visit factory and farm workers , publicly praising their governments ; privately , he urged the regimes to aid revolutionary movements elsewhere , particularly those fighting the Vietnam War .
In September 1973 , he returned to Algiers to attend the Fourth Summit of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) . Various NAM members were critical of Castro 's attendance , claiming that Cuba was aligned to the Warsaw Pact and therefore should not be at the conference . At the conference he publicly broke off relations with Israel , citing its government 's close relationship with the U.S. and its treatment of Palestinians during the Israel @-@ Palestine conflict . This earned Castro respect throughout the Arab world , in particular from the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi , who became his friend and ally . As the Yom Kippur War broke out in October 1973 between Israel and an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria , Cuba sent 4 @,@ 000 troops to defend Syrian territory from Israeli incursions . Leaving Algiers , Castro visited Iraq and North Vietnam .
Cuba 's economy grew in 1974 as a result of high international sugar prices and new credits with Argentina , Canada , and parts of Western Europe . A number of Latin American states called for Cuba 's re @-@ admittance into the Organization of American States ( OAS ) , with the U.S. finally conceding in 1975 on Henry Kissinger 's advice . Cuba 's government underwent a restructuring along Soviet lines , claiming that this would further democratization and decentralize power away from Castro . Officially announcing Cuba 's identity as a socialist state , the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held , and a new constitution adopted that abolished the position of President and Prime Minister . Castro remained the dominant figure in governance , taking the presidency of the newly created Council of State and Council of Ministers , making him both head of state and head of government .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Foreign wars and NAM Presidency : 1975 – 79 = = =
Castro considered Africa to be " the weakest link in the imperialist chain " , and at the request of Angolan President Agostinho Neto he ordered 230 military advisers into Southern Africa in November 1975 to aid Neto 's Marxist MPLA in the Angolan Civil War . When the U.S. and South Africa stepped up their support of the opposition FLNA and UNITA , Castro ordered a further 18 @,@ 000 troops to Angola , which played a major role in forcing a South African retreat . Traveling to Angola , Castro celebrated with Neto , Sékou Touré and Guinea @-@ Bissaun President Luís Cabral , where they agreed to support Mozambique 's Marxist @-@ Leninist government against RENAMO in the Mozambique Civil War . In February , Castro visited Algeria and then Libya , where he spent ten days with Gaddafi and oversaw the establishment of the Jamahariya system of governance , before attending talks with the Marxist government of South Yemen . From there he proceeded to Somalia , Tanzania , Mozambique and Angola where he was greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba 's role in opposing apartheid South Africa . Throughout much of Africa he was hailed as a friend to national liberation from foreign dominance . This was followed with visits to Berlin and Moscow .
In 1977 the Ethio @-@ Somali War broke out over the disputed Ogaden region as Somalia invaded Ethiopia ; although a former ally of Somali President Siad Barre , Castro had warned him against such action , and Cuba sided with Mengistu Haile Mariam 's Marxist government of Ethiopia . He sent troops under the command of General Arnaldo Ochoa to aid the overwhelmed Ethiopian army . After forcing back the Somalis , Mengistu then ordered the Ethiopians to suppress the Eritrean People 's Liberation Front , a measure Castro refused to support . Castro extended support to Latin American revolutionary movements , namely the Sandinista National Liberation Front in its overthrow of the Nicaraguan rightist government of Anastasio Somoza Debayle in July 1979 . Castro 's critics accused the government of wasting Cuban lives in these military endeavors ; the anti @-@ Castro Center for a Free Cuba has claimed that an estimated 14 @,@ 000 Cubans were killed in foreign Cuban military actions . When U.S. state critics claimed that Castro had no right to interfere in these nations , he highlighted that Cuba had been invited into them , pointing out the U.S. ' own involvement in various foreign nations .
In 1979 , the Conference of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) was held in Havana , where Castro was selected as NAM president , a position he held till 1982 . In his capacity as both President of the NAM and of Cuba he appeared at the United Nations General Assembly in October 1979 and gave a speech on the disparity between the world 's rich and poor . His speech was greeted with much applause from other world leaders , though his standing in NAM was damaged by Cuba 's abstinence from the U.N. ' s General Assembly condemnation of the Soviet war in Afghanistan . Cuba 's relations across North America improved under Mexican President Luis Echeverría , Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau , and U.S. President Jimmy Carter . Carter continued criticizing Cuba 's human rights abuses , but adopted a respectful approach which gained Castro 's attention . Considering Carter well @-@ meaning and sincere , Castro freed certain political prisoners and allowed some Cuban exiles to visit relatives on the island , hoping that in turn Carter would abolish the economic embargo and stop CIA support for militant dissidents . Conversely , his relationship with China declined , as he accused Deng Xiaoping 's Chinese government of betraying their revolutionary principles by initiating trade links with the U.S. and attacking Vietnam .
= = = Reagan and Gorbachev : 1980 – 89 = = =
By the 1980s , Cuba 's economy was again in trouble , following a decline in the market price of sugar and 1979 's decimated harvest . For the first time , unemployment became a serious problem in Castro 's Cuba , with the government sending unemployed youth to other countries , primarily East Germany , to work there . Desperate for money , Cuba 's government secretly sold off paintings from national collections and illicitly traded for U.S. electronic goods through Panama . Increasing numbers of Cubans fled to Florida , but were labelled " scum " and " lumpen " by Castro and his CDR supporters . In one incident , 10 @,@ 000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum , and so the U.S. agreed that it would accept 3 @,@ 500 refugees . Castro conceded that those who wanted to leave could do so from Mariel port . Hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S. , leading to a mass exodus of 120 @,@ 000 ; Castro 's government took advantage of the situation by loading criminals , the mentally ill , and suspected homosexuals onto the boats destined for Florida . The event destabilized Carter 's administration and in 1981 the right @-@ wing Ronald Reagan was elected U.S. President . Reagan 's administration adopted a hard @-@ line approach against Castro , making its desire to overthrow his regime clear . In late 1981 , Castro publicly accused the U.S. of biological warfare against Cuba by orchestrating a dengue fever epidemic .
Although despising Argentina 's right wing military junta , Castro supported them in the 1982 Falklands War against Britain and offered military aid to the Argentinians . Castro supported the leftist New Jewel Movement that seized power in Grenada in 1979 , befriending Grenadine President Maurice Bishop and sending doctors , teachers , and technicians to aid the country 's development . When Bishop was executed in a Soviet @-@ backed coup by hard @-@ line Marxist Bernard Coard in October 1983 , Castro condemned the killing but cautiously retained support for Grenada 's government . However , the U.S. used the coup as a basis for invading the island . Cuban soldiers died in the conflict , with Castro denouncing the invasion and comparing the U.S. to Nazi Germany . In a July 1983 speech marking the 30th anniversary of the Cuban Revolution , Castro condemned Reagan 's administration as a " reactionary , extremist clique " who were waging an " openly warmongering and fascist foreign policy " . Castro feared a U.S. invasion of Nicaragua and sent Ochoa to train the governing Sandinistas in guerrilla warfare , but received little support from the USSR .
In 1985 , Mikhail Gorbachev became Secretary @-@ General of the Soviet Communist Party . A reformer , he implemented measures to increase freedom of the press ( glasnost ) and economic decentralization ( perestroika ) in an attempt to strengthen socialism . Like many orthodox Marxist critics , Castro feared that the reforms would weaken the socialist state and allow capitalist elements to regain control . Gorbachev conceded to U.S. demands to reduce support for Cuba , with Soviet @-@ Cuban relations deteriorating . When Gorbachev visited Cuba in April 1989 , he informed Castro that perestroika meant an end to subsidies for Cuba . Ignoring calls for liberalization in accordance with the Soviet example , Castro continued to clamp down on internal dissidents and in particular kept tabs on the military , the primary threat to the government . A number of senior military officers , including Ochoa and Tony de la Guardia , were investigated for corruption and complicity in cocaine smuggling , tried , and executed in 1989 , despite calls for leniency . On medical advice given him in October 1985 , Castro gave up regularly smoking Cuban cigars , helping to set an example for the rest of the populace . Castro became passionate in his denunciation of the Third World debt problem , arguing that the Third World would never escape the debt that First World banks and governments imposed upon it . In 1985 , Havana hosted five international conferences on the world debt problem .
By November 1987 , Castro began spending more time on the Angolan Civil War , in which the Marxists had fallen into retreat . Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos successfully appealed for more Cuban troops , with Castro later admitting that he devoted more time to Angola than to the domestic situation , believing that a victory would lead to the collapse of apartheid . Gorbachev called for a negotiated end to the conflict and in 1988 organized a quadripartite talks between the USSR , U.S. , Cuba and South Africa ; they agreed that all foreign troops would pull out of Angola . Castro was angered by Gorbachev 's approach , believing that he was abandoning the plight of the world 's poor in favor of détente .
In Eastern Europe , socialist governments fell to capitalist reformers between 1989 and 1991 and many Western observers expected the same in Cuba . Increasingly isolated , Cuba improved relations with Manuel Noriega 's right @-@ wing government in Panama – despite Castro 's personal hatred of Noriega – but it was overthrown in a U.S. invasion in December 1989 . In February 1990 , Castro 's allies in Nicaragua , President Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas , were defeated by the U.S.-funded National Opposition Union in an election . With the collapse of the Soviet bloc , the U.S. secured a majority vote for a resolution condemning Cuba 's human rights violations at the United Nations Human Rights Commission in Geneva , Switzerland . Cuba asserted that this was a manifestation of U.S. hegemony , and refused to allow an investigative delegation to enter the country .
= = = Special Period : 1990 – 2000 = = =
With favourable trade from the Soviet bloc ended , Castro publicly declared that Cuba was entering a " Special Period in Time of Peace . " Petrol rations were dramatically reduced , Chinese bicycles were imported to replace cars , and factories performing non @-@ essential tasks were shut down . Oxen began to replace tractors , firewood began being used for cooking and electricity cuts were introduced that lasted 16 hours a day . Castro admitted that Cuba faced the worst situation short of open war , and that the country might have to resort to subsistence farming . By 1992 , Cuba 's economy had declined by over 40 % in under two years , with major food shortages , widespread malnutrition and a lack of basic goods . Castro hoped for a restoration of Marxism @-@ Leninism in the USSR , but refrained from backing the 1991 coup in that country . When Gorbachev regained control , Cuba @-@ Soviet relations deteriorated further and Soviet troops were withdrawn in September 1991 . In December , the Soviet Union was officially dismantled as Boris Yeltsin abolished the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and introducing a capitalist multiparty democracy . Yeltsin despised Castro and developed links with the Miami @-@ based Cuban American National Foundation . Castro tried improving relations with the capitalist nations . He welcomed Western politicians and investors to Cuba , befriended Manuel Fraga and took a particular interest in Margaret Thatcher 's policies in the UK , believing that Cuban socialism could learn from her emphasis on low taxation and personal initiative . He ceased support for foreign militants , refrained from praising FARC on a 1994 visit to Colombia and called for a negotiated settlement between the Zapatistas and Mexican government in 1995 . Publicly , he presented himself as a moderate on the world stage .
In 1991 , Havana hosted the Pan @-@ American Games , which involved construction of a stadium and accommodation for the athletes ; Castro admitted that it was an expensive error , but it was a success for Cuba 's government . Crowds regularly shouted " Fidel ! Fidel ! " in front of foreign journalists , while Cuba became the first Latin American nation to beat the U.S. to the top of the gold @-@ medal table . Support for Castro remained strong , and although there were small anti @-@ government demonstrations , the Cuban opposition rejected the exile community 's calls for an armed uprising . In August 1994 , Havana witnessed the largest anti @-@ Castro demonstration in Cuban history , as 200 to 300 young men threw stones at police , demanding that they be allowed to emigrate to Miami . A larger pro @-@ Castro crowd confronted them , who were joined by Castro ; he informed media that the men were anti @-@ socials misled by the U.S. The protests dispersed with no recorded injuries . Fearing that dissident groups would invade , the government organised the " War of All the People " defense strategy , planning a widespread guerrilla warfare campaign , and the unemployed were given jobs building a network of bunkers and tunnels across the country .
Castro believed in the need for reform if Cuban socialism was to survive in a world now dominated by capitalist free markets . In October 1991 , the Fourth Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held in Santiago , at which a number of important changes to the government were announced . Castro would step down as head of government , to be replaced by the much younger Carlos Lage , although Castro would remain the head of the Communist Party and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the armed forces . Many older members of government were to be retired and replaced by their younger counterparts . A number of economic changes were proposed , and subsequently put to a national referendum . Free farmers ' markets and small @-@ scale private enterprises would be legalized in an attempt to stimulate economic growth , while U.S. dollars were also made legal tender . Certain restrictions on emigration were eased , allowing more discontented Cuban citizens to move to the United States . Further democratization was to be brought in by having the National Assembly 's members elected directly by the people , rather than through municipal and provincial assemblies . Castro welcomed debate between proponents and opponents of the reforms , although over time he began to increasingly sympathise with the opponent 's positions , arguing that such reforms must be delayed .
Castro 's government diversified its economy into biotechnology and tourism , the latter outstripping Cuba 's sugar industry as its primary source of revenue in 1995 . The arrival of thousands of Mexican and Spanish tourists led to increasing numbers of Cubans turning to prostitution ; officially illegal , Castro refrained from cracking down on prostitution , fearing a political backlash . Economic hardship led many Cubans toward religion , both in the form of Roman Catholicism and Santeria . Although long thinking religious belief to be backward , Castro softened his approach to religious institutions and religious people were permitted for the first time to join the Communist Party . Although he viewed the Roman Catholic Church as a reactionary , pro @-@ capitalist institution , Castro organized a visit to Cuba by Pope John Paul II for January 1998 ; it strengthened the position of both the Cuban Church and Castro 's government .
In the early 1990s Castro embraced environmentalism , campaigning against global warming and the waste of natural resources , and accusing the U.S. of being the world 's primary polluter . In 1994 a ministry dedicated to the environment was established , and new laws established in 1997 that promoted awareness of environmental issues throughout Cuba and stressed the sustainable use of natural resources . By 2006 , Cuba was the world 's only nation which met the United Nations Development Programme 's definition of sustainable development , with an ecological footprint of less than 1 @.@ 8 hectares per capita and a Human Development Index of over 0 @.@ 8 . Castro also became a proponent of the anti @-@ globalization movement , criticizing U.S. global hegemony and the control exerted by multinationals . Castro maintained his devout anti @-@ apartheid beliefs , and at the July 26 celebrations in 1991 , he was joined onstage by the South African political activist Nelson Mandela , recently released from prison . Mandela praised Cuba 's involvement in battling South Africa in Angola and thanked Castro personally . He later attended Mandela 's inauguration as President of South Africa in 1994 . In 2001 he attended the Conference Against Racism in South Africa at which he lectured on the global spread of racial stereotypes through U.S. film .
= = = Pink tide : 2000 – 06 = = =
Mired in economic problems , Cuba would be aided by the election of socialist and anti @-@ imperialist Hugo Chávez to the Venezuelan Presidency in 1999 . Castro and Chávez developed a close friendship , with the former acting as a mentor and father @-@ figure to the latter , and together they built an alliance that had repercussions throughout Latin America . In 2000 , they signed an agreement through which Cuba would send 20 @,@ 000 medics to Venezuela , in return receiving 53 @,@ 000 barrels of oil per day at preferential rates ; in 2004 , this trade was stepped up , with Cuba sending 40 @,@ 000 medics and Venezuela providing 90 @,@ 000 barrels a day . That same year , Castro initiated Misión Milagro , a joint medical project which aimed to provide free eye operations on 300 @,@ 000 individuals from each nation . The alliance boosted the Cuban economy , and in May 2005 Castro doubled the minimum wage for 1 @.@ 6 million workers , raised pensions , and delivered new kitchen appliances to Cuba 's poorest residents . Some economic problems remained ; in 2004 , Castro shut down 118 factories , including steel plants , sugar mills and paper processors to compensate for the crisis of fuel shortages .
Cuba and Venezuela were the founding members of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas ( ALBA ) . ALBA sought to redistribute wealth evenly throughout member countries , to protect the region 's agriculture , and to oppose economic liberalization and privatization . ALBA 's origins lay in a December 2004 agreement signed between the two countries , and was formalized through a People 's Trade Agreement also signed by Evo Morales ' Bolivia in April 2006 . Castro had also been calling for greater Caribbean integration since the late 1990s , saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy . Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including : Antigua and Barbuda , Dominica , Suriname , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . This development makes Cuba the only country to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community .
In contrast to the improved relations between Cuba and a number of leftist Latin American states , in 2004 it broke off diplomatic ties with Panama after centrist President Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Castro in 2000 . Diplomatic ties were reinstalled in 2005 following the election of leftist President Martín Torrijos . Castro 's improving relations across Latin America were accompanied by continuing animosity towards the U.S. However , after massive damage caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001 , Castro successfully proposed a one @-@ time cash purchase of food from the U.S. while declining its government 's offer of humanitarian aid . Castro expressed solidarity with the U.S. following the 2001 September 11 attacks , condemning Al Qaeda and offering Cuban airports for the emergency diversion of any U.S. planes . He recognized that the attacks would make U.S. foreign policy more aggressive , which he believed was counter @-@ productive .
In 1998 , Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien arrived in Cuba to meet Castro and highlight their close ties . He is the first Canadian government leader to visit the island since Pierre Trudeau was in Havana in 1976 . In 2002 , former U.S. President Jimmy Carter visited Cuba , where he highlighted the lack of civil liberties in the country and urged the government to pay attention to the Varela Project of Oswaldo Payá .
= = = Stepping down : 2006 – 08 = = =
Castro underwent surgery for intestinal bleeding , and on July 31 , 2006 delegated his presidential duties to Raúl Castro . In February 2007 , Raúl announced that Fidel 's health was improving and that he was taking part in important issues of government . Later that month , Fidel called into Hugo Chávez 's radio show Aló Presidente . On April 21 , Castro met Wu Guanzheng of the Chinese Communist Party 's Politburo , with Chávez visiting in August , and Morales in September . That month , the Non @-@ Aligned Movement held its 14th Summit in Havana , there agreeing to appoint Castro as the organisation 's president for a year 's term .
Commenting on Castro 's recovery , U.S. President George W. Bush said : " One day the good Lord will take Fidel Castro away " . Hearing about this , the atheist Castro ironically replied : " Now I understand why I survived Bush 's plans and the plans of other presidents who ordered my assassination : the good Lord protected me . " The quote would subsequently be picked up on by the world 's media . In a February 2008 letter , Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief at that month 's National Assembly meetings , remarking that " It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion , that I am not in a physical condition to offer " . On February 24 , 2008 , the National Assembly of People 's Power unanimously voted Raúl as president . Describing his brother as " not substitutable " , Raúl proposed that Fidel continue to be consulted on matters of great importance , a motion unanimously approved by the 597 National Assembly members .
= = Later years = =
= = = Retirement : 2008 – present = = =
Following his retirement , Castro 's health deteriorated ; international press speculated that he had diverticulitis , but Cuba 's government refused to corroborate this . He continued to interact with the Cuban people , published an opinion column titled " Reflections " in Granma , used a Twitter account , and gave occasional public lectures . In January 2009 Castro asked Cubans not to worry about his lack of recent news columns and failing health , and not to be disturbed by his future death . He continued meeting foreign leaders and dignitaries , and that month photographs were released of Castro 's meeting with Argentine President Cristina Fernández .
In July 2010 , he made his first public appearance since falling ill , greeting science center workers and giving a television interview to Mesa Redonda in which he discussed U.S. tensions with Iran and North Korea . On August 7 , 2010 , Castro gave his first speech to the National Assembly in four years , urging the U.S. not to take military actions against those nations and warning of a nuclear holocaust . When asked whether Castro may be re @-@ entering government , culture minister Abel Prieto told the BBC , " I think that he has always been in Cuba 's political life but he is not in the government ... He has been very careful about that . His big battle is international affairs . "
On April 19 , 2011 , Castro resigned from the Communist Party central committee , thus stepping down as party leader . Raúl was selected as his successor . Now without any official role in the country 's government , he took on the role of an elder statesman . In March 2012 , Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba for three days , during which time he briefly met with Castro despite the Pope 's vocal opposition to Cuba 's government . Later that year it was revealed that along with Hugo Chávez , Castro had played a significant behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in orchestrating peace talks between the Colombian government and the far left FARC guerrilla movement to end the conflict which had raged since 1964 . During the North Korea crisis of 2013 , he urged both the North Korean and U.S. governments to show restraint . Calling the situation " incredible and absurd , " he maintained that war would not benefit either side , and that it represented " one of the gravest risks of nuclear war " since the Cuban missile crisis .
In December 2014 , Castro was awarded the Chinese Confucius Peace Prize for seeking peaceful solutions to his nation 's conflict with the U.S. and for his post @-@ retirement efforts to prevent nuclear war . In January 2015 , he publicly commented on the " Cuban Thaw " , an increased normalization between Cuba @-@ U.S. relations , by stating that while it was a positive move for establishing peace in the region , he mistrusted the U.S. government .
= = Political ideology = =
Castro proclaimed himself to be " a Socialist , a Marxist , and a Leninist " , and has publicly identified as a Marxist @-@ Leninist since December 1961 . As a Marxist , Castro sought to move Cuba from a capitalist state in which it was dominated by foreign imperialism to a socialist society and ultimately a communist society . Influenced by Guevara , he suggested that Cuba could evade most stages of socialism and progress straight to communism . Castro 's government was also nationalistic , with Castro declaring that " We are not only Marxist @-@ Leninists , but also nationalists and patriots " . Historian Richard Gott remarked that one of the keys to Castro 's success was in his ability to utilize the " twin themes of socialism and nationalism " and keep them " endlessly in play . " Castro describes Karl Marx and Cuban nationalist José Martí as his main political influences , although Gott believed that ultimately Martí remained more important than Marx in Castro 's politics . Castro described Martí 's political ideas as " a philosophy of independence and an exceptional humanistic philosophy " , and his supporters and apologists have repeatedly claimed great similarity between the two figures .
Biographer Volka Skierka described Castro 's government as a " highly individual , socialist @-@ nationalist " fidelista " system " , with Theodore Draper terming his approach " Castroism " , viewing it as a blend of European socialism with the Latin American revolutionary tradition . Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol has described Castro 's approach to politics as " totalitarian utopianism " , with a style of leadership that drew upon the wider Latin American phenomenon of the caudillo . Castro took a relatively socially conservative stance on many issues , opposing drug use , gambling , and prostitution , which he viewed as moral evils . Instead he advocated hard work , family values , integrity , and self @-@ discipline .
= = Personal and public life = =
Biographer Leycester Coltman described Castro as " fiercely hard @-@ working , dedicated [ , ] loyal ... generous and magnanimous " but noted that he could be " vindictive and unforgiving " . He asserted that Castro " always had a keen sense of humor and could laugh at himself " but could equally be " a bad loser " who would act with " ferocious rage if he thought that he was being humiliated . " Castro was well known for throwing tantrums , and could make " snap judgements " which he refused to back down from . Biographer Peter Bourne noted that Castro " suffers fools poorly " and that in his younger years he was intolerant of those who did not share his views . He claimed that Castro liked to meet with ordinary citizens , both in Cuba and abroad , but took a particularly paternal attitude toward Cubans , treating them as if " they were a part of his own giant family . " British historian Alex Von Tunzelmann commented that " though ruthless , [ Castro ] was a patriot , a man with a profound sense that it was his mission to save the Cuban people " .
Castro was known for his busy working hours , often only going to bed at 3 or 4 a.m. He preferred to meet foreign diplomats in these early hours , believing that they would be tired and he could gain the upper hand in negotiations . He described Ernest Hemingway as his favorite writer , and enjoyed reading but was uninterested in music . A sports fan , he also spent much of his time trying to keep fit , undertaking regular exercise . He took a great interest in gastronomy , as well as wine and whisky , and as Cuban leader was known to wander into his kitchen to discuss cookery with his chefs . Castro had a lifelong love of guns , and a preference for life in the countryside over the city . While various sources state that Castro has not enriched himself , instead living a life more modest than most Latin American presidents , his former bodyguard Juan Reinaldo Sánchez alleged that Castro lived in great luxury , with several houses and yachts which he has hidden from the Cuban populace .
Fidel Castro 's religious beliefs have been a matter of some debate ; he was baptized and raised a Roman Catholic but has commented that he is an atheist . He criticized use of the Bible to justify the oppression of women and Africans , but commented that Christianity exhibited " a group of very humane precepts " which gave the world " ethical values " and a " sense of social justice " , relating that " If people call me Christian , not from the standpoint of religion but from the standpoint of social vision , I declare that I am a Christian . " He has espoused the idea that Jesus Christ was a communist , citing the feeding of the 5000 and the story of Jesus and the rich young man as evidence .
= = = Public image = = =
Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol characterized Castro as " quintessentially totalitarian in his charismatic appeal , utopian functional role and public , transformative utilisation of power . " Unlike a number of other Soviet @-@ era communist leaders , Castro 's government did not intentionally construct a cult of personality around him , although his popularity among segments of the Cuban populace nevertheless led to one developing in the early years of his administration . By 2006 , the BBC reported that Castro 's image could frequently be found in Cuban stores , classrooms , taxicabs , and on national television . Throughout his administration , large throngs of supporters gathered to cheer at Castro 's fiery speeches , which typically lasted for hours and which were delivered without the use of written notes . During speeches Castro regularly cited reports and books he had read on a wide variety of subjects , including military matters , plant cultivation , filmmaking , and chess strategies .
For 37 years , Castro publicly wore nothing but olive @-@ green military fatigues , emphasizing his role as the perpetual revolutionary , but in the mid @-@ 1990s began wearing dark civilian suits and guayabera publicly as well . Within Cuba , Castro is often nicknamed " El Caballo " ( " The Horse " ) , a label attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Moré which alludes to Castro 's well known womanizing during the 1950s and early 1960s , and during this period Castro himself was widely recognized as a sex symbol in Cuba .
= = = Family and friends = = =
Many details of Castro 's private life , particularly involving his family members , are scarce as such information is censored by state media . Castro 's biographer Robert E. Quirk noted that throughout his life , the Cuban leader had been " unable to form a lasting sexual relationship with any female . " Castro 's first wife was Mirta Díaz @-@ Balart , whom he married in October 1948 , and together they have a son , Fidel Ángel " Fidelito " Castro Díaz @-@ Balart , born in September 1949 . Díaz @-@ Balart and Castro divorced in 1955 , and she moved to Spain , although allegedly returned to Cuba in 2002 to live with Fidelito . Fidelito grew up in Cuba ; for a time , he ran Cuba 's atomic @-@ energy commission before being removed from the post by his father .
Fidel has five other sons by his second wife , Dalia Soto del Valle : Antonio , Alejandro , Alexis , Alexander " Alex " , and Ángel Castro Soto del Valle . While Fidel was married to Mirta , he had an affair with Natalia " Naty " Revuelta Clews , who gave birth to his daughter , Alina Fernández Revuelta . Alina left Cuba in 1993 , disguised as a Spanish tourist , and sought asylum in the U.S. , from where she has criticized her father 's policies . By an unnamed woman he had another son , Jorge Ángel Castro . Fidel has another daughter , Francisca Pupo ( born 1953 ) the result of a one night affair . Pupo and her husband now live in Miami . Castro often engaged in one night stands with women , some of whom were specially selected for him while visiting foreign allies . His sister Juanita Castro has been living in the United States since the early 1960s , and is an opponent of her brother 's regime .
While in power , Castro 's two closest male friends were the former Mayor of Havana Pepin Naranjo and his own personal physician , René Vallejo . From 1980 until his death in 1995 , Naranjo headed Castro 's team of advisers . Castro also had a deep friendship with fellow revolutionary Celia Sanchez , who accompanied him almost everywhere during the 1960s , and controlled almost all access to the leader . Castro was also a good friend of the Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Historian and journalist Richard Gott considered Castro to be " one of the most extraordinary political figures of the twentieth century " , noting that he had become a " world hero in the mould of Garibaldi " to people throughout the developing world for his anti @-@ imperialist efforts . Bourne described Castro as " an influential world leader " who commanded " great respect " from individuals of all political ideologies across the developing world . Wayne S. Smith , former Chief of the US Interests Section in Havana , noted that in the early 21st century , Castro was met with " warm applause " throughout the Western Hemisphere due to his opposition to U.S. socio @-@ political dominance and for transforming Cuba from a " banana republic " into a nation with significant international influence . He has been awarded a wide variety of awards and honors from foreign governments , and has been cited as an inspiration for foreign leaders like Ahmed Ben Bella , and Nelson Mandela , who subsequently awarded him South Africa 's highest civilian award for foreigners , the Order of Good Hope . Bolivian President Evo Morales described him as " the grandfather of all Latin American revolutionaries " , while biographer Volka Skierka stated that " he will go down in history as one of the few revolutionaries who remained true to his principles . "
Castro has been heavily criticized by governments and human rights organizations in the Western world , and was widely despised throughout the U.S. He has been widely described as a " dictator " , although Castro has publicly refuted this label , stating that he constitutionally held less power than most heads of state and insisting that his regime allowed for greater democratic involvement in policy making than Western liberal democracies . Nevertheless , critics claim that Castro wielded significant unofficial influence aside from his official duties . Quirk stated that Castro wielded " absolute power " in Cuba , albeit not in a legal or constitutional manner , while Bourne claimed that power in Cuba was " completely invested " in Castro , adding that it was very rare for " a country and a people " to have been so completely dominated by " the personality of one man " . Sondrol suggested that in leading " a political system largely [ of ] his own creation and bearing his indelible stamp " Castro 's leadership style warranted comparisons with other totalitarian leaders like Mao Zedong , Joseph Stalin , Adolf Hitler , and Benito Mussolini .
Human rights advocacy groups have criticized Castro 's administration for committing human rights abuses . Human Rights Watch stated that his government constructed a " repressive machinery " which deprived Cubans of their " basic rights " . Castro has defended his government 's record on human rights , stating that the state must limit the freedoms of individuals and imprison those involved in counter @-@ revolutionary activity in order to protect the rights of the collective populace , such as the right to employment , education , and health care .
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= 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team =
The 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team represented the University of Michigan in the 1896 college football season . They played their home games at Regents Field in Ann Arbor , Michigan and competed in the newly established Western Conference , later to be known as the Big Ten Conference . The team , with William Ward as head coach , started the season with nine consecutive wins in which the Wolverines outscored their opponents by a combined score of 256 to 4 . In the final game of the season , played on Thanksgiving Day at the Chicago Coliseum , the team lost a close game to Amos Alonzo Stagg 's University of Chicago team by a score of 7 – 6 . The 1896 Michigan – Chicago game was the first college football game played indoors , and the last portion of the game was also played under electric lights . Henry M. Senter was the team captain .
= = Preseason developments = =
Before the 1896 football season took the field , two developments occurred . First , Michigan joined the Western Inter @-@ collegiate Athletic Conference ( later renamed the Big Ten Conference ) . The 1896 season was the first for Michigan in conference play . Michigan 's three conference games in 1896 were against Purdue , Minnesota and Chicago . Second , William McCauley , who had led Michigan to a 17 – 2 – 1 record in two seasons as coach , resigned as Michigan 's football coach . Princeton graduate , William Ward , was hired to replace McCauley . Before leaving Ann Arbor in November 1896 , McCauley assisted Ward in coaching the 1896 team .
Michigan conducted tryouts for the 1896 football team at Sand Beach . The Michiganensian for 1897 reported on the group appearing for try @-@ outs as follows : " Never before had the Athletic field been so teeming with aspirants for foot @-@ ball honors . "
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
= = = Michigan 18 , Michigan State Normal 0 = = =
Michigan opened its 1896 season with a home game against Michigan State Normal , later known as Eastern Michigan University . The Wolverines won , 18 – 0 , scoring two touchdowns in the first half and a goal and a safety in the second half . The World of New York reported on the game as follows : " The University of Michigan opened its football season here this afternoon by a loosely played game with the Michigan State Normal eleven . Only four members of last year 's ' Varsity eleven were in the game , although four of them were on the ground ready to play . "
= = = Michigan 44 , Grand Rapids High School 0 = = =
Michigan played its second game of the season at home against the team from Grand Rapids High School , ( Now Grand Rapids Central High School [ Mich . ] ) . The game was played in halves of 20 and 10 minutes , and Michigan won easily by a score of 44 to 0 . A newspaper account of the game described Michigan 's performance as follows :
" Michigan is now rapidly rounding into form and the team played a much stronger game today than a week ago . Several of the new men did some creditable work , and the interference at all times was excellent . Hazen Pingree , at half , made several brilliant runs , and Hannan , at full , punted very well . Bennett , Wombacher , Palmer and Farnham also showed up well in the line . Grand Rapids was never able to gain and the ' varsity scored as she pleased . "
Michigan 's lineup in the game was Palmer ( left end ) , Giovanni " Count " Villa ( left tackle ) , Fred Baker ( left guard ) , John David Wombacher ( center ) , John W.F. Bennett ( right guard ) , Frederick Henninger ( right tackle ) , Thaddeus Farnham ( right end ) , Richards ( quarterback ) , Hazen Pingree ( right halfback ) , Thomas Jesse Drumheller and Steel ( left halfback ) , and William Caley and Hannan ( fullback ) .
= = = Michigan 28 , College of Physicians and Surgeons 0 = = =
Michigan 's third game of the season was a mid @-@ week match against the team from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in Chicago . The game was played in 15 minute halves at Ann Arbor 's Regents Field . Halfback Gustave Ferbert scored a touchdown " on a brilliant twenty @-@ yard run " in the first half , and Villa and Pingree scored two touchdowns each for Michigan . Steel and Hogg each added two goals after touchdown for Michigan . A newspaper account of the game described Michigan 's performance as follows :
" The game put up by Michigan was the best of the season . This was the first game in which the ' varsity work has been tried against a heavy team , but , as a rule , the interference was fast and sure and their team work good . Farnham , Pingree , Ferbert , and Villa carried off the honors for Michigan . "
Michigan 's line up against the Physicians and Surgeons was Palmer and Ayers ( left end ) , Giovanni Villa ( left tackle ) , Bert Carr ( left guard ) , John David Wombacher ( center ) , John W.F. Bennett ( right guard ) , Frederick Henninger ( right tackle ) , Thaddeus Farnham ( right end ) , J. DeForest Richards ( quarterback ) , Gustave Ferbert and Gordon ( left halfback ) , Hazen Pingree ( right halfback ) , Steel and James R. Hogg ( fullback ) .
= = = Michigan 66 , Rush Lake Forest 0 = = =
Michigan 's fourth game was played against Rush Lake Forest two days after the game against the Physicians and Surgeons team . Michigan compiled its highest point total of the season , winning the game 66 – 0 . Through the first four games of the season , Michigan had outscored its opponents by a combined tally of 156 to 0 .
= = = Michigan 16 , Purdue 0 = = =
The team traveled to Lafayette , Indiana to open its conference schedule against the Purdue Boilermakers and came away with a fifth straight shutout and a score of 16 – 0 . The game was played in front of a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 at Purdue 's Stuart Field . One newspaper described the game as " the most desperate game that has ever been played on Stuart Field " and concluded that " Michigan won by superior weight . " The same account noted that " the prettiest play of the game " was a 40 – yard run by Ferbert and has tackle by Marshall . Michigan 's scoring came on two touchdowns by Caley and one by Hogg . Michigan 's lineup was Loomis Hutchinson ( left end ) , Giovanni Villa ( left tackle ) , Carey ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Farnham ( right end ) , Greenleaf ( quarterback ) , Ferbert ( left halfback ) , Caley ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .
= = = Michigan 44 , Lehigh 0 = = =
Michigan 's sixth opponent was the Lehigh Mountain Hawks . The game was played at the Detroit Athletic Club field in Detroit and ended in a sixth straight shutout by a one @-@ sided score of 44 – 0 . Michigan 's scoring came on seven touchdowns and five goals after touchown ( all five kicked by halfback Ferbert ) . During the 60 minutes of play , the ball was in Lehigh 's possession " not more than ten minutes , " and most of that was in the first half . One newspaper account stated that " the Eastern boys were outclassed from start to finish . " The same report gave the following account of the game :
" The team play of the University of Michigan was excellent and the interference as good as has ever been seen in this city . The star of the game was probably Ferbert , though the plays of Villa , Farnham , Henninger , and Caley were at times brilliant . ... The University of Michigan is celebrating the victory here tonight , and pointing proudly to the fact that the best Pennsylvania [ 1896 national champions ] could do against Lehigh was 32 to 0 . "
Michigan 's lineup in the Lehigh game was Thad Farnham ( left end ) , Giovanni " Count " Villa ( left tackle ) , Carr ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Baker ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Hutchinson ( right end ) , Howard Felver ( quarterback ) , Caley ( left halfback ) , Gustave Ferbert ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .
The 1897 Michiganensian noted that the game was Lehigh 's worst defeat of the 1896 season and suggested that the game was important in measuring Michigan 's standing : " This was the only contest with an eastern team and furnished some basis for comparison . ... Comparison with the eastern leaders was necessarily indirect , but it can conservatively be said that at this time Michigan was playing in much the same form as the great eastern quartette . "
= = = Michigan 6 , Minnesota 4 = = =
The first close game of the season game in early November in a conference game against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in Minneapolis . In a game played in 35 minute halves at Athletic Field in Minneapolis , the Wolverines came away with the win by a score of 6 – 4 . Michigan came within ten yards of a touchdown five minutes into the game but did not score . The first half ended in a scoreless tie . When Michigan scored its touchdown in the second half , Michigan fans in the bleachers signaled the event with cowbells . Michigan 's touchdown was scored by fullback duffy and the goal after touchdown was kicked by Ferbert . Minnesota responded with a touchdown ( worth 4 points under 1896 rules ) , but the score came at the far corner of the field where a straight kick for the goal after touchdown ( worth 2 points ) was impossible . Accordingly , Minnesota attempted a double kick , kicking the ball first to the fullback Loomis . Loomis caught the ball so close to the goal posts that his kick for goal " was easily stopped by Michigan players . " The blocked kick was the difference in a close game . Michigan 's lineup was Hutchins ( right end ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Carr ( left guard ) , Villa ( left tackle ) , Farnham ( left end ) , Felver ( quarterback ) , Caley ( right halfback ) , Ferbert ( left halfback ) , and Hogg and Duff at fullback .
= = = Michigan 10 , Oberlin 0 = = =
After the road game against Minnesota , the Wolverines defeated Oberlin College by a score of 10 – 0 in front of a crowd of 1 @,@ 000 spectators in Ann Arbor . An account of the game published in The World of New York reported : " Michigan put a substitute team against Oberlin to @-@ day and won by making two touchdowns in the first half . Oberlin forced the fighting towards the end of the game . "
= = = Michigan 28 , Wittenberg 0 = = =
In the final home game of the 1896 season , Michigan defeated Wittenberg College by a score of 28 – 0 . The game was described by the press as " a fine exhibition of football , " and the Wittenberg team was credited with playing " a sportsmanlike and fast game . " The game was played on " extremely muddy grounds " at Regents Field , but the conditions did not stop Michigan 's interference . Three minutes into the game , Michigan 's right end scored the first touchdown " on a pretty quarterback kick from the thirty yard line . " Michigan reportedly " found no trouble in gaining as she pleased , " scoring 18 points in the first half and 10 more in the second . Halfbacks Coley and Pingree each scored two touchdowns for Michigan . The game was played in halves of 20 and 15 minutes . Michigan 's lineup in the game was Farnham ( left end ) , Villa ( left tackle ) , Carr ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Greenleaf ( right end ) , Drumheller ( quarterback ) , Pingree and Gordon ( left halfback ) , Coley ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .
Through the first nine games , Michigan was undefeated and had outscored its opponents by a combined score of 256 to 4 .
= = = Chicago 7 , Michigan 6 = = =
The final game of the season , to decide the Western Conference championship , matched Michigan against Amos Alonzo Stagg 's Chicago Maroons on Thanksgiving Day . Michigan lost the game , which was described as " one of the most desperately contested games ever played in Chicago , " by a score of 7 – 6 . The game featured " few trick plays , " as both teams relied on " straight , hard football . " Hazen Pingree , Jr . ( whose father , Hazen S. Pingree , had been elected Governor of Michigan three weeks earlier ) was the star of the game for Michigan , as one newspaper reported that Pingree 's effort " in the first half was the ' whole thing , ' the plucky little fellow seldom failing to make the required distance . " Pingree was unable to play in the second half , and Gustave Ferbert , who later became a millionaire in the Klondike Gold Rush , took over in the second half and " was equally effective . "
Chicago 's scoring came on a blocked punt resulting in a safety and a drop kick ( worth five points under the rules at the time ) by Clarence Herschberger from the 45 – yard line . Michigan 's sole touchdown came in the second half when Henninger was pushed into the endzone from the two @-@ yard line , and Ferbert " kicked and easy goal . " Michigan drove the ball to Chicago 's 20 – yard line late in the game , but Chicago recovered a fumble and " Michigan 's chances of victory were dashed . "
The Michiganensian described the defeat as follows :
" There had been every reason to expect a victory from Chicago . Michigan had played strong and consistent foot ball throughout her schedule – Chicago had been erratic and unsteady . But there is certainly no sport more full of surprises than foot @-@ ball , and the Thanksgiving Day contest of ' 96 furnished as sensational a surprise in as exciting a contest as had ever come off on a western gridiron . There was one great difference in the character of the play of the two teams . Michigan was playing her stock game of football , hard and steady , the game she could have been depended on to play at any time . Chicago seemed to have been trained and nerved to this one game . There could have been little doubt what the result of a series of contests would have been . But this one game , Chicago won by good generalship , by the most advantageous use of her greatest resource – a magnificent player in a telling place .
= = = = Indoor football = = = =
The most unusual feature of the Michigan @-@ Chicago game on Thanksgiving Day was that it was played indoors at the Chicago Coliseum and was " the first collegiate game of football played under a roof . " Adding to the novelty , as daylight turned to darkness , the field inside the Coliseum was lit with electric lighting . According to a newspaper account , the field grew dark in the second half , and play was halted for ten minutes to discuss whether play should continue . Play was resumed , and the lights were finally turned on after Michigan scored a touchdown .
The crowd was stated in varying press accounts to be either 15 @,@ 000 , or 20 @,@ 000 . Noting that the game was played in the same building " in which five months ago W. J. Bryan was nominated for the presidency , " the press proclaimed the experiment in indoor football to be a success :
" One thing at least was settled by the game , and that is , that indoor football is literally and figuratively speaking a howling success . The men had no trouble in catching punts , and football was played on its merits , without the handicaps of a wet field or a strong wind . Toward the end of the second half it got very dark , and the spectators were treated to a novelty in the shape of football by electric light . "
Another newspaper described the novelty of indoor football as follows :
" Indoor football is an innovation , but it promises to become a permanency for late games . While the other fields about Chicago were sloppy and the players were floundering about in the seas of mud , the athletes in the Coliseum played on dry surface and secure from the elements . A two @-@ inch layer of tan bark was placed over the hard earth , and there was no inconvenience from dust . None of the punts touched the beams overhead and spectators and players were captivated with the comfortable conditions under which the game was played . Darkness came on at 4 : 00 and the players were scarcely distinguishable for a time , but electric lights soon rendered each play distinct . "
= = Starting lineup = =
Ends
Henry Mortimer Senter ( captain ) , Houghton , Michigan
George Greenleaf , Brazil , Indiana
Thaddeus Loomis Farnham , Rosford , Ohio
Loomis Hutchinson , Ceresco , Michigan
Tackles
Frank Villa , Walla Walla , Washington
Frederick W. Henninger , Barberton , Ohio
Guards
Bert Carr , Cedar Springs , Michigan
John W. F. Bennett , Jackson , Michigan
Fred L. Baker , Hillsdale , Michigan
Center
John Wombacher , Joliet , Illinois
Quarterbacks
Thomas Jesse Drumheller , Walla Walla , Washington
Howard C. Felver , Batavia , Illinois
J. De Forest Richards
Fullbacks
James R. Hogg , Knoxville , Tennessee ( St. Albans Military Academy )
Ignatius M. Duffy , Ann Arbor , Michigan
Halfbacks
Gustave Herman Ferbert , Cleveland , Ohio
William Caley , Boulder , Colorado ( University of Colorado )
Hazen Stuart Pingree , Jr . ,
= = Coaching staff = =
Coach : William Ward
Assistant coach : William McCauley
Trainer : James Robinson , hired in 1896 from his position with the Manhattan Athletic Club
Manager : Ward W. Hughes
Assistant manager : Charles O. Cook
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= Destination Moon ( comics ) =
Destination Moon ( French : Objectif Lune ) is the sixteenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was initially serialised weekly in Belgium 's Tintin magazine from March to September 1950 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1953 . The plot tells of young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock who receive an invitation from Professor Calculus to come to Syldavia , where Calculus is working on a top @-@ secret project in a secure government facility to plan a manned mission to the Moon .
Developed in part through the suggestions of Hergé 's friends Bernard Heuvelmans and Jacques Van Melkebeke , Destination Moon was produced following Hergé 's extensive research into the possibility of human space travel – a feat that had yet to be achieved – with the cartoonist seeking for the work to be as realistic as possible . During the story 's serialisation , Hergé established Studios Hergé , a Brussels @-@ based team of cartoonists to aid him on the project . Hergé concluded the story arc begun in this volume with Explorers on the Moon , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Critics have praised the illustrative detail of the book , but have expressed mixed views of the narrative . The story was adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
Tintin , Snowy , and Captain Haddock travel to join Professor Calculus , who has been commissioned by the Syldavian government to secretly build a spacecraft that will fly to the Moon . Arriving at the Sprodj Atomic Research Centre , they meet the Centre 's managing director , Mr. Baxter , and Calculus ' assistant , the engineer Frank Wolff . After witnessing Calculus test out a new multiplex helmet for the planned mission , they are informed of the plan . Haddock is against the idea , but due to his hearing problems , Calculus instead hears him agreeing . An unmanned sub @-@ scale prototype of the rocket — the " X @-@ FLR6 " — is launched on a circumlunar mission to photograph the far side of the Moon and test Calculus 's nuclear rocket engine . Before the launch , the centre 's radar picks up a plane which drops three paratroopers near to the centre ; the incident coincides with the arrival of the police detectives Thomson and Thompson , who are initially mistaken for the intruders .
Tintin sets out to locate the spies , telling Haddock to follow from the base , as he suspects a spy is in the base . Wolff follows Haddock out of suspicion . When Tintin spots the paratroopers , he is shot before he is able to do anything . At the same time , the power goes out inside the base , and confusion ensues , with neither Haddock nor Wolff explaining clearly what happened .
This incident confirms the Centre 's suspicions that the paratroopers were agents of a foreign power , but Tintin fears that efforts to trace any leaked information would be futile . The rocket is successfully launched and orbits the moon as planned , but on its return it is then intercepted by an unknown foreign power , who have used the leaked information concerning the rocket 's radio control . However , Tintin had anticipated this and asked Calculus to rig a self @-@ destruct mechanism for the rocket . The centre destroys the rocket to prevent it from falling into enemy hands . Tintin reasons that there must have been an inside spy who leaked information to the paratroopers , but no suspects are found . Preparations are made for the manned expedition to the moon , but after an argument with Haddock , in which Haddock accuses Calculus of " acting the goat " , Calculus becomes irate and shows Haddock everything that has been built . However , in doing so , Calculus forgets to look where he is going , falls down a ladder and suffers amnesia .
After failing to bring his memory back through recent events , Haddock opts to use a violent shock to overcome Calculus ' amnesia , though his attempts repeatedly backfire . Eventually , after saying the phrase " acting the goat " , Haddock successfully triggers Calculus ' memories . After regaining his knowledge on the rocket , construction is eventually completed , and the final preparations are made . On the night of the launch , Haddock initially backs out , though after hearing Thomson and Thompson feeling he would be too old to go , he angrily declares he will go . The crew of the rock finally board the rocket , and later lose consciousness as the rocket successfully takes off , due to the sudden g @-@ force . However , despite attempting to make contact , the ground crew are unable to get through , with the book ending with the rocket flying towards the moon , with the ground crew repeatedly calling " Moon Rocket , are you receiving me ? " .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Hergé first devised the idea of sending Tintin on a mission to the Moon while he was working on Prisoners of the Sun ( 1949 ) . His decision to move into the field of science fiction might have been influenced by his friendly rivalry with his colleague Edgar P. Jacobs , who had recently had success with his own science fiction comic , The Secret of the Swordfish ( 1950 – 53 ) . He decided that it would be a two @-@ volume story arc , as had proved successful with his earlier arcs , The Secret of the Unicorn ( 1943 ) and Red Rackham 's Treasure ( 1944 ) , and The Seven Crystal Balls ( 1948 ) and Prisoners of the Sun . He had initially intended on beginning this story after the culmination of Prisoners of the Sun , but both his wife Germaine Remi and his close friend Marcel Dehaye convinced him to proceed with Land of Black Gold ( 1950 ) , a story that he had previously left unfinished , instead .
Seeking advice on the story , Hergé consulted his friend Bernard Heuvelmans , who had authored the non @-@ fiction book L 'Homme parmi les étoiles ( " Man Among the Stars " ) ( 1944 ) . In autumn 1947 , Heuvelmans and Jacques Van Melkebeke developed a script for the story , which they gave to Hergé . This version based Calculus ' lunar expedition in a fictional location , Radio City , in the United States . It featured a return of Professor Decimus Phostle , a character who had previously appeared in The Shooting Star ( 1942 ) , but this time as an antagonist ; Phostle had sold the secrets of the mission in order to attain funds to buy a diamond for the actress Rita Hayworth . In early 1948 , Hergé produced two black @-@ and @-@ white pages of this version of the story before abandoning it . Hergé retained some elements of this original script in his finished version , namely the scenes in which Haddock drinks whiskey in a gravity @-@ free environment and that in which Haddock goes for a space walk and nearly becomes a satellite of Adonis , which appear on pages 5 and 8 of Explorers on the Moon . Nevertheless , Heuvelmans thought his influence on the story to be more significant , stating that " In going through the two books we [ he and Van Melkebeke ] really had the impression that it was what we had originally done at the beginning . In broad outline , that was it . "
Hergé hoped for the story to be as realistic as possible , and sought to eschew fantastical elements . In his own words , it contained " no moonmen , no monsters , no incredible surprises " . To ensure this realism , he collected a wide range of documents about rockets and space travel with which to conduct research . In this he was aided by Heuvelmans , who collected pictures of rockets and atomic research facilities for him . Hergé 's research archive included an article from the American magazine Collier 's which discussed how humanity could reach the moon , as well as books by Pierre Rousseau and Auguste Piccard . A further work that he used was L 'Astronautique ( 1950 ) , a book on putative space travel by the physicist Alexander Ananoff , with whom Hergé began a correspondence in April 1950 . He also visited the Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi 's Center for Atomic Research , striking up a subsequent correspondence with its director , Max Hoyaux . Hergé incorporated much of this technical information into the story , but juxtaposed it with moments of humour to make it more accessible to his young readership .
According to literary critics Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier , possible fictional influences on Hergé 's story include Jules Verne 's 1870 novel Around the Moon and the 1950 American film Destination Moon . Hergé was certainly inspired by a number of photographic stills from the Destination Moon film which had been published . The computer system at the Sprodj space centre was visually based upon the UNIVAC I , the first computer to be created for non @-@ military purposes . Hergé based his moon rocket on the designs of the V @-@ 2 rocket which had been developed by German scientists during World War II . The red @-@ and @-@ white checker pattern on Hergé 's rocket was based upon an illustration of a V @-@ 2 which Hergé had come upon in Leslie Simon 's 1947 book German Research in World War II . He commissioned the construction of a model rocket with detachable parts from his assistant Arthur Van Noeyen . He took the model to Paris where he showed it to Ananoff , asking him if it was realistic representation of what a moon rocket might look like . He and his then used the model from which to accurately sketch when producing the comic .
Hergé also inserted a cameo of Jacobs into the story , using him as the basis for a scientist that appears on page 40 of Destination Moon , a nod to Jacobs ' inclusion of a reference to Hergé in one of his Blake and Mortimer mysteries , The Mystery of the Great Pyramid ( 1954 ) .
= = = Publication = = =
Hergé announced the upcoming story with two consecutive covers of Tintin magazine each depicting the Moon . The story began serialisation in the Belgium 's Tintin magazine from 30 March 1950 , in the French language . It then began serialisation over the border in France , in that country 's edition of the magazine , from 11 May 1950 . During this time , there were changes to how Hergé conducted his work ; on 6 April 1950 , he established Studios Hergé as a public company . The Studios were based in his Avenue Delleur house in Brussels , with Hergé making a newly purchased country house in Céroux @-@ Mousty his and Germaine 's main abode . The Studios would provide both personal support to Hergé and technical support for his ongoing work . He hired Bob de Moor as his primary apprentice at the Studios in March 1951 .
The story was collected together and published by Editions Casterman as Objectif Lune in 1953 . The title had been Hergé 's own choice , having rejected Casterman 's suggestion of Tintin and the Nuclear Rocket . For publication in book form , the story was re @-@ coloured , with various changes being made ; for instance , in the serialised version , the uniforms worn by staff were green , and they are changed to blue for the book volume . A number of scenes were also deleted . Hergé sent a copy to Ananoff , with a message stating that " Your help , your knowledge , has been invaluable , enabling me to get my little characters to the Moon ... and to bring them back safe and sound . " An English @-@ language translation of the book was published in 1959 .
Marking the Apollo 11 Moon landings in 1969 , Hergé produced an illustration in which NASA astronaut arrived on the moon only to be greeted by Tintin carrying a sign welcoming him . That same year , the French magazine Paris Match commissioned him to produce a short comic documenting the Apollo 11 landings .
= = Critical analysis = =
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier believed that the two @-@ part story " belongs " to Calculus , because his " cosmic vision moves the story forward " . They further expressed the opinion that Wolff was a unique character in the Adventures of Tintin , suggesting that he is akin to a character from a John le Carré novel . They felt that the moon adventure was " Hergé at his best ... a triumphant achievement on every level " , awarding both halves of the story five stars out of five . Harry Thompson described the entire moon adventure as " a technical masterpiece " as a result of its " uncannily accurate " depiction of the moon . Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline felt that the two moon adventures " mark a stage in the development of Hergé 's work " . Conversely , Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters was critical of the two @-@ part story arc , stating that they had " neither the liveliness and dynamism " of The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure , " nor the supernatural quality " of The Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès praised the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers on the Moon story arc for its " meticulous attention to scientific facts " , but added that this had also resulted in the story 's " rather pedagogical tone " . He added that in these stories , the main division was " no longer Good and Evil " as it had been in previous Adventures , but " Truth and Error " . Apostolidès opined that despite being a " fussy and somewhat ridiculous character " , through his scientific achievements Calculus grows to the " stature of a giant " in this arc , eclipsing Sir Francis Haddock ( from The Secret of the Unicorn ) as the series ' " founding ancestor " . He goes on to claim that in becoming the " sacred ancestor " , the voyage to the moon becomes " a mystical quest " with science as its guiding religion . Drawing comparisons between this arc and the Prisoners of the Sun story , he drew symbolic links between the scientific centre and the Inca Temple of the Sun , but noted that here Calculus was the " high priest " rather than the sacrificial victim as he had been in the previous story . Moving on to discuss the moon rocket in these stories , Apostolidès described it as a phallic object which penetrated the " virgin territory " of the moon . At the same time , he described the rocket as a " maternal belly " in which the space explorers slept .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy stated that in the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers of the Moon story arc , Calculus " embodies Hergé 's ... own wartime position , spun out into a post @-@ war environment " , representing a genius driven by his work whose activities are coincidental to national and political causes . He suggested that the scene in which Captain Haddock rides a pantomime hobby horse can be contrasted with the many scenes in which Haddock is thrown off of a horse 's back during the Adventures . McCarthy also interpreted the scene in which Calculus cries and tears at his hair in response to the rocket 's capture by the enemy as reflecting Hergé 's own anxieties at having his work published and reinterpreted by his readers . He was also of the opinion that several scenes in Destination Moon reflected recurring themes throughout the series ; he suggested that Haddock 's attempts at smuggling whisky into Syldavia echoed the smuggling of treasure in The Secret of the Unicorn , while the " correction " in which Thompson and Thomson were recognised as not being spies reflected a theme of corrections in the series . He also believed that there was an example of Hergé 's secret vulgarity within Destination Moon , with a diagram above Calculus ' head in one scene resembling buttocks .
= = Adaptation = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based on Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . Destination Moon was the first to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . Destination Moon was the fourteenth story to be adapted and was divided into two twenty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
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= Greg Skrepenak =
Gregory Andrew Skrepenak ( born January 31 , 1970 ) is a former Luzerne County , Pennsylvania commissioner , and retired professional American football offensive lineman in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Los Angeles / Oakland Raiders and the Carolina Panthers . Skrepenak 's professional football career spanned the final three years the Raiders played in Los Angeles , California from 1992 @-@ 1994 and the first year they returned to Oakland , California in 1995 . Then , it continued with consecutive seasons ( 1996 and 1997 ) with the Carolina Panthers in which he did not miss a start .
Prior to his NFL experience Skrepenak had starred in the Big Ten football conference for the University of Michigan Wolverines as a two @-@ time All @-@ American , team captain , and four @-@ year starter from 1988 @-@ 1991 . Skrepenak played for four consecutive Big Ten Conference Champions , appeared in three Rose Bowls and won a Gator Bowl MVP . Previously he had been a scholar athlete at G. A. R. Memorial Junior Senior High School where he earned 12 varsity letters in football , basketball and baseball .
Skrepenak , who was born and raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , United States , was elected in 2003 to serve as the Luzerne County Commissioner , a position he held from January 2004 @.@ until December , 2009 . On December 17 , 2009 , Skrepenak signed a plea agreement to a charge of corruption . He would resign later that day . On August 6 , 2010 , Greg Skrepenak was sentenced to 24 months in federal prison .
= = Early life = =
Skrepenak was born and raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania , where he attended G. A. R. Memorial Junior Senior High School . In high school , he was an honor student who excelled in three sports : American football , basketball and baseball . In football , he earned All @-@ scholastic , All @-@ state , and All @-@ American recognition . In basketball , where he scored 1600 points , he was a four @-@ time All @-@ scholastic athlete and two @-@ time conference Most Valuable Player as well as a McDonald 's All @-@ American team nominee . In baseball , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ scholastic awardee and an MVP . As a result of his accomplishments he was inducted into the Luzerne County Sports Hall of Fame and the Pennsylvania State Sports Hall of Fame .
= = College = =
At the University of Michigan , Skrepenak was a two @-@ time All @-@ American , a two @-@ time " All Big Ten " selection and a two @-@ time " Big Ten Lineman of the Year " . Skrepenak , who wore # 75 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1987 to 1991 , was also recognized as a " Samaritan All @-@ American " for his community service . Number 75 for the Wolverines is described as the biggest player to have ever played for Michigan at 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) , 322 pounds ( 146 kg ) . As a four @-@ year starter , he set the school offensive line record with 48 starts . In addition , he helped his running backs set new standards in yards / carry for Michigan football . During his time at Michigan , Skrepenak played for four consecutive Big Ten Conference Champions , appeared in three Rose Bowls and won a Gator Bowl MVP . His teams under Bo Schembechler and Gary Moeller compiled a 29 – 2 – 1 Big Ten record and each of his teams ended the season ranked in the top 10 .
In the January 1991 Gator Bowl , Skrepenak and the entire offensive line , which included Dean Dingman , were named Most Valuable Player . Skrepenak helped the Michigan offense gain a record 715 yards of total offense in a 35 @-@ 3 victory over Mississippi in the Gator Bowl . This marked the culmination of a productive season in which the offensive line helped Jon Vaughn set the Michigan football record for career yards per carry ( minimum 200 attempts ) . Behind true senior Dingman and redshirt junior Skrepenak , redshirt sophomore Vaughn concluded his Michigan career that season with 1 @,@ 473 yards on 226 rushes for a career 6 @.@ 3 yards per attempt average , including 1 @,@ 416 yards on 216 rushes during the 1990 season .
In 1991 , he was a consensus All @-@ American . As the senior offensive captain , he was a finalist for both the Outland Trophy and the Lombardi Award . He was the January 1 , 1991 Gator Bowl co @-@ MVP and a Senior Bowl participant . The following season , he was a member of the offensive line that protected Elvis Grbac while he was connecting with Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard . Also during that season , Tyrone Wheatley set the Michigan freshman yards per carry ( minimum 50 attempts ) with 555 yards on 86 carries for a 6 @.@ 4 yards per attempt average behind Skrepenak after Dingman graduated . In 2000 , he was voted onto the Wolverine ’ s " All @-@ Century Team " .
= = Professional football = =
Skrepenak was drafted in the 1992 NFL Draft with the 32nd overall pick in the second round by the Los Angeles Raiders . He stayed with the franchise for four seasons , which included a relocation from Los Angeles to Oakland . During training camp of the 1993 NFL season he was moving into the starting lineup due to an injury to Gerald Perry . However , he was injured during his second preseason start when Charles Haley bull rushed him , which caused him to get tangled up between Jeff Hostetler and the turf and which resulted in a dislocated ankle joint that kept him out for the season . Skrepenak did not become a starter for the Raiders until midway through the 1994 NFL season when he replaced Bruce Wilkerson . He started the final 10 games of 1994 and the first 14 games of the 1995 NFL season before being benched toward the end of the season in favor of Robert Jenkins . Skrepenak was deactivated from the roster for the final two games of the season right before his contract expired . Officially , the deactivation was due to a combination of a rib injury and the flu , but some say it may have also been partially due to vocal play selection criticism . However , head coach Mike White and assistant coach Joe Bugel said the benching was merely a function of the full strength depth chart upon the return of Gerald Perry . Skrepenak was a vocal detractor on the organization after leaving the Raiders . Among the opinions Skrepenak expressed during his time with the Raiders was that the Raiders overemphasized slogans related to team history while setting penalty records as a team .
The Panthers signed him in the offseason after the 1995 NFL season as an unrestricted free agent . While he was a Panther , he and Blake Brockermeyer were considered the key components of the offensive line . He was the only Panther to start every game of both the 1996 and 1997 National Football League seasons . He was named to the Panther ’ s All @-@ Time Team . He was released from the team due to salary cap considerations . Skrepenak was rumored to be sought after by the Miami Dolphins in 1998 . However , he spent the year out of football . Skrepenak was in the Oakland Raiders ' 1999 summer camp , but during his comeback attempt he had to leave the Raiders camp in on August 10 , 1999 to attend to personal business back in Wilkes @-@ Barre for several days . Skrepenak was a supporter of the new Jon Gruden coaching administration upon his return to the Raiders despite the fact that he was not as highly paid or expected to start . Skrepenak was a popular offensive lineman with the Raiders and his spot was held in his absence with a special tribute by Steve Wisniewski and Mo Collins who both wore his jersey number in his absence . Skrepenak returned to camp for a few weeks . On August 31 , he was released .
During Skrepenak 's career , he played for only one playoff team . Coach , Dom Capers ' 1996 Carolina Panthers went 12 – 4 during the 1996 NFL season but lost to the Green Bay Packers in the National Football Conference Championship game of the 1996 @-@ 97 NFL playoffs . That season Skrepenak helped protect the team 's only Pro Bowler , quarterback Kerry Collins . Although Skrepenak missed the 1993 NFL season due to injury , Art Shell 's 1993 Los Angeles Raiders went 10 – 6 and advanced one round in the 1993 @-@ 94 NFL playoffs before losing to the Buffalo Bills . Skrepenak played offensive tackle during his years with the Raiders and offensive guard during his years with the Panthers . He has regularly played on the right side of the line .
= = Political career = =
He returned to Luzerne County , where his ancestry traces back several generations , upon retirement from football to raise his three children . He has since become involved in numerous community and political organizations and activities . He was elected to the Luzerne County Board of Commissioners in 2003 and has served as its chairman since January 6 , 2004 . His agenda is fighting drug abuse and crime . However , he has also earmarked $ 2 @.@ 5 million in Community Development funding for the Wilkes @-@ Barre Movies 14 Complex . He is also involved in bringing a new airport to Hazleton , Pennsylvania . Skrepenak co @-@ ordinates his efforts on emotional wellness with Wyoming County .
Skrepenak ran for re @-@ election in the November 6 , 2007 election . Skrepenak ran jointly with County Controller Maryanne Petrilla and the pair easily outdistanced the competition in the primary to gain the two nominations . Among the controversies during campaign were the use of debit cards for the commissioners based on a new policy effective September 2005 . Skrepenak 's expenses totalled $ 22 @,@ 139 @.@ 93 , including $ 3 @,@ 743 for gang @-@ related training in Los Angeles , California , $ 524 @.@ 08 for an accounting standards manual and $ 798 @.@ 63 for communications equipment .
Skrepenak had considered running for Don Sherwood 's United States House of Representatives seat that was contested and won by Chris Carney in the 2006 elections . He had admitted aspirations for higher office . However , after meetings with the National Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee he decided not to run for the United States Congress in the heavily Republican district . Congressman Sherwood 's defeat allowed the district to go Democratic for the first time since 1961 . Skrepenak was re @-@ elected by finishing among the top three in a contest for county commissioner . The unofficial results were Maryanne Petrilla ( D ) 33 @,@ 827 votes ( 29 % ) , Greg Skrepenak ( D / Inc . ) 32 @,@ 281 ( 27 % ) , Stephen Urban ( R / Inc . ) 27 @,@ 835 ( 24 % ) and Bill Jones ( R ) 24 @,@ 071 ( 20 % ) .
It was announced December 17 , 2009 , that Skrepenak was resigning his position with the Luzerne County Commissioners effective immediately . The resignation comes one day after a source said Skrepenak signed a plea agreement with the U.S. Attorney ’ s office as part of the ongoing pay to play corruption investigation being conducted in Luzerne County . Skrepenak stated that he resigned due to a clash between longtime cultural practices in county politics and the higher standards of public office and the law . Specifically , he was formally charged with accepting a $ 5 @,@ 000 bribe from a developer for voting to accept the developer 's project into a government funded tax incentive program .
On August 6 , 2010 , Greg Skrepenak was sentenced to 24 months in federal prison . United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines called for a 33- to 41 @-@ month sentence . However , his sentence was reduced for cooperation with an ongoing federal corruption probe . He was not granted leniency for charitable works , medical complications or devotion to family .
On June 12 , 2012 , Greg Skrepenak was released from a halfway house . He had been transferred from federal prison in Beckley , West Virginia to the halfway house in early April . Since then , he moved back and forth from the halfway house to his parent 's home in Dallas , Pennsylvania , with his parents and his children . He has been released from the custody of the U.S. Bureau of Prisons and is serving three years probation . Since his release , he has worked as a legal researcher for a Kingston law firm .
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= Weinreb ketone synthesis =
The Weinreb – Nahm ketone synthesis is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry to make carbon – carbon bonds . It was discovered in 1981 by Steven M. Weinreb and Steven Nahm as a method to synthesize ketones . The original reaction involved two subsequent nucleophilic acyl substitutions : the conversion of an acid chloride into an N , O @-@ dimethylhydroxyamide , known as a Weinreb – Nahm amide , and subsequent treatment of this species with an organometallic reagent such as a Grignard reagent or organolithium reagent . Nahm and Weinreb also reported the synthesis of aldehydes by reduction of the amide with an excess of lithium aluminum hydride ( see amide reduction ) .
The major advantage of this method over addition of organometallic reagents to more typical acyl compounds is that it avoids the common problem of over @-@ addition . For these latter reactions , two equivalents of the incoming group add to form an alcohol rather than a ketone or aldehyde . This occurs even if the equivalents of nucleophile are closely controlled .
The Weinreb – Nahm amide has since been adopted into regular use by organic chemists as a dependable method for the synthesis of ketones . These functional groups are present in a large number of natural products and can be reliably reacted to form new carbon – carbon bonds or converted into other functional groups . This method has been used in a number of syntheses , including Macrosphelides A and B , Amphidinolide J , and Spirofungins A and B. ( See Scope below )
= = Mechanism = =
Weinreb and Nahm originally proposed the following reaction mechanism to explain the selectivity shown in reactions of the Weinreb – Nahm amide . Their suggestion was that the tetrahedral intermediate ( A below ) formed as a result of nucleophilic acyl substitution by the organometallic reagent is stabilized by chelation from the methoxy group as shown . This intermediate is stable only at low temperatures , requiring a low @-@ temperature quench .
This chelation is in contrast to the mechanism for formation of the over @-@ addition product wherein collapse of the tetrahedral intermediate allows a second addition . The mechanistic conjecture on the part of Weinreb was immediately accepted by the academic community , but it was not until 2006 that it was confirmed by spectroscopic and kinetic analyses .
= = Preparation = =
In addition to the original procedure shown above ( which may have compatibility issues for sensitive substrates ) , Weinreb amides can be synthesized from a variety of acyl compounds . The vast majority of these procedures utilize the commercially available salt N , O @-@ dimethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride [ MeO ( Me ) NH • HCl ] , which is typically easier to handle than the free amine .
Treatment of an ester or lactone with AlMe3 or AlMe2Cl affords the corresponding Weinreb amide in good yields . Alternatively , non @-@ nucleophilic Grignard reagents such as isopropyl magnesium chloride can be used to activate the amine before addition of the ester .
A variety of peptide coupling reagents can also be used to prepare Weinreb – Nahm amides from carboxylic acids . Various carbodiimide- , hydroxybenzotriazole- , and triphenylphosphine @-@ based couplings have been reported specifically for this purpose .
Finally , an aminocarbonylation reaction reported by Stephen Buchwald allows conversion of aryl halides directly into aryl Weinreb – Nahm amides .
= = Scope = =
The standard conditions for the Weinreb – Nahm ketone synthesis are known to tolerate a wide variety of functional groups elsewhere in the molecule , including alpha @-@ halogen substitution , N @-@ protected amino acids , α @-@ β unsaturation , silyl ethers , various lactams and lactones , sulfonates , sulfinates , and phosphonate esters . A wide variety of nucleophiles can be used in conjunction with the amide . Lithiates and Grignard reagents are most commonly employed ; examples involving aliphatic , vinyl , aryl , and alkynyl carbon nucleophiles have been reported . However , with highly basic or sterically hindered nucleophiles , elimination of the methoxide moiety to release formaldehyde can occur as a significant side reaction .
Nonetheless , the Weinreb – Nahm amide figures prominently into many syntheses , serving as an important coupling partner for various fragments . Shown below are key steps involving Weinreb amides in the synthesis of several natural products , including members of the immunosuppressant family of Macrosphelides , and the antibiotic family of Spirofungins .
= = Variations = =
Reaction of Weinreb – Nahm amides with Wittig reagents has been performed to avoid the sometimes harsh conditions required for addition of hydride reagents or organometallic compounds . This yields an N @-@ methyl @-@ N @-@ methoxy @-@ enamine that converts to the corresponding ketone or aldehyde upon hydrolytic workup .
Additionally , a one @-@ pot magnesium – halogen exchange with subsequent arylation has been developed , showcasing the stability of the Weinreb – Nahm amide and providing an operationally simple method for the synthesis of aryl ketones .
More unusual reagents with multiple Weinreb – Nahm amide functional groups have been synthesized , serving as CO2 and α @-@ diketone synthons .
Finally , Stephen G. Davies of Oxford has designed a chiral auxiliary that combines the functionality of the Weinreb amide with that of the Myers ’ pseudoephedrine auxiliary , allowing diastereoselective enolate alkylation followed by facile cleavage to the corresponding enantioenriched aldehyde or ketone .
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= Through a Glass Darkly ( Koen novel ) =
Through a Glass Darkly is a 1986 historical fiction novel by American author Karleen Koen . A former magazine editor , Koen had never before written a novel and spent four years developing it while living as a housewife with her family . She sold the hardcover rights to Random House for $ 350 @,@ 000 , which was then a record for a new novelist . The circumstances behind the work 's publication led to Koen becoming the subject of much media attention in the late 1980s .
Koen 's story is set in the midst of the turbulent politics of the English and French aristocracy as well as the South Sea Bubble . The novel begins in 1715 England , when teenage protagonist Barbara Alderley becomes married to the handsome , older Earl Devane . Though in love with him , Barbara soon discovers a secret from his past that threatens to tear their relationship apart . Barbara must learn to navigate courtly intrigues and financial crises while experiencing personal tragedies .
Released on July 12 , 1986 by Random House , Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list . Critical reception was largely mixed , with reviewers focusing on the novel 's prose and attention to historical detail . It has been translated into more than ten languages .
= = Background = =
Through a Glass Darkly was the first novel written by American author Karleen Koen . She had previously been a reporter for the Houston Business Journal and also served as the editor of Houston Home & Garden before leaving to spend more time with her husband and two children . Desiring to once again have her name in print , Koen was persuaded by her husband to write a novel to help keep busy in between housework . At first sceptical at writing fiction , Koen began mentioning the idea at parties to avoid appearing as a mere housewife . " When you 're at home raising children your status is – well , there is no status , " Koen later recalled . Commencing the novel in 1980 , she wrote three long drafts during a four @-@ year period ; the final manuscript ultimately contained 1 @,@ 300 double @-@ spaced pages .
Koen found inspiration from her interest in the eighteenth century . Rather than use the " virginity @-@ sexual tango " trope of most historical romance novels , Koen sought to circumvent the " rules " of the genre and concentrate on characterization . Koen engaged in an intensive research period on the eighteenth century using approximately 300 books , which she often obtained from a local university 's library . She also traveled briefly to England and France . Koen found writing the novel to be " a very intense thing " and became very attached to her characters , even the villains . She sought to " hook the readers emotionally and make them care . I guess it 's soap opera ( but ) there 's a kind of sigh you heave when you finish a certain type of book . I wanted that sigh . " She added :
" The heroine is Barbara , and she is 15 when the novel opens and 21 years old at the end . It 's the story of her coming of age , her family , marriage and relationships . I left the exact place where all this happens rather nebulous , but the locale is southern England . It 's all created . The period was fascinating to research – I went through about 300 books . It was the age of Defoe , Pope , Swift and Addison and I lost myself in their time . "
To gain a publisher for her novel , she sent the manuscript to several literary agents she had discovered in Writer 's Digest . Though two turned her down , one agent , Jean Naggar , encouraged Koen to continue finishing the book , believing it to be " the launching of a major author . " Naggar mailed the manuscript to five major publishing companies , with Random House purchasing it for a " whopping " $ 350 @,@ 000 in August 1985 , which was at the time a record for a new novelist . Random House 's publisher , Howard Kaminsky , wanted to publish " Oprah Winfrey @-@ type books " in the " how @-@ to @-@ be @-@ the @-@ best @-@ you @-@ can @-@ be " genre . He reasoned , " I 'm sure that 's up there with the highest prices ever paid for the hardcover rights alone to a first novel . But then it is not that big a price when you consider that it 's such a deserving novel – and it will undoubtedly go for a very large amount in paperback later . "
= = Plot summary = =
In 1715 England , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Barbara Alderley lives with her widowed grandmother , the Duchess of Tamworth , and her younger siblings on their family 's country Tamworth estate . Barbara 's indebted and calculating mother , Lady Diana Alderley , arrives to inform them of Barbara 's possible marriage to Roger Montgeoffry , Earl Devane , a former aide to the deceased Duke . Barbara is pleased with the news , believing herself to be in love with the handsome , wealthy , and popular earl despite his age ( nearly thirty years her senior ) .
Roger in turn desires Barbara 's dowry of land in London , which he hopes to develop into an opulent estate and townhouses ; she and her mother travel to London to make arrangements for the betrothal . Due to Diana 's greed , negotiations almost fall apart until the intervention of the Duchess results in Barbara and Roger finally marrying . The couple travel to Paris . While learning to navigate through Parisian society , Barbara remains in love with her husband but Roger has no thoughts at all for his young bride other than mere fondness .
Roger however has a secret : he once had a long @-@ term affair with the French aristocrat the Prince of Soissons , with whom he begins anew soon after arriving in Paris . Through the actions of courtiers jealous of Barbara 's devotion to Roger , pamphlets eventually spread about the affair . The young and naive Barbara is among the last to hear of it and breaks down in tears and shock .
The plot jumps forward to 1720 England , where the country is unknowingly approaching the South Sea Bubble economic collapse ; Barbara has separated from her husband and conducted affairs with several men in Paris and London . Still in love with Roger despite his affair , she is unhappy and becomes horrified when she discovers that one of her jealous lovers , Lord Charles Russel , killed Jemmy , a young nobleman who she accidentally slept with for one night .
Later , the bursting of the Bubble causes chaos and violence through London . Barbara 's only surviving sibling , Harry , is in severe debt and commits suicide ; many citizens blame Lord Devane , who helped run the South Sea Company , for the country 's finances . At the Tamworth estate , Barbara and Roger attempt a reconciliation but he collapses from an apoplexy soon after while evaluating his own precarious financial situation in London .
With the help of several of Roger 's friends , Barbara attempts to oversee his finances and takes him out of the still @-@ chaotic city . At Tamworth , Roger gradually becomes worse and dies . Stricken and in mourning , Barbara holds a public memorial in London for her deceased husband , despite being warned that it would draw attention to his estate during the Parliamentary inquest into the financial crisis . To give her peace , the Duchess develops a scheme of spiriting her granddaughter out of the country by having her visit their plantation in Virginia . The novel ends with Barbara and several servants leaving on a ship intended for the colonies .
= = = Main characters = = =
Barbara Alderley , Lady Devane – young , naive , devoted , and beautiful , she is the protagonist of the novel and Roger 's wife
Roger Montgeoffry , Earl Devane – wealthy , charismatic , handsome , and popular , he is Barbara 's husband and Philippe 's lover
Alice Saylor , Duchess of Tamsworth – the venerable dowager of the Saylor family , she is Diana 's mother and Barbara 's grandmother
Tony Saylor , Duke of Tamworth – young , shy , and kind , he is in love with his cousin Barbara
Lady Diana Alderley – calculating , cold , promiscuous , and greedy , she is mother to Barbara and Harry
Philippe , Prince of Soissons – a sophisticated and dangerous French aristocrat , he is Roger 's lover
Harry Alderley – impetuous and handsome , he is Barbara 's brother
Jane Ashford , later Cromwell – kind and serious , she is a childhood friend of Barbara 's and Harry 's early love
= = Themes = =
Through a Glass Darkly is a long , complex narrative that features more than 60 characters and at least 15 subplots . The title of the novel comes from the Bible verse 1 Corinthians 13 . Before she began writing it , Koen envisioned creating a story about the relationship between a young woman and an older man , a plot element riddled with emotional tension that required much planning and foresight . Koen also sought to create a story that featured issues relevant to contemporary women , such as the non @-@ existence of " legal rights . If a husband wanted to beat his wife to death he could do it , and if her parents didn 't care ... No birth control . If you had any normal sexual urges you were pregnant all the time , and half the women died in childbirth . Life was very violent and short and I just wanted to show how it was without getting up on a soapbox , so someone reading it would say , ' I 'm glad I live now . ' " According to Koen , another consistent theme throughout Through a Glass Darkly is how vital family is to our well @-@ being , family in this case being a loose term that does not necessarily equate to being biologically @-@ related . She was also interested in writing how people are connected to each other .
= = Release and reception = =
Through a Glass Darkly was first released in hardcover on July 12 , 1986 . Koen became known as the " unknown author who hit the jackpot " of a book that " everyone 's been talking about . " Media stories angled the book 's backstory as a " phenomenon , " particularly because it was purchased by a prestigious publisher at such a high price for a first time novelist . After its release , Koen began a seven @-@ city promotional tour that ended in late September 1986 . Avon Books paid more than twice Random House 's price to gain paperback rights , and released the novel on paperback on September 1 , 1987 . Even before it was officially published , Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list , where it stayed for more than a year . It was translated into ten languages the year it was published . In February 1987 , People reported that " plans to turn the book into a big @-@ budget miniseries are also underway . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
After reviewing the hype surrounding the book , author Barbara Schaaf concluded that its prose " was first @-@ rate – literate and with flashes of timeless insight . Anyone who can take a 15 @-@ year @-@ old heroine ... and dash off over 700 pages just to get her to age 21 without losing the reader , has real talent . " Schaaf added that Koen has a " fine eye for art , architecture , fashion , manners and relays the everything , " though she critiqued the author for sometimes inserting too many historical details . She believed that the book especially shone in depicting the South Sea Bubble ; " most historical writers , " Schaaf opined , " neglect the economic background of their periods , regardless of its importance , and [ Koen 's ] grasp of a complicated situation makes it as fascinating as her descriptions of the sexual behavior of the upper and lower classes . "
People 's Harriet Shapiro declared that Through a Glass Darkly " is no run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill bodice buster , trade slang for bosom @-@ heaving historical romances . Koen paints a lavish , carefully researched portrait of a young woman 's turbulent coming of age in 18th @-@ century England and France . " Texas Monthly asserted that characterization was Koen 's greatest asset , though the story 's " sense of pacing falters " after two hundred pages . Another criticism was directed at the numerous monologues , which felt like having " commercials stacked toward the end of a late @-@ night TV movie . " Texas Monthly ended their review on a positive note , giving praise to the historical detail as well as the story 's ending , which the reviewer believed would encourage readers to buy the forthcoming sequel .
In a guest column for The New York Times , author Erica Jong called Koen 's work a " well @-@ researched , workmanlike historical novel [ ... ] of the sort that Kathleen Winsor or Thomas B. Costain used to write : packed with details of costume , architecture and cuisine , populated by rudimentary paper @-@ doll characters , full of undigested Continued on next page gobbets of research . " Jong shone a negative light on some of the characters , which she believed " seem [ ed ] derived from movies , mini @-@ series and other books " and overshadowed by the attention to historical detail . She concluded that " Koen 's publishers [ did ] her a disservice in presenting this rather routine and turgid book as though it were Gone With the Wind , " when it was actually a " well @-@ researched bodice @-@ ripper . "
Phoebe @-@ Lou Adams of The Atlantic gave a negative review and criticized the " enormous , gigantic , monstrous historical novel " for containing a protagonist who " suffers and suffers and suffers while innumerable soap @-@ opera types minuet about in fancy dress . The period is early eighteenth century , and the research underlying the gallimaufry is thorough beyond the call of duty . " In response to some bad attention her novel received , which she said " hurt like hell , " Koen noted the persistence of " in @-@ fighting " within the publishing industry . " Who reviews your book has a lot to do with the kind of review you get , " she said .
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= United Airlines Flight 736 =
United Airlines Flight 736 was a daily U.S. transcontinental passenger flight operated by United Airlines that crashed on April 21 , 1958 , following a mid @-@ air collision . The aircraft assigned to Flight 736 , a Douglas DC @-@ 7 airliner carrying 47 persons , was flying at cruise altitude above Clark County , Nevada , en route to a stopover at Denver , Colorado , when it was struck by a United States Air Force fighter jet crewed by two pilots . The collision occurred at 8 : 30 a.m. in clear weather within a major commercial airway ; both aircraft fell out of control from 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) and crashed into unpopulated desert terrain southwest of Las Vegas , Nevada .
There were no survivors from either aircraft , and with 49 fatalities it remains the deadliest crash in the history of the Las Vegas Valley . Among the victims were a group of military personnel and civilian contractors involved with sensitive Department of Defense weapons systems . The loss of the group triggered new rules prohibiting similar groups engaged in critical projects from flying aboard the same aircraft .
The official investigation stated that cockpit visibility limitations played a role in the accident , but also faulted military and civilian aviation authorities for not taking measures to reduce well @-@ known collision risks that had existed for over a year within the confines of airways , despite numerous complaints from airline crews . The loss of United Airlines Flight 736 — part of a series of 1950s mid @-@ air collisions in American skies , including the well @-@ publicized 1956 Grand Canyon mid @-@ air collision — helped usher in widespread improvements in air traffic control within the United States .
= = Events leading to the accident = =
Flight 736 , a four @-@ engined DC @-@ 7 propliner with registration N6328C , departed Los Angeles International Airport at 7 : 37 a.m. on a flight to New York City with stops in Denver , Kansas City and Washington , D.C. On board were 42 passengers and five crew members ; Captain Duane M. Ward , 44 , First Officer Arlin Edward Sommers , 36 , Flight Engineer Charles E. Woods , 43 , and Stewardesses Pauline Mary Murray , 22 , and Yvonne Marie Peterson , 27 . Of the passengers on the flight , seven were military personnel and 35 were civilians .
Soon after takeoff the airliner was directed into airway " Victor 8 , " on a route that took it east over Ontario , California , and then northeast toward Las Vegas . The crew flew the DC @-@ 7 under instrument flight rules , controlled by Civil Aeronautics Authority ( CAA ) ground stations , at an authorized altitude of 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) toward the first stopover at Denver .
Approximately 8 minutes after the DC @-@ 7 had departed Los Angeles , a U.S. Air Force F @-@ 100F @-@ 5 @-@ NA Super Sabre jet fighter , serial number 56 @-@ 3755 , took off from Nellis Air Force Base near Las Vegas at 7 : 45 a.m. on a training flight with two pilots on board . In the front seat of the tandem cockpit was flight instructor and safety pilot Capt. Thomas N. Coryell , 29 , and behind him sat his student , 1st Lt. Gerald D. Moran , 24 , who as part of his training would spend the flight under a hood that blocked his view outside the aircraft , but allowed him to see his instrument panel .
The instructor had two @-@ way microphone communication with the student , and his duties were to instruct the student in the rear seat , monitor his performance and maintain a lookout for other aircraft . The F @-@ 100F had dual pilot control and the instructor could take over flying the jet at any time . The training flight involved a descent and approach to Nellis Air Force Base under simulated instrument meteorological conditions from an altitude of 28 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) . The descent was to be a " teardrop pattern , " with the Las Vegas commercial radio station KRAM as the navigational fix , a process that was referred to as the " KRAM procedure . " The prescribed descent angle for the KRAM procedure was about five degrees .
At 8 : 14 a.m. the United Airlines crew radioed a routine position report over the Mojave Desert to notify controllers that they expected to arrive over McCarran Field near Las Vegas at 8 : 31 a.m. Air Force pilot Moran radioed the control tower at Nellis Air Force Base at 8 : 28 a.m. to report that he would now begin a procedural " jet penetration " descent to 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) . As the fighter descended , the airliner was approaching Las Vegas air space at about 312 knots ( 578 km / h ) on a heading of 23 degrees , flying straight @-@ and @-@ level within the confines of its designated airway . The CAA stations controlling the airliner were unaware of the fighter jet ; the Air Force controllers at Nellis Air Force Base directing the jet were unaware of the airliner .
= = Collision = =
At 8 : 30 a.m. , despite clear skies with excellent visibility of about 35 miles ( 56 km ) , the flight paths of the two aircraft intersected about 9 miles ( 14 km ) southwest of Las Vegas . The converging aircraft collided nearly head @-@ on at an altitude of 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) at an estimated closure speed of 665 knots ( 1 @,@ 232 km / h ) .
The descending Air Force jet , flying at 444 knots ( 822 km / h ) , had clipped the airliner 's right wing with its own right wing , immediately sending both aircraft out of control . At the moment of collision the F @-@ 100F was in a 90 degree bank to the left at a down angle of about 17 degrees . One eyewitness to the collision stated that about two seconds before the collision the wings of the F @-@ 100F " dipped " ; another eyewitness said the fighter " swooped down " just before the impact . The witness descriptions and the extreme 90 degree bank of the fighter jet — far more than the 30 degrees outlined in the KRAM procedure — suggest an unsuccessful " last second " evasive action on the part of the Air Force crew .
Moments after the two planes collided , the only mayday distress call radioed by the United Airlines crew was heard at 8 : 30 a.m. plus 20 seconds . The crippled airliner — now missing about eight feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) of its right wing — trailed black smoke and flames as it spiraled earthward , and crashed into a then @-@ empty patch of desert outside the town of Arden . The nearly vertical impact and subsequent explosion instantly killed everyone on board .
The fighter jet — its right wing and right tailplane torn away by the collision — left a trail of fragments as it arced downward , and crashed west of the small community of Sloan into a hilly area of uninhabited desert , several miles south of the DC @-@ 7 crash site . At least one of the Air Force pilots was still in the jet when it hit the ground , but contemporary news reports differ on whether the other pilot managed an unsuccessful ejection at too low an altitude to survive , or stayed with the jet all the way to the ground . Witnesses reported seeing a parachute drifting away from the falling F @-@ 100F , leading to the hope that a pilot had ejected , but when the parachute was located it was determined to be a drag parachute that is meant to be deployed on landing to help slow the fighter down .
= = Investigations = =
At the request of the local sheriff and United Airlines , the Federal Bureau of Investigation sent fingerprint experts to help identify the human remains . The Los Angeles Times reported that among the dead were 13 civilian and military managers , engineers and technicians assigned to the American ballistic missile program . Articles in the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal commemorating the 40th and 50th anniversaries of the crash reported that the FBI search went beyond fingerprint matching for identification ; the agents were also looking for any surviving sensitive papers relating to national security that the group of military contractors had carried on board in handcuffed briefcases . The same reports also said the crash prompted the military and defense industry to adopt rules to keep groups of technical people involved in the same critical project from traveling together on the same plane .
The Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB ) conducted an investigation and published a report on the accident . The CAB ruled out the weather conditions and the airworthiness of the two planes as factors in the collision . The report stated the probable cause was the high rate of near head @-@ on closure , and that at high altitude , there were human and cockpit limitations involved . Analysis of the approach angles concluded that a metal frame support on the F @-@ 100 's windscreen " interfered seriously " with detection of the DC @-@ 7 , and a supporting pillar on the DC @-@ 7 's windshield may have hindered sighting the fighter . The CAB accident report also cited a failure of Nellis Air Force Base and the CAA to take measures to reduce a known collision exposure ; training exercises were allowed to be conducted for more than a year prior to the collision within the confines of several airways , even after numerous near @-@ misses with military jets had been reported by airline crews .
= = Legacy = =
The mid @-@ air collision involving United Airlines Flight 736 , and a second one a month later over Maryland , between a Capital Airlines airliner and another military jet , accelerated efforts in the United States to change the way air space was allocated to commercial and military flights .
On April 22 , 1958 , the day after United Airlines Flight 736 crashed , the CAB proposed an experiment in which it would set aside part of the air space from which would be barred all aircraft lacking specific clearance to enter it . All aircraft operating in the designated space would have to be equipped for instrument flight operations . According to the CAB there had been 159 mid @-@ air collisions in the years 1947 @-@ 1957 , and that in 1957 alone there were 971 near @-@ misses . The increased speed of aircraft and higher air traffic density made it harder to give pilots enough time to spot each other during flights . Therefore , the CAB said , " it is essential that positive control be extended to altitudes at 35 @,@ 000 feet and on additional routes as rapidly as practical . " At the time such control only existed between 17 @,@ 000 and 22 @,@ 000 feet on certain transcontinental airways .
In the wake of the two airliners lost in the April and May 1958 collisions , investigators from a House of Representatives committee — concerned about the lack of coordination between civil and military air traffic controllers — imposed a 60 @-@ day deadline on the CAB and the Air Force to establish new control procedures . The committee also said that eventually a single civil agency should be given the power to regulate all air space for all types of aircraft . Furthermore , the committee stated that military flying should be controlled in the vicinity of airways not only in instrument weather , but also in visual conditions .
Four months after 49 lives were lost in the worst aviation accident in the history of the Las Vegas region , the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 was signed into law . The act dissolved the CAA and created the Federal Aviation Agency ( FAA , later renamed Federal Aviation Administration ) . The FAA was given unprecedented and total authority over the control of American air space , including military activity , and as procedures and ATC facilities were modernized , airborne collisions gradually decreased in frequency . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal in a 50th anniversary article stated that the act " specifically referenced the crash of United 736 in ordering the creation of the FAA . "
The supersonic F @-@ 100 left a legacy of many crashes over its years of service ; nearly 25 percent were lost to accidents . In particular , 1958 was the most costly , with 47 F @-@ 100 pilots killed and 116 of the fighters destroyed , a loss rate averaging almost one every three days .
= = Legal aftermath = =
Following the collision at least 31 lawsuits seeking damages were brought against United Airlines , the U.S. Government , or both . On September 24 , 1958 , United Airlines filed for damages — based on the Federal Tort Claims Act — against the United States in the U.S. District Court for the District of Delaware . The airline alleged that the United States through its agents in the United States Air Force negligently operated the F @-@ 100F , and sought damages of US $ 3 @,@ 576 @,@ 698 . The court found neither crew was negligent for a failure to see and avoid each other , but held the United States was liable because of other negligence . The case was settled on December 17 , 1962 , with the United States agreeing to pay the airline $ 1 @.@ 45 million .
In another case , on January 8 , 1964 surviving relatives of two of the United Airlines crew were awarded a total of $ 343 @,@ 200 from the government , with U.S. District Court Judge Hatfield Chilson finding the Air Force pilots did not use " ordinary care " in operation of the fighter jet , and should have yielded the right of way to the DC @-@ 7 airliner . Chilson also criticized the Air Force for not coordinating instrument training flights with civilian instrument flight rules traffic , and for failing to schedule flights to minimize traffic congestion . The government appealed , and the relatives cross @-@ appealed to have their damage awards increased , but the earlier 1964 judgment was affirmed on September 30 , 1965 .
= = Nearby crash sites = =
The region where the United Airlines and Air Force aircraft went down has experienced other major airliner crashes . In 1942 movie star Carole Lombard and 21 others died in the mountainside crash of TWA Flight 3 , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) WSW of where United Airlines Flight 736 crashed . In 1964 , 29 people lost their lives when Bonanza Air Lines Flight 114 flew into a hilltop 5 miles ( 8 km ) SW of the United Airlines impact site ; the F @-@ 100F crashed in the same area of desert hills as the Bonanza Air Lines flight .
At both of those rugged , mountainous sites , salvage efforts removed the more accessible and valuable wreckage , but scattered and sometimes substantial portions of the TWA DC @-@ 3 and Bonanza Air Lines Fairchild F @-@ 27 were left behind , including the DC @-@ 3 's radial engines . The United Airlines DC @-@ 7 crash site , however , has been cleared of all but the smallest artifacts , and is threatened by development . In 1958 the site was at least a mile from the nearest paved road ; today the spot where the DC @-@ 7 hit is adjacent to a developed neighborhood near the intersection of Decatur Boulevard and Cactus Avenue . Five decades after the events of April 21 , 1958 , a small makeshift marker placed in the sandy soil was the only sign of the loss of United Airlines Flight 736 , but preliminary efforts were in motion to encourage public officials to build a permanent memorial to those who died .
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= A Rugrats Passover =
" A Rugrats Passover " is the 26th and final episode of the third season of the American animated television series Rugrats , and its 65th episode overall . It was broadcast originally on April 13 , 1995 , on the cable network Nickelodeon . The plot follows series regulars Grandpa Boris and the babies as they become trapped in the attic on Passover ; to pass the time , Boris tells the Jewish story of the Exodus . During the episode the babies themselves reenact the story , with young Tommy portraying Moses , while his cousin Angelica represents the Pharaoh of Egypt .
" A Rugrats Passover " was directed by Jim Duffy , Steve Socki , and Jeff McGrath from the script by Peter Gaffney , Paul Germain , Rachel Lipman , and Jonathon Greenberg . The episode was conceived in 1992 when Germain responded to a Nickelodeon request for a Rugrats Hanukkah special by creating a Passover episode instead . The episode scored a 3 @.@ 1 Nielsen Rating , making it " the highest @-@ rated show in Nickelodeon 's history " , and received overwhelmingly positive reviews , including from Jewish community publications . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award , an Annie Award , and a CableACE Award . The episode also , however , attracted controversy , when the Anti @-@ Defamation League compared the artistic design of the older characters to anti @-@ Semitic drawings from a 1930s Nazi newspaper .
The episode made Rugrats one of the first animated series to focus on a Jewish holiday ; its success precipitated the creation of another special , " A Rugrats Chanukah " , which also attracted critical acclaim . A novelization of the episode was in 2007 exhibited at the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma .
= = Plot = =
As the episode opens , Tommy and Angelica Pickles and their parents are all gathering to celebrate the Passover Seder at the home of Didi 's parents , Boris and Minka Kropotkin . Stu and Angelica , who are Christians , both find Passover boring , and Angelica argues why she and her parents should be at the Seder at all , especially considering Boris and Minka aren 't actually related to them . Following an argument with Minka about what type of wine glasses they should use ( either the glasses that belonged to Minka 's mother or the ones that belonged Boris 's father ) , Boris storms out of the room ; the two families arrive and Didi tries comforting her mom , who believes Boris has run away .
Boris hasn 't reappeared by the time Tommy 's best friend , Chuckie Finster , and his dad , Chas , arrive to join the celebration ; when the Seder begins the children set off to search for Boris , eventually finding him in the attic . Boris explains that he felt bad about yelling at Minka , and had gone to look for her mother 's wine glasses , but had become locked inside when the door closed behind him ( it can 't open from the inside ) . Angelica tests the door , and inadvertently locks them all in again .
Angelica tells Boris that he 's not really missing anything and admits that she thinks that Passover 's a dumb holiday . Boris tries convincing her otherwise by telling her and the boys the story of the Exodus , hoping to improve their understanding of Passover . As he talks , Angelica imagines herself as the Pharaoh of Egypt , who commands the Hebrew slaves ( imagined as the other Rugrats and numerous other babies ) to throw their newborn sons into the Nile River . One Hebrew slave defies the order by putting her infant son , Moses ( imagined as Tommy ) , into a basket and setting the basket afloat in the river . The basket and baby are discovered by Pharaoh Angelica , who shows Moses around her palace and kingdom , and decides to make him her partner .
As Boris explains that the Pharaoh was unaware that Moses himself was actually a Hebrew , Chas enters the attic , looking for the children , and becomes locked in with the rest of them . He sits down and listens as Boris continues : years later , Boris says , Moses stood up for an abused Hebrew slave ( imagined as Chuckie ) , and was outed as a Hebrew . The episode then pictures Tommy as Moses fleeing to the desert , where he becomes a shepherd and forgets about Egypt and the Pharaoh , until the voice of God calls to him from a burning bush , telling him that he must free the Hebrews from slavery .
Moses confronts the Pharaoh and demands that she free the Hebrews . She refuses and calls her guards ( one of which was a kid named Justin , voiced by Dana Hill ) to drag Moses away ; he curses her kingdom with terrible plagues until she relents and allows Moses to leave with the enslaved Hebrews . As Boris is explaining how the Pharaoh deceives the Hebrews and prevents them from leaving , Angelica 's parents , Drew and Charlotte , arrive and become locked in with the others .
Boris resumes the story : the Pharaoh 's treachery causes Moses to curse her once more , this time with a plague on the first @-@ born children of Egypt . The Pharaoh , after realizing that she herself is a first @-@ born child , bargains with Moses : he can leave if he calls off this final plague . Moses hesitates at first , but complies and leads the Hebrews out of Egypt . The Pharaoh reneges on her promise ( after realizing that she set all of the Hebrews free ) and leads out her remaining army to pursue them .
Minka , Didi , and Stu arrive in the attic to find the group enthralled by the end of Boris 's story : Moses , cornered , calls down the power of God to part the Red Sea , which the Hebrews are approaching . They pass through the parted waters , which then crash back together behind them , engulfing the Pharaoh and her army . With the story over , the family gets up to finish the Seder only to see the wind blow the door shut , locking them all in . Boris decides to tell them another story , which Chas at first thinks is about how the Hebrews wandered the desert for forty years before finally reaching the Promised Land . Boris explains that it 's actually a story about how an aunt and uncle of his met at Passover Seder back in Russia .
= = Production = =
The episode 's inception in 1992 followed a call by Nickelodeon to the Rugrats production staff , pitching the concept of a special episode concerning Hanukkah . The crew agreed instead that a Passover special would offer both " historical interest " and a " funny idea " , so Paul Germain — founder of the series along with Arlene Klasky and Gábor Csupó — pitched the Passover idea instead .
Germain wrote the episode 's teleplay along with regular Rugrats writers Peter Gaffney , Rachel Lipman , and Jonathon Greenberg ; animators Jim Duffy , Steve Socki , and Jeff McGrath directed . While scripting the episode , now entitled " A Rugrats Passover " , the writers were forced to audit many elements of the portrayal of plagues , particularly the third one , so it could still be accessible to children and not too frightening . Though regular episodes of the series comprised two separate 15 @-@ minute segments , " A Rugrats Passover " had a special 22 @-@ minute format , occupying the show 's full network Rugrats slot . The show 's voice actors each spent from fifteen minutes to four hours in recording sessions for the episode .
The episode was released in several formats , including DVD and VHS . It appears on the video release A Rugrats Passover alongside features " Toys in the Attic " , and Rugrats Passover : Let My Babies Go . It is also featured on the Grandpa 's Favorite Stories video release , with the episode " The Return of Reptar " . Publisher Simon Spotlight in 1998 released a novelization of the episode , entitled Let My Babies Go ! A Passover Story , written by Sarah Wilson and featuring illustrations by Barry Goldberg .
= = Themes = =
" A Rugrats Passover " was unusual among contemporary animations in its attention to Jewish ritual and tradition . Its portrayal of a Seder dinner received press attention as a rare occurrence in children 's programming . The episode was also unusual among animated series for discussing the characters ' religious affiliations . It revealed Boris , Minka , and Didi 's adherence to Judaism , and compared it with the relative non @-@ participation of Stu and his side of the family . Chuckie and his father Chas , meanwhile , were portrayed as nonreligious yet inclusive and enthused to learn about the customs of the holiday .
As with other Rugrats episodes , " A Rugrats Passover " depicts " the innocence of a baby 's perception of the world , " emphasizing the young characters ' intense , childlike reactions to their environment . Creator Klasky identified the episode 's depiction of the Pickles family as " very loving , [ and ] basically functional " as strikingly different from the prevailing trends in contemporary television programming . Another episode element common to the series ' broader themes is its treatment of Angelica 's mother Charlotte , who throughout the episode is glued to her cell phone and engrossed in her business life , despite her professed desire to provide Angelica with an educational environment .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and accolades = = =
" A Rugrats Passover " was broadcast originally on April 13 , 1995 , on the Nickelodeon television network . Repeats of the episode began that Saturday at 7 : 30 p.m. The episode received a Nielsen Rating of 3 @.@ 1 , with a 4 @.@ 8 % share of American audiences , making it the sixth most @-@ watched American telecast of the week . According to Catherine Mullally , Vice President and Executive Producer of Nickelodeon Video and Audio Works in 1995 , the episode was the highest Nielsen @-@ rated telecast in the network 's history . The episode was supplanted as Nickelodeon 's most @-@ viewed in 1998 , by another Rugrats special , when the Thanksgiving episode " The Turkey Who Came to Dinner " attracted 3 @.@ 7 million viewers ( 9 @.@ 4 / 28 ) .
The episode was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category " Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , " but lost to The Simpsons episode " Lisa 's Wedding . " At the 23rd Annual Annie Awards it was nominated in the category " Best Individual Achievement for Writing in the Field of Animation , " but was beaten by the episode " The Tick vs. Arthur ’ s Bank Account " from Fox Kids ' animated series The Tick . In 1995 , it was Rugrats ' submission for a CableACE award ; it received a nomination but did not win .
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Rugrats Passover " received overwhelmingly positive reviews and became one of the series ' all @-@ time most popular episodes . John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times wrote of the episode " If not a first , it certainly is a rarity . " Ted Cox of the Daily Herald called the episode " among the best holiday TV specials ever produced . " Other reviews applauded the episode for its treatment of Judaism . Authors Michael Atkinson and Laurel Shifrin , in their book Flickipedia : Perfect Films for Every Occasion , Holiday , Mood , Ordeal , and Whim praised the episode for celebrating " secular Jewishness in the wisest and most entertaining fashion [ ... ] Grandpa Boris regales the kids with an epic , albeit abridged , Exodus story . " Halley Blair of Forward Magazine called the episode " a comical primer for getting children ready for upcoming seders , " and Danny Goldberg , in How The Left Lost Teen Spirit , noted that the episode 's Jewish themes were " clearly expressed in the context of a mass appeal entertainment . " Among many positive reviews of the episode in Jewish community publications , Gila Wertheimer of the Chicago Jewish Star said that the episode " will entertain children of all ages – and their parents . "
Joel Keller of AOL 's TV Squad , on the other hand , noted in 2006 that he " always hated " the episode , and resented that it was one of only two Passover @-@ themed television episodes he could find via a Google search .
= = = Anti @-@ Defamation League controversy = = =
" A Rugrats Passover , " along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and Minka , attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) claimed that the two characters resembled anti @-@ Semitic drawings that had appeared in a 1930s Nazi newspaper . Nickelodeon 's then @-@ president Albie Hecht , himself Jewish , professed himself dumbfounded by the criticism , calling it absurd . The controversy resurfaced in 1998 when the ADL criticized another appearance of Boris , this time reciting the Mourner 's Kaddish in a Rugrats comic strip published in newspapers during the Jewish New Year . Unlike Hecht , Nickelodeon 's new president Herb Scannell agreed with the criticism and apologized , promising never to run the character or the strip again .
= = = Legacy = = =
" A Rugrats Passover " has been Nickelodeon 's first programming about Passover ; the network went on to broadcast other episodes concerning Jewish traditions , including " Harold 's Bar Mitzvah " , a 1997 episode of Hey Arnold ! in which the character Harold Berman prepares for his Bar Mitzvah . Rugrats in turn produced a second Jewish holiday episode , this time to meet the network executives ' original Hanukkah special pitch . David N. Weiss , who had recently converted to Judaism , and J. David Stem collaborated to write the script , and Raymie Muzquiz directed . The episode , entitled " A Rugrats Chanukah , " was originally broadcast on December 4 , 1996 , on Nickelodeon and received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 in the Kids 2 – 11 demographic . Like " A Rugrats Passover , " it was critically acclaimed and became among the most popular episodes in the series .
In 2007 the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma opened an exhibition of Biblical images in art and pop culture , including a poster for Let My Babies Go ! A Passover Story , the picture book based on " A Rugrats Passover " . Other items highlighted in the gallery included a promotional poster for The Simpsons episode " Simpsons Bible Stories " and a vintage Superman comic book entitled " The Red @-@ Headed Beatle of 1000 B.C. , " featuring the character Jimmy Olsen 's time @-@ traveling adventures in the Biblical age .
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= A1 ( Croatia ) =
The A1 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A1 ) is the longest motorway in Croatia , spanning 478 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 297 @.@ 6 mi ) . As it connects Zagreb , the nation 's capital , to Split , the second largest city in the country and the largest city in Dalmatia , the motorway represents a major north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and a significant part of the Adriatic – Ionian motorway . Apart from Zagreb and Split , the A1 motorway runs near a number of major Croatian cities , provides access to several national parks or nature parks , world heritage sites , and numerous resorts , especially along the Adriatic Coast . National significance of the motorway is reflected through its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction separated by a central reservation . All intersections of the A1 motorway are grade separated . As the route traverses rugged mountainous and coastal terrain the route , completed as of 2014 , required 376 bridges , viaducts , tunnels and other similar structures , including the two longest tunnels in Croatia and two bridges comprising spans of 200 meters ( 660 ft ) or more . There are 33 exits and 26 rest areas operating along the route . As the motorway is tolled using a ticket system and vehicle classification in Croatia , each exit includes a toll plaza .
A motorway connecting Zagreb and Split was designed in the early 1970s , and a public loan was started in order to collect sufficient funds for its construction . However , due to political upheavals in Croatia and Yugoslavia , construction of the motorway was labeled a " nationalist project " and cancelled in 1971 . After Croatian independence and conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence , efforts to build the motorway were renewed and construction started in 2000 . The Zagreb – Split section of the route was completed by 2005 , while the first sections between Split and Dubrovnik opened in 2007 and 2008 . Construction costs incurred so far amount to 3 billion euro . The figure includes funds approved for construction work scheduled to be completed by 2013 . On the other hand , the amount does not include construction cost related to Lučko – Bosiljevo 2 section since that section was funded as a part of Rijeka – Zagreb motorway construction project through Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , current operator of that sector . The remainder of the A1 motorway , i.e. , the sections south of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange are operated by Hrvatske autoceste .
= = Route description = =
The A1 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A1 ) is a major north – south motorway in Croatia connecting the capital of the country , Zagreb , to the Dalmatia region , where the motorway follows a route parallel to the Adriatic coast . As a part of the road network of Croatia , it is a part of two major European routes : E65 Prague – Bratislava – Zagreb – Rijeka – Split – Dubrovnik and E71 Budapest – Zagreb – Karlovac – Bihać – Knin – Split . The motorway is of major importance to Croatia in terms of development of the economy ; especially tourism and as a transit transport route . This has been reflected by an accelerated development of regions connected by the A1 motorway . A part of the motorway is considered to be a segment of the Adriatic – Ionian motorway . Once the latter motorway 's connecting sections are completed , those currently spanned just by the Adriatic Highway as well as two @-@ lane roads in Slovenia and Albania , the A1 will achieve genuine importance as a transit route .
The motorway spans 478 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 297 @.@ 6 mi ) between Zagreb ( Lučko interchange ) and Ploče via Split . The route serves Karlovac via D1 , Gospić via D534 , Zadar via D8 and D424 and Šibenik via D533 . The A1 motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction along its entire length . The sole exception is Drežnik Viaduct where there are no emergency lanes . Almost all of the existing interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except for Lučko which is a stack . There are numerous rest areas along the motorway , providing various types of services ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to petrol stations , restaurants and hotels . As of June 2011 , the motorway has 33 interchanges , providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The ultimate southern terminus of the motorway has been established to be near Dubrovnik .
Between the Lučko and Bosiljevo 2 interchanges , the motorway follows Pan @-@ European corridor Vb , and is concurrent with the Zagreb – Rijeka motorway . The Bosiljevo 2 interchange distributes southbound A1 traffic flowing to Rijeka ( via the A6 motorway ) and to Split . That 67 @-@ kilometer ( 42 mi ) segment of the motorway is operated by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , while the remainder of the motorway is operated by Hrvatske autoceste .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signaling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts , bridges , tunnels , and in zones where fog and strong wind are known to occur . The system comprises variable traffic signs used to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorway users .
The motorway route offers a scenic ride through rolling hills in the north , mountains in its central section , and along the Dalmatian coast in the south . It serves , either directly or via connecting roads , a large number of tourist destinations such as Bjelolasica in Gorski Kotar , a large number of Adriatic Sea resorts and several national parks and nature parks . In Lika region those are Plitvice Lakes National Park , Sjeverni Velebit National Park and Velebit Nature Park , while in Dalmatia the motorway serves Paklenica National Park , Telašćica Nature Park , Kornati National Park , Lake Vrana Nature Park , Krka National Park and Biokovo Nature Park . The route also provides links to a number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as Plitvice Lakes , Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik , Palace of Diocletian in Split and the Historic City of Trogir .
= = Toll = =
The A1 is a tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed toll system integrated with the A6 motorway as the two connect in the Bosiljevo 2 interchange forming a unified toll system . Since the two motorways are operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste , the toll collection system is operated jointly by the two operators . The toll is payable in Croatian kuna , euro , major credit and debit cards and using a number of prepaid toll collection systems including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operators and ENC – an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) which is shared at all motorways in Croatia ( except the A2 motorway ) and provides drivers use of dedicated lanes at toll plazas and a discounted toll rates .
The A1 north of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange is operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb and the rest is operated by Hrvatske autoceste , both of which do not report company toll income separately for individual sections of various motorways . Total toll income reported by Hrvatske autoceste in the first half of 2011 was 508 @.@ 1 million kuna ( 68 @.@ 3 million euro ) . This figure pertains to the A1 south of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange as well as all other motorways operated by Hrvatske autoceste , however the A1 represents the longest and the busiest tolled motorway operated by Hrvatske autoceste . Toll income reported by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb for the first half of 2011 is 191 @.@ 2 million kuna ( 25 @.@ 7 million euro ) . This sum includes company toll income generated elsewhere , however the A1 section represents the busiest section of the motorway network operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb . Hrvatske autoceste and Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb reported increase of the toll income compared to the same period of 2010 of 2 @.@ 2 % and 5 % respectively .
Summertime and holiday queues at Lučko mainline toll plaza can be considerable , a problem exacerbated during the usual weekend @-@ to @-@ weekend tourist stays at Croatia 's coastal resorts . In 2009 , in an effort to address the problem , the Lučko mainline toll plaza was expanded to 15 lanes , and a single additional 10 @-@ lane toll plaza was built for fast cashless toll collection in Demerje . The Demerje toll plaza is available via a motorway fork accessible to the A1 northbound traffic only . Vehicles using the Demerje toll plaza default to the original motorway route immediately past the Lučko mainline toll plaza , between the plaza and the Lučko interchange . The faster cashless system has raised the nominal capacity of the road from 2 @,@ 325 to 11 @,@ 150 vehicles per hour . As of September 2010 northbound traffic leaving the A1 must exit the tolled motorway network , since the existing Zagreb bypass is not tolled , and then re @-@ enter another tolled motorway . There are plans for the outer Zagreb bypass to be integrated into the tolled motorway network , as the ultimate solution for congestion at the Lučko toll plaza . That will require construction of a Horvati interchange south of the Lučko toll plaza .
= = Notable structures = =
A total of 361 structures — bridges , viaducts , flyovers , underpasses , passages , wildlife crossings , and tunnels — have been completed on the motorway between Zagreb and Vrgorac , and calculations indicate that 18 @.@ 6 percent of the route between Zagreb and Split is located on those structures , which is a quite considerable percentage for a motorway of this length . By June 2011 , Ravča @-@ Vrgorac section was completed , including 5 viaducts , 4 flyovers and a tunnel . An additional 15 structures were built on the section between Vrgorac and Ploče , plus on the connection towards the city of Ploče .
As of September 2010 , there are seven tunnels longer than 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) on the A1 motorway . The most notable among them are : the 5 @,@ 821 @-@ meter ( 19 @,@ 098 ft ) long Mala Kapela Tunnel between Ogulin and Brinje interchanges and the 5 @,@ 768 @-@ meter ( 18 @,@ 924 ft ) long Sveti Rok Tunnel between Sveti Rok and Maslenica interchanges . The Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels are not only the largest individual structures on the motorway but they are also the longest tunnels in Croatia . The tunnels separate three distinct climate zones . The Mala Kapela Tunnel spans between the continental climate of the central Croatia and the mountain climate of Lika , while the Sveti Rok Tunnel provides a link between Lika and its mountain climate and the Mediterranean climate of Dalmatia . Both of the Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels were originally operated as single tubes when they were opened for traffic in June 2005 until 30 May 2009 , when the second tubes of the tunnels were also opened for traffic . The other major tunnels on the A1 motorway are the 2 @,@ 300 @-@ meter ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) long Plasina Tunnel situated between Otočac and Perušić interchanges and the Grič , Brinje and Konjsko tunnels . Lengths of the latter three range between 1 @,@ 122 meters ( 3 @,@ 681 ft ) and 1 @,@ 542 meters ( 5 @,@ 059 ft ) .
The longest bridge on the A1 motorway is the 546 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 791 ft ) long Dobra Bridge spanning Dobra River near Karlovac . Other major bridges on the route are the Gacka , Miljanica and Dabar bridges — all of them longer than 350 meters ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) . Also , the A1 motorway comprises the 391 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 283 ft ) long Krka Bridge spanning Krka River and the 378 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 240 ft ) long Maslenica Bridge spanning Novsko Ždrilo strait . The Maslenica and Krka bridges are particularly significant as their respective main spans are 200 m ( 660 ft ) long .
The A1 motorway also comprises the longest viaduct in Croatia — the 2 @,@ 485 @-@ meter ( 8 @,@ 153 ft ) long Drežnik Viaduct situated between the Karlovac and Bosiljevo 1 interchanges . As of 2011 , there are six other major viaducts completed on the route – — the Kotezi Viaduct , Modruš 1 , Mokro Polje , Jezerane , Srijane and Rašćane viaducts . All of them are longer than 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) . The latest significant viaduct completed as a part of the Ravča – Vrgorac section is the Kotezi Viaduct at 1 @,@ 214 meters ( 3 @,@ 983 ft ) , surpassing all other viaducts on the route except for Drežnik Viaduct . A dispute concerning naming of the Viaduct arose one month prior to opening of the motorway section containing the viaduct , and the structure was even signposted as the Bunina Viaduct for several days in June 2011 , only to revert the name to the Kotezi Viaduct days prior to the opening ceremony itself . The section also comprises the 402 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 319 ft ) long Šare Viaduct .
= = History = =
The A1 motorway was originally designed in the early 1970s , albeit along a different route than the present Zagreb – Split motorway route . After suppression of the Croatian Spring and removal of the Croatian leadership that proposed and adopted the construction plan in 1971 , all the work related to the Zagreb – Split motorway was cancelled . The plans were revived in the 1990s and new designs were developed to include a motorway section built between Zagreb and Karlovac into the design so that the section could be shared between Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka motorways . Construction work started in 2000 and the motorway reached Split by 2005 and was extended towards Dubrovnik later on . Both in the 1970s and in the 2000s , construction of the Zagreb – Split motorway was perceived to symbolize rebuilding of national unity .
= = = King Tomislav Motorway = = =
The Zagreb – Split motorway , now the A1 motorway , was one of three routes defined by the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Croatia on 5 March 1971 , as priority transport routes of Croatia that were to be developed as motorways . Originally the motorway was designed to follow a route from Zagreb to Bihać ( Bosnia and Herzegovina ) and then to Split via Knin . The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina issued its approval for the route in Bihać region in the same year . Construction of the motorway was initiated by a fundraising effort — a public loan . The funds gathered initially through the public loan were sufficient for construction of 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) of the motorway .
The 39 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometer ( 24 @.@ 4 mi ) long Zagreb – Karlovac section of the Zagreb – Rijeka motorway , now part of the A1 motorway , was completed in 1972 . Further construction of motorways from Zagreb to Rijeka and Split was suspended for the next 28 years following a political decision of the Croatian leadership , newly installed during Yugoslav suppression of the Croatian Spring , to " stop megalomaniac projects " . It is considered that the true reason for the cancellation of the works was that the motorway was considered to be a " nationalist " project . The conclusion is supported by the fact the road was spontaneously nicknamed King Tomislav Motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta kralja Tomislava ) by citizens investing their money through the public loan after the first king of medieval Croatia , who united Croatia as a single kingdom in 925 . The funds raised through the public loan were left unused for several months , then spent for construction of a road between Vrlika and Strmica via Knin , now a part of the D1 and D30 state roads . However , the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe recognized the route as the southernmost part of the Pyhrn route , giving it the designation E59 in 1975 . Subsequent reorganizations of the E @-@ road network , including the latest one in 2008 , transferred the route south of Zagreb to the E71 .
= = = Dalmatina = = =
In the beginning of the 1990s , construction of the motorway was further postponed because of onset of the Croatian War of Independence . The decade saw renewed discussion regarding construction of the motorway , including renewed considerations of its route . Soon , the originally devised route running through Bihać was set aside and two new routes were considered : One of them was a modified version of the original route , bypassing Bihać and running through the Plitvice Lakes region while the other was a completely new route further to the west via Gospić and Zadar , which was eventually accepted for construction . Both of the alternative routes proposed that the Zagreb – Karlovac motorway already completed in 1972 were to be used as the northernmost section of the Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka motorways .
The A1 was a showpiece project of the Croatian government and a symbol of uniting the country . The first attempt to revive the project in earnest occurred in the 1993 , when the excavation of Sveti Rok Tunnel began . More comprehensive construction work started in 2000 and Karlovac – Vukova Gorica section opened in 2001 . In 2003 , the first sections not shared with the Zagreb – Rijeka Motorway were completed : Vukova Gorica – Mala Kapela Tunnel and Gornja Ploča – Zadar 2 . Mala Kapela Tunnel – Gornja Ploča , Zadar 2 – Pirovac and Vrpolje – Dugopolje sections opened in 2004 and Mala Kapela Tunnel itself and Pirovac – Vrpolje section opened in 2005 marking completion of the Zagreb – Split Motorway , culminating with the grand opening of Karlovac — Split section on 26 June 2005 .
Construction of the motorway along its Split – Dubrovnik sector started once the motorway sectors north of Split were complete , and the section between Split ( Dugopolje interchange ) and Šestanovac interchange opened on 27 June 2007 . The last sections to be completed to date are Šestanovac – Ravča , opened on 22 December 2008 , Ravča @-@ Vrgorac section opened on 30 June 2011 , and the Vrgorac @-@ Ploče section opened on 20 December 2013 . In the 2000s , as the motorway construction works were gradually progressing further south , the motorway earned its unofficial , yet widely used name — Dalmatina in Croatian press because it connected Zagreb to Dalmatia . In 2010 , Donja Zdenčina interchange was opened between Lučko and Jastrebarsko interchanges , and in June 2012 , Novigrad interchange opened bringing number of motorway exits to 33 .
= = = Construction cost = = =
The construction cost for the Bosiljevo 2 – Split ( Dugopolje interchange ) sector of the motorway was originally estimated by the government in 2001 and presented as " 3 x 3 x 3 " – that is , the 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) of the motorway was to be completed in 3 years at a cost of 3 billion marks ( approximately 12 @.@ 65 billion kuna at the time , or approximately 1 @.@ 533 billion euros ) . In 2010 , Hrvatske autoceste reported that the average cost of one kilometer of Bosiljevo – Split motorway was 7 @.@ 1 million euro , which would mean that the total construction cost was 2 @.@ 21 billion euro for that 311 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 193 @.@ 5 mi ) long segment .
Construction cost incurred on the Dugopolje – Ploče sector of the motorway between 2005 and 2008 was reported at 4 @.@ 1 billion kuna and additional 1 @.@ 8 billion kuna of construction expenses are planned until the end of 2012 ( representing approximately 560 and 245 million euro , respectively ) . The latter figure includes construction of the D425 state road but it does not include full completion of the Vrgorac – Ploče section .
= = Further construction = =
The ultimate southern terminus of the motorway has been established by applicable legislation to be near Dubrovnik .
Hrvatske autoceste , operator of the southern portion of the A1 motorway , ordered the execution of design documents , feasibility and environmental impact studies for the Doli – Osojnik section of the motorway that is to be constructed near Dubrovnik . Commencement of construction on this section was originally scheduled for 2009 . Despite an official ceremony to mark commencement of construction works on the section , no works beyond design and study development has been carried out there .
The A1 motorway route between Ploče and Doli has not been fixed yet , as several options exist , all of which require the route to cross either an embayment of the Adriatic Sea or a part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , the former being associated with construction of the 2 @,@ 404 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 887 ft ) Pelješac Bridge spanning the coast south of Ploče and the Pelješac peninsula . Construction of the bridge began in May 2008 , after a contract to build it was signed in 2007 . The bridge was originally scheduled to be completed by May 2012 . Pelješac Bridge construction contract worth 1 @.@ 94 billion Kuna ( c . 259 million Euro ) was cancelled due to lack of funds on 17 May 2012 . Construction of the bridge was significantly delayed and effectively suspended since 2010 for the same reason .
In April 2012 , government of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina proposed a route in Neum area to connect Ploče and Dubrovnik while serving Neum . That entails branching of the A1 motorway 7 to 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 0 miles ) west of Neum , one branch serving Neum and the other Dubrovnik . As of July 2012 no decision was reached on the section of the A1 route .
A planned modification of the existing route encompasses construction of a directional T interchange to replace the existing trumpet interchange built at Žuta Lokva . The new interchange is only planned to be built once the A7 motorway is completed between the Rijeka bypass and Žuta Lokva . It shall not feature any weaving , similar to the Bosiljevo 2 interchange of the A1 and A6 motorways .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted by means of traffic census at toll stations and reported by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste — the operators of the northern and the southern portions of the motorway respectively . The reported traffic volume gradually decreases as the motorway chainage increases and as it passes by various major destinations and the interchanges that serve them . Thus the greatest volume of traffic is registered between Jastrebarsko and Lučko interchanges – with 31 @,@ 432 vehicle annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , and 53 @,@ 216 vehicle average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) figures as that is the section closest to Zagreb . South of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange the first major drop of traffic volume is recorded on the A1 motorway , due to traffic transferring to the A6 motorway towards Rijeka . Other similar changes of the traffic volume are registered near Zadar ( served by Zadar 1 and Zadar 2 interchanges ) and Split served by Dugopolje interchange . Substantial variations observed between AADT and ASDT are normally attributed to the fact that the motorway carries significant tourist traffic . The seasonal increase traffic volume variations ranges 69 % on the busiest , Lučko – Jastrebarsko section to 160 % as measured on Sveti Rok – Maslenica section . The summer season traffic volume increase on the motorway is 120 % .
= = Rest areas = =
As of September 2010 , there are 26 rest areas operating along the A1 motorway , and additional rest areas are planned along the existing sections of the route and those sections under construction . Legislation provides for four types of rest areas designated as types A through D — A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or a motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodation ; D @-@ type rest areas offer parking spaces only , possibly some picnicking tables and benches and restrooms . Even though the rest areas found along the A1 motorway generally follow this ranking system , there are considerable variations as some of them offer extra services . The most notable example is Krka rest area — even though it has no filling station , there is , for instance , a restaurant available . The filling stations regularly have small convenience stores and some of them offer LPG fuel . EuroTest , an international association of 18 European automobile clubs spearheaded by German automobile club ADAC , surveyed three of the A1 motorway rest areas in 2009 : Krka , Lički Osik and Modruš ( in case of the latter , both eastbound and westbound ) . All of the rest areas were rated as very good , especially in terms of facilities offered .
The primary motorway operators Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) and Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb lease the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . As of September 2010 , there are five such rest area operators on the A1 motorway : INA , OMV , Tifon , Petrol and Crobenz . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations ; Tifon and Petrol operated rest areas have restaurants or hotels operated by Marché , a Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts subsidiary . All of the A1 motorway rest areas , except Stupnik and Jezerane , are accessible to both directions of the motorway traffic . The rest areas normally operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .
= = Exit list = =
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= Typhoon Sarah ( 1959 ) =
Typhoon Sarah was among the deadliest typhoons on record in the western Pacific Ocean , killing around 2 @,@ 000 people . It formed during the peak of the busy 1959 Pacific typhoon season near Guam , and moved generally to the west @-@ northwest . Continued observations from the Hurricane Hunters allowed the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to track Sarah from its origins to its peak as a powerful typhoon , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) on September 15 . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon struck the small Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima , where the barometric pressure fell to 908 @.@ 1 mbar ( 26 @.@ 82 inHg ) , the second @-@ lowest on record for the country . Sarah turned to the north and northeast , weakening from its peak intensity . On September 17 , the typhoon made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , the nation 's strongest landfall at the time and only to be surpassed by Typhoon Maemi in 2003 . Sarah later became extratropical over the Japanese island of Hokkaido on September 18 , although the remnants persisted for several days , crossing into the Russian Far East and later dissipating on September 23 .
On Miyako @-@ jima , Sarah damaged all of the crops and destroyed about 6 @,@ 000 houses . Damage was estimated at $ 2 million , and there were seven deaths . The damage prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the " Miyakojima Typhoon " . However , the effects were worst in South Korea , and Sarah was described as the worst typhoon there in 50 years . Wind gusts there peaked at 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , the highest at the time in the country . High winds and waves heavily damaged the port of Busan . Nationwide , the storm destroyed over 14 @,@ 000 homes and left 782 @,@ 126 people homeless , causing over $ 100 million in damage . At least 669 people were killed in South Korea , and an additional 1 @,@ 200 fishermen were lost offshore the country . In Japan , widespread flooding killed 47 people and destroyed 16 @,@ 632 homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 10 , a tropical disturbance persisted within the intertropical convergence zone near Pohnpei . When the Hurricane Hunters approached the system at 02 : 00 UTC on September 11 , they observed a center with several small circulations about 130 km ( 80 mi ) east of Guam . On that basis , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Sarah . The depression passed near or just north of Guam , as tracked by radar . By late on September 11 , the Hurricane Hunters were reporting flight @-@ level winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Early on September 12 , the JTWC upgraded Sarah to a tropical storm after the circulation became better defined . The storm exhibited a parabolic trajectory that was slightly to the west of the typical September storm . It moved westward initially but gradually curved to the northwest . A Hurricane Hunters flight at 14 : 15 UTC on September 12 observed a 65 km ( 40 mi ) eye diameter , prompting the JTWC to upgrade Sarah further to typhoon status , with maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
After becoming a typhoon , Sarah quickly intensified ; at 08 : 00 UTC on September 13 , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Subsequent analysis estimated that the typhoon attained these winds at 00 : 00 UTC that day . At 12 : 00 UTC on September 14 , the JTWC estimated that Sarah intensified to the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , based on aircraft estimates . The typhoon intensified further , and late on September 14 the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , estimating surface winds of 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) . The intensity was adjusted slightly downward in a post @-@ analysis , with peak winds of 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) at 06 : 00 UTC on September 15 about 415 km ( 260 mi ) east of Taiwan . In addition , the typhoon attained a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
About three hours after Sarah reached peak winds , the typhoon moved directly over Miyako @-@ jima , an island of Japan east of Taiwan . Sarah weakened while curving to the north , and it passed west of Okinawa late on September 15 . The winds dropped quickly ; by 24 hours after peak intensity , Sarah 's winds had decreased from 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon turned and accelerated to the northeast toward the Korean peninsula , re @-@ intensifying slightly . By late on September 16 , the winds increased to 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) while Sarah passed just east of Jeju island . The typhoon weakened again to winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) by 00 : 00 UTC on September 17 . That day , Sarah made landfall a few miles west of Busan , South Korea at that intensity ; this made Sarah the strongest typhoon to strike the country since records began in 1904 , and it remained as such until Typhoon Maemi surpassed it in 2003 . The typhoon very quickly emerged into the Sea of Japan , its circulation becoming poorly defined . On September 18 , Sarah became extratropical after moving over the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido . The remnants continued to the northeast initially before turning sharply westward , passing over Sakhalin . The circulation progressed into Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East before turning back east . Former Typhoon Sarah struck Sakhalin a second time on September 20 while moving east @-@ southeastward . After passing through the Kuril Islands , the remnants of Sarah dissipated on September 23 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early in its duration , Sarah brought gusty winds and passing showers to Guam .
Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Sarah passed near the island of Miyako @-@ jima . The pressure there fell to 908 @.@ 1 mbar ( 26 @.@ 82 inHg ) , which was the lowest recorded for the station and the second @-@ lowest on record for Japan , both as of 2003 . The typhoon produced sustained winds of 196 km / h ( 122 mph ) and gusts up to 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) before the anemometer broke . The winds destroyed over 6 @,@ 000 homes and wrecked all of the crops . Sarah also left the island without power for an extended period of time after damaging power lines . The combination of high winds and rough seas destroyed a fishing pier and 670 m ( 2 @,@ 200 ft ) of seawall , as well as several tidal weirs . Sarah also sank four fishing boats and damaged seven others . On Miyako @-@ jima , Sarah killed seven people , injured 88 others , and left $ 2 million in damage . The heavy damage on the island prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the " Miyakojima Typhoon " . Sarah was part of a series of typhoons striking the island in 1959 , causing food shortages that forced the population to change their diet . The storm brushed Okinawa with gusts of 135 km / h ( 84 mph ) .
Sarah was the worst typhoon to strike the Korean peninsula in 50 years . The peak wind gust in South Korea was 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , which was the highest for a typhoon at the time , with records dating back to 1904 ; as of 2010 , the value has fallen to the ninth place . Damage was heaviest at Busan where the storm struck . The port there sustained over $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage , and nearby American military bases had over $ 900 @,@ 000 in damage . Coastal floods washed away or damaged 15 @,@ 379 homes in the Busan area , leaving 25 @,@ 834 people homeless . The waves also damaged or sank 5 @,@ 400 boats . Nationwide , floods damaged 127 @,@ 000 hectares ( 313 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields . Throughout South Korea , Sarah destroyed over 14 @,@ 000 homes and left 782 @,@ 126 people homeless , thousands of whom were injured . The Ministry of Social Affairs estimated property damage at over $ 100 million , and the typhoon killed at least 669 people . After the storm , the CARE relief agency launched an appeal in the United States , collecting $ 18 @,@ 500 worth of shoes and underwear for storm victims . The Australian Red Cross also provided assistance to the country , including money , sheets , and blankets . Due to the ongoing Korean War and Sarah , South Korea lost much of its fishing fleet , resulting in diminished catches over the subsequent decades . The typhoon also caused a rise in the wholesale price index , in conjunction with political uncertainty .
A fleet of 46 boats left Oenarodo near Busan on August 28 to fish near Komundo Island . The fleet failed to return after the passage of Typhoon Sarah , and local newspapers reported all 1 @,@ 200 fishermen were lost .
Late in its duration , Sarah struck Hokkaido , producing a 6 m ( 20 ft ) storm surge at Taisei along the southwest coast that left behind a sediment layer 60 m ( 200 ft ) inland . Before the storm arrived , the United States evacuated plans from Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni to Misawa Air Base , although Sarah approached closer to the latter base . The storm affected much of the nation , flooding many communities , including 14 @,@ 360 houses . Across the country , the typhoon damaged 778 boats . The storm also damaged 3 @,@ 566 ha ( 8 @,@ 810 acres ) of crop fields . Nationwide , Sarah destroyed 16 @,@ 632 homes , injured 509 people , and killed 47 .
Overall , Typhoon Sarah caused around 2 @,@ 000 deaths , making it among the deadliest typhoons on record .
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= Dunster Working Watermill =
Dunster Working Watermill ( also known as Castle Mill ) is a restored 18th century watermill , situated on the River Avill , close to Gallox Bridge , in the grounds of Dunster Castle in Dunster , Somerset , England . It is a Grade II * listed building .
The mill stands on a site where a mill was first recorded in the Domesday Book , but the present building was constructed around 1780 . It closed in 1962 but was restored in 1979 and is still used to grind flour . The equipment is powered by two overshot wheels . It is owned by the National Trust but operated as a tourist attraction by a private company .
= = History = =
At the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 there were two mills in Dunster . One which was called the Lower Mill was on the site of the present mill . In the 17th century there were both malt and oats mills but by 1721 one of these had been converted to a fulling mill . The present mill , which was built around 1780 and replaced the two former mills . In 1940 a bakery was added . The mill ground corn until World War II and then animal feed until it closed in 1962 .
It was restored to working order in 1979 , winning a conservation award in 1982 . The mill is still used to grind wheat flour . A cafe was opened in the buildings which used to be the wagon house and stables . Further restoration work , completed in 2007 , was funded by the Exmoor Sustainable Development Fund .
Although it is owned by the National Trust it is leased to a private company to run as a tourist attraction and an entrance charge applies to all visitors . The site is visited by around 10 @,@ 000 tourists a year and produces 6 – 8 tonnes of flour each year . The second waterwheel was restored and the collapsed wheel replaced in 2015 .
= = Architecture and machinery = =
The two storey building has a slate roof . To the south east a stone wall contains wrought iron gates in an arched gateway .
The grinding equipment is powered by a pair of overshot wheels , which transfer power to the crown wheel via a series of belts . This then drives the grinding stones and sack lift . There is a doorway on the first floor to allow material to be hoisted up the building .
An adapted winnowing machine is used to sift the flour produced by the millstones .
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= German submarine U @-@ 64 ( 1939 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 64 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . She was ordered by them in July 1937 . Her keel was laid down by AG Weser in Bremen in December 1938 . Following about nine months of construction , she was launched in September 1939 and formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine in December .
U @-@ 64 had a very short career and sank no enemy vessels . Having left her home port of Wilhelmshaven for her first war patrol on 6 April 1940 , she was intercepted by Allied aircraft seven days later off the coast of Norway during the invasion of that country and was sunk by a bomb from a Fairey Swordfish aircraft of HMS Warspite ( 03 ) . Of her crew of 46 , eight men died and 38 escaped from the sinking submarine .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
U @-@ 64 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 16 July 1937 as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles . Her keel was laid down on 15 December 1938 by AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 952 . She was launched on 20 September 1939 and commissioned on 16 December under the command of Kapitänleutnant Georg @-@ Wilhelm Schulz .
= = = Design = = =
German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 64 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 64 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 64 went to sea on 6 April 1940 . For eight days , she roamed the North Sea in search of Allied convoys heading to Norway in support of the campaign centred around that country . During that time she encountered no enemy vessels . On 13 April , the eighth day of her first patrol , she was heaved @-@ to in the waters off Bjerkvik in Norway , and was struck by a 350 @-@ pound bomb from a British Fairey Swordfish aircraft of HMS Warspite ( 03 ) . Her deck was also riddled with machine @-@ gun fire . The U @-@ boat then sank to the bottom of the harbor , eight of her crew went down with her . The remaining 38 were able to escape the sinking vessel and were picked up by German mountain troops stationed ashore . They later formed the crew of U @-@ 124 .
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= HMS Exeter ( 68 ) =
HMS Exeter was the second and last York @-@ class heavy cruiser built for the Royal Navy during the late 1920s . Aside from a temporary deployment with the Mediterranean Fleet during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935 – 36 , she spent the bulk of the 1930s assigned to the Atlantic Fleet or the North America and West Indies Station . When World War II began in September 1939 , the ship was assigned to patrol South American waters against German commerce raiders . Exeter was one of three British cruisers that fought the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee later that year in the Battle of the River Plate . She was extensively damaged during the battle and was under repair for over a year .
After her repairs were completed , the ship spent most of 1941 on convoy escort duties before she was transferred to the Far East after the start of the Pacific War in December . Exeter was generally tasked with escorting convoys to and from Singapore during the Malayan Campaign and continued on those duties in early February 1942 as the Japanese prepared to invade the Dutch East Indies . Later that month , she was assigned to the Striking Force of the joint American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command and took on a more active role in the defence of the Dutch islands . The culmination of this was her participation in the Battle of the Java Sea later in the month as the Allies attempted to intercept Japanese invasion convoys . Exeter was crippled early in the battle and did not play much of a role as she was forced to withdraw . Two days later , she attempted to escape inbound Japanese forces , but was intercepted and sunk by Japanese ships at the beginning of March in the Second Battle of the Java Sea .
Most of her crew survived the sinking and were rescued by the Japanese . About a quarter of them died during captivity . Her wreck was discovered in early 2007 .
= = Design and description = =
Exeter was ordered two years after her sister ship York and her design incorporated improvements in the light of experience with the latter . Her beam was increased by one foot ( 30 cm ) to cater for increases in topweight , and the boiler uptakes were trunked backwards from the boiler rooms , allowing for straight funnels further removed from the bridge rather than the raked funnels necessary in York to ensure adequate dispersal of the flue gasses . As the eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) gun turrets had proved not strong enough to accommodate the aircraft catapult originally intended , Exeter was given a pair of fixed catapults angled out from amidships in a ' V ' shape , with the associated crane placed to starboard . Consequently , the bridge was lowered ( that of York being tall to give a view over the intended aircraft ) , and was of a streamlined , enclosed design that was incorporated into later cruisers .
Exeter was slightly lighter than expected and displaced 8 @,@ 390 long tons ( 8 @,@ 520 t ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 620 long tons ( 10 @,@ 790 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 575 feet 1 inch ( 175 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 58 feet ( 17 @.@ 7 m ) and a draught of 20 feet 3 inches ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four Parsons geared steam turbine sets , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 900 long tons ( 1 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 628 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted six BL eight @-@ inch MK VIII guns in three twin turrets . The turrets were designated ' A ' , ' B ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . Their secondary armament consisted of four QF four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . They also mounted two single two @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA guns ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . The Yorks carried two triple torpedo tube above @-@ water mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
The York @-@ class cruisers lacked a full @-@ length waterline armour belt . The sides of Exeter 's boiler and engine rooms and the sides of the magazines were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) thick . The top of the magazines were protected by 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) of armour and their ends were 4 @.@ 375 inches ( 111 @.@ 1 mm ) thick . The lower deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) .
= = = Modifications = = =
In 1932 , Exeter had her side plating extended to enclose her open main deck as far back as the fore funnel . During that same refit , her pair of fixed catapults were finally installed for her embarked Fairey IIIF floatplanes . In 1934 – 35 , two quadruple mounts for Vickers 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) AA machineguns replaced the pair of two @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " originally installed . About four years later , the catapults were replaced by a single revolving catapult and the ship now carried Supermarine Walrus amphibians .
While under repair in 1940 – 41 after her battle with the Admiral Graf Spee , the navy decided to upgrade her armament and fire @-@ control systems . The bridge was rebuilt and enlarged to accommodate a second High @-@ Angle Control System aft of the Director @-@ Control Tower ( DCT ) on top of the bridge , her single four @-@ inch AA guns were replaced with twin @-@ gun mounts for Mark XVI guns of the same calibre and a pair of octuple mounts for 40 mm " pom @-@ poms " were added abreast the aft superstructure . Enclosures ( " tubs " ) for single 20 mm Oerlikon guns were added to the roof of both ' B ' and ' Y ' turrets . The pole masts were replaced by stronger tripod masts because the Type 279 early @-@ warning radar had separate transmitting and receiving aerials , one at each masthead . In addition , a Type 284 fire @-@ control radar was fitted to the DCT .
= = Construction and career = =
Exeter , the fourth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was laid down on 1 August 1928 , launched on 18 July 1929 and completed on 27 July 1931 . The ship was then assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , where she served between 1931 and 1933 . In 1934 she was assigned to the America and West Indies Station and remained there , aside from a temporary deployment to the Mediterranean during the Abyssinian crisis of 1935 – 36 , until 1939 .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the outbreak of the Second World War , she formed part of the South American Division with the heavy cruiser Cumberland , under Commodore Henry Harwood . The ship , commanded by Captain Frederick Bell , was assigned to Force G to hunt for German commerce raiders off the eastern coast of South America on 6 October 1939 . Three months later , Harwood ordered Exeter and the light cruiser Achilles to rendezvous with his own Ajax off the mouth of the River Plate , while Cumberland covered the Falkland Islands . The two other ships arrived on 12 December and Admiral Graf Spee spotted Exeter the following morning .
Captain Hans Langsdorff decided to engage the British and closed at full speed . Following British doctrine on how to engage ships like Admiral Graf Spee , Exeter operated as a division on her own , Achilles and Ajax as the other , to split the fire of the German ship . They were only partially successful as the ship concentrated her main armament of six 283 @-@ millimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) guns on Exeter and her secondary armament of eight 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on the light cruisers . Langsdorff opened fire at Exeter at 06 : 18 with high @-@ explosive shells and she returned fire two minutes later at a range of 18 @,@ 700 yards ( 17 @,@ 100 m ) . The German ship straddled the British cruiser with her third salvo ; splinters from the near misses killed the crew of the starboard torpedo tubes and damaged both seaplanes . After eight salvos from Exeter , Admiral Graf Spee scored a direct hit on ' B ' turret that knocked it out of action and splinters from the hit killed all of the bridge personnel except three . Bell , wounded in the face , transferred to the aft conning position to continue the battle . His ship was hit twice more shortly afterwards , but her powerplant was not damaged and she remained seaworthy , although her aircraft had to be jettisoned .
At 06 : 30 , Langsdorff switched his fire to the light cruisers , but only inflicted splinter damage on them before some of Exeter 's torpedoes forced him to turn away at 06 : 37 to evade them . Her second torpedo attack at 06 : 43 was also unsuccessful . In the meantime , Langsdorff had switched his main guns back to the heavy cruiser and scored several more hits . They knocked out ' A ' turret , started a fire amidships that damaged the ship 's fire @-@ control and navigation circuits , and caused a 7 ° list with flooding . She remained in action until flooding disabled the machinery for ' Y ' turret at 07 : 30 . At 11 : 07 , Bell informed Harwood that Exeter had one eight @-@ inch and a four @-@ inch gun available in local control and that she could make 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . He ordered Bell to head to the Falklands for repair .
Exeter was hit by a total of seven 283 mm shells that killed 61 of her crew were and wounded another 23 . After all Exeter 's guns had been put out of action but she was still seaworthy , Bell planned to collide with the enemy , saying " I 'm going to ram the -------- . It will be the end of us but it will sink him too " . In return the ship had hit Admiral Graf Spee three times ; one shell penetrated her main armour belt and narrowly missed detonating in one of her engine rooms , but the most important one disabled her oil @-@ purification equipment . Without it , the ship was unlikely to be able to reach Germany . Several days later , unable to be repaired and apparently confronted by powerful Royal Navy reinforcements , Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled in Montevideo harbour .
Exeter made for Port Stanley for emergency repairs which took until January 1940 . She was repaired and modernised at Devonport Dockyard between February 1940 and March 1941 ; Captain W.N.T. Beckett relieved Bell on 12 December 1940 . On 10 March 1941 , the day Exeter was due to be re @-@ commissioned , Beckett died at Saltash Hospital from complications resulting from surgery related to injuries received earlier in his career . His replacement was Captain Oliver Gordon . On returning to the fleet , she was engaged on escort duty for Atlantic convoys , including the escort of Convoy WS @-@ 8B to the Middle East during the chase for the German battleship Bismarck . After the start of the Pacific War in December 1941 , the ship was transferred to the Far East .
Upon her arrival at Singapore on 13 January 1942 , Exeter was assigned to the ABDACOM naval force that was intended to defend the Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ) from Japanese invasion . She spent the first several weeks of February escorting convoys in the East Indies . On 13 February , Allied reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese invasion convoys north of Bangka Island and the new commander of ABDA naval forces , Vice Admiral Conrad Helfrich of the Royal Netherlands Navy , was ordered to assemble the Allied Striking Force of Exeter and three Dutch and one Australian light cruisers at Oosthaven on the morning of 14 February . Escorted by six American and three Dutch destroyers , the force departed that afternoon . The Dutch Rear Admiral Karel Doorman , commanding the force , took his ships through the Gaspar Strait and then northwest towards Bangka Island . While passing through the strait , the Dutch destroyer Van Ghent struck a rock in poor visibility and another Dutch destroyer was tasked to take off her crew . The Japanese spotted the Allied ships around 08 : 00 and repeatedly attacked them . The first was a group of seven Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers from the light carrier Ryūjō that attacked Exeter with bombs around 10 : 30 . The blast from a near miss badly damaged her Walrus , but the ship was only damaged by splinters . They were followed shortly afterwards by a group of 23 Mitsubishi G3M " Nell " bombers from the Genzan Air Group that inflicted no damage as they dropped their bombs from high altitude . Another group of six B5Ns attacked without effect at 11 : 30 .
The repeated aerial attacks persuaded Doorman that further progress was unwise in the face of Japanese aerial supremacy and he ordered his ships to reverse course and head for Tanjung Priok at 12 : 42 . The attacks continued as 27 G3Ms of the Mihoro Air Group then bombed from high altitude . Seven more B5Ns attacked fruitlessly at 14 : 30 ; a half @-@ dozen more followed an hour later . The final attack was made by 17 Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bombers of the Kanoya Air Group shortly before dark . The Japanese attacks were almost entirely ineffectual , with no ship reporting anything more than splinter damage . In return Allied anti @-@ aircraft fire was moderately effective with most of the attacking bombers damaged by shell splinters . In addition one G4M crashed while attempting to land and another was badly damaged upon landing .
= = = = First Battle of the Java Sea = = = =
On 25 February , Helfrich ordered all available warships to join Doorman 's Eastern Striking Force at Surabaya . Exeter and the Australian cruiser Perth , escorted by three British destroyers , Jupiter , Encounter , and Electra , set sail at once , leaving behind one Australian cruiser and two destroyers that were short of fuel . After they had arrived the following day , Doorman 's entire force of five cruisers and nine destroyers departed Surabaya at 18 : 30 to patrol off Eastern Java in hopes of intercepting the oncoming invasion convoy which had been spotted earlier that morning . The Japanese were further north than he anticipated and his ships found nothing . His own ships were located at 09 : 35 on the following morning , 27 February , and were continuously tracked by the Japanese . Doorman ordered a return to Surabaya at 10 : 30 and his ships were attacked by eight bombers from the Kanoya Air Group at 14 : 37 . They claimed to have made two hits on Jupiter , but actually missed the British destroyer . Just as his leading ships were entering harbour , he received reports of enemy ships 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north and Doorman ordered his ships to turn about to intercept them .
Aware of Doorman 's movements , the Japanese commander , Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi , detached the convoy 's two escorting destroyer flotillas , each consisting of a light cruiser and seven destroyers , to intercept the Allied ships in conjunction with his own pair of heavy cruisers , ( Nachi and Haguro ) , which were escorted by a pair of destroyers . His heavy cruisers opened fire at long range at 15 : 47 with little effect . The light cruisers and destroyers closed to ranges between 13 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 m ) and began firing Type 93 " Long Lance " torpedoes beginning at 16 : 03 . All of these torpedoes failed to damage their targets , although one torpedo hit Exeter and failed to detonate at 16 : 35 . Three minutes later , Haguro changed the course of the battle when one of her shells penetrated the British ship 's starboard aft twin four @-@ inch gun mount before detonating in the forward boiler room , knocking six of her boilers off @-@ line and killing 14 of her crew . The ship sheered out of line to avoid another torpedo and slowed , followed by all of the trailing cruisers . Perth laid a smoke screen to protect Exeter and the Allied ships sorted themselves into separate groups as they attempted to disengage . Exeter was escorted by one Dutch and all three British destroyers in one group and the other cruisers and the American destroyers formed the other group . The Japanese did not initially press their pursuit as they maneuvered to use their torpedoes against the crippled Exeter , which could only make 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , and her escorts .
The Japanese began launching torpedoes beginning at 17 : 20 at ranges of 10 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 500 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 to 16 @,@ 900 m ) , but they all missed . For some reason , two Japanese destroyers continued to close before firing their torpedoes at 6 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) and Encounter and Electra pulled out of line to counter @-@ attack . They engaged Asagumo and Minegumo at close range as they closed . Asagumo was damaged by Electra , but the Japanese ship sank the British destroyer at 17 : 46 . In the meantime , Exeter continued south to Surabaya , escorted by Encounter and the Dutch destroyer Witte de With . Doorman 's repeated , unsuccessful , and ultimately fatal , attempts to reach the transports concentrated the Japanese on the task of protecting the transports and allowed the damaged British cruiser to reach harbour .
= = = = Second Battle of the Java Sea = = = =
The following day , after making temporary repairs and refuelling , Exeter , escorted by Encounter and the American destroyer Pope , was ordered to sail to Colombo , Ceylon , via the Sunda Strait . They departed on the evening of 28 February , but were intercepted by the Japanese heavy cruisers Nachi , Haguro , Myōkō and Ashigara and the destroyers Akebono , Inazuma , Yamakaze and Kawakaze on the morning of 1 March . About 08 : 00 , the British ships spotted two of the Japanese cruisers , one of which launched its spotting floatplanes . Two others were seen closing in , and both launched their aircraft before opening fire at about 09 : 30 . The Allied ships laid smoke and turned away to the east with the Japanese to their north and south . Exeter was able to reach a speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) before the first hit on her again detonated in a boiler room and knocked out all power around 11 : 20 . The Japanese destroyers closed in and fired a total of 18 torpedoes , which made a number of hits . Two of those from from the destroyer Inazuma were claimed as hits and Exeter quickly capsized and sank . Encounter and Pope were also lost ; Pope temporarily escaped the initial melee , only to be sunk by B5Ns a few hours later .
The Japanese rescued 652 of Exeter 's crew , including her captain , who became prisoners of war . Of these men , 152 died in captivity . The wreck was located and positively identified in February 2007 . Exeter lies in Indonesian waters , at a depth of about 200 feet ( 61 m ) , 90 miles ( 140 km ) north of Bawean Island – some 60 miles ( 97 km ) from the sinking position given by Gordon after the war .
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= Pennsylvania Route 666 =
Pennsylvania Route 666 ( PA 666 ) is an east – west state route located in northwest Pennsylvania . The western terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the Hickory Township municipality of East Hickory , and its eastern terminus is at US 6 in the hamlet of Sheffield in the township of the same name . It cuts through most of Allegheny National Forest , and is therefore sparsely populated , with the largest settlement along the road being Endeavor . Its official name is the David Zeisberger Memorial Highway .
The route was assigned in the 1928 numbering of State Routes in Pennsylvania . The highway originally ended in Nebraska until being extended southward along other streets . The route was realigned in 1946 onto its present routing . The highway has remained the same since .
= = Route description = =
= = = East Hickory to Old PA 666 = = =
Pennsylvania Route 666 begins at an intersection with US 62 along the banks of the Allegheny River in East Hickory . The route progresses eastward , intersecting with East Hickory Road , a dead end street that is part of old US 62 . With trees and some homes surrounding the highway , PA 666 continues out of East Hickory and into Hickory Township . The highway heads into Queen , intersecting with two dead @-@ end streets before turning to the southeast . The route quickly leaves Queen , entering a heavily forested area . The trees around the highway are very dense and surround the highway for several miles . The southeastern motion that PA 666 was following becomes a steady east , with the highway making several changes in its direction . There is an intersection with a local road , Yellow Hammer Road , which has access to a small amount of civilization . The road however , is a loop , and merges in soon after . The route continues farther through the dense forestry , intersecting with a woods road . PA 666 continues farther to the southeast , entering a break in the dense forestry .
The break in forestry is short , and PA 666 continues , now fully to the south . There is another break as the highway approaches the intersection of Balltown Road and Dutch Hill Road . Hazelton Hill Road parallels to the south along the eastern @-@ direction highway and both turn southward soon afterward . When PA 666 turns back into the heavily forested area , Hazleton Hill Road turns in the other direction and the parallel ends . There is a small break in the forestry , for some homes , and the highway then begins to make its loop to the north . Paralleling the Tionesta Creek PA 666 intersects with some local roads , Pierson Hill and Salmon Creek Roads . After the bend in Kettlettville , Route 666 follows a short segment of an old alignment , deemed on maps as Old PA @-@ 666 . PA 666 now makes a steady path to the northeast along the creekbanks , and the dense forests return . The northeastern progression begins to change , and the highway begins a more northward direction . Continuing through the forestry , Route 666 begins to change to a more eastern direction , and in the process , leaving the creekbanks .
= = = Old PA 666 to Sheffield = = =
The eastern progression begins to convert to another northeastern one , eventually moving into Balltown . In Balltown , there is a break in the forestry for a small area of civilization . The route heads northward , running along the riverbanks once again , and enters the small municipality of Porkey , Pennsylvania . PA 666 leaves Porkey and makes a U @-@ shaped turn through the forestry . In the U is the municipality of Minister . Afterwards , the route 's progression is mainly eastward . The route , running along the riverbanks , turns to the southward , until turning eastward once again . The route continues into Howe Township and quickly leaves , turning to the northeast and into the dense forestry . Several miles later , the route actually makes a northwestern progression , but it is for a short time , and the highway goes back to a normal northeastern progression .
There are more and more gaps in the forestry and the highway enters Barnes . In Barnes , PA 666 intersects with PA 948 's northern terminus . After Barnes , the route becomes more civilized , and the highway passes more homes . Nearing its end , PA 666 re @-@ enters the forested area , leaving quickly . The highway terminates in Sheffield Township , at an intersection with US 6 .
= = History = =
PA 666 was assigned in the mass numbering of state routes in 1928 . This routing of PA 666 from Barnes to Nebraska , small municipalities in Forest and Warren Counties . After remaining intact for thirteen years , the highway was extended to Newmansville to terminate at PA 36 and PA 208 . This southern extension is now Newmansville Road , three quadrant routes , and two township roads . In 1946 , PA 666 was extended westward to East Hickory , with the extension to Newmansville being decommissioned .
Several highways numbered " 666 " have experienced high rates of sign theft . According to a 2008 report , this appears to not be the case with PA 666 with a PennDOT spokesperson saying few signs have been stolen .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Effects of Hurricane Charley in South Carolina =
The effects of Hurricane Charley in South Carolina included $ 20 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage and 135 @,@ 000 power outages . Hurricane Charley lasted from August 9 to August 15 , and at its peak attained 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds , making it a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm made landfall in southwestern Florida at maximum strength , making it the strongest hurricane to hit the United States since Hurricane Andrew struck Florida twelve years before , in 1992 .
Before the storm , Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached its final landfall and issued a mandatory evacuation for residents on barrier islands and in coastal locations . About 180 @,@ 000 people evacuated the Grand Strand . Peak winds in the state were clocked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Isle of Palms . The storm spawned winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Folly Beach and 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in downtown Charleston . Numerous trees , tree limbs and electrical poles were knocked down in those regions . Flash flooding was also reported with rainfall peaking at over 7 in ( 180 mm ) . There were no fatalities .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to the storm , a tropical storm watch was issued for locations from the Altamaha sound , Georgia to the South Santee River on August 12 . The next day , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane watch from the Altamaha sound to the South Carolina – Georgia border . As Charley approached the region , a hurricane warning was issued for the entire area . A tornado watch was issued eastward from a line extending from Aiken to Lancaster County .
Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached landfall and issued a mandatory evacuation for residents on barrier islands and in coastal locations in Georgetown and Horry Counties . In Georgetown County , this order was focused on residents and tourists east of U.S. Route 17 , likewise for Horry County . 180 @,@ 000 people evacuated the Grand Strand . Drawbridges in Beaufort and Charleston Counties were shut down , and bridges in Georgetown and Horry Counties were locked down . Hampton County requested 2 @,@ 000 sandbags , that were provided by the Department of Corrections . The Wateree Correctional Institution also filled 30 @,@ 000 sandbags for potential floods . State troopers directed traffic inland from Myrtle Beach . U.S. Route 501 used a lane reversal to allow for evacuations .
= = Impact = =
The first storm to make landfall in the state at hurricane intensity since Hurricane Hugo in 1989 , Hurricane Charley struck near Cape Romain , South Carolina as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) hurricane , moved offshore briefly , and made its final landfall near North Myrtle Beach as a minimal hurricane with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . With the landfalling system , five tornadoes were reported in the state . However , only two were confirmed ; one moved through the Francis Marion National Forest , downing trees along its path . Storm surge ranged from 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) – 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , although only minor beach erosion occurred . A buoy situated 41 nmi ( 47 mi ) southeast of Charleston recorded 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) seas and 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) winds .
Peak winds in the state were clocked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Isle of Palms . The storm spawned winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Folly Beach and 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in downtown Charleston . Trees , limbs and electrical poles were knocked down in those regions . Trees were blown onto U.S. Route 17 in Mount Pleasant , and awnings were torn off of a few structures . A total of 2 @,@ 231 houses were damaged ; 2317 of these were severely damaged and 40 were destroyed . Two @-@ hundred and twenty @-@ one of those damaged were beach front structures on Sunset Beach . Businesses had broken windows , six hotels had roof and outer wall damage . This led to $ 30 million ( 2004 USD ) in hotel profit loss in Myrtle Beach , primarily along U.S. Route 17 .
As dry air from northern sections of the state wrapped into the circulation of the storm , a band of convection developed along a frontal boundary stretching from Newberry northward . Widespread rainfall peaking at over 7 in ( 180 mm ) fell to the west of the storm 's track . In downtown Charleston , 2 @.@ 09 in ( 53 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while in Hampton 1 @.@ 53 in ( 39 mm ) of rain fell . However , the bulk of the rainfall remained offshore . With the soil still saturated from Tropical Storm Bonnie , some flooding in low @-@ lying areas of Charleston County occurred . Up to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water accumulated on South Carolina Route 17 and on local streets . Flash floods were also observed in Mount Pleasant . High winds spread vegetative debris , clogging storm drains and caused further flooding . A bridge in Union County washed out following rainfall from Charley and Tropical Storm Bonnie . 135 @,@ 000 customers were without power , and storm damage totaled $ 20 million ( 2004 USD ) .
Following the storm , Progress Energy Carolinas assembled 1 @,@ 200 tree and power line personnel to assist in damage recovery . Federal disaster funds were approved for the counties of Georgetown and Horry . The declaration covered damage to public property on August 14 – 15 . The funding covered state and local government costs for debris removal and emergency services related to the hurricane .
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= Nandanar =
Nandanar ( also spelt as Nantanar ) , also known as Tirunalaippovar ( Thirunaalaippovar ) and Tiru Nalai Povar Nayanar , was a Nayanar saint , who is venerated in the Hindu sect of Shaivism . He is the only Dalit ( " untouchable " ) saint in the Nayanars . He is generally counted as the eighteenth in the list of 63 Nayanars . Like the other Nayanars , he was a devout devotee of the god Shiva .
The tale of Nandanar is retold numerous times in folk tales , folk music , plays , films and literature in Tamil society . While Nandanar is included in Nayanar list since the 8th century CE , the 12th century CE Periya Puranam gives a full hagiographical account of his life . The tale focuses on two miracles attributed to him . In Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur ; his prayers are said to have moved a giant stone bull , which still appears in the moved position in the temple . Nandanar is said to have ritually purified himself by fire at Thillai Nataraja Temple , Chidambaram . Nandar 's tale features in temple lore and religious literature related to both these temples . Gopalakrishna Bharati 's 19th century retelling of the saint 's life remains the basis of many later retellings . It expands the original narrative adding elements of oppression of the Dalit saint by higher castes . While higher caste retellings of the tale focus on the saint 's observance of caste norms , Dalits emphasize his exploitation and superior religiosity .
Apart from collective worship Nandanar enjoys being part of the Nayanars in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu , shrines depicted to Nandanar exist in both the sites of his miracles . The saint also became an icon of protest in Dalit rights movements .
= = Accounts of life = =
One of the most prominent Nayanars , Sundarar ( 8th century ) is the first to name Nandanar ( called Tirunalaipovar ) in literature , however Tirunalaipovar ( ' he who will go tomorrow ' ) relates to the tale of Nandanar longing to visit Chidambaram ; no details of his life are revealed . In the eleventh century , Nambiyandar Nambi devotes a stanza to Nandanar in his Tiruttondar Tiruvandhadhi while recalling the lives of the Nayanars . Tirunalaipovar is described as a Pulayar ( Pulaiya , Pulai ) who lived in Adanur . He is said to have visited Thillai Nataraja Temple , Chidambaram of his patron god Shiva " by God 's grace " and " three thousand Brahmins ( priests ) of Chidambaram saluted him . "
The earliest full ( and primary religious ) account of Nandanar 's life is found in the Tamil Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar ( 12th century ) , which is a hagiography of the 63 Nayanars , but it was the Nandanar Charitram by the Tamil poet Gopalakrishna Bharati ( 1810 – 1896 ) brought Nandanar 's tale to public attention . The Nandanar Charitam ( printed in 1861 ) , the magnum opus of Bharati , added new elements to Sekkizhar 's tale . Though it is unknown when he lived exactly , generally he is dated to 7th or 8th century CE .
= = = The Periya Puranam = = =
The Periya Puranam narrates that Nandanar belonged to Adanur ( Adanoor ) in the Chola kingdom . Presently , Adanur is located in Thanjavur district , in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . He was born in the Pulaiya caste , who were regarded " untouchables " ( see Dalits ) . They were agricultural labourers and singers . Another description considers Nandanar from the Dalit caste of Paraiyar , who served as labourers and were drummers as per the caste code .
Nandanar was born in poverty , in Pulaippadi , the Pulai slums of Adanur . He was a staunch devotee of the god Shiva , the patron god of Shaivism . He was a leather maker , who crafted drums and other musical instruments . He also served as a village servant , a watchman , a labourer as well as the " town crier " , who used to beat the drums . In Nandanar 's times , Dalits were not allowed to enter Hindu temples . So , Nandanar would stand outside a Shiva temple and sing the praises of Shiva and dance . However , he harboured a strong urge to pay his respects to the icon of Shiva at Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur . He stood outside the temple , but a huge stone Nandi ( the bull mount of Shiva , whose sculpture is generally seen in Shiva temples , facing Shiva in the garbhagriha - sanctum sanatorium ) blocked his path of vision . The compassionate Shiva ordered Nandi to move a little to side and the bull complied , allowing the Nayanar to see the central icon of Shiva , unobstructed . Nandanar cleaned up the surroundings of the temple and dug a pond ( which serves as the temple tank ) in honour of Shiva . He circumambulated the shrine and returned to Adanur .
Nandanar visited many temples of Shiva and served the god . Once , he longed to visit the Thillai Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram , which enshrines Shiva as Nataraja , the Lord of Dance . He used to say everyday that he will go the next day to Chidambaram , but never actually dared to step in the holy town , where he was prohibited entry . Thus , he came to be known as " Tiru @-@ Nalai @-@ povar " , ' he who will go tomorrow ' . Finally , Nandanar reached the boundary of Chidambaram , but feared to set foot in the town . He saw the smoke of fire sacrifices and heard the chants of the Vedic scriptures . Thinking about how he can see Nataraja 's dancing icon , the Nayanar circumambulated the town numerous times and finally succumbed to fatigue and slept . Shiva appeared in his dream and told Nandanar to enter the temple through a holy fire . The god also informed the Brahmin priests of Chidambaram to prepare a pyre . Next day , the Brahmins approached Nandanar as per the divine order .
Nandanar entered the holy fire chanting the name of Shiva and reappeared in a new purified form . He looked like a Brahmin sage , wearing matted hair ( characteristic of a Shaiva ) and the sacred thread worn by Brahmins across his chest . His body was smeared with sacred ash . The gods showered flowers on the Nayanar from heaven and the Brahmins cheered . With the Brahmins , Nandanar went in the garbhagriha and saw Nataraja . The Nayanar disappeared in the image of Nataraja and became one with Shiva .
The Periya Puranam version is interpreted as a Brahmanical narrative , where a particular Dalit is granted salvation by transforming into a Brahmin ; the superiority of the Brahmins is reinforced and the legitimacy of the ban of Dalits is not challenged .
P.Sampath , president of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front ( TNUEF ) and an office @-@ bearer politician from the Tamil Nadu unit of Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) ( known as CPI ( M ) ) , calls the Chidambaram fire @-@ trail as Brahmin propaganda to conceal the truth that Nandanar was burnt at the stake .
= = = The Nandanar Charitam = = =
Bharati was an ardent devotee of Shiva and wrote three operas in honour of various Nayanar saints . Though Bharati was himself an upper caste Brahmin , he was a crusader for the rights of the Dalits . While Sekkizhar exalts Nandanar 's devotion to Shiva , Bharati presents the grim reality of ostracization that the Nayanar suffered . Bharati 's Nandanar is " not a rebel , but only a protester " . The Nandanar Charitam focuses on the atrocities that Nandanar and Dalits as a whole had to suffer at the hands of upper castes . The opera Nandanar Charitam was embedded with the social message that Shiva grants emancipation irrespective of caste .
The play starts with the term " May I come " , a warning to higher @-@ caste people that Dalits had to cry out before entering any street , so as to not pollute the higher caste members . The Nayanar first clashes with his own Dalit brethren . They oppose his devotion for the Lord of Chidambaram , whom they call a Brahmin god . The Dalit elders — headed by Pariyakilavan — define his duties as a pariah and advise him to not confront caste rules . They tell him to worship the folk deities of the pariah , instead of Shiva , the god of Brahmanical Hinduism . The Dalits also feel that Nandanar needs to abide by the social norms and give up his taboo idea of entering a temple .
A villainous Brahmin landlord Vetiyar ( Vediyar ) appears in Bharati 's tale . He torments his bonded labourer Nandanar and chastises him repeatedly for trying to go beyond caste norms . Vetiyar sees Nandanar 's bhakti and desire to enter a temple " not only as undesirable and irreligious , but also as a serious threat to his social status . " Vetiyar refuses to grant him permission to Chidambaram and even resorts to violence . After much persuasion , the Brahmin relents on the condition that the saint do an impossible task of cultivating and harvesting the field in one night . Aided by Shiva 's attendant ganas , the saint completes the task . The Brahmin realizes the piety of the Nayanar , apologizes to him and lets him go .
Bharati retained the final confrontation with the Brahmins of Chidambaram and his ritual purification by fire . Bharati concludes in a poem saying that " it is said in the epics that the Lord worshipped by Gopalakrishna granted salvation even to Untouchables ! "
= = = Variants = = =
In stories of higher caste Hindus ( especially Brahmins ) , Nandanar is a Brahmin or God himself somehow trapped in the body of an untouchable and whose true form is revealed by the fire trial . Other tales focus on his strict adherence to caste norms , his obedience of his Brahmin master and his refusal to enter the holy temple as an untouchable .
The Dalits strongly believe in his piety and portray Brahmins as the root cause of all the misery of the Nayanar . Nandanar fits in the Dalit narrative that proves that their religiosity is on par or superior to the higher castes . They say that Nandanar was ' swallowed by God ' . The sashes round Nataraja 's waist are interpreted as the legs of the saint , who merged into the god .
The temple lore of Tirupunkur narrates that Shiva instructed his son Ganesha to aid Nandanar in digging the temple tank named Nandanar tirtha , after the saint . Another variant tells that Ganesha dug up the tank in the night so that Nandanar can bathe in its sacred waters before seeing Shiva in the temple .
In the early half of the 20th century , the novel Nandan , by A. Gopalasami Iyengar and G. Aravamudha Iyengar , includes reformist Brahmin characters that argue Nandan 's case against their peers . Nandan also echoes the reformist ideas of Hindu spiritual leaders like Ramanuja and Vivekananda , and progressive upper @-@ caste leaders .
The short story Puthiya Nandan by Pudhumaipithan ( 1906 @-@ 1948 ) places the classical tale of the Nayanar in a contemporary setting . While retelling Nandan 's ancient tale , it also alludes to the Dalit rights movements of Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar E. V. Ramasamy ( see Self @-@ Respect Movement ) .
Indira Parthasarathy 's Nandan Kathai ( 1978 ) builds the tale of Nandanar ( referred in the work as Nandan ) further , introducing two non @-@ Brahmin upper caste landholders , who are as ruthless as Bharati 's Vediyar . Nandanar is portrayed as a lover of art , rather than God . He wants to see the cosmic dance of Nataraja . A Devadasi called Abhirami also appears ; no significant female characters are found in earlier narratives . Indira is blunt in reprimanding the Dalits for not understanding Nandanar . Nandan Kathai is a quest for liberation of Dalits and women alike . Unlike earlier narratives , Indira 's tale is devoid of miracles and is a story of how Nandanar falls prey to a conspiracy . The Vediyar @-@ priest , the Vediyar @-@ landlord and the two non @-@ Brahmin upper caste landholders , hatch a plot to end Nandan . They make Nandanar believe that God harvested crop from the field , an allusion to the miracle of Vediyar 's impossible task in Bharati 's work . Then , they persuade him to organize a dance contest between Bharatnatyam , the high @-@ caste elites ' dance and the folk dance of the Dalits . Finally , in the climax , Nandanar agrees to undergo a fire @-@ trial , reassured by the earlier miracle , but he and Abhirami burn in the flames . The upper castes succeed in sending a warning to Dalits how trespassers of the caste code , longing for salvation , would be punished .
= = Celebration in Hindu religion = =
Nandanar is specially worshipped in the Tamil month of Purattasi , when the moon enters the Rohini nakshatra ( lunar mansion ) . He is depicted with a shaved head , folded hands ( see Anjali mudra ) with a kamandalu and a danda ( staff ) , like a seer . He receives collective worship as part of the 63 Nayanars . Their icons and brief accounts of his deeds are found in many Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu . Their images are taken out in procession in festivals .
A water tank in Chidambaram is considered sacred as it is believed to be the site of Nandanar 's fire @-@ purification . A " recently built " ( as mentioned in the 1992 book ) small shrine dedicated to the Nayanar , exists in south @-@ west part of the town , whose name means ' Nandanar has become the temple ' . A sculpture of Nandanar as a singer is found in the Chidambaram temple , besides another in Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram ( 12th century ) depicting him in the trail by fire .
Sundarar venerates Nandanar in the Tiruthonda Thogai , a hymn to Nayanar saints , calling him " Nalaippovan " , the " holy pilgrim " who will go tomorrow . An earlier hymn to Shiva praises the god who is served by Nalaippovan . The devotional poet Tyagaraja ( 1767 – 1847 ) also narrates the tale of Nandanar in his poems .
Devotional works dedicated to Nataraja of the Chidambaram temple narrate Nandanar 's tale . Umapathi Sivacharya 's Kunchitangristava ( early fourteenth century ) mentions Nandan 's legend . While another Sanskrit work Hemasabhanatha Mahatmya devotes its ninth chapter to the Nayanar . The Sthala Purana of the Nataraja temple called Chidambara Mahatmya praises the god as served by Nandan .
The Nandi in Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur is seen placed off centre as a testimony of Nandanar 's devotion and the miracle . A stone image of the saint is worshipped in the temple . The Dvarapalas ( gate @-@ keeper sculptures ) are depicted with his heads leaning downwards , said to be in honour of Nandanar . In 1959 , a shrine was created outside the Shiva temple , from where the stone image of Nandanar looks eternally at Shiva . Nandanar is depicted with his hands joined above his head , praying to Shiva . Scenes of Bharati 's opera and the local legend of Nandanar and Ganesha digging the temple tank are seen on the shrine .
= = Remembrance in society = =
Nandanar 's influence was and remains limited primarily to the Tamil @-@ speaking areas . The Christian missionary Rev. A. C. Clayton — who was " sympathetic " to the Dalit cause — used Nandanar 's narrative ( retold as The Legend of Nandan ) to suggest that bhakti ( devotion ) — which saw no distinction of class or caste — was the superior means to salvation than the jnana @-@ marga ( salvation by knowledge ) propagated by the Brahmins and also challenged the authority of the Brahmin orthodoxy .
Nandanar became " the hero of tales of caste protest " . The " Adi Dravida " ( Dalit ) leaders of the Self @-@ Respect Movement used Nandanar as an exemplar to prove that social superiority originates not from birth , but the qualities and deeds of people . In 2010 , Cadres of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front ( TNUEF ) and the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) under the leadership of P. Samath , protested to bring down the wall on the South Gate of the Chimdabaram temple , which was — as per a tale — built as Nandanar entered from the gate . The walled gate was the symbol of the oppression of the Dalit caste and caste discrimination , as per the protesters who demanded its demolition . The state government — which governs the temple currently — contented that the veracity of Nandanar 's tale and its connection to the walled Gate , can not be ascertained and thus , refused the protesters ' demands . Nandanar " continues to inspire them ( Dalits ) as a symbol of resistance and a hope of a better future " . However , young Dalits identify with recent Dalit leaders like B. R. Ambedkar and are unaware or uninterested in the " obedient Nandanar " . Ambedkar , himself had dedicated his book The Untouchables , to three Dalit saints , including Nandanar .
In speech in Chidambaram , Mahatma Gandhi called Nandanar , a true practitioner of Satyagraha , a means of Nonviolent resistance . Gandhi said : " Nanda broke every barrier and won his way to freedom , not by brag , not by bluster , but by the purest form of self @-@ suffering ... he shamed them [ his persecutors ] into doing justice by his lofty prayer , by the purity of his character , ... he compelled God Himself to descend and made Him open the eyes of his persecutors " .
Nandanar 's tale is retold numerous times through folk tales , plays , literature and art forms like Villu Paatu and " musical discourses " . A number of Tamil films , all titled Nandanar , recall Nandanar 's tale following Bharati 's version . Besides a silent film in 1923 , another silent film Nandanar , subtitled The Elevation of the Downtrodden , directed by P. K. Raja Sandow , in 1930 . The first talkie film on Nandanar was made in 1931 . The 1935 film featured K. B. Sundarambal , who also performed on stage as the Nayanar numerous times . The 1942 film , starring Dandapani Desikar in the lead , courted controversy for its overly Brahmin overtones and was banned in Kolar Gold Fields after protests by Dalits , however the ban was lifted after Desikar met and personally apologized to the Dalits for being part of the climax , which featured the fire @-@ purification . Another film on Nandanar was released in 1943 . Sundaram Balachander acted in the 1948 film . N. S. Krishnan presented the story as a " narrative art form " , while A. Padmanabhan released a small booklet on the saint 's life for children . C. T. Indra says that Nandanar was made immoral in legend and remembered over the years " as a strategy of public management of anxiety . ... In the Essentialist way , Nandan 's devotion was cited down the ages to play down the social inequities and play up his spiritual qualifications . "
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= M249 light machine gun =
The M249 light machine gun ( LMG ) , formerly designated the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon ( SAW ) , and formally written as Light Machine Gun , 5 @.@ 56 mm , M249 , is the American adaptation of the Belgian FN Minimi , a light machine gun manufactured by the Belgian company FN Herstal ( FN ) . The M249 is manufactured in the United States by the local subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC in South Carolina and is widely used in the U.S. Armed Forces . The weapon was introduced in 1984 after being judged the most effective of a number of candidate weapons to address the lack of automatic firepower in small units . The M249 provides infantry squads with the heavy volume of fire of a machine gun combined with accuracy and portability approaching that of a rifle .
The M249 is gas operated and air @-@ cooled . It has a quick @-@ change barrel , allowing the gunner to rapidly replace an overheated or jammed barrel . A folding bipod is attached near the front of the gun , though an M192 LGM tripod is available . It can be fed from both linked ammunition and STANAG magazines , like those used in the M16 and M4 . This allows the SAW gunner to use a rifleman 's magazines as an emergency source of ammunition in the event that he runs out of linked rounds .
M249s have seen action in every major conflict involving the United States since the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989 . Soldiers are generally satisfied with the weapon 's performance , though there have been reports of clogging with dirt and sand . Due to the weight and age of the weapon , the United States Marine Corps is fielding the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle with plans to partially replace the M249 in Marine Corps service .
The M249 is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a " Squad Assault Weapon " .
= = Development = =
In 1965 , the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps ' primary machine guns were the M2 Browning and M60 . The M2 was a large @-@ caliber heavy machine gun , usually mounted on vehicles or in fixed emplacements . The M60 was a more mobile medium machine gun intended to be carried with the troops to provide heavy automatic fire . Both were very heavy weapons and usually required a crew of at least two to operate efficiently . The Browning automatic rifle , the army 's main individual machine gun since its introduction in World War I , was phased out in 1957 with the introduction of the M14 rifle , which had a fully automatic mode . " Designated riflemen " in every squad were ordered to use their weapons on the fully automatic setting , while other troops were required to use their rifle 's semi @-@ automatic mode on most occasions to increase accuracy and conserve ammunition . Because the M14 and M16 rifles had not been designed with sustained automatic fire in mind , they often overheated or jammed . The 20 @-@ round and 30 @-@ round magazines of these weapons limited their sustained automatic effectiveness when compared to belt @-@ fed weapons .
The Army decided that an individual machine gun , lighter than the M60 , but with more firepower than the M16 , would be advantageous ; troops would no longer have to rely on rifles for automatic fire . Through the 1960s , the introduction of a machine gun into the infantry squad was examined in various studies . While there was a brief flirtation with the concept of a flechette- or dart @-@ firing Universal Machine Gun during one study , most light machine gun experiments concentrated on the Stoner 63 light machine gun , a modular weapon that could be easily modified for different purposes . The Stoner 63 LMG saw combat for a brief period in Vietnam with the USMC , and later on a wider scale with the U.S. Navy SEALs .
In 1968 , the Army Small Arms Program developed plans for a new 5 @.@ 56 mm caliber LMG , though no funds were allocated ( 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition was viewed as underpowered by many in the armed forces ) . Studies of improved 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition , with better performance characteristics , began . The earliest reference to studies of other caliber cartridges for the LMG did not appear until 1969 . In July 1970 , the U.S. Army finally approved development of an LMG , with no specified caliber . At this time , the nomenclature " Squad Automatic Weapon " ( SAW ) was introduced . Actual design of alternative cartridges for the LMG did not begin until July 1971 . A month later , Frankford Arsenal decided on two cartridge designs for the new LMG : a 6 mm cartridge and a new 5 @.@ 56 mm cartridge with a much larger case . Neither design was finalized by March 1972 , when the Army published the specifications document for the planned SAW . The 6 mm cartridge design was eventually approved in May that year . Prior to July 1972 , SAW development contracts were awarded to Maremont , Philco Ford , and the Rodman Laboratory at Rock Island Arsenal . These companies produced designs with Army designations XM233 , XM234 and XM235 respectively — X denoting " experimental " . Designs were required to have a weight of less than 9 @.@ 07 kg ( 20 lb ) including 200 rounds of ammunition , and a range of at least 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .
When the time came for developmental and operational testing of the SAW candidates , three 5 @.@ 56 mm candidate weapons were included with the 6 mm candidates : the M16 HBAR , a heavy @-@ barrel variant of the M16 designed for prolonged firing ; the Fabrique Nationale de Herstal ( FN ) Minimi ; and the HK 23A1 . The initial round of tests ended in December 1974 . In February 1976 , the Minimi and Rodman XM235 SAW were selected for further development . At this time , opinions of the 6 mm cartridge were beginning to sour due to the logistical implications of providing yet another ammunition type to the infantry . In June , it was requested that the SAW specifications document be revised to emphasize standard 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition . In October , the requested revisions were approved , and bids were solicited for the conversion of the Rodman XM235 to 5 @.@ 56 mm . Production of the converted XM235 was awarded to Ford Aerospace , and its designation was changed to XM248 . A new M16 HBAR variant , the XM106 , was developed in 1978 , and soon after , Heckler & Koch lobbied to include a 5 @.@ 56 mm conversion of its HK 21A1 ( instead of the standard 7.62mm NATO ammunition it was built for ) in future SAW testing . The latter model was designated the XM262 . At this time , the Minimi received the designation XM249 . Testing of the four candidates resumed in April 1979 .
In May 1980 , the FN XM249 was selected as the best choice for future development on the grounds of performance and cost , while the HK XM262 reportedly came a close second . In September , FN was awarded a " maturity phase " contract for further development of the XM249 , and testing of the new weapon began in June 1981 . The official adoption took place on February 1 , 1982 .
The new gun entered U.S. Army service as the M249 squad automatic weapon in 1984 , and was adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps a year later . The U.S. production model has a different butt from that of the regular Minimi . It is manufactured in the FN factory in Columbia , South Carolina .
Although found to be reliable and accurate , the M249 was considered to present unacceptable hazards in the form of an exposed hot barrel and sharp edges . There were complaints that the front sight required special adjustment tools . On August 23 , 1985 , then @-@ U.S. Under Secretary of the Army James R. Ambrose suspended M249 production pending the development of the product improvement program ( PIP ) intended to fix these problems . Congress deleted funds for the M249 from the Fiscal Year 1986 defense budget , then retroactively set aside the program 's prior year 's funds from the M249 program for other purposes , including retirement and pay raises . Over 1 @,@ 100 M249s already issued were to remain in use , but be retrofitted with the PIP kit when it became available . Over 7 @,@ 000 remaining M249s were to stay in storage at depots until corrective changes could be made . The PIP kit was eventually developed and implemented , and production of the M249 resumed . In 1994 the M249 squad automatic weapon was re @-@ designated the M249 light machine gun .
= = Design details = =
The M249 is a belt @-@ fed light machine gun . It fires the 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO cartridge , usually a combination of one M856 tracer and four M855 ball cartridges fed from M27 linked belts . Belts are typically held in a hard plastic or soft canvas box attached to the underside of the weapon .
It fires from an open bolt and is gas operated . When the trigger is pulled , the bolt and bolt carrier move forward under the power of the recoil spring . A cartridge is stripped from the belt , chambered , and discharged , sending a bullet down the bore . Expanding propellant gases are diverted through a hole in the barrel into a chamber . This pressure moves a piston providing the energy to extract and eject the spent casing as well as advance the belt and compress the recoil spring , thus preparing for subsequent shots . At 1 @,@ 041 mm ( 41 in ) long and 7 @.@ 5 kg ( 17 lb ) in weight ( 10 kg ( 22 lb ) including a 200 @-@ round belt and plastic ammo box ) , the M249 is a cumbersome weapon .
The barrel has a rifling twist rate of one turn in 180 mm ( 7 in ) . Because firing heats up the bore , the air @-@ cooled barrel is equipped with a mechanism to remove and replace the barrel assembly with a spare . A folding bipod with adjustable legs is attached near the front of the weapon , though there are provisions for hard @-@ mounting to a M192 Lightweight Ground Mount tripod or vehicle mount . The M249 provides accuracy approaching that of a rifle , combined with the sustained volume of fire of a machine gun . Its original gas regulator offered two different gas port sizes , allowing cyclic rates of fire of 725 @-@ rounds per minute ( r / min ) or 1 @,@ 000 r / min . The latter setting was intended for adverse conditions , such as an excessively dirty firearm or cold weather . The two @-@ position gas regulator was discarded as part of a product improvement program . Sustained rate of fire , the rate of fire at which the gunner can fire continuously without overheating , is approximately 85 r / min .
= = Operational history = =
The M249 LMG entered service in 1984 as the M249 SAW . Initial reactions to the gun were mixed : it fulfilled the light machine gun role well when fired from the ground , but was not as effective when fired from the shoulder or hip . It was praised for its extreme durability and massive firepower , though a number of areas for improvement were highlighted : the blank firing attachment fitted poorly , the bipod was very weak and broke easily , the sling attachment was awkward , and there were many slots and gaps which accumulated dirt . Some claimed that the heavy @-@ barrelled version of the M16 rifle was a more effective light machine gun .
The M249 SAW was not used heavily before the 1991 Gulf War , though it has been used in every major U.S. conflict since . American personnel in Somalia in 1993 , Bosnia in 1994 , Kosovo in 1999 , Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq since 2003 have been issued M249s . Surplus weapons were donated to Bolivia , Colombia and Tunisia .
Tactically , SAWs are either carried with a maneuvering unit and fired while handheld , or positioned to remain stationary and provide covering fire for other units . The usual load of ammunition carried for the weapon is 1 @,@ 000 @-@ rounds in five 200 @-@ round belts , although up to 500 extra rounds generally get loaded into 100 @-@ round soft pouches .
= = = Persian Gulf War = = =
A supply of 929 M249 SAWs was issued to personnel from the U.S. Army and USMC during the Persian Gulf War . Although exposure to combat was scarce , M249 gunners who were involved in fighting mainly used their weapons to provide cover fire for friendly maneuvering troops from fixed positions , rather than maneuvering with them . There were many complaints about the weapons clogging up with sand after prolonged use in the desert environment .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
The standard squad automatic weapon in Afghanistan is the M249 with PIP kit , which serves alongside its heavier counterpart , the M240 machine gun . Most M249s were given a collapsible buttstock immediately prior to the invasion to reduce its length and make the weapons more practical for parachuting and close @-@ quarters combat . Special Operations troops typically favor the shorter Para version of the weapon , which weighs much less .
A report entitled Lessons Learned in Afghanistan was released by Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Dean and SFC Sam Newland of the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Center in 2002 . They found that 54 % of SAW gunners had problems maintaining their weapons , and 30 % reported that the gun rusted easily . Soldiers reported ammunition boxes rattling and falling off . 80 % percent of soldiers surveyed were pleased with the weapon 's accuracy and lethality , yet only 64 % claimed they were " confident in their weapon " . Weapons clogging up with sand in the desert seems to be the main complaint .
= = = Iraq War = = =
The PIP and Para versions of the M249 have been used in the Iraq war since the invasion . By 2004 , many M249s had been in service for almost 20 years and were becoming increasingly unreliable . Soldiers were requesting replacements and new features , and there are reports of soldiers holding their weapons together with duct tape . The lethality of the 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition has been called into question by reports of enemy soldiers still firing after being hit multiple times . As in previous conflicts , the sandy environment causes the M249s and other weapons to clog up and jam if they are not cleaned very regularly .
Operation Iraqi Freedom PEO Soldier Lessons Learned , a report on the performance of weapons in the Iraq War , was published by Lieutenant Colonel Jim Smith of the U.S. Army on May 15 , 2003 . Smith spoke positively of the M249 , claiming that it " provided the requisite firepower at the squad level as intended " . He praised the SPW variant , noting that its " short barrel and forward pistol grip allowed for very effective use of the SAW in urban terrain " . At the National Defense Industrial Association in 2007 , LTC Al Kelly of the 1st Battalion , 17th Infantry gave a presentation describing the M249 as having " good range , excellent reliability " and an " excellent tracer " . He said that a cloth pouch was preferred over the plastic box for holding linked ammunition , and that " knock @-@ down power is poor but is compensated by rate of fire " .
In December 2006 , the Center for Naval Analyses released a report on U.S. small arms in combat . The CNA conducted surveys on 2 @,@ 608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past 12 months . Only troops who fired their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate . 341 troops were armed with M249 SAWs , making up 13 percent of the survey . 71 percent of M249 users ( 242 troops ) reported that they were satisfied with the weapon . 40 percent of users preferred feeding the SAW with the soft 100 @-@ round pouch , while 21 percent chose the soft and hard 200 @-@ round pouches each . 60 percent ( 205 troops ) were satisfied with handling qualities , such as handguards , size , and weight - of those dissatisfied , just under half thought that it was too heavy . M249 users had the lowest levels of satisfaction with weapon maintainability at 70 percent ( 239 troops ) , most due to the difficulty in removing and receiving small components and poor corrosion resistance . The SAW had the highest levels of stoppages at 30 percent ( 102 troops ) , and 41 percent of those that experienced a stoppage said it had a large impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and re @-@ engage their target . 65 percent ( 222 troops ) did not need their machine guns repaired while in theater . 65 percent ( 222 troops ) were confident in the M249 's reliability , defined as level of soldier confidence their weapon will fire without malfunction , and 64 percent ( 218 troops ) were confident in its durability , defined as level of soldier confidence their weapon will not break or need repair . Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their own maintenance . 60 percent of M249 users offered recommendations for improvements . 17 percent of requests were for making the weapon lighter , and another 17 percent were for more durable belt links and drums , as well as other modifications , such as a collapsible stock .
= = Variants = =
M249 PIP
The product improvement program kit replaced the original steel tubular stock with a plastic stock based upon the shape of the heavier M240 machine gun . The change in stocks allowed for the addition of a hydraulic buffer system to reduce recoil . In addition , the dual gas port settings were reduced to only one ; variants with the product improvement kit can no longer fire at a higher cyclic speed . A handguard was added above the barrel to prevent burns , and the formerly fixed barrel changing handle was swapped for a folding unit . Certain parts were beveled or chamfered to prevent cutting soldiers ' hands and arms . Other changes involved the bipod , pistol grip , flash suppressor , and sights . Over the years , additional modifications have been introduced as part of the Soldier Enhancement Program and Rapid Fielding Initiative . These include an improved bipod , 100 – and 200 – round fabric " soft pack " magazines ( to replace the original plastic ammunition boxes ) , and Picatinny rails for the feed tray cover and forearm so that optics and other accessories may be added .
M249 Paratrooper
The M249 Paratrooper , often called " Para " , is a compact version of the gun with a shorter barrel and sliding aluminum buttstock based on that of the Minimi Para , so @-@ called because of its intended use by airborne troops . It is much shorter and considerably lighter than the regular M249 at 893 mm ( 35 in ) long and 7 @.@ 1 kg ( 16 lb ) in weight . The Army 's Rapid Fielding Initiative is in the process of replacing the original collapsible buttstock with an adjustable model based loosely on the design of the M4 carbine buttstock .
M249 Special Purpose Weapon
This lightweight and shorter version of the M249 is designed to meet USSOCOM special operations forces requirements . The barrel changing handle , magazine insertion well , and vehicle mounting lug all have been removed to reduce weight . As a result , the SPW cannot be mounted in vehicles or use M16 magazines . Picatinny rails were added to the feed cover and forearm for the mounting of optics , lasers , vertical foregrips , and other M4 SOPMOD kit accessories . The SPW has a detachable bipod . The SPW 's lightweight barrel is longer than that of the Para model , giving it a total length of 908 mm ( 36 in ) and a weight of 5 @.@ 7 kg ( 13 lb ) .
Mk 46 Mod 0
This is a variant of the special purpose weapon adopted by USSOCOM . The program , which led to both the Mk 46 and Mk 48 , was headed by the US Naval Special Warfare Command ( NAVSPECWAR ) . Like the SPW , the barrel changing handle , magazine insertion well , and vehicle mounting lugs have been removed to save weight . However , the Mk 46 retains the standard M249 plastic buttstock instead of the collapsible buttstock used on the SPW . The Picatinny rail forearm differs slightly from the SPW . The Mk 46 has the option of using the lighter SPW barrel or a thicker , fluted barrel of the same length .
Mk 48
This is a 7 @.@ 62 × 51mm NATO version of the Mk 46 , used by USSOCOM , when a heavier cartridge is required . It is officially classified as an LWMG ( Light Weight Machine Gun ) and was developed as a replacement for the Mk 43 Mod 0 / 1 . The M60 based machine guns are a great deal more portable than the heavier M240 based designs used elsewhere in the US military in the infantry medium machine gun role . However , the M60 based designs have a long history of insufficient reliability . Trials conducted through the mid @-@ 1990s led the US Army to replace its M60 with the M240B GPMGs . The M240B , however , weighs in at ≈ 27 @.@ 5 lb and is about 49 " long with the standard barrel . NAVSPECWAR was reluctant to give up the increased portability of the M60 ( ≈ 22 @.@ 5 lb , 37 @.@ 7 " OAL with the shortest " Assault Barrel " ) designs in spite of the M240 's increased reliability . A request was put in for a new machine gun in 2001 , and FN responded with a scaled @-@ up version of the M249 weighing in at ≈ 18 @.@ 5 lb with an OAL of ≈ 39 @.@ 5 " . The new design achieved much better reliability than the M60 @-@ based weapons while bettering its light weight and maintaining the same manual of arms as the already in @-@ use M249 . USSOCOM was slated to begin receiving deliveries of the new gun in August 2003 .
M249S
This is a semiautomatic version manufactured for the civilian sport shooting market . Derived from the fully automatic military firearm , this version shares most of the major components of the military models with the exception of the firing mechanism and the addition of welded internal components to prevent conversion to a fully automatic mode . Notably , this version retains the ability to be belt fed , an uncommon feature in civilian firearms .
= = Future = =
An extensive maintenance program intended to extend the service lives of M249s has been carried out to refurbish rifles , especially units that suffered from wear due to heavy use . In particular the warping of the receiver rails on the early @-@ models was a defect that occurred in heavily used first @-@ generation M249s . This defect however has been completely eliminated on later models and is no longer present on the current @-@ issue M249 , which has reinforced rails and full @-@ length welding rather than spot welding .
The U.S. Marine Corps tested the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle , a lighter , magazine @-@ fed rifle to supplement and partially replace the M249 . With plans to buy up to 4 @,@ 100 IARs to complement and partially replace its 10 @,@ 000 M249s ( of which 8 @,@ 000 will remain in service ) held at platoon level , it has acquired 450 of the Heckler & Koch HK416 – based weapons for testing . The U.S. Army does not plan to introduce the IAR . Colonel Robert Radcliffe of the U.S. Army Infantry Research and Development Center stated that an automatic rifle with a magazine would lower the effectiveness and firepower of a squad . While the Marine Corps has 13 @-@ man squads , the Army organizes its soldiers into squads of nine and needs considerably more firepower from the squad machine gunners to make up the difference . The U.S. Army does , however , want to replace aging M249s with newer weapons . They are currently working on replacing the M249 's buttstock with a redesigned adjustable stock .
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= Ursa Minor =
Ursa Minor ( Latin : " Smaller She @-@ Bear " , contrasting with Ursa Major ) , also known as the Little Bear , is a constellation in the Northern Sky . Like the Great Bear , the tail of the Little Bear may also be seen as the handle of a ladle , hence the North American name , Little Dipper : seven stars with four in its bowl like its partner the Big Dipper . It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star .
Polaris , the brightest star in the constellation , is a yellow @-@ white supergiant and the brightest Cepheid variable star in the night sky , ranging from an apparent magnitude of 1 @.@ 97 to 2 @.@ 00 . Beta Ursae Minoris , also known as Kochab , is an aging star that has swollen and cooled to become an orange giant with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 08 , only slightly fainter than Polaris . Kochab and magnitude 3 Gamma Ursae Minoris have been called the " guardians of the pole star " . Planets have been detected orbiting four of the stars , including Kochab . The constellation also contains an isolated neutron star — Calvera — and H1504 + 65 , the hottest white dwarf yet discovered , with a surface temperature of 200 @,@ 000 K.
= = History and mythology = =
In the Babylonian star catalogues , Ursa Minor was known as MAR.GID.DA.AN.NA , the Wagon of Heaven , Damkianna . It appeared on a pair of tablets containing canonical star lists that were compiled around 1000 BC , the MUL.APIN , and was one of the " Stars of Enlil " — that is , the northern sky . The possible origin of its name was its appearing to rotate like a wheel around the north celestial pole .
The first mention of Ursa Minor in Greek texts was by philosopher Thales of Miletus in the 6th century BC . He pointed out that it was a more accurate guide to finding true north than Ursa Major . This knowledge had reportedly come from the Phoenicians in the eastern Mediterranean , and the constellation bore the term Phoinikē . Homer had previously only referred to one " bear " , raising the question of what he saw the stars of Ursa Minor as , or whether they were recognized as a constellation at all .
Ursa Minor and Ursa Major were related by the Greeks to the myth of Callisto and her son Arcas , both placed in the sky by Zeus . In a variant of the story in which Boötes represents Arcas , Ursa Minor represents a dog . This is the older tradition , which explains both the length of the tail and the obsolete alternate name of Cynosura ( the dog 's tail ) for Polaris , the North Star . Cynosura is also described as a nurse of Zeus , honoured by the god with a place in the sky . An alternate myth tells of two bears that saved Zeus from his murderous father Kronos by hiding him on Mount Ida . Later Zeus set them in the sky , but their tails grew long from being swung by the god . Because Ursa Minor consists of seven stars , the Latin word for " North " ( i.e. , where Polaris points ) is septentrio , from septem ( seven ) and triones ( oxen ) , from seven oxen driving a plough , which the seven stars also resemble . This name has also been attached to the main stars of Ursa Major .
Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star . Polaris is currently less than one degree away from the north celestial pole ( hence the alternative name Pole Star ) so its position in the sky is largely unaffected by the rotation of the Earth . From any point in the Northern Hemisphere the direction to Polaris is always north and its angular altitude is roughly equal to the latitude .
In Inuit astronomy , the three brightest stars — Polaris , Kochab and Pherkad — were known as Nuutuittut " never moving " , though the term is more frequently used in the singular to refer to Polaris alone . The Pole Star is too high in the sky at far northern latitudes to be of use in navigation .
= = Characteristics = =
Ursa Minor is bordered by Camelopardalis to the west , Draco to the west , and Cepheus to the east . Covering 256 square degrees , it ranks 56th of the 88 constellations in size . Ursa Minor is colloquially known in the US as the Little Dipper because its seven brightest stars seem to form the shape of a dipper ( ladle or scoop ) . The star at the end of the dipper handle is Polaris . Polaris can also be found by following a line through the two stars — Alpha and Beta Ursae Majoris — that form the end of the ' bowl ' of the Big Dipper , for 30 degrees ( three upright fists at arms ' length ) across the night sky . The four stars constituting the bowl of the Little Dipper are of second , third , fourth , and fifth magnitudes , and provide an easy guide to determining what magnitude stars are visible , useful for city dwellers or testing one 's eyesight .
The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the IAU ( International Astronomical Union ) in 1922 , is " UMi " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 22 segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 08h 41.4m and 22h 54.0m , while the declination coordinates range from the north celestial pole south to 65 @.@ 40 ° . Its position in the far northern celestial hemisphere means that the whole constellation is only visible to observers in the northern hemisphere .
= = Features = =
= = = Stars = = =
The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha to theta to label the most prominent stars in the constellation , while his countryman Johann Elert Bode subsequently added iota to phi . Only lambda and pi remain in use , likely because of their proximity to the north celestial pole . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 39 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .
Marking the Little Bear 's tail , Polaris , or Alpha Ursae Minoris , is the brightest star in the constellation , varying between apparent magnitude 1 @.@ 97 and 2 @.@ 00 over a period of 3 @.@ 97 days . Located around 432 light @-@ years away from Earth , it is a yellow @-@ white supergiant that varies between spectral types F7Ib and F8Ib , and has around 6 times the Sun 's mass , 2 @,@ 500 times its luminosity and 45 times its radius . Polaris is the brightest Cepheid variable star visible from Earth . It is a triple star system , the supergiant primary star having two yellow @-@ white main @-@ sequence star companions that are 17 and 2 @,@ 400 astronomical units ( AU ) distant and take 29 @.@ 6 and 42 @,@ 000 years respectively to complete one orbit .
Traditionally called Kochab , Beta Ursae Minoris at apparent magnitude 2 @.@ 08 is only slightly less bright than Polaris . Located around 131 light @-@ years away from Earth , it is an orange giant — an evolved star that has used up the hydrogen in its core and moved off the main sequence — of spectral type K4III . Slightly variable over a period of 4 @.@ 6 days , Kochab has had its mass estimated at 1 @.@ 3 times that of the Sun via measurement of these oscillations . Kochab is 450 times more luminous than the Sun and has 42 times its diameter , with a surface temperature of approximately 4 @,@ 130 K. Estimated to be around 2 @.@ 95 billion years old , give or take 1 billion years , Kochab was announced to have a planetary companion around 6 @.@ 1 times as massive as Jupiter with an orbit of 522 days .
Traditionally known as Pherkad , Gamma Ursae Minoris has an apparent magnitude that varies between 3 @.@ 04 and 3 @.@ 09 roughly every 3 @.@ 4 hours . It and Kochab have been termed the " guardians of the pole star " . A white bright giant of spectral type A3II @-@ III , with around 4 @.@ 8 times the Sun 's mass , 1 @,@ 050 times its luminosity and 15 times its radius , it is 487 ± 8 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Pherkad belongs to a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology . Also possibly a member of this class is Zeta Ursae Minoris , a white star of spectral type A3V , which has begun cooling , expanding and brightening . It is likely to have been a B3 main @-@ sequence star and is now slightly variable . At magnitude 4 @.@ 95 the dimmest of the seven stars of the Little Dipper is Eta Ursae Minoris . A yellow @-@ white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type F5V , it is 97 light @-@ years distant . It is double the Sun 's diameter , 1 @.@ 4 times as massive , and shines with 7 @.@ 4 times its luminosity . Nearby Zeta lies 5 @.@ 00 @-@ magnitude Theta Ursae Minoris . Located 860 ± 80 light @-@ years distant , it is an orange giant of spectral type K5III that has expanded and cooled off the main sequence , and has an estimated diameter around 4 @.@ 8 times that of the Sun .
Making up the handle of the Little Dipper are Delta and Epsilon Ursae Minoris . Just over 3 @.@ 5 degrees from the north celestial pole , Delta is a white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type A1V with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 35 , located 172 ± 1 light @-@ years from Earth . Bearing the proper name of Yildun , it has around 2 @.@ 8 times the diameter and 47 times the luminosity of the Sun . A triple star system , Epsilon Ursae Minoris shines with a combined average light of magnitude 4 @.@ 22 . A yellow giant of spectral type G5III , the primary is an RS Canum Venaticorum variable star . It is a spectroscopic binary , with a companion 0 @.@ 36 AU distant , and a third star — an orange main @-@ sequence star of spectral type K0 — 8100 AU distant .
Located close to Polaris is Lambda Ursae Minoris , a red giant of spectral type M1III . It is a semiregular variable varying from magnitudes 6 @.@ 35 to 6 @.@ 45 . The northerly nature of the constellation means that the variable stars can be observed all year : the red giant R Ursae Minoris is a semiregular variable varying from magnitude 8 @.@ 5 to 11 @.@ 5 over 328 days , while S Ursae Minoris is a long period variable that ranges between magnitudes 8 @.@ 0 and 11 over 331 days . Located south of Kochab and Pherkad towards Draco is RR Ursae Minoris , a red giant of spectral type M5III that is also a semiregular variable ranging from magnitude 4 @.@ 44 to 4 @.@ 85 over a period of 43 @.@ 3 days . T Ursae Minoris is another red giant variable star that has undergone a dramatic change in status — from being a long period ( Mira ) variable ranging from magnitude 7 @.@ 8 to 15 over 310 – 315 days to a semiregular variable . The star is thought to have undergone a shell helium flash — a point where the shell of helium around the star 's core reaches a critical mass and ignites — marked by its abrupt change in variability in 1979 . Z Ursae Minoris is a faint variable star that suddenly dropped 6 magnitudes in 1992 and was identified as one of a rare class of stars — R Coronae Borealis variables .
Eclipsing variables are star systems that vary in brightness because of one star passing in front of the other rather than from any intrinsic change in luminosity . W Ursae Minoris is one such system , its magnitude ranging from 8 @.@ 51 to 9 @.@ 59 over 1 @.@ 7 days . The combined spectrum of the system is A2V , but the masses of the two component stars are unknown . A slight change in the orbital period in 1973 suggests there is a third component of the multiple star system — most likely a red dwarf — with an orbital period of 62 @.@ 2 ± 3 @.@ 9 years . RU Ursae Minoris is another example , ranging from 10 to 10 @.@ 66 over 0 @.@ 52 days . It is a semidetached system , as the secondary star is filling its Roche lobe and transferring matter to the primary .
RW Ursae Minoris is a cataclysmic variable star system that flared up as a nova in 1956 , reaching magnitude 6 . In 2003 , it was still two magnitudes brighter than its baseline , and dimming at a rate of 0 @.@ 02 magnitude a year . Its distance has been calculated as 5 @,@ 000 ± 800 parsecs ( 16 @,@ 300 light @-@ years ) , which puts its location in the galactic halo .
Taken from the villain in The Magnificent Seven , Calvera is the nickname given to an X @-@ ray source known as 1RXS J141256.0 + 792204 in the ROSAT All @-@ Sky Survey Bright Source Catalog ( RASS / BSC ) . It has been identified as an isolated neutron star , one of the closest of its kind to Earth . Ursa Minor has two enigmatic white dwarfs . H1504 + 65 is a faint ( magnitude 15 @.@ 9 ) star that with the hottest surface temperature — 200 @,@ 000 K — yet discovered for a white dwarf . Its atmosphere , composed of roughly half carbon , half oxygen and 2 % neon , is devoid of hydrogen and helium — its composition unexplainable by current models of stellar evolution . WD 1337 + 705 is a cooler white dwarf that has magnesium and silicon in its spectrum , suggesting a companion or circumstellar disk , though no evidence for either has come to light . WISE 1506 + 7027 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T6 that is a mere 11 @.@ 1 + 2 @.@ 3
− 1 @.@ 3 light @-@ years away from Earth . A faint object of magnitude 14 , it was discovered by the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) in 2011 .
Kochab aside , three more stellar systems have been discovered to contain planets . 11 Ursae Minoris is an orange giant of spectral type K4III around 1 @.@ 8 times as massive as the Sun . Around 1 @.@ 5 billion years old , it has cooled and expanded since it was an A @-@ type main sequence star . Around 390 light @-@ years distant , it shines with an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 04 . A planet around 11 times the mass of Jupiter was discovered orbiting the star with a period of 516 days in 2009 . HD 120084 is another evolved star , this time a yellow giant of spectral type G7III , around 2 @.@ 4 times the mass of the Sun . It has a planet 4 @.@ 5 times the mass of Jupiter with one of the most eccentric planetary orbits ( with an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 66 ) , discovered by precisely measuring the radial velocity of the star in 2013 . HD 150706 is a sunlike star of spectral type G0V some 89 light @-@ years distant from the Solar System . It was thought to have a planet as massive as Jupiter at a distance of 0 @.@ 6 AU , but this was discounted in 2007 . A further study published in 2012 showed that it has a companion around 2 @.@ 7 times as massive as Jupiter that takes around 16 years to complete an orbit and is 6 @.@ 8 AU distant from its Sun .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Ursa Minor is rather devoid of deep @-@ sky objects . The Ursa Minor Dwarf , a dwarf spheroidal galaxy , was discovered by Albert George Wilson of the Lowell Observatory in the Palomar Sky Survey in 1955 . Its centre is around 225000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . In 1999 , Kenneth Mighell and Christopher Burke used the Hubble Space Telescope to confirm that it had a single burst of star formation that lasted around 2 billion years that took place around 14 billion years ago , and that the galaxy was probably as old as the Milky Way itself .
NGC 6217 is a barred spiral galaxy located some 67 million light @-@ years away , which can be located with a 10 cm ( 4 in ) or larger telescope as an 11th magnitude object about 2 @.@ 5 ° east @-@ northeast of Zeta Ursae Minoris . It has been characterized as a starburst galaxy , which means it is undergoing a high rate of star formation compared to a typical galaxy .
NGC 6251 is an active supergiant elliptical radio galaxy more than 340 million light @-@ years away from Earth . It has a Seyfert 2 active galactic nucleus , and is one of the most extreme examples of a Seyfert galaxy . This galaxy may be associated with gamma @-@ ray source 3EG J1621 + 8203 , which has high @-@ energy gamma @-@ ray emission . It is also noted for its one @-@ sided radio jet — one of the brightest known — discovered in 1977 .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
The Ursids , a prominent meteor shower that occurs in Ursa Minor , peaks between December 18 and 25 . Its parent body is the comet 8P / Tuttle .
= = = Chinese constellation = = =
The map of Ursa Minor in the Chinese constellation :
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= Japanese settlement in Palau =
There is a small Japanese community in Palau , which mainly consists of Japanese expatriates residing in Palau over a long @-@ term basis . A few Japanese expatriates started to reside in Palau after it gained independence in 1994 , and established long @-@ term businesses in the country . Japanese settlement in Palau dates back to the early 19th century , although large scale Japanese migration to Palau did not occur until the 1920s , when Palau came under Japanese rule and administered as part of the South Pacific Mandate . Japanese settlers took on leading administrative roles in the Japanese colonial government , and developed Palau 's economy . After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , virtually all of the Japanese population was repatriated back to Japan , although people of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan descent were allowed to remain behind . People of Japanese @-@ Palauan descent constitute a large minority of Palau 's population as a result of substantial intermarrriage between the Japanese settlers and Palauans . They generally identify with , conforming to cultural norms and daily lives with the Palauans .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1820 – 1945 ) = = =
The first recorded account of Japanese contact in Palau occurred in 1820 , when a coastal sailing ship was blown off course and eight surviving men spent five years in Palau until 1825 . Japanese traders began to establish settlements from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards , and by 1890 two Japanese trading stations had been established . Many of these traders married the daughters of local chieftains and raised local families . When Japan annexed Palau from Germany in 1914 , Japanese settlers and their descendants acted as state liaison officials and interpreters for the Japanese military administration .
A civilian government was established in 1922 with its headquarters at Koror , replacing the military administration . The civilian government initiated a programme to identify and collectivise unused land between 1923 and 1932 for redevelopment . Much of these land were used to build new industrial estates and expand towns to accommodate immigrants from Japan and Okinawa . In Japan , the government actively encouraged the Japanese and Okinawans to resettle in Micronesia , including Palau , and began establishing farming settlements . The first farming settlement was established at Ngaremlengui in 1926 , but the settlers encountered problems with its humid tropical environment and abandoned it by 1930 , although later settlements were established more successfully .
As the Great Depression resulted in massive unemployment in the late 1920s and 1930s , more Japanese and Okinawans migrated to Palau . Immigrants brought along their families and sought employment in various professions . The Japanese immigrants held administrative posts , while the Okinawans and a few Koreans worked as labourers in the agricultural , fishery and mining industries . By 1935 , the Japanese constituted at least 60 % of Palau 's population and were concentrated in urban areas such as Angaur and Koror . Some Japanese settlers took Palauan wives or mistresses , and there was a sizeable minority of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan children towards the later years of the Japanese administration .
The Japanese navy expanded their military facilities from 1937 onwards . More labourers from Japan and Korea were employed to construct the facilities to complete the facilities within a short period of time . The number of indentured labourers rose to more than 10 @,@ 000 throughout Micronesia , and placed a heavy strain on the islands ' scarce resources . Many Okinawan and Japanese labourers and permanent settlers were repartriated back to their homeland . Japanese men were conscripted into regular services , and Palauans who held administrative posts in the police force were reallocated jobs in the agricultural sector . The Japanese civilians played an important role in the islands ' propaganda activities . As food resources were cut off from Japan , many Japanese encountered greater difficulties in dealing with starvation than their Palauan counterparts , who were more knowledgeable with tropical survival skills .
= = = Recent years ( 1945 – present ) = = =
Following the Surrender of Japan to the Allied forces , Japanese military personnel and civilians were repatriated to Japan between 1945 and 1946 , although some 350 labourers and technicians were permitted to remain behind to carry out repair works to Palau 's infrastructure . However , offspring of Japanese @-@ Palauan intermarriages were allowed to remain , although a few migrated to Japan with their fathers . In the 1950s , Japanese @-@ Palauans formed an organisation , Sakura @-@ kai to assist Japanese @-@ Palauans and Japanese youths who were abandoned by their parents to search for their parents and kinsmen who were forcibly separated as a result of forced repatriation of Japanese settlers back to Japan . The organisation became a cultural organisation from the 1980s onwards , as most Japanese @-@ Palauans had reunited with their Japanese families or voluntarily chose to leave certain family separations as they were .
Palau 's interaction with Japan was kept to a minimal level during the post @-@ war years , although Okinawan fishermen occasionally visited Palau for catches from the 1960s onwards . A few Japanese nationals resettled in Palau in the 1970s , and married local Palauans . In the 1980s , Japanese businessmen set up businesses in Palau , and by 1995 there were 218 Japanese nationals residing in Palau . Of these , about half of them expressed a desire for permanent residency in Palau and a few married Palauan or Filipino women . However , the majority brought their families from Japan along , and maintained frequent contacts with Japan . Some settlers from the 1980s also consisted of former Japanese settlers who were repatriated back to Japan after World War II . Former settlers who returned to Palau usually consisted of individuals over 60 years of age , and often worked as tour guides or restaurateurs in Palau .
Many Japanese @-@ Palauans assumed key positions in the public service sector and politics . At least one ethnologist , Mark Peattie , suggested that the strong representation of Japanese @-@ Palauans in leading positions in society could be attributed to the mainstream Japanese education which they had received in their youth . Palau 's first president , Kuniwo Nakamura — who was half @-@ Japanese — fostered closer diplomatic ties between Japan and Palau during his Presidency . During a state visit to Japan in 1996 , Emperor Akihito personally received Nakamura , and the visit was commended by Palauans and Japanese alike . Nakamura 's visit prompted Japan to channel monetary aid to Palau to facilitate repair work on the Koror @-@ Babeldaob Bridge and securing special trade agreements with Japan .
= = Demographics = =
In the early years of civilian administration , the Japanese population consisted of about a few hundred individuals , and reached a little over 2 @,@ 000 by 1930 . The Japanese resident population increased at an exponential rate from the mid @-@ 1930s onwards , and there were about 15 @,@ 000 Japanese in Palau by 1938 , the vast majority of whom were concentrated in Koror . The influx of Japanese immigrants fuelled the development of Koror into a city by 1939 . The Palauans were quickly outnumbered by the Japanese , and constituted only about 16 percent of the city 's population in 1937 . The Japanese made up more than half of the islands ' population , as well as 27 % of Micronesia 's Japanese population in a 1938 census . A large minority of the Japanese populace consisted of Okinawan immigrants , as well as a few Koreans . Palau 's Japanese population was repatriated after the Japanese surrender , but people of Japanese @-@ Palauan descent remained behind and constitute a large minority of Palau 's population . A study done by the Sasakawa Pacific Island Nations Fund estimated that about 10 % of Palauans are born to a Japanese father and Palauan mother , the vast majority of whom were born before 1945 . Another study done by the Foundation for Advanced Studies in International Development from Japan in 2005 estimates that about 25 % of Palau 's populace have some Japanese ancestry .
The following table shows the increase in the Japanese population in Palau throughout the Japanese colonial era :
= = Language = =
During the Japanese colonial era , Japanese settlers mainly used Japanese in their daily discourse , and Japanese was the lingua franca used for communication between Japanese and Palauans . English was also recognised as a co @-@ official language along with Japanese , and many Japanese had at least some knowledge of the language as well . People of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan heritage were more competent in Japanese than to Palauan , especially those who attended mainstream primary schools . The Japanese also introduced the use of the Katakana script in Palauan , which was also used in informal settings . After the Japanese surrender , the use of Japanese was discouraged in place of Palauan and English . Most Japanese @-@ Palauans use Palauan in their daily discourse in favour of Japanese or English , although Japanese was used more frequently among Japanese @-@ Palauans than to those that do not have Japanese ancestry . As the number of Japanese tourists increased during the 1990s , Japanese was introduced as an elective subject to Palauan schools and in elections .
= = Religion = =
State Shinto was heavily emphasised in the 1930s as a means to promote Japanese nationalism and acculturalisation of Palauans to Japanese norms . A few shrines were built around Palau during the 1930s . Of particular note was the completion of the Taisha Nanyo Jinja ( transliterally the Great Southern Shrine ) in November 1940 at Koror , which subsequently served as the central shrine in Micronesia . Civilian participation of Shinto rituals was heavily emphasised , which focused on Japanese cultural ideals and worship of the Japanese emperor . Shinto , Zen Buddhist and Tenrikyo missions were also encouraged to establish religious missions , and the first Buddhist temple in Palau was erected in 1926 , mainly to cater to the spiritual needs of the Japanese settlers . Early Japanese settlers reportedly built small Shinto shrines in agricultural colonies before the civilian government actively encouraged religious missionary activities in Palau .
Christian missions were initially given financial support by the Japanese civilian government and were encouraged to stamp out certain Animist rituals practiced by Palauans , but many were later imprisoned from the late 1930s onwards as the Japanese became suspicious of the missionaries ' involvement in espionage activities . After the war , many of these shrines were abandoned or demolished , and Japanese @-@ Palauans chose to adopt Christianity in favour of Buddhism or Shinto . In the 1980s and 1990s , miniature replicas of the Great Shinto Shrine , Peleliu and Angaur shrines were reconstructed . Unlike Shinto shrines during the Japanese colonial era , reconstructed shrines served as memorial sites for Japanese soldiers who in battles died during the Second World War , and are visited by Japanese tourists and family members of slain soldiers .
= = Society = =
= = = Racial segregation = = =
The Japanese civilian administration segregated the Japanese immigrants from the Palauans and adopted policies that were intended to protect the welfare of the Palauans . From the 1930s onwards , focus was later shifted towards providing more for the Japanese immigrants as the civilian administration faced difficulties in meeting the demands of an increasing immigrant population . Racial segregation was practiced in most sectors of society , but was more highly pronounced in the workforce and educational sectors . Palauans faced difficulties in getting employed in administrative positions in the workforce , which was dominated by Japanese settlers . In the educational sector , Japanese children attended mainstream primary schools ( shogakko ) whose lessons are based on the mainstream curriculum as with other schools on mainland Japan . Palauan children attended " public schools " ( logakko ) and attended lessons that focused on imparting skills for menial labour . Most students from " Public schools " dropped out after completing their elementary education and some children of Japanese fathers and Palauan mothers also faced difficulties in getting enrolled into primary schools , especially for those who were born out of wedlock .
= = = Mixed @-@ race descendants = = =
During the Japanese colonial @-@ era , a sizeable minority of mixed @-@ race Japanese @-@ Palauans emerged . Japanese @-@ Palauans were offsprings of intermarriages between Japanese men and Palauan women . Most of them lived in urban areas , and were brought up in accordance to Japanese norms and values and spoke Japanese in their daily lives . A few sought further education in Japan , and at the same time had limited knowledge of Palauan customs and language , although children that were born out of wedlock reportedly had a greater exposure to their matrilineal customs and spoke both Japanese and Palauan fluently . Although Japanese @-@ Palauan children were generally classified as Japanese in official figures and had access to Japanese social privileges , many reportedly faced discrimination when placed in Japanese and Palauan circles . In rural areas where Palauans formed higher concentrations , spouses and mistresses of Japanese men were shunned upon , and Palauan nationalists ( especially Modekngei ) actively discouraged mixed unions between Japanese men and Palauan women . The Japanese government encouraged such intermarriages , and provided social benefits to women who had married Japanese men . However , only unions with civilian men were recognised and military personnel were prohibited from marrying Palauan women , although they were allowed to keep mistresses . The civilian government suppressed unions between Palauan men and Japanese women , and there was only one known case of a union between a Palauan man and a Japanese woman during the Japanese colonial @-@ era .
After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Japanese settlers were repatriated back to Japan , and male Japanese settlers who had raised Japanese @-@ Palauan families abandoned their families in favour of repatriation , reasoning that the offspring would be able to better adapt in Palau than in Japan . Many of these Palauan women raised their mixed @-@ race children singlehandedly , while others were abandoned and adopted by Palauan families . Some Japanese @-@ Palauan families migrated to Japan , but generally faced a cultural shock and petitioned to return to Palau after living in Japan for some years . Most petitions were allowed , although they were not allowed to bring their Japanese spouses along .
Second and third @-@ generation descendants of Japanese @-@ Palauans who were descended from earlier settlers generally chose to remain behind , although those who were raised in Japanese @-@ speaking families reportedly faced trouble conversing in Palauan . Most retained their Japanese surnames , but Japanese @-@ Paluans generally identified themselves as Palauans after the war . Second @-@ generation Japanese @-@ Palauans usually married Palauan women , and became assimilated with the local Palauan populace . In terms of self @-@ identification , Japanese @-@ Palauans usually emphasised their Japanese identities only on occasions when they associate with other Japanese , for instance when they participate in memorial services for Japanese soldiers who died during the Pacific War . Some Japanese @-@ Palauans also chose to be buried in Japanese cemeteries after their deaths , notably those in Koror .
= = Economy = =
The Japanese civilian administration encouraged Japanese businessmen and settlers to the expand phosphate mining and copra production , which came into commercial existence during the German colonial era . During this time , new infrastructure was built between towns — including road and harbour facilities , and electricity and sewerage lines were laid out . Immigration from Japan , Okinawa and Korea to Palau intensified as a result of new job opportunities . A state @-@ owned enterprise , Nanyo Kohatsu Kabushiki Kaisha ( South Seas Colonization Corporation ) was formed in 1936 to streamline the islands ' economic activities with the administration objective of developing the islands ' self @-@ sufficiency capabilities . In the late 1930s , Japanese pearl divers made regular visits to the Arafura Sea , and stopped by Palau from October to April . The influx of pearl divers from Japan led to the development of the island 's tourist industry , and some Japanese settlers from Saipan opened new cafés , geisha houses and liquor houses in Koror to cater to the pearl divers during their stopovers in between October to April .
When the Japanese surrendered in 1945 , Japanese business enterprises and organisations in Palau closed , effectively ending the Japanese influence on Palau 's economy . In the first two decades after the war , the American occupation government imposed strict trade restrictions with Japan . Contact with Japan was reestablished in the 1960s , starting with Okinawan fishermen who were granted fishing rights . Japanese tourists began to visit Palau in increasing numbers from the mid @-@ 1970s . The growing influx of tourists to Palau led to the restoration of heritage sites around Palau , particularly memorial sites and administrative buildings built in the Japanese era as well as Palauan longhouses to accommodate to the interests of Japanese tourists , which accounted for half of all visiting tourists . Many of Palau 's tourist sites were run and maintained by Palauan citizens of Japanese @-@ Palauan heritage , whose knowledge in Japanese and Palauan customs and languages helped to facilitate tour groups consisting of Japanese tourists .
= = Education = =
The Japanese Language School of Palau , a weekend supplementary programme , is in operation in Koror .
= = Notable people = =
Santy Asanuma , Senator
Elias Camsek Chin , former Vice President
Hersey Kyota , politician and diplomat
Kuniwo Nakamura , former President and foreign minister
Haruo Remeliik , former President
Peter Sugiyama , former politician
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= Tropical Storm Zeta =
Tropical Storm Zeta was a late @-@ developing tropical storm over the central Atlantic that formed after the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season had officially ended ( on November 30 ) and continued into January 2006 . Becoming a tropical depression at approximately midnight on December 30 ( UTC ) , it became the record @-@ breaking thirtieth tropical cyclone of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and after intensifying into Tropical Storm Zeta six hours later , it became the season 's twenty @-@ seventh named storm . Zeta was one of only two Atlantic tropical cyclones to span two calendar years ( the other being Hurricane Alice in 1954 – 55 ) .
Zeta originated from an area of low pressure on December 29 , which previously developed within an upper @-@ level trough . After becoming a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center continually predicted it would weaken rapidly . Like the previous tropical cyclone , Hurricane Epsilon , Zeta defied these predictions . The storm reached its peak strength on January 2 , 2006 before finally dissipating on January 6 . As Zeta never approached land there was no impact from the storm other than minor shipping problems . Several ships encountered the storm , and several crews in the 2005 Atlantic Rowing Race were affected by rough seas and high winds .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Zeta originated from an upper @-@ level trough that interacted with a weakening frontal system in late @-@ December 2005 . By December 28 , the trough had developed into a low pressure area roughly 750 mi ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) west @-@ northwest of the Cape Verde Islands . The following day , a low @-@ level circulation developed and convective activity began to increase around the low . By December 30 , sufficient shower and thunderstorm activity had developed for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as a tropical cyclone . Over the following several hours , convective banding developed around the storm 's center and by 0600 UTC , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Zeta , the record 28th tropical or subtropical cyclone to form during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . Operationally , however , the NHC did not begin issuing advisories on Zeta until 1700 UTC . Traveling slowly northwestward in response to a mid @-@ level low to the southwest , the storm gradually intensified in a region of favorable anticyclonic outflow .
By the afternoon of December 30 , dry air caused the system to become slightly disorganized and led forecasters to anticipate further weakening of the storm and dissipating within three days . The following day , a mid @-@ level ridge to the north caused Zeta turn westward before nearly stalling due to upper @-@ level westerlies . By this time , the storm attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) but increasing wind shear caused convection to become disorganized , resulting in a brief weakening period . Despite the shear , the shallow structure of Zeta allowed convection to regenerate and the storm gradually re @-@ intensified . Around 1800 UTC on January 1 , 2006 , Zeta attained its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) roughly 1 @,@ 035 mi ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) northwest of the Cape Verde Islands . By January 2 , the storm began tracking towards the southwest in response to a mid @-@ level trough located east of the storm . Tropical Storm Zeta continued to defy forecasts of weakening .
The effects of wind shear finally took their toll late on January 4 , and Zeta 's convection began to die down . This led to Tropical Storm Zeta weakening to a minimal tropical storm . The NHC continued to overestimate how quickly Zeta would dissipate and early on January 5 they operationally downgraded Zeta to a depression , which was later confirmed to have been an error . Zeta continued to move west @-@ northwestward , barely holding on to tropical storm status before becoming disorganized again . Zeta weakened into a tropical depression on January 6 and dissipated into a remnant later that day . With this transition , the very active 2005 hurricane season finally came to a close . The remnant low retained its identity for a further day before it dissipated 660 miles ( 1060 km ) southeast of Bermuda .
= = Impact and records = =
Several of the crews that were taking part in the 2005 Atlantic Rowing Race were affected with heavy seas and strong adverse winds from Tropical Storm Zeta . Several teams encountered winds up to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and large swells up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Although battered by torrential rain and high winds , the direction of the winds assisted some of the ships in the race by speeding them closer to Antigua . One Welsh vessel was blown 25 mi ( 40 km ) off @-@ course , ending with an encounter with a 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) shark that battered their boat . The ship Liberty Star made several reports of strong winds from Tropical Storm Zeta , including one of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds early on December 31 , when the ship was about 45 miles ( 75 km ) north of the storm .
When Zeta formed at 0600 UTC on December 30 , it became the second latest @-@ forming tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic . Only Hurricane Alice of December 1954 formed later than Zeta , becoming a tropical storm around 1200 UTC . Additionally , Zeta became the second known Atlantic tropical cyclone , along with Alice , to exist in two calendar years . Tropical Storm Zeta also extended the record number of storms to form in the 2005 season to twenty @-@ eight , seven more than the previous record held by the 1933 season .
Although the storm affected several vessels during its existence , no land areas were threatened by Zeta . As a result , the NHC did not issue any tropical storm watches or warnings .
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= Connor ( Angel ) =
Connor is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon and Tim Minear for the television series Angel . The character is portrayed as an infant by the triplets Connor , Jake , and Trenton Tupen and as a teenager by Vincent Kartheiser . Connor has a recurring role in season three , becomes a regular in season four , and has his last television appearance in the series finale as a guest star . He continues his story in the canonical comic book series Angel : After the Fall .
Within the series , Connor is the superhuman son of the title character Angel , who is a vampire . Introduced in the third season as a newborn , Connor is kidnapped and taken to a hell dimension in an act of revenge against his father . He returns as a battle @-@ hardened , disturbed teenager who has been raised to hate Angel . His consequent violent and estranged relationship with his father and increasing internal conflict making him shift alliances between protagonists and antagonists forms the storyline for his character . Towards the end of season four , events take their toll on Connor 's sanity , and his memories are rewritten to give him a normal life . The next time he appears in season five , Connor is a well @-@ adjusted person . At the return of his memories , Connor finally reconciles with Angel in the series finale . The comic book series follows Connor accepting his abilities and role of a hero in addition of maintaining a normal life as a college student .
Created to give Angel an " emotional " connection , the infant Connor was used to develop other characters . After he grows up , he initially becomes a tragic figure and foil for the protagonists before eventually evolving to a protagonist himself . Connor has received attention in academic texts related to family studies and masculinity in fiction . The character proved to be controversial among fans , while critics have given mixed views .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = = Season 3 = = = =
In a seemingly impossible event , vampires Angel and Darla had a child , the end result being Connor , a human with superhuman abilities . Connor is introduced in the episode " Lullaby , " when Darla sacrifices herself to give birth to him , by staking herself in the heart . Darla 's sacrifice for their son allows Angel to make peace with her . For the first few months of his life , Connor is jointly raised by Angel and his team , including Wesley and Cordelia , though he is constantly targeted by different factions . Connor is prophesied to destroy the time @-@ shifting demon lord Sahjhan . In attempt to negate the prophecy , he travels through time and rewrites the prophecy to read " The father will kill the son " in reference to Angel and Connor , and recruits Angelus 's nemesis Daniel Holtz whose family the vampire killed centuries ago with Darla . Wesley kidnaps the baby in a misguided effort to save his life from Angel , conveniently leading him into the hands of Holtz . Holtz steals the baby and is forced to escape to the hell dimension Quor 'Toth : Darkest of the dark world .
Holtz raises Connor as his son and instills him with a deep hatred of Angel , although revealed later that he also occasionally abuses Connor when training him out of his hatred towards Connor 's parents . As time runs more quickly in Quor 'Toth , Connor ages at an accelerated rate in relation to time on Earth . Surviving the hell , a teenage Connor returns with the goal of avenging the Holtz family by killing Angel . However , after failing in his first attempt on Angel 's life , Connor tentatively begins to reconcile with him . Fearful of the development , Holtz has himself killed by Justine Cooper in a manner that frames Angel for the action . In the finale " Tomorrow " , an enraged Connor seals Angel in a metal box and sinks him to the bottom of the ocean .
= = = = Season 4 = = = =
The opening episode " Deep Down " picks up three months after last season . Angel returns , and Holtz ' deception is revealed . Relations are shaky as Angel kicks Connor out of the house in punishment for sinking him , but secretly keeps a protective eye on him from afar . Stricken by the betrayal of his adoptive father and the apparent abandonment by his real one , Connor seeks solace in Cordelia 's arms . When an all @-@ powerful demon lord The Beast rises from the ground at the place he was born , Connor feels responsible . As The Beast causes fire to rain from the sky in an apparent apocalypse , Cordelia sleeps with Connor to give him some happiness before the end . While an apocalypse does not occur , Angel ( also in love with Cordelia ) doesn 't take kindly to the development , causing another rift between him and Connor . Unbeknownst to all , Cordelia is possessed to be with Connor by a cosmic entity , Jasmine , looking to give herself birth in this world through their union . As Cordelia becomes pregnant and manipulates Connor into helping her sacrifice an innocent girl for their child , his inhuman actions begin conflicting with his inner good , accelerating his already deteriorating mental health .
Jasmine arrives as a grown woman and immediately bewitches everyone to bask in immense joy and do her bidding . Connor is the only one left in misery because of sharing a blood link with her , which results in his further isolation . As Jasmine enacts her plans for world domination , Angel and his team break free from her spell . Caught between his father and daughter , Connor initially supports Jasmine against Angel , but this conflict , combined with the belief that neither truly cares about him , eventually makes him completely snap . Connor kills Jasmine after Angel manages to break her hold over the city but fails to kill her . An emotional wreck and attempting suicide , Connor wires himself , a comatose Cordelia , and shop full of innocent people to explosives . The season finale ( " Home " ) shows Angel desperate to save his son . Angel agrees to take over Wolfram & Hart in exchange for Connor 's life . As per the agreement , Connor is to have a whole new existence as an ordinary boy who is raised in a happy family . Other than Angel , everyone 's memories are rewritten to accommodate this new reality .
= = = = Season 5 = = = =
A few months after the events of season 4 , episode " Origin " shows Connor as the son of Laurence and Colleen Reilly . Connor crosses paths with Angel when the demon warlock Cyvus Vail draws him out to make him fulfill his destiny of killing Sahjhan . Angel informs Connor of his special abilities and helps prepare him for the fight , but he does not reveal that he is Connor 's real father . As the duel with Sahjhan begins , Connor is outmatched due to having forgotten his formidable fighting skills . Meanwhile , Wesley discovers Angel 's deception of altering reality . Distrusting Angel , Wesley shatters the Orlon Window , which restores Connor 's , Wesley 's , and Illyria 's memories . Remembering his old self and discovering that Sahjhan is directly responsible for all the pain he has endured , Connor slips to his original persona of ' demon @-@ killer ' and dispatches Sahjhan with ease .
In " Not Fade Away " the finale of the series , Angel visits Connor for coffee on the eve of his final battle with the Circle of the Black Thorn . Connor reveals that he remembers that Angel is his father . He tells Angel he is grateful for all he has done for him , but he prefers to leave it at that . When Angel fights Marcus Hamilton , Connor shows up to fight by his father 's side ( knowing that Angel wouldn 't do something so innocuous unless the world were about to end ) , saving Angel from being staked by Hamilton and helping him gain the upper hand . As the Senior Partners begin to exact their vengeance , Angel tells Connor to go home to his foster parents and assures him that as long as Connor is safe , the Partners can never destroy Angel .
= = = Literature = = =
The comic series Angel : After the Fall , picks up immediately after the events of the television series . Connor is shown sprinting home as ordered by Angel . He debates going back but gets drawn into the battle when the whole city is sent to hell by the Senior Partners . A veteran of hell , Connor takes it upon himself to provide sanctuary to humans and good demons . Along to help him are the benevolent werewolf Nina Ash , the mutant Gwen Raiden , and the vampire Spike . Connor also becomes much closer to Angel as he joins his newest battle to wrestle back control of the city from Demon Lords . Part of the story centers on Connor and Gwen 's romance , which ends when he discovers Gwen has betrayed the team .
Following the event , Gunn reverts Illyria to her demonic form , after which , Illyria decides to wholly collapse time and all existence . In an attempt to prevent Angel and his team from stopping Illyria , Gunn mortally wounds Connor . Connor pleads with Angel not to let the Senior Partners win and assures him that he is a good person despite being a vampire . Connor then dies in Angel 's arms . He is restored to life when Angel provokes Gunn into killing him , forcing the Senior Partners to turn back time to the moment of the original alleyway fight in the television finale . All those who died since the city was sent to hell come back to life and have their memories of the intervening time intact .
Spike : After the Fall , a companion piece to Angel : After the Fall , shows how Connor came about to form his alliance with Spike shortly after Los Angeles went to hell . Connor appears when Spike and Illyria are in a violent showdown with a group of demonic women . Catching the demonic leader off @-@ guard , he rescues the last human hostage and then has to be rescued by Spike . On their second encounter , the two strikes up a connection immediately leading to their joint crusade of saving the remaining humans . Connor is set to appear in the arcs of Angel and Faith .
Connor appears in the Family Reunion arc of Angel & Faith . ' Willow , on a quest to restore magic to herself and the world asks Angel and Faith to travel from London to LA with her so she can use the residual magic in Buffy 's scythe and Connor 's connection to Quor 'toth to reopen the tear in reality at the Hyperion Hotel to get to a dimension that has magic . Angel & Faith agree to this in order to gain the piece of Giles 's soul in the scythe , but will only help reopen the tear and go to Quor 'toth if Connor agrees to it . Connor is living a normal life as a college student studying social work with a girlfriend . Though initially disappointed Angel ignored his attempts to contact his father , Connor is glad to have Angel in his life and realizes that his normal life is precious , but he still wants Angel to be a part of it . Angel is genuinely proud of the man his son has become . Connor agrees that magic needs to be returned to the world as the most vulnerable in society are already starting to lose hope without it .
Once in Quor 'toth , Connor briefly falls back into more aggressive behavior before he is able to shake off the negative influences of the dimension . His fake magical memories of the childhood Wolfram & Hart created for him have faded since magic was taken from the world , but he has made enough real memories of a happy life to not fall back into his unstable behavior . Dog @-@ like demons of Quor 'toth came to fear and respect " The Destroyer " and overheard Holtz telling Connor about love . Generations of these demons expressed love and compassion in Connor 's name and were slaughtered for it . Connor , Angel , Faith and Willow are able to rescue the last few of these demons while fighting off the Old One that rules Quor 'toth and Willow sends the dog @-@ demons to a peaceful dimension .
Angel obtains the piece of Giles 's soul . Angel , Faith and Connor return to the Hotel just as the tear closes while Willow goes off on her own to find a new source of magic for Earth . Connor accepts Angel has important business to do in England , and wishes his father well . Angel agrees to spend a week in LA with his son before going back to London .
= = Character development = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
The intent for Connor 's character was to put " Angel in an emotional space . " He was meant to give Angel more to live for than just the usual " day to day " living he was experiencing . " Plus , I just love the idea of this embarrassing effect of a one @-@ night stand , ” Joss Whedon explained in his decision to introduce Angel ’ s son . The character was given the Irish name Connor , meaning ‘ counselor ’ or ' helping warrior ' , to match Angel 's Irish ancestry . Three different babies , triplets Connor , Jake , and Trenton Tupen , were chosen to portray Connor so that none of them had to remain on the set for very long . Baby Connor was a main focus of season three , but the creators were well aware of the limitations of a baby character . With Connor ’ s initial role in plot decided , they came up with the concept of a ' teenage ' version for further appearances .
Vincent Kartheiser , then 23 , was looking for something more stable than the usual feature movies . He decided to audition after his agent sent him the role and tapes of all previous seasons . The producers wanted the character to be a surprise to audiences , so not even Kartheiser was informed that he was trying out for Angel 's son . Instead he auditioned for a character created for the purpose of audition , ‘ the Street Kid ’ , a normal teenager who had Angel as his guardian . " Right away everyone kind of had a good feeling about me joining the cast , " Vincent says . " It seemed that I just fit right in . " Kartheiser was excited after learning that his real role was ' Angel 's son , a demon killer from Quor 'toth . ’ He was confused about his portrayal , thinking that the character was to have a " living @-@ in @-@ the @-@ brush kind of ‘ failed being ’ attitude . " Instead , he was told to just " stand up straight , [ use a ] normal voice , " and let a regular boy come on . Vincent Kartheiser was initially contracted for three episodes with an option to pick him up further .
= = = Characterization = = =
Teenage Connor is an angry , brooding , intense , and volatile teenager who is vindictive towards Angel . Vincent Kartheiser described him as withdrawn and " not willing to open up to the group happiness everyone is so inclined to be part of " . He also highlighted his ' alienation ' of this world and resulting caution and unwillingness to trust others . Tim Minear further characterizes Connor by his strong need for family which " means everything to this kid because he 's never had one " and put emphasis on his " conflicted " personality triggered by his upbringing . David Fury and Minear also highlight Connor 's similarity to Angel . Fury worked on the resemblance of strength , fighting style , and personality . Minear compared their trait of accepting responsibility even in the worst times . Intending to show Connor as a formidable fighter , Kelly A. Manners described him as " quite the hunter , quite the killer . " Kartheiser notes him as " truly badass " , and jokingly compares his fighting style to that of ' Jackie Chan ' , He is attracted to women older than him , which becomes a running gag in the series .
Connor , despite being the son of two " vampires , " is meant to be " human " with otherwise super powers . Due to this , he wasn ’ t given the vampire makeup of the series . Kartheiser expresses his simultaneous joy and dismay at this , considering makeup an added benefit for the character and agreeing that the lack of it saved him much time . Connor was initially clad in clothes made of animal skin , and his attire was said to resemble ' Peter Pan ' and ' Robin Hood ' . He was also wearing , as a trophy , a necklace made of parts of demons he killed in hell . After he settles in this world , he drops the necklace and is given a more casual set of clothes : jeans , t @-@ shirts , and jackets . The concept behind Connor ’ s wardrobe was that , unconcerned with this world ’ s fashion sense , he " just took whatever was available . " Yet , one interviewer notices his clothing to be " conservative [ .. ] for somebody who 's never seen an advert " . Connor 's hairstyle at the start was short and choppy as if cut with a knife . Afterward he 's given a modern and cleaner look with longer , styled hair . Kartheiser was critical of the new hair style calling it ' David Cassidy hair @-@ do ' and feeling it was a ' little bit heavy ' .
Connor undergoes dramatic changes in season five . Very much an opposite to his earlier persona , the only features common with his previous self are his protectiveness of loved ones , attraction to older women , and later his fighting prowess . Otherwise he 's a prosperous , sweet young man , due to his fake memories of a happy childhood . Jeffrey Bell wanted to highlight Connor 's " well @-@ adjusted " mentality for this season . Vincent calls him a " happy " person and liked playing this version more because he has been playing the " brooding " version for a year and a half year . The comic book Connor develops in the same direction as he starts emerging a hero still keeping his pleasant personality . Joss Whedon characterizes the comic book Connor as " the closest thing to a superhero hell has ' because he has powers without any of the weaknesses of the vampire , and is well adjusted . Brain considers him " one of the coolest characters in any series or comics " .
= = = Story progression = = =
Characteristic to Joss Whedon 's characters , Connor goes through drastic changes with the series progression . Introduced as an ' impossible birth ' at the start of season three , as an infant the character still had little chance of his own development . So he became an agent for evolution of others ; Darla through him , redeems herself of her villainous acts spanning two television series , and Wesley transform from a goofy sidekick to a brooding anti @-@ hero . Once these developments came to fruition , the creators chose to upgrade Connor to a teen . Taking advantage of the fantasy genre , they were able to accelerate his growth within a few weeks of the show 's normal timeline , thus not affecting the ages of the rest of the characters and setting up stage for the next act . The middle of season three sees the infant kidnapped by Angel 's long @-@ term adversary Holtz , who takes Connor to a hell dimension where " time moves differently , " explains David Greenwalt . " We didn 't want to raise a baby for 18 years . "
Connor returns near the end of the season as a feral teenage warrior who is vindictive towards Angel . Connor 's age at his return is disputed : both the creators and episodes vary between putting him at 16 and 18 . Regarding Connor 's upbringing , Mere Smith elaborates that " Holtz has brought up Connor to hate his father , his father is the devil as far as Holtz is concerned and he tells Connor that " This development allowed the writers to explore a unique ' foil ' to protagonists because Connor was established to be " deep down " much like Angel himself . Minear goes on to explain with Smith that immediately following Connor 's return from hell , Angel had started " converting the boy to his side , " showing him that he 's no longer a bad guy . Just when Connor is bonding with Angel , Holtz kills himself upon sensing the danger of their reconciliation . This makes Connor back track and sets off a back and forth pattern that continues to repeat till the end of season four with Cordelia and then Jasmine taking Holtz ' position between father and son .
Much of Connor 's development in season three and four is his continuous shifting alliances between protagonists and antagonists ; he is unable to find his place or his purpose for being . Jeffrey Bell says that all the confusing and conflicting circumstances never allow Connor a break , which he thinks " makes him empathetic in midst of making all wrong choices " . Steven S. DeKnight says :
We really wanted to highlight [ .. ] that he is a tragic victim of circumstance . He never had a childhood , he 's been lied to and manipulated and in this episode we find out his whole reason for being was to bring this other thing into this world , so he 's been played his entire life . You really root for him to make the right decision in this one , but you know tragic figure he doesn 't .
Season four also sees the writers exploring teenage sexuality through him , in a small arc with Faith , with whom Steven S. DeKnight compares him in their characterization of misguided youth with superpowers ; and the overarching arc with his father 's love Cordelia . Jeffrey Bell states Arthurian Legend 's animosity between King Arthur , his son Mordred , and their love triangle with Guinevere as inspiration for the Connor @-@ Cordelia @-@ Angel plot line . Whedon notes that while he already has decided that Cordelia and Connor were going to have sex , the story had to be changed and move faster because Charisma Carpenter became pregnant . The Cordelia plot line additionally gave writers opportunity to explain Connor 's birth via Jasmine , a character brought in to replace Carpenter as final villain . Taking Jasmine as a base point the writers started connecting back the dots they 'd set up in previous seasons . In the words of DeKnight , " It 's always been the big mystery of how and why Darla and Angel have a child , ' cause vampires are sterile . We find out this miracle birth was created kind of like a secret ingredient all planned out to sleep with Cordelia and create this superbeing . "
Regarding the resolution of the character at season four and dropping of Kartheiser from regular cast , Minear says that they had an idea at the conception of teenage Connor that he would only last a season , and " it was time to end the character 's story " . But , they changed his original " violent , morbid " sendoff to a relatively happy one , citing their likability of actor and character as the reason . Also it was " nice to give someone a happy ending for once . " Kartheiser was satisfied with the sendoff , particularly because the issue between Angel and Connor was confronted :
That to me is the soul of the character . The name of the show is Angel so it all comes back to him . For Connor , everything stems from this place with Angel and Holtz , and when we got the opportunity for him to let that out , I think he came out of his tough shell and showed a little bit of his sensitivity . He showed that he was hurt by his father and that he was hurt by Holtz .
The last scene of Angel watching memory @-@ wiped Connor dine with his new family and slipping away quietly was Whedon 's idea , derived from 1937 's classic movie Stella Dallas :
" I 've given up my child . I see my child is happy , and does not know me , and I 'm happy . That is the thing that made Stella Darlas the greatest , the thing that made this episode work . "
Despite Whedon 's claim that the fourth season is a ‘ final statement ' for Connor , the character returns for a couple guests appearances in the fifth . This season sees a big development with a " well @-@ adjusted " Connor and the long @-@ due reconciliation of father and son ; Connor is able to accept and appreciate all Angel did for him after his memories return . Minear and Bell were open to and had mentioned the possibility of character 's return to Kartheiser at the end of season four . But following his return , Kartheiser isn 't sure if the re @-@ appearance was not only due to the necessity of tying up loose ends after the series was reckoned to be canceled . Originally Kartheiser was asked to appear for one episode " Origin " but the crew and Kartheiser enjoyed working with revamped Connor so much that " it became clear to [ them ] that he had to appear for the series finale " .
Connor again returns for Angel : After the Fall . Brian Lynch was initially confused about how to incorporate Connor into the story . It was Whedon who hit upon the arc that Connor would follow in the series . He said , " Connor 's a young kid , he 's got powers , he doesn 't have any of the bad things , he 's not a vampire , so maybe he would enjoy it , and maybe he would be the closest thing to a superhero hell has " . Well @-@ adjusted now , Connor is shown " fully embracing his qualities and role of a hero " for the comic series . Originally Lynch had planned for Nina Ash to be more involved in his storyline , but with time it became clear to him that Connor 's story is more about his relationship with Angel . So Nina fell to the wayside and Connor @-@ Angel went on to become a much closer father @-@ son unit . Connor also went from the character Lynch had the most trouble with to the character he enjoys writing most . Regarding Connor 's upcoming role in Angel & Faith , Whedon joked about time @-@ traveling him to the early 1960s and making him an ad executive , referencing Kartheiser ' s recent role in the critically acclaimed television series Mad Men . Author Christos Gage describes the necessity of Connor 's appearance with " otherwise Angel is just a deadbeat Dad ! "
In the Angel & Faith Comics , Connor returns in the " Family Reunion " arc , beginning with Issue # 11 . Willow telling Angel that she needs Connor to act as a compass to Quor 'toth , the world he grew up in , to help restore magic to the world . Connor is now a college student studying social work with a girlfriend named Natalie he 's been dating 3 months . He rapidly agrees to help Willow and a very reluctant Angel . Connor has seen the toll on society , especially the disenfranchised , that has occurred since magic seed was destroyed in Buffy Season 8 . With a blood ritual using Connor 's blood , Willow tears a fabric in reality to Quor 'toth and Willow , Faith , Angel , and Connor head into the " darkest of the dark worlds " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Several pieces of merchandise , based on Angel television and comic series , featuring Connor have been released . These merchandise includes a few action figures , but more prominently novels and spin @-@ off comic books . Connor stars as a regular in After the Fall 's spin @-@ off Aftermath and one @-@ shot Angel Yearbook . He is the title character of Connor : Spotlight . Continuing his appearances in other media , Connor stars in novels Dark Mirror , Love and Death , and Monolith . These appearances , though a part of official merchandise , are not considered canon .
= = = Reviews = = =
The show 's cast and crew repeatedly praised Vincent Kartheiser for his professionalism and ability to bring much to his character . " You can bet the family fortune on this kid , he can really do it , " stated director Vern Gillum . Producer Tim Minear described Vincent as one of the main reasons of their avoidance of giving the character a ghastly send @-@ off as planned before , “ We ’ ve all grown so fond of the character and the actor that we didn ’ t want do that . ” Although fans and critics reception to Kartheiser ’ s portrayal of the disturbed teen was also very positive , the character and his storylines turned out to be controversial .
His sexual relationship with his surrogate mother , Cordelia , particularly evoked attention . Most responses to this couple were negative . Darkworlds.com 's columnist Amy Berner declared them a " finalist in the Most Disturbing Couple In Television History “ . In her academic essay " The Assassination of Cordelia Chase , " Jennifer Crusie complained that this plot line led to the destruction of Cordelia 's character . Charisma Carpenter herself , despite previously noted to have fun portraying the role , became critical of the storyline over time , declaring her character ’ s seduction of a teenage boy creepy . Yet , a few gave a positive response . Liz Gasto of Moviefreak.com included the Angel – Cordelia – Connor triangle in the plus points of fourth season . Underland.com praised the plot line as a " very King Arthur like tale of love and betrayal . " Another group was neutral towards the development . In his book Blood Relations : Chosen Families in Buffy and Angel , Jes Battis simply observed that the relationship completes the already present “ circuit of erotic incest within Buffy and Angel . ” Jean Lorrah , in her academic essay " A World Without Love : The Failure of Family in Angel , " agreed with previous statements , further noting that Connor is the product of a relationship with incestuous tones : ” Angel is seduced by Darla , formerly his sire ( mother ) , now his granddaughter [ .. ] Connor ’ s life , unbeknownst to either parent , has begun . ”
Connor ’ s characterization and main storyline with his father in season three and four received mixed to positive reviews . Ben from thescifichristian.com was not fond of the initial episodes with baby Connor because Angel wasted time “ baby @-@ talking , ” but he loved the development with teenage Connor , “ The [ third ] season ends with a great storyline as Connor returns [ .. ] and betrays Angel . ” Jes Battis praised the father / son dynamics and described as “ highly dramatic and ( engagingly perverse ) ” . Journalist Sarah D. Bunting called Connor " a frustrating character " and wrote that while she " gets where he is coming from " and his ” twitchy , PTSD @-@ ish interactions ring true " , they become old too quick due to lack of real development of character and the relationship with Angel for most of season four . Kartheiser himself expressed this development concern , but he said that " Towards the end of the season I was really happy about the chances I was getting . " This last statement is echoed in Jamie Pool 's review , who called the “ ending ” to Connor " emotionally satisfying " , despite noting him to not have been particularly endearing through most of the remaining season . S.Wiebe of eclipsemagazine.com , however , described Connor ’ s overall characterization " sharp " with " really intriguing sub @-@ textual material " and among the saving graces of the season . Strega of Television Without Pity , also praised the character 's psychology , " The thing I like most is that they 've not only created a teenager who doesn 't just feel like he 's the most alienated person in the world -- he actually is , " and " I love how unloved Connor [ thinks he ] is … ” Jean Lorrah described the Darla @-@ Angel @-@ Connor @-@ Jasmine arc as " surely one of the most ambitious story arcs any television show has ever attempted “ Stacey Abbott of PopMatters called the Darla @-@ Angel @-@ Connor storyline " provocative " and " pure family melodrama " . Cityofangels.com 's Tara DiLullo summed up :
" Vincent Kartheiser [ Connor ] had a challenging year playing Angel ’ s errant son , to say the least . While audiences may have hoped for a reconciliation between the two , it was never meant to be . Connor instead started and remained [ .. ] as petulant and unsympathetic as many teens are in real life . [ His pairing with ] Cordelia completely fouled just about everyone and made him the whipping boy for fan ire . But [ Vincent ] earns serious kudos for his amazing last inning transformation of Connor from brat to tragic figure worthy of pity and understanding in Peace Out and Home . That Vincent was able to redeem Connor in such a short time is a true feat in itself and it was singularly responsible for making the finale as heartbreaking and haunting as it ended up being . "
A revamped Connor received praise during the final season . Phoenix of cityofangel.com declared Connor 's return as “ triumphant ” , saying this “ shy , sweet , happy young man ” is the kid Angel always wanted , and “ for the audience , a version of the character finally worth liking and supporting . ” Roz Kaveney , in his essay " A Sense of the Ending : Schrödinger 's Angel , " praised the new Connor as a “ heroic youth ” . Writer Brian Lynch admitted that he did not love season four 's Connor , but that he " really liked him " in season five " when he came back and he was well adjusted . "
Connor 's name is often mentioned with Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's Dawn Summers younger sister to Buffy Summers similarly created to give a strong emotional connection to the titular character . Four years after the cancellation of Angel , IGN included Connor along with Dawn in their list of classic TV 's cliché of ‘ Adding a Kid ’ as a last @-@ ditch effort to save a dying show . However they refused to comment if his addition was a good or bad choice in order to avoid swamping themselves from irate fans of either side . David Hofstede in his book What Were They Thinking ? openly criticized Connor and Dawn ’ s addition , appointing them number No.98 in his list of " 100 Dumbest Events in Television History " .
Connor 's appearance as a regular in After the Fall , was initially met with dismay by some fans . IDW representative Chris Ryall responded to these complaints with optimism , assuring the fans that the character would win them over , just the way he has been , by the time the series end . True to his words , After The Fall ’ s Connor was received positively . Brian Lynch confirmed this in an interview , stating that Connor has not only been the most pleasantly surprising character for him to write , he has been the most surprising for the fans as well , " Connor was a great character on the TV show but , I don ’ t think he was ever a favorite . But he ’ s slowly but surely become one of the most popular characters in After The Fall , which is wonderful . " He further said that he himself like the character so much now , he wants to do a book called ' Son of Angel ' based on him .
= = = Analysis = = =
Connor has been analyzed and compared with other male characters of the series in terms of the presentation and evolution of masculinity in fiction . His sexual relation with his surrogate mother , coupled with his struggles to kill his father , led to numerous speculations that mythical Greek figure Oedipus was the inspiration for the character. and references to Arthurian Legend were also made . In Erin B. Waggoner 's book Sexual rhetoric in the works of Joss Whedon , he found it interesting that the ancient Oedipus complex continues to be used as a way to underscore one 's masculinity , but he added that " Connor is not the only one [ .. ] Angel , Wes , Spike and even Fred ( through Gunn ) kill father or father figures in order to come into their own as individuals . " Further citing Gwen 's role among Connor and Gunn in the comic series triangle , he observed the unrelenting use of women as a device for men to shore up .
Stacey Abbott of PopMatters cited David Greenwalt 's statement that " Angel is about how hard it is to be a man . " Greenwalt observed that the show raises questions about what it means to be a man and does this not only through the characterization of Angel but also the men around him . He said that like other male characters , taken alone Connor may seem a stereotypical teen boy , but considered with rest of the cast offers a complex image of modern masculinity . Greenwalt also compared Connor 's journey with others in terms of identity , which he considers a poignant theme within the series . He found it ironic that Connor who was " initially the most damaged of all the characters " , was the only one able to " reconcile his actions and new man existence together " and be at peace with himself in the end .
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= Profumo affair =
The Profumo affair was a British political scandal that originated with a brief sexual relationship in 1961 between John Profumo , the Secretary of State for War in Harold Macmillan 's government , and Christine Keeler , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old would @-@ be model . In March 1963 , Profumo denied any impropriety in a personal statement to the House of Commons , but was forced to admit the truth a few weeks later . He resigned from the government and from Parliament . The repercussions of the affair severely damaged Macmillan 's self @-@ confidence , and he resigned as prime minister on health grounds in October 1963 . His Conservative Party was marked by the scandal , which may have contributed to its defeat by Labour in the 1964 general election .
When the Profumo – Keeler affair was first revealed , public interest was heightened by reports that Keeler may have been simultaneously involved with Captain Yevgeny Ivanov , a Soviet naval attaché , thereby creating a possible security risk . Keeler knew both Profumo and Ivanov through her friendship with Stephen Ward , an osteopath and socialite who had taken her under his wing . The exposure of the affair generated rumours of other scandals , and drew official attention to the activities of Ward , who was charged with a series of immorality offences . Perceiving himself as a scapegoat for the misdeeds of others , Ward took a fatal overdose during the final stages of his trial , which found him guilty of living off the immoral earnings of Keeler and her friend Mandy Rice @-@ Davies .
An inquiry into the affair by a senior judge , Lord Denning , indicated that there had been no breaches of security arising from the Ivanov connection , although Denning 's report was later condemned as superficial and unsatisfactory . Profumo subsequently sought private atonement as a volunteer worker at Toynbee Hall , an East London charitable trust . By 1975 he had been officially rehabilitated , although he did not return to public life . He died in 2006 .
Keeler found it difficult to escape the negative image attached to her by press , law and parliament throughout the Profumo affair . In various , sometimes contradictory accounts , she has challenged Denning 's conclusions relating to security issues . Ward 's conviction has been described by analysts as an act of Establishment revenge , rather than serving justice . In January 2014 his case was under review by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , with the possibility of a later reference to the Court of Appeal . Dramatisations of the Profumo affair have been shown on stage and screen .
= = Background = =
= = = Government and press = = =
In the early 1960s British news media were dominated by several high @-@ profile spying stories : the breaking of the Portland spy ring in 1961 , the capture and sentencing of George Blake in the same year and , in 1962 , the case of the Admiralty clerk , John Vassall , blackmailed into spying by the Soviets who threatened to expose his homosexuality . In October 1962 Vassall was jailed for 18 years . After suggestions in the press that Vassall had been shielded by his political masters , the responsible minister , Thomas Galbraith , resigned from the government pending inquiries . Galbraith was later exonerated by the Radcliffe inquiry , which sent two newspaper journalists to prison for refusing to reveal their sources for sensational and uncorroborated stories about Vassall 's private life . The imprisonment severely damaged relations between the press and the Macmillan government ; the New Statesman 's columnist Paul Johnson warned : " [ A ] ny Tory minister or MP ... who gets involved in a scandal during the next year or so must expect — I regret to say — the full treatment " .
= = = Profumo = = =
John Profumo was born in 1915 , of Italian descent . He first entered Parliament in 1940 as the Conservative member for Kettering , while serving with the Northamptonshire Yeomanry , and combined his political and military duties through the Second World War . He lost his seat in the 1945 general election , but was elected in 1950 for Stratford @-@ on @-@ Avon . From 1951 he held junior ministerial office in successive Conservative administrations . In 1960 , Macmillan promoted him to Secretary of State for War , a senior post outside the cabinet . After his marriage in 1954 to Valerie Hobson , one of Britain 's leading film actresses , he may have conducted casual affairs , using late @-@ night parliamentary sittings as his cover . Profumo 's tenure as war minister coincided with a period of transition in the armed forces , involving the end of conscription and the development of a wholly professional army . His performance was watched with a critical eye by his opposition counterpart George Wigg , a former regular soldier .
= = = Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies , and Astor = = =
Christine Keeler , born in 1942 , left school at 15 with no qualifications and took a series of short @-@ lived jobs in shops , offices and cafés . She aspired to be a model , and at 16 had a photograph published in Tit @-@ Bits magazine . In August 1959 , she found work as a topless showgirl at Murray 's Cabaret Club in Beak Street , Soho . This long @-@ established club attracted a distinguished clientele who , Keeler wrote , " could look but could not touch " . Shortly after starting at Murray 's , Keeler was introduced to a client , the society osteopath Stephen Ward . Captivated by his charm , she agreed to move into his flat , in a relationship she has described as " like brother and sister " — affectionate but not sexual . She left Ward after a few months to become the mistress of the property dealer Peter Rachman , and later shared lodgings with Mandy Rice @-@ Davies , a fellow Murray 's Club dancer three years her junior . The two girls left Murray 's , and attempted without success to pursue careers as freelance models . Keeler also lived for short periods with various boyfriends , but regularly returned to Ward , who had acquired a house in Wimpole Mews . There she met many of Ward 's friends , among them Lord Astor , a long @-@ time patient who was also a political ally of Profumo . She often spent weekends at a riverside cottage that Ward rented on Astor 's country estate , Cliveden , in Buckinghamshire .
= = = Ward and Ivanov = = =
Stephen Ward , born in Hertfordshire in 1912 , qualified as an osteopath in the United States . After the Second World War he began practising in Cavendish Square , London , where he rapidly established a reputation and attracted many distinguished patients . These connections , together with his personal charm , brought him considerable social success . In his spare time Ward attended art classes at the Slade school , and developed a profitable sideline in portrait sketches . In 1960 he was commissioned by The Illustrated London News to provide a series of portraits of national and international figures . These included members of the Royal family , among them Prince Philip and Princess Margaret .
Ward hoped to visit the Soviet Union to draw portraits of Russian leaders . To help him , one of his patients , the Daily Telegraph editor Sir Colin Coote , arranged an introduction to Yevgeny Ivanov ( anglicised as " Eugene " ) , listed as a naval attaché at the Soviet Embassy . British Intelligence ( MI5 ) knew from the double @-@ agent Oleg Penkovsky that Ivanov was an intelligence officer in the Soviet GRU . Ward and Ivanov became firm friends . Ivanov frequently visited Ward at Wimpole Mews , where he met Keeler and Rice @-@ Davis , and sometimes joined Ward 's weekend parties at the Cliveden cottage . MI5 considered Ivanov a potential defector , and sought Ward 's help to this end , providing him with a case officer known as " Woods " . Ward was later used by the British Foreign Office as a backchannel , through Ivanov , to the Soviet Union , and was involved in unofficial diplomacy at the time of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . His closeness to Ivanov raised concerns about his loyalty ; according to Lord Denning 's September 1963 report , Ivanov often asked Ward questions about British foreign policy , and Ward did his best to provide answers .
= = Origins = =
= = = Cliveden , July 1961 = = =
During the weekend of 8 – 9 July 1961 Keeler was among several guests of Ward at the Cliveden cottage . That same weekend , at the main house , John and Valerie Profumo were among the large gathering from the worlds of politics and the arts which Astor was hosting in honour of Ayub Khan , the president of Pakistan . On the Saturday evening , Ward 's and Astor 's parties mingled at the Cliveden swimming pool , which Ward and his guests had permission to use . Keeler , who had been swimming naked , was introduced to Profumo while trying to cover herself with a skimpy towel . She was , Profumo informed his son many years later , " a very pretty girl and very sweet " . Keeler did not know , initially , who Profumo was , but was impressed that he was the husband of a famous film star and was prepared to have " a bit of fun " with him .
The next afternoon the two parties reconvened at the pool , joined by Ivanov , who had arrived that morning . There followed what Lord Denning described as " a light @-@ hearted and frolicsome bathing party , where everyone was in bathing costumes and nothing indecent took place at all " . Profumo was greatly attracted to Keeler , and promised to be in touch with her . Ward asked Ivanov to accompany Keeler back to London where , according to Keeler , they had sex . Most commentators doubt this — Keeler was generally outspoken about her conquests , yet said nothing about sex with Ivanov until she informed a newspaper 18 months later .
On 12 July Ward reported on the weekend 's events to MI5 . He told Woods that Ivanov and Profumo had met and that the latter had shown considerable interest in Keeler . Ward also stated that he had been asked by Ivanov for information about the future arming of West Germany with atomic weapons . This request for military information did not greatly disturb MI5 , who expected a GRU officer to ask such questions . Profumo 's interest in Keeler was an unwelcome complication in their plans to use her in a honey trap operation against Ivanov , to help secure his defection . Woods therefore referred the issue to MI5 's director @-@ general , Sir Roger Hollis .
= = = Affair = = =
A few days after the Cliveden weekend , Profumo contacted Keeler . The affair that ensued was brief ; some commentators have suggested that it ended after a few weeks , while others believe that it continued , with decreasing fervour , until December 1961 . The relationship has been characterised by Keeler as an unromantic relationship without expectations , a " screw of convenience " , although she also states that Profumo hoped for a longer @-@ term commitment and that he offered to set her up in a flat . More than 20 years later , Profumo described Keeler in conversation with his son as someone who " seem [ ed ] to like sexual intercourse " , but who was " completely uneducated " , with no conversation beyond make @-@ up , hair and gramophone records .
The couple usually met at Wimpole Mews , when Ward was absent , although once , when Hobson was away , Profumo took Keeler to his home at Chester Terrace in Regent 's Park . On one occasion he borrowed a Bentley from his ministerial colleague John Hare and took Keeler for a drive around London , and another time the couple had a drink with Viscount Ward , the former Secretary of State for Air . During their time together , Profumo gave Keeler a few small presents , and once , a sum of £ 20 as a gift for her mother . Keeler maintains that although Stephen Ward asked her to obtain information from Profumo about the deployment of nuclear weapons , she did not do so . Profumo was equally adamant that no such discussions took place .
On 9 August Profumo was interviewed informally by Sir Norman Brook , the Cabinet Secretary , who had been advised by Hollis of Profumo 's involvement with the Ward circle . Brook warned the minister of the dangers of mixing with Ward 's group , since MI5 were at this stage unsure of Ward 's dependability . It is possible that Brook asked Profumo to help MI5 in its efforts to secure Ivanov 's defection — a request which Profumo declined . Although Brook did not indicate knowledge of Profumo 's relationship with Keeler , Profumo may have suspected that he knew . That same day , Profumo wrote Keeler a letter , beginning " Darling ... " , cancelling an assignation they had made for the following day . Some commentators have assumed that this letter ended the association ; Keeler insists that the affair ended later , after her persistent refusals to stop living with Ward .
= = Developing scandal = =
= = = Gordon and Edgecombe = = =
In October 1961 Keeler accompanied Ward to Notting Hill , then a run @-@ down district of London replete with West Indian music clubs and cannabis dealers . At the Rio Café they encountered Aloysius " Lucky " Gordon , a Jamaican jazz singer with a history of violence and petty crime . He and Keeler embarked on an affair which , in her own accounts , was marked by equal measures of violence and tenderness on his part . Gordon became very possessive towards Keeler , jealous of her other social contacts . He began confronting her friends , and often telephoned her at unsocial hours . In November Keeler left Wimpole Mews and moved to a flat in Dolphin Square , overlooking the Thames at Pimlico , where she entertained friends and perhaps clients . When Gordon continued to harass her he was arrested by the police and charged with assault . Keeler later agreed to drop the charge .
In July 1962 the first inklings of a possible Profumo @-@ Keeler @-@ Ivanov triangle had been hinted , in coded terms , in the gossip column of the society magazine Queen . Under the heading " Sentences I 'd like to hear the end of " appeared the wording : " ... called in MI5 because every time the chauffeur @-@ driven Zils drew up at her front door , out of her back door into a chauffeur @-@ driven Humber slipped ... " Keeler was then in New York with Rice @-@ Davies , in an abortive attempt to launch their modelling careers there . On her return , to counter Gordon 's threats , Keeler formed a relationship with Johnny Edgecombe , an ex @-@ merchant seaman from Antigua , with whom she lived for a while in Brentford , just west of London . Edgecombe was similarly possessive ; he and Gordon clashed violently on 27 October 1962 , when Edgecombe slashed his rival with a knife . Keeler broke with Edgecombe shortly afterwards because of his domineering behaviour .
On 14 December 1962 Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies were together at 17 Wimpole Mews when Edgecombe arrived , demanding to see Keeler . When he was not allowed in , he fired several shots at the front door . Shortly afterwards Edgecombe was arrested and charged with attempted murder and other offences . In brief press accounts , Keeler was described as " a free @-@ lance model " and " Miss Marilyn Davies " as " an actress " . In the wake of the incident , Keeler began to talk indiscreetly about Ward , Profumo , Ivanov and the Edgecombe shooting . Among those to whom she told her story was John Lewis , a former Labour MP whom she had met by chance in a night club . Lewis , a long @-@ standing enemy of Ward , passed the information to his one @-@ time parliamentary colleague George Wigg , who began his own investigation .
= = = Mounting pressures = = =
On 22 January 1963 the Soviet government , sensing a possible scandal , recalled Ivanov . Aware of increasing public interest , Keeler attempted to sell her story to the national newspapers . The Radcliffe tribunal 's ongoing inquiry into press behaviour during the Vassall case was making newspapers nervous , and only two showed interest in Keeler 's story : the Sunday Pictorial and the News of the World . As the latter would not join an auction , Keeler accepted the Pictorial 's offer of a £ 200 down payment and a further £ 800 when the story was published . The paper retained a copy of the " Darling " letter . The News of the World then alerted Ward and Astor — whose names had been mentioned by Keeler — and they in turn informed Profumo . When Profumo 's lawyers tried to persuade Keeler not to publish , the compensation she demanded was so large that Profumo 's lawyers considered charges of extortion . Ward informed the Pictorial that Keeler 's story was largely false , and that he and others would sue if it was printed , whereupon the paper withdrew its offer , although Keeler kept the £ 200 .
Keeler then gave details of her affair with Profumo to a police officer , who did not pass on this information to MI5 or the legal authorities . By this time , many of Profumo 's political colleagues had heard rumours of his entanglement , and of the existence of a potentially incriminating letter . Nevertheless , his denials were accepted by the government 's principal law officers and the Conservative Chief Whip , although with some private scepticism . Macmillan , mindful of the injustice done to Galbraith on the basis of rumours , was determined to support his minister , and took no action .
Edgecombe 's trial began on 14 March but Keeler , one of the Crown 's key witnesses , was missing . She had , without informing the court , gone to Spain , although at this stage her whereabouts were unknown . Her unexplained absence caused a press sensation . Every newspaper knew the rumours linking Keeler with Profumo , but refrained from reporting any direct connection ; in the wake of the Radcliffe inquiry they were , in Wigg 's later words , " willing to wound but afraid to strike " . They could only hint , by front @-@ page juxtapositions of stories and photographs , that Profumo might be connected to Keeler 's disappearance . Despite her absence the judge proceeded with the case ; Edgecombe was found guilty on a lesser charge of possessing a firearm with intent to endanger life , and sentenced to seven years ' imprisonment . A few days after the trial , on 21 March , the satirical magazine Private Eye printed the most detailed summary so far of the rumours , with the main characters lightly disguised : " Mr James Montesi " , " Miss Gaye Funloving " , " Dr Spook " and " Vladimir Bolokhov " .
= = = Personal statement = = =
The newly elected leader of the opposition Labour Party , Harold Wilson , was initially advised by his colleagues to have nothing to do with Wigg 's private dossier on the Profumo rumours . On 21 March , with the press furore over the " missing witness " at its height , the party changed its stance . During a House of Commons debate , Wigg used parliamentary privilege to ask the Home Secretary to categorically deny the truth of rumours connecting " a minister " to Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies and the Edgecombe shooting . He did not name Profumo , who was not in the House . Later in the debate Barbara Castle , the Labour MP for Blackburn , referred to the " missing witness " and hinted at a possible perversion of justice . The Home Secretary , Henry Brooke , refused to comment , adding that Wigg and Castle should " seek other means of making these insinuations if they are prepared to substantiate them " .
At the conclusion of the debate the government 's law officers and Chief Whip met , and decided that Profumo should assert his innocence in a personal statement to the House . Such statements are , by long @-@ standing tradition , made on the particular honour of the member and are accepted by the House without question . In the early hours of 22 March Profumo and his lawyers met with ministers and together agreed an appropriate wording . Later that morning Profumo made his statement to a crowded House . He acknowledged friendships with Keeler and Ward , the former of whom , he said , he had last seen in December 1961 . He had met " a Mr Ivanov " twice , also in 1961 . He stated : " There was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler " , and added : " I shall not hesitate to issue writs for libel and slander if scandalous allegations are made or repeated outside the House . " That afternoon , Profumo was photographed at Sandown Park Racecourse in the company of the Queen Mother .
While officially the matter was considered closed , many individual MPs had doubts , although none openly expressed disbelief at this stage . Wigg later said that he left the House that morning " with black rage in my heart because I knew what the facts were . I knew the truth . " Most newspapers were editorially non @-@ committal ; only The Guardian , under the headline " Mr Profumo clears the air " , stated openly that the statement should be taken at its face value . Within a few days press attention was distracted by the re @-@ emergence of Keeler , in Madrid . She expressed astonishment at the fuss her absence had caused , adding that her friendship with Profumo and his wife was entirely innocent and that she had many friends in important positions . She claimed that she had not deliberately missed the Edgecombe trial but had been confused about the date . She was required to forfeit her recognizance of £ 40 , but no other action was taken against her .
= = Exposure = =
= = = Investigation and resignation = = =
Shortly after Profumo 's Commons statement , Ward appeared on Independent Television News , where he endorsed Profumo 's version and dismissed all rumours and insinuations as " baseless " . Ward 's own activities had become a matter of official concern , and on 1 April the Metropolitan Police began to investigate his affairs . They interviewed 140 of his friends , associates and patients , maintained a 24 @-@ hour watch on his home , and tapped his telephone — this last action requiring direct authorisation from Brooke . Among those who gave statements was Keeler , who contradicted her earlier assurances and confirmed her sexual relationship with Profumo , providing corroborative details of the interior of the Chester Terrace house . The police put pressure on reluctant witnesses ; Rice @-@ Davies was remanded to Holloway Prison for a driving licence offence and held there for eight days until she agreed to testify against Ward . Meanwhile , Profumo was awarded costs and £ 50 damages against the British distributors of an Italian magazine that had printed a story hinting at his guilt . He donated the proceeds to an army charity . This did not deter Private Eye from including " Sextus Profano " in their parody of Gibbon 's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire .
On 18 April Keeler was attacked at the home of a friend . She accused Gordon , who was arrested and held . According to Knightley and Kennedy 's account , the police offered to drop the charges if Gordon would testify against Ward , but he refused . The effects of the police inquiry were proving ruinous to Ward , whose practice was collapsing rapidly . On 7 May he met Macmillan 's private secretary , Timothy Bligh , to ask that the police inquiry into his affairs be halted . He added that he had been covering for Profumo , whose Commons statement was substantially false . Bligh took notes but failed to take action . On 19 May Ward wrote to Brooke , with essentially the same request as that to Bligh , to be told that the Home Secretary had no power to interfere with the police inquiry . Ward then gave details to the press , but no paper would print the story . He also wrote to Wilson , who showed the letter to Macmillan . Although privately disdainful of Wilson 's motives , after discussions with Hollis the prime minister was sufficiently concerned about Ward 's general activities to ask the Lord Chancellor , Lord Dilhorne , to inquire into possible security breaches .
On 31 May , at the start of the parliamentary Whitsun recess , the Profumos flew to Venice for a short holiday . At their hotel they received a message asking him to return as soon as possible . Believing that his bluff had been called , Profumo then told his wife the truth , and they decided to return immediately . They found that Macmillan was on holiday in Scotland . On Tuesday 4 June Profumo confessed the truth to Bligh , confirming that he had lied , and resigned from the government and from Parliament . Bligh informed Macmillan of these events by telephone . The resignation was announced on 5 June , when the formal exchange of letters between Profumo and Macmillan was published . The Times called Profumo 's lies " a great tragedy for the probity of public life in Britain " ; the Daily Mail recorded Profumo 's fall and disgrace as the price required when public figures fell short of the expected standards of integrity . The Daily Mirror hinted that not all the truth had been told , and referred to " skeletons in many cupboards " .
= = = Retribution = = =
Gordon 's trial for the attack on Keeler began on the day Profumo 's resignation was made public . He maintained that his innocence would be established by two witnesses who , the police told the court , could not be found . On 7 June , principally on the evidence of Keeler , Gordon was found guilty and sentenced to three years ' imprisonment . The following day , Ward was arrested and charged with immorality offences . On 9 June , freed from Profumo 's libel threats , The News of the World published " The Confessions of Christine " , an account which helped to fashion the public image of Ward as a sexual predator and probable tool of the Soviets . The Sunday Mirror ( formerly the Sunday Pictorial ) printed Profumo 's " Darling " letter .
In advance of the House of Commons debate on Profumo 's resignation , due 17 June , David Watt in The Spectator defined Macmillan 's position as " an intolerable dilemma from which he can only escape by being proved either ludicrously naïve or incompetent or deceitful — or all three " . Meanwhile , the press speculated about possible Cabinet resignations , and several ministers felt it necessary to demonstrate their loyalty to the prime minister . In a BBC interview on 13 June Lord Hailsham , holder of several ministerial offices , denounced Profumo in a manner which , according to The Observer 's reporter , " had to be seen to be believed " . Hailsham insisted that " a great party is not to be brought down because of a squalid affair between a woman of easy virtue and a proven liar " .
In the debate , Wilson concentrated almost exclusively on the extent to which the prime minister and his colleagues had been dilatory in not identifying a clear security risk arising from Profumo 's association with Ward and his circle . Macmillan responded that he should not be held culpable for believing a colleague who had repeatedly asserted his innocence . He mentioned the false allegations against Galbraith , and the failure of the security services to share their detailed information with him . In the general debate the sexual aspects of the scandal were fully discussed ; Nigel Birch , the Conservative MP for West Flintshire , referred to Keeler as a " professional prostitute " and asked rhetorically : " What are whores about ? " Keeler was otherwise branded a " tart " and a " poor little slut " . Ward was vilified throughout as a likely Soviet agent ; one Conservative referred to " the treason of Dr Ward " . Most Conservatives , whatever their reservations , were supportive of Macmillan , with only Birch suggesting that he should consider retirement . In the subsequent vote on the government 's handling of the affair , 27 Conservatives abstained , reducing the government 's majority to 69 . Most newspapers considered the extent of the defection significant , and several forecast that Macmillan would soon resign .
After the parliamentary debate , newspapers published further sensational stories , hinting at widespread immorality within Britain 's governing class . A story emanating from Rice @-@ Davies concerned a naked masked man , who acted as a waiter at sex parties ; rumours suggested that he was a cabinet minister , or possibly a member of the Royal Family . Malcolm Muggeridge in the Sunday Mirror wrote of " The Slow , Sure Death of the Upper Classes " . On 21 June Macmillan instructed Lord Denning , the Master of the Rolls , to investigate and report on the growing range of rumours . Ward 's committal proceedings began a week later , at Marylebone magistrates ' court , where the Crown 's evidence was fully reported in the press . Ward was committed for trial on charges of " living off the earnings of prostitution " and " procuration of girl under twenty @-@ one " , and released on bail .
With the Ward case now sub judice , the press pursued related stories . The People reported that Scotland Yard had begun an inquiry , in parallel with Denning 's , into " homosexual practices as well as sexual laxity " among civil servants , military officers and MPs . On 24 June the Daily Mirror , under a banner heading " Prince Philip and the Profumo Scandal " , dismissed what it termed the " foul rumour " that the prince had been involved in the affair , without disclosing the nature of the rumour .
Ward 's trial began at the Old Bailey on 28 July . He was charged with living off the earnings of Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies and two other prostitutes , and with procuring women under 21 to have sex with other persons . The thrust of the prosecution 's case related to Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , and turned on whether the small contributions to household expenses or loan repayments they had given to Ward while living with him amounted to his living off their prostitution . Ward 's approximate income at the time , from his practice and from his portraiture , had been around £ 5 @,@ 500 a year , a substantial sum at that time . In his speeches and examination of witnesses , the prosecuting counsel Mervyn Griffith @-@ Jones portrayed Ward as representing " the very depths of lechery and depravity " . The judge , Sir Archie Marshall , was equally hostile , drawing particular attention to the fact that none of Ward 's supposed society friends had been prepared to speak up for him . Towards the end of the trial , news came that Gordon 's conviction for assault had been overturned ; Marshall did not disclose to the jury that Gordon 's witnesses had turned up and testified that Keeler , a key prosecution witness against Ward , had given false evidence at Gordon 's trial .
After listening to Marshall 's damning summing @-@ up , on the evening of 30 July Ward took an overdose of sleeping tablets and was taken to hospital . On the next day he was found guilty in absentia on the charges relating to Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , and acquitted on the other counts . Sentence was postponed until Ward was fit to appear , but on 3 August he died without regaining consciousness .
= = Aftermath = =
Lord Denning 's report was awaited with great anticipation by the public . Published on 26 September , it concluded that there had been no security leaks in the Profumo affair and that the security services and government ministers had acted appropriately . Profumo had been guilty of an " indiscretion " , but no one could doubt his loyalty . Denning also found no evidence to link members of the government with associated scandals such as the " man in the mask " . He laid most of the blame for the affair on Ward , an " utterly immoral " man whose diplomatic activities were " misconceived and misdirected " . Although The Spectator considered that the report marked the end of the affair , many commentators were disappointed with its content . Young found many questions unanswered and some of the reasoning defective , while Davenport @-@ Hines , writing long after the event , condemns the report as disgraceful , slipshod and prurient .
After the Denning Report , in defiance of general expectations that he would resign shortly , Macmillan announced his intention to stay on . On the eve of the Conservative Party 's annual conference in October 1963 he fell ill ; his condition was less serious than he imagined , and his life was not in danger but , convinced he had cancer , he resigned abruptly . His successor as prime minister was Lord Home , who renounced his peerage and served as Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home . In the October 1964 general election the Conservative Party was narrowly defeated , and Wilson became prime minister . A later commentator opined that the Profumo affair had destroyed the old , aristocratic Conservative party : " It wouldn 't be too much to say that the Profumo scandal was the necessary prelude to the new Toryism , based on meritocracy , which would eventually emerge under Margaret Thatcher " . The Economist suggested that the Profumo affair had effected a fundamental and permanent change in relations between politicians and press . Davenport @-@ Hines posits a longer @-@ term consequence of the affair — the gradual ending of traditional notions of deference : " Authority , however disinterested , well @-@ qualified and experienced , was [ after June 1963 ] increasingly greeted with suspicion rather than trust " .
After expressing his " deep remorse " to the prime minister , to his constituents and to the Conservative Party , Profumo disappeared from public view . In April 1964 he began working as a volunteer at the Toynbee Hall settlement , a charitable organisation based in Spitalfields which supports the most deprived residents in the East End of London . Profumo continued his association with the settlement for the remainder of his life , at first in a menial capacity , then as administrator , fund @-@ raiser , council member , chairman and finally president . His charitable work was recognised when he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1975 . He was later described by Margaret Thatcher as a national hero , and was a guest at her 80th birthday celebrations in 2005 . His marriage to Valerie Hobson endured until her death in 1998 ; Profumo died , aged 90 , on 9 March 2006 .
In December 1963 Keeler admitted her perjury at Gordon 's June trial , and subsequently served six months in prison . Since then , after two brief failed marriages which produced two children , she has largely lived alone . Most of the considerable amount she made from newspaper stories was dissipated by lawyers ; during the 1970s , she said , " I was not living , I was surviving . " She has published several inconsistent accounts of her life , in which Ward has been variously represented as a " gentleman " , her truest love , a Soviet spy , and a traitor ranking alongside Philby , Burgess and Maclean . She has also claimed that Profumo impregnated her and that she subsequently underwent a painful abortion . Her portrait , by Ward , was acquired by the National Portrait Gallery in 1984 . Rice @-@ Davies enjoyed a more successful post @-@ scandal career , as nightclub owner , businesswoman , minor actress and novelist . She was married three times , in what she described as her " slow descent into respectability " . Of adverse press publicity she observed : " Like royalty , I simply do not complain " . Mandy Rice @-@ Davies died in December 2014 , aged 70 .
Ward 's role on behalf of MI5 was confirmed in 1982 , when the Sunday Times located his former contact " Woods " . Although Denning always asserted that Ward 's trial and conviction were fair and proper , most commentators believe that it was deeply flawed — an " historical injustice " according to Davenport @-@ Hines , who argues that the trial was an act of political revenge . One High Court judge said privately that he would have stopped the trial before it reached the jury . The human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson has campaigned for the case to be reopened on several grounds , including the premature scheduling of the trial , lack of evidence to support the main charges , and various misdirections by the trial judge in his summing up . Above all , the judge failed to advise the jury of the evidence revealed in the Gordon appeal that Keeler , the prosecution 's chief witness against Ward , had committed perjury at the Gordon trial . In January 2014 Ward 's case was being considered by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , which has the power to investigate suspected miscarriages of justice and refer cases to the Court of Appeal .
After his recall in January 1963 , Ivanov disappeared for several decades . In 1992 his memoirs , The Naked Spy , were serialised in The Sunday Times . When this account was challenged by Profumo 's lawyers , the publishers removed offending material . In August 2015 the i on Saturday newspaper published a preview of a forthcoming history of Soviet intelligence activities , by Jonathan Haslam . This book suggests that the relationship between Ivanov and Profumo was closer than the latter has admitted . It is alleged that Ivanov visited Profumo 's home , and that such was the slackness of security arrangements that the Russian was able to photograph sensitive documents left lying about in the minister 's study .
Keeler describes meeting Ivanov in Moscow , in 1993 ; she also records that he died the following year . Astor was deeply upset at finding himself under police investigation , and by the social ostracism that followed the Ward trial . After his death in 1966 Cliveden was sold . It became first the property of Stanford University , and later a luxury hotel . Rachman , who had first come to public notice as a sometime boyfriend of Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , was revealed as an unscrupulous slum landlord ; the word " Rachmanism " entered English dictionaries as the standard term for landlords who exploit or intimidate their tenants .
= = Dramatisations = =
There have been several dramatised versions of the Profumo affair . The 1989 film Scandal featured Ian McKellen as Profumo and John Hurt as Ward . It was favourably reviewed , but the revival of interest in the affair upset the Profumo family . The focus of Hugh Whitemore 's play A Letter of Resignation , first staged at the Comedy Theatre in October 1997 , was Macmillan 's reactions to Profumo 's resignation letter , which he received while on holiday in Scotland . Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Stephen Ward opened at London 's Aldwych Theatre on 3 December 2013 . Among generally favourable reviews , the Daily Telegraph 's critic recommended the production as " sharp , funny – and , at times , genuinely touching " . Robertson records that the script is " remarkably faithful to the facts " .
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= Peter Lumsden =
General Sir Peter Stark Lumsden GCB CSI DL ( 9 November 1829 – 9 November 1918 ) was a British military officer who served in India . Born in Belhelvie , Aberdeenshire , he was the fourth son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB . He studied at Addiscombe Military Seminary , before officially joining military service as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry in 1847 . From 1852 to 1857 he served on the North @-@ West Frontier , where , among other activities , he participated in the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the capture of Tantya Tope in 1859 .
Following his time on the North @-@ West Frontier , Lumsden served as quartermaster general in 1860 during the Second Opium War , where he participated in the capture of both Tang @-@ ku and the Taku Forts . He was promoted to brevet @-@ lieutenant @-@ colonel , before giving his final act of military service in the Bhutan War of 1865 . He was promoted again to Adjutant @-@ General of the Indian Army in 1874 , and also acted as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Victoria for eleven years .
In 1883 , Lumsden was awarded a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and was appointed as a commissioner on the Council of India for 10 years . He represented Britain a year later at the Anglo @-@ Russian Commission for the demarcation of the north @-@ west boundary of Afghanistan , then acted as British representative on the Afghan Frontier Commission . After retiring from military service in 1893 , Lumsden served as a justice of the peace in his home county of Aberdeenshire , before dying on his 89th birthday , 9 November 1918 , in Dufftown , Banffshire .
= = Life and military career = =
= = = Early life and North @-@ West Frontier = = =
Peter Stark Lumsden was born at Belhelvie Lodge , Belhelvie , Aberdeenshire , on 9 November 1829 . He was trained at Addiscombe Military Seminary from the age of 20 , and entered the East India Company 's Bengal Army in 1847 as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry . Between 1852 and 1857 he served on the North @-@ West Frontier in five expeditions against native tribes : the Mohmunds , the Ootman Khel , the Bori Afridis and the Miranzais . He was mentioned in despatches five times and awarded the special thanks of the Local and supreme Governments . From 1857 to 1858 he accompanied a special peace @-@ finding mission to Kandahar with his brother Harry Lumsden . He received thanks from the Government for his work , but returned to India to take part in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny . Lumsden next joined the Central India Field Force at Gwalior under General Sir Robert Napier , and , as assistant quartermaster general under Major @-@ General Hugh Rose , shared in the pursuit and capture of Tantya Tope in 1859 , when he was again mentioned in despatches .
= = = Second Opium War and Bhutan War = = =
Lumsden 's next period of active service was as quartermaster general on the staff of General Napier , who commanded the 2nd division of the expeditionary force to China during the Second Opium War , in 1860 . Lumsden took part in the operations of the Anglo @-@ French forces , including the action of Sin @-@ ho , the capture of Tang @-@ ku and the capture of the Taku Forts that led up to the advance on and occupation of Beijing . He was again mentioned in despatches and promoted to brevet @-@ Major and then brevet @-@ lieutenant @-@ colonel .
The final spell of active service in Lumsden 's military career was in the Bhutan War of 1865 : his later employment was on the staff and in political posts . He was deputy quartermaster general from 1864 to 1868 , and quartermaster general of the Indian Army from 1868 to 1873 . He was Acting Resident in Hyderabad , 1873 , and Adjutant @-@ General , India from 1874 to 1879 , when he was appointed Chief of the Staff in India . He also served for eleven years as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Victoria .
= = = Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War = = =
Lumsden served as Chief of Staff to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , General Sir F. P. Haines , during the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War , for which he received the Order of the Bath . In 1884 , Lumsden returned to the North @-@ West frontier , when he was selected as British representative on the Anglo @-@ Russian Commission for the emarcation of the north @-@ west boundary of Afghanistan , but resigned and returned to England in 1885 after the Panjdeh Incident . He left London to represent the British at negotiations with Russia in selecting the Afghan Frontier Commission to determine the Afghan boundary .
Lumsden was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and given a commissioner 's seat on the Council of India , which he occupied for a 10 @-@ year tenure from 1883 . In 1885 he wrote " Countries and Tribes Bordering on the Koh @-@ i @-@ Baba Range " , an article for the seventh volume of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography .
= = = Later life = = =
Following completion of his tenure on the Council of India , Lumsden retired from military service in 1893 . He was placed on the Unemployed Supernumerary List three years later and settled down on Buchromb , an estate that he had purchased near Dufftown . During this time he co @-@ wrote Lumsden of the Guides with G. R. Elsmie . The book detailed the role that his brother , Harry Burnett Lumsden , had played in founding The Corps of the Guides , a regiment of the British Indian Army . He identified himself with local affairs and served as a justice of the peace and as Deputy Lieutenant for Banffshire and Aberdeenshire . Lumsden died on 9 November 1918 in his estate at Dufftown , Banffshire .
= = Family = =
Lumsden was married to Mary Marriott in 1862 . His father was Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB , with one of his three older brothers being Harry Burnett Lumsden . Thomas Lumsden was a distinguished officer of the Bengal Horse Artillery who had served in the Nepal Campaign of 1814 and at the Siege of Hatrass and the capture of Kalunga in 1817 . Thomas was himself the son of Harry Lumsden , an advocate in Aberdeen who had bought an estate at Belhelvie . He returned home on leave from the Bengal Army in 1819 to marry Hay Burnett of Elrick , and went on to serve another 23 years in India before retiring to Belhelvie in 1842 . They had a total of six sons , of whom three emigrated to Canada and two ( Harry and Peter ) followed in their father 's footsteps by pursuing military careers in India .
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= Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion =
Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion is a 1944 triptych painted by the Irish @-@ born British artist Francis Bacon . The canvasses are based on the Eumenides — or Furies — of Aeschylus 's Oresteia , and depict three writhing anthropomorphic creatures set against a flat burnt orange background . It was executed in oil paint and pastel on Sundeala fibre board and completed within two weeks .
The triptych summarises themes explored in Bacon 's previous work , including his examination of Picasso 's biomorphs and his interpretations of the Crucifixion and the Greek Furies . Bacon did not realise his original intention to paint a large crucifixion scene and place the figures at the foot of the cross .
The Three Studies are generally considered Bacon 's first mature piece ; he regarded his works before the triptych as irrelevant , and throughout his life tried to suppress their appearance on the art market . When the painting was first exhibited in 1945 it caused a sensation and established him as one of the foremost post @-@ war painters . Remarking on the cultural significance of Three Studies , the critic John Russell observed in 1971 that " there was painting in England before the Three Studies , and painting after them , and no one ... can confuse the two " .
= = Background = =
As an artist , Francis Bacon was a late starter . He painted sporadically and without commitment during the late 1920s and early 1930s , when he worked as an interior decorator and designer of furniture and rugs . He later admitted that his career was delayed because he had spent so long looking for a subject that would sustain his interest . He began to paint images based on the Crucifixion in 1933 , when his then @-@ patron Eric Hall commissioned a series of three paintings based on the subject . These abstract figurations contain formal elements typical of their time , including diaphanous forms , flat backgrounds , and surrealist props such as flowers and umbrellas . The art critic Wieland Schmied noted that while the early works are " aesthetically pleasing " , they lack " a sense of urgency or inner necessity ; they are beautiful , but lifeless " . The sentiment is echoed by Hugh Davies , who wrote that Bacon 's 1933 paintings " suggest an artist concentrating more on formal than on expressive concerns " . Bacon admitted that his early works were not successful ; they were merely decorative and lacking in substance . He was often harshly self @-@ critical during this period , and would abandon or destroy canvasses before they were completed . He abandoned the Crucifixion theme , then largely withdrew from painting in frustration , instead immersing himself in love affairs , drinking and gambling .
When he returned to the topic of the Crucifixion eleven years later , he retained some of the stylistic elements he had developed earlier , such as the elongated and dislocated organic forms that he now based on Oresteia . He continued to incorporate the spatial device he was to use many times throughout his career — three lines radiating from this central figure , which was first seen in Crucifixion , 1933 . Three Studies was painted over the course of two weeks in 1944 , when , Bacon recalled , " I was in a bad mood of drinking , and I did it under tremendous hangovers and drink ; I sometimes hardly knew what I was doing . I think perhaps the drink helped me to be a bit freer . " The painting was executed in a ground @-@ floor flat at 7 Cromwell Place , South Kensington in London . A large back room in the building had been converted into a billiard room by its previous occupant , artist John Everett Millais . It was Bacon 's studio by day ; at night , abetted by Eric Hall and Bacon 's childhood nanny Jessie Lightfoot , it functioned as an illicit casino .
Although he had been painting for almost twenty years , Bacon steadfastly insisted that Three Studies was the fons et origo of his career . He destroyed many of his earlier canvasses , and tried to suppress those that had left his studio . Bacon was emphatic that no pre @-@ 1944 images be admitted into his canon , and most of the early art critics agreed with this position . The early publications of John Russell and David Sylvester open with the 1944 triptych , and Bacon insisted to his death that no retrospective should feature paintings pre @-@ dating 1944 .
= = The triptych = =
The panels of Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion are painted on light Sundeala boards , a material Bacon was using at the time as an inexpensive alternative to canvas . Each bears a single taut sculptural form pitched against a harsh orange background . The orange hue displays inconsistently across the canvasses , due in part to the low level of oil in the paint , which resulted in varying rates of absorption into the board . The pallid flesh tones of the figures were achieved by overlaying grey and white brushstrokes , while the figures ' props were coloured using a variety of yellow , green , white , and purple tones .
The art critic Hugh Davies has suggested that of the three figures , that on the left most closely resembles a human form , and that it might represent a mourner at the cross . Seated on a table @-@ like structure , this limbless creature has an elongated neck , heavily rounded shoulders , and a thick mop of dark hair . Like its sister objects , the left @-@ hand figure is portrayed with layers of white and grey paint . The central figure 's mouth is positioned directly on its neck , rather than on a distinct face . It bares its teeth as if in a snarl , and is blindfolded by a drooping cloth bandage — a device likely drawn from Matthias Grünewald 's Mocking of Christ . This creature faces the viewer directly and is centralised by a series of converging lines radiating from the base of the pedestal .
Situated on an isolated patch of grass , the right @-@ hand figure 's toothed mouth is stretched open as if screaming , although David Sylvester has suggested that it may be yawning . Its mouth is open to a degree impossible for a human skull . The orange background of this panel is brighter than the hues rendered in the other frames , and the figure 's neck opens up into a row of teeth , while a protruding ear juts out from behind its lower jaw . This panel closely resembles an earlier painting by Bacon , Untitled , c . 1943 , which was thought destroyed until it re @-@ emerged in 1997 .
Inspection under infrared has revealed that the panels were heavily reworked during a number of revisions . The legs of the central figure are surrounded by small magenta horseshoe shapes , which infrared shows to have been first drafted as flowers . The area below the head is thickly coated with white and orange paint , while the inspection exposes a series of underlying curved brushstrokes used to compose a landscape , and a small distant reclining figure . When the canvas is unframed , a number of measuring marks are visible on the outer margin of board , indicating that the composition was carefully conceived .
Bacon said in a 1959 letter that the figures in Three Studies were " intended to [ be ] use [ d ] at the base of a large Crucifixion which I may still do . " By this , Bacon implied that the figures were conceived as a predella to a larger altarpiece . The biographer Michael Peppiatt has suggested that the panels may have emerged as single works , and that the idea of combining them as a triptych came later . There is little in the themes or styles of the three panels to suggest that they were originally conceived as a whole . Though they share the same orange background , Bacon had already used this colour in two prior pieces ; moreover , his oeuvre can be characterized by periods that are dominated by a single background colour . From the beginning of his career , Bacon preferred to work in series and found that his imagination was stimulated by sequences ; as he put it , " images breed other images in me . "
The Crucifixion itself is conspicuously absent , and there is no trace or shadow of its presence in the panels . Writing in 1996 , Wieland Schmied noted that the three Furies have replaced Christ and the two thieves crucified on either side of him . The form of the Furies is borrowed directly from Picasso 's late 1920s and mid @-@ 1930s pictures of biomorphs on beaches , in particular from the Spanish artist 's The Bathers ( 1937 ) . However , the eroticism and comedy of Picasso 's figures have been replaced by a sense of menace and terror derived in part from Matthias Grünewald 's Mocking of Christ .
= = Themes and style = =
Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion is a key precursor to Bacon 's later work , and he sustained its formal and thematic preoccupations throughout his career . The triptych format , the placement of figures behind glass in heavily gilded frames , the open mouth , the use of painterly distortion , the Furies , and the theme of the Crucifixion were all to reappear in later works . Bacon 's principal mode of expression is introduced : the subjects are anatomically and physically distorted , and the mood is violent , foreboding , and relentlessly physical . In other respects the triptych stands apart from other paintings in his oeuvre . It refers directly to its inspirations , and interprets the source material in an uncharacteristically literal manner . The triptych is further distinct in that its creatures are located in an outside space ; by 1948 , Bacon 's studies of heads and figures specifically emphasised their confinement in rooms or other closed spaces .
Although Bacon stated that he modelled the creatures on the Furies , the visual link to the sources is barely perceptible in his finished work . The mood and tone of the painting , however , is consistent with the agonized spirit of the Furies ' legend . They are traditionally depicted as ancient chthonic deities preoccupied with avenging patricide and matricide by hunting down and killing violent criminals . In Aeschylus ' The Oresteia , the title character is pursued by the Furies in revenge for the murder of his mother Clytemnestra . The saga tells the story of the decimation of the line of Atreus ; Clytemnestra had hacked to death her husband Agamemnon , and later slew Cassandra , who had foreseen the murders and declared : " Drunken , drunken with blood / To make them dare the more , a reveling rout / Is in the rooms which no man shall cast out , of sister Furies . "
Bacon did not seek to illustrate the narrative of the tale , however . He told the French art critic Michel Leiris , " I could not paint Agamemnon , Clytemnestra or Cassandra , as that would have been merely another kind of historical painting ... Therefore I tried to create an image of the effect it produced inside me . " Aeschylus ' phrase " the reek of human blood smiles out at me " in particular haunted Bacon , and his treatments of the mouth in the triptych and many subsequent paintings were attempts to visualise the sentiment . In 1985 , he observed that Aeschylus ' phrase brought up in him " the most exciting images , and I often read it ... the violence of it brings up the images in me , ' the reek of human blood smiles out at me ' , well what could be more amazing than that . "
Bacon was introduced to Aeschylus through T. S. Eliot 's 1939 play The Family Reunion , in which the protagonist Harry is haunted by " the sleepless hunters / that will not let me sleep " . In Eliot 's play , the Furies serve as embodiments of the remorse and guilt felt by Harry , who harbours a dark family secret , shared only with his sister . Bacon was captivated by Aeschylus ' play , and keen to learn more about Greek tragedy , although he said many times that he regretted being unable to read the original in Greek . In 1942 , he read the Irish scholar William Bedell Stanford 's Aeschylus in his Style , and found the theme of obsessive guilt in The Oresteia to be highly resonant . In 1984 , Bacon told Sylvester that although his painting 's subject matter did not have a direct relationship with the poet 's work , for him Eliot 's work " opened the valves of sensation " .
The mouth of the triptych 's central figure was also inspired by the nurse 's scream in film director Sergei Eisenstein 's Odessa Steps massacre sequence in The Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) . In 1984 , the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg confronted Bacon with a reproduction of the centre panel during the filming of a South Bank Show documentary , and observed that in his earlier career the artist seemed preoccupied with the physicality of the human mouth . Bacon replied , " I had always thought that I would be able to make the mouth with all the beauty of a Monet landscape though I never succeeded in doing so . " When Bragg asked why he thought he had failed , Bacon admitted , " It should be all much more colour , should have got more of the interior of the mouth , with all the colours of the interior of the mouth , but I didn 't happen to get it . "
Other than in Picasso 's exploration of the theme , the Crucifixion did not figure prominently in twentieth @-@ century painting . The Surrealists exploited its shock value , and it was used as a vehicle for blasphemy in isolated instances . Bacon often expressed his admiration for the manner in which old masters such as Cimabue treated the Crucifixion ; however , as with Picasso , he was more interested in tackling the subject from a secular , humanist point of view . For Three Studies , Bacon did not approach the Crucifixion as a Christian image per se , but rather found that the scene reflected a particular view of humanity he held . As he told David Sylvester : " it was just an act of man 's behaviour , a way of behaviour to another . "
The Passion of Christ became a central concern during the early development of Bacon 's work , and he returned to the subject throughout his career . When asked by critic Jean Clair why his Crucifixion scenes tended to comprise mainly " slaughter , butchery , mutilated meat and flesh " , Bacon replied , " that 's all the Crucifixion was , isn 't it ? ... Actually , you can 't think of anything more barbaric than the Crucifixion , and that particular way of killing somebody . " While Three Studies may have begun as an attempt to directly represent the Crucifixion scene , his explorations led him towards " something completely different " . Bacon came to regard the scene as an armature for exploring new ways of representing human behaviours and emotions . For him it amounted to a kind of self @-@ portraiture ; a vehicle for working on " all sorts of very private feelings about behaviour and about the way life is " .
Coming in 1944 , the triptych was often thought to be informed by the Second World War . Art critic Ziva Amishai @-@ Maisseles observes that the canvas reflects Bacon 's own confusion and ambivalence " towards manifestations of violence and power , both of which attracted and repulsed him simultaneously . "
= = Critical reaction = =
Three Studies was first shown at a joint exhibition at the Lefevre Gallery , London , in April 1945 , alongside work by Henry Moore and Graham Sutherland . Bacon was then unknown and it is likely that his painting was included at the request of Sutherland , his close friend at the time . The show opened just two months after the end of the Second World War , and John Russell has observed that the immediate post @-@ war period in British history was marked by an atmosphere of nostalgia and optimism — a sense that " everything was going to be alright , and visitors went into the Lefevre in a spirit of thanksgiving for perils honourably surmounted . "
Both the public and critics were unnerved by the sight of the work . Russell describes being shocked by " images so unrelievedly awful that the mind shut with a snap at the sight of them . Their anatomy was half @-@ human , half @-@ animal , and they were confined in a low @-@ ceilinged , windowless and oddly proportioned space . They could bite , probe , and suck , and they had very long eel @-@ like necks , but their functioning in other respects was mysterious . Ears and mouths they had , but two at least of them were sightless . " Writing for Apollo magazine , Herbert Furst recalled , " I , I must confess , was so shocked and disturbed by the Surrealism of Francis Bacon that I was glad to escape from this exhibition . Perhaps it was the red [ sic ] background that made me think of entrails , of an anatomy or a vivisection and feel squeamish . The triptych caused a sensation , and overnight turned Bacon into the most controversial painter in the country .
Reviewing for the New Statesman and Nation , Raymond Mortimer wrote that the panels " seems served from Picasso 's Crucifixion [ 1930 ] , but further distorted , with ostrich necks and button heads protruding from bags — the whole effect gloomily phallic , like Bosch without the humour . These objects are perched on stools , and depicted as if they were sculpture , as in the Picassos of 1930 . I have no doubt of Mr. Bacon 's uncommon gifts , but these pictures expressing his sense of the atrocious world into which we have survived seems [ to me ] symbols of outrage rather than works of art . If peace redresses him , he may delight as he now dismays . " Reflecting on the reaction of critics and the public , Bacon offered , " I 've never known why my paintings are known as horrible . I 'm always labelled with horror , but I never think about horror . Pleasure is such a diverse thing . And horror is too . Can you call the famous Isenheim altar a horror piece ? Its one of the greatest paintings of the Crucifixion , with the body studded with thorns like nails , but oddly enough the form is so grand it takes away from the horror . But that is the horror in the sense that it is so vitalising ; isn 't that how people came out of the great tragedies ? People came out as though purged into happiness , into a fuller reality of existence . "
More recently , the Irish author Colm Tóibín noted in 2006 that the triptych has retained its " genuinely startling " impact . Matthew Kieran wrote , in his 2005 essay on the painting , that " these frightened , blind , raging figures are visceral in their impact , jolting one into sensations of fright , horror , isolation and angst . We react to them as self @-@ conscious creatures , their postures and expressions revealing feelings of petrified isolation , searing horror , pain and blind confusion . " As of 2007 , Three Studies is part of the Tate Gallery 's permanent collection , having been donated by Bacon 's lover Eric Hall in 1953 .
= = Second Version of Triptych 1944 ( 1988 ) = =
See Second Version of Triptych 1944
Bacon often created second versions of his major paintings . In 1988 , he completed a near @-@ copy of the original Three Studies . At 78 × 58 inches ( 198 × 147 cm ) , this second version is more than twice the size of the original , and the orange background has been replaced by a blood @-@ red hue . The figures occupy a smaller proportion of the canvas than those of the 1944 version , a device which , according to the Tate Gallery 's catalogue , " plung [ es ] them into a deep void " .
Critical opinion was mixed ; the 1988 triptych drew criticism from those who felt that its more refined painting technique robbed the image of much of its power . Denis Farr suggested that while the second version 's larger scale gave it " a majestic quality which is highly effective " , its svelte presentation lessened its shock value . Critic Jonathan Meades felt that while the 1988 triptych was a more polished and painterly work , it lacked the rawness of the original .
Reflecting on Bacon 's tendency to revisit subject matter , Meades observed that " Bacon 's auto @-@ plagiarism in areas other than portraiture had less deleterious consequences . Nonetheless the 1988 version ( or near copy ) of the great 1944 Crucifixion Triptych is the lesser work : it is slicker , more polished and it evinces a greater ease with paint . The backgrounds are now elaborated , defined and bereft of the garish , grating poison orange of 1944 . " The art critic James Demetrion found that despite these differences , the second version still achieves the power and impact of the first .
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= King @-@ Size Homer =
" King @-@ Size Homer " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 5 , 1995 . In the episode , Homer despises the nuclear plant 's new exercise program , and decides to gain 61 pounds ( 28 kg ) in order to claim a disability and work at home . Homer soon begins to experience the negative aspects of being obese , and his life starts falling apart .
The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Jim Reardon . Joan Kenley makes her second of three guest appearances on The Simpsons in the episode as the voice of the telephone lady . It features cultural references to world 's heaviest twins , the 1993 film What 's Eating Gilbert Grape , and the soft drink Tab . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics , and Empire named it the best episode of the show . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 , and was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns organizes a morning calisthenics program at the nuclear power plant , much to everyone 's delight but to the dismay of Homer ( the only worker who hates doing five minutes of light aerobic exercise ) . After learning that someone who is disabled can work from home , and thus be excluded from the exercise program , Homer tries to find a way to achieve this goal . Homer soon discovers that any employee that weighs 300 pounds ( 136 kg ) or more qualifies as disabled , and so he decides to gain the 61 pounds he needs to reach 300 . He begins eating excessively , despite Marge and Lisa 's repeated warnings that he could seriously endanger his health . With Bart 's help , Homer soon reaches his goal , and Mr. Burns installs a stay @-@ at @-@ home work terminal in the Simpson house .
Homer is given simple responsibilities but he still neglects his responsibilities as a safety inspector by simply typing " yes " every time the system prompts him . He also discovers he can no longer fit in his clothes , and he takes up wearing a muumuu as a result . Looking for shortcuts , he leaves his terminal , with a drinking bird to press the Y key to indicate " yes " on the keyboard and goes out to see a film . Refused admission because of his size , Homer is angered after the cinema manager and other members of the public tease him about his appearances . He immediately leaves , claiming that he is not food crazy and that overweight people are as hardworking as anyone else . Returning home , he discovers in his absence that the nodding drinking bird fell over and that a nuclear meltdown is about to take place at the plant unless the system is manually shut down . As he is unable to prevent it via the computer and unable to phone the plant and warn them because his fingers have become too fat to dial properly , Homer tries to run , skateboard , and drive to the plant , all of which fail as a result of his obesity . He eventually gets to the plant by stealing an ice cream truck . Homer arrives at the power plant and climbs up to reach the manual shutdown button , but ends up accidentally falling onto the gas store , blocking the release tube with the oversized lower half of his body and thus preventing the explosion . As a reward for turning the " potential Chernobyl " into a " mere Three Mile Island " , Mr. Burns gives Homer a medal and guarantees that he will make Homer thin once more after he gets decontaminated from the tank . But when Homer could not even do one sit @-@ up in their first work @-@ out session , Mr. Burns reluctantly decides to simply pay for liposuction instead , much to Homer 's delight .
= = Production = =
" King @-@ Size Homer " was written by Dan Greaney , and directed by Jim Reardon . It was the first episode Greaney wrote for The Simpsons . Prior to this episode he was working as a lawyer and was contemplating moving to Kiev , Ukraine , to work for a start @-@ up company . He said that this episode " saved " him from doing so . Greaney pitched some ideas to the writing staff , but none of them were any good , so then @-@ show runner Bill Oakley gave him the idea for this episode . Oakley had Greaney come to Hollywood to write it , and when Greaney showed the first draft to the staff , they liked it , so Oakley hired him .
The writers wanted the title of the episode to make Homer sound proud about his weight , so they decided to name it " King @-@ Size Homer " . Greaney really enjoyed working on the episode because Homer is constantly happy and goal oriented in it , instead of being a slob and " eating all the time " . The Simpsons animator David Silverman designed the fat Homer for the episode . There was a discussion about what Homer would wear when he became fat , and they decided to go with a muumuu dress . The writers were also discussing about how they were going to treat Homer 's fatness . They did not want Homer to come off as a " hog " , so they decided that the viewer should barely see him eating after he reaches his 300 pounds goal . As the writers were trying to figure out a way to get Homer back to his old weight by the end of the episode , someone suggested that Homer should feel bad about his obesity , and therefore become thin for Marge , but that idea was scrapped in early production . Action figurines based on fat Homer were made for the World of Springfield series shortly after the episode had aired .
Homer has a dream in which he is standing at the foot of a mountain with 300 pounds as the goal at the top . A pig wearing a tuxedo appears next to him in the dream , and motivates Homer to reach the top of the mountain . Homer takes a bite of the pig 's arm , and runs up the mountain . This scene was inspired by the cover of the " Sweetness and Light " issue of the National Lampoon magazine . The staff thought that Cary Grant would have been the ideal for the pig in Homer 's dream sequence , but he died nine years before the episode was made , so they used cast member Hank Azaria for that voice . Joan Kenley guest starred in the episode as the telephone lady who tells Homer : " The fingers you have used to dial are too fat . To obtain a special dialing wand , please mash the keypad with your palm now . " The staff flew her down from Northern California to record her part for the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
While Homer is in the clothes store , as the camera pans with him , two mannequins wearing similar outfits and riding on bikes are shown . These are based on Billy and Benny McCrary , the world 's heaviest twins who weighed over 700 pounds ( 318 kg ) each . They received fame after appearing in the The Guinness Book of World Records in a picture that depicts the twins riding their Honda motorcycles . Also Homer operates an Apple Lisa as his stay @-@ at @-@ home work terminal when the Apple Lisa was discontinued in 1986 . They would appear again in the same season in the episode " The Day the Violence Died " . The scene in which Bart and his friends observe the obese Homer through a window is based on a scene from the 1993 film What 's Eating Gilbert Grape .
Homer thinks that he can order the soft drink Tab by pressing the tab key on the keyboard . When Homer vents gas from a nuclear reactor , the gas destroys crops of corn . A farmer looks and says , " Oh no , the corn ! Paul Newman 's gonna have ma ' legs broke ! " This is in reference to the legend of Newman 's Own popcorn products , in which Newman threatened anyone who might attempt to steal his popcorn . At the cinema , Homer tries to watch the film Honk If You 're Horny , starring actor Pauly Shore and actress Faye Dunaway .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " King @-@ Size Homer " finished 45th ( tied with Grace Under Fire ) in the ratings for the week of October 30 to November 3 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . In 2008 , Empire placed The Simpsons at the top of their list of " The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time " , and noted " King @-@ Size Homer " as the show 's best episode , calling it " An unimprovable mix of sharp dialogue , hilarious sight gags and heart . " Kimberly Potts of AOL Television named the episode the seventh best episode of the show , while Michael Moran of The Times ranked it as the tenth best . " King @-@ Size Homer " appeared on The Star @-@ Ledger 's list of the ten best episodes on The Simpsons that represent the comic and emotional scope of the show . The Herald Sun put the episode at ninth place on their list of the top twenty episodes of The Simpsons , and highlighted the scene in which Homer is seen " commandeering an ice cream truck in a frantic dash to the nuclear plant to avoid an impending meltdown " . Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine named the episode the show 's fifth best , stating " while there are a lot of funny jokes in this episode ( including Homer 's fingers that are too fat to dial ) , the best thing about it is the sight of Homer , weighing well over 300 pounds , dressed in a muumuu and a ' fat guy hat . ' The climax is a little forced and cartoon @-@ y ... but Homer 's weight gain works so well visually that the episode gets away with a lot more than it might . "
Dave Foster of DVD Times said : " The glee to which [ Homer ] takes to the challenge and the enthusiasm which Bart brings to the project show these two really do connect when the situation is oh so wrong , and the method in which the writers tackle the not @-@ always @-@ so @-@ obvious downsides to such a disability are both adult and astutely amusing . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be during Homer 's shopping trip to The Vast Waistband . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A. DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and called it " one of the series ' more cynical episodes " , and said that it " pours on the laughs " . He continued by saying , " It 's amusing to see Homer 's pursuit of obesity , and it exploits his idiocy well . It lacks the expected mushiness about the plight of fat folks , though it does make a point about sensitivity in an understated way . " Despite the numerous laughs at Homer 's appearance from the staff of The Simpsons on the DVD audio commentary for the episode , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " this isn 't one of the best episodes . Homer 's at his most irritating and childish here — you really want Marge to beat him up . " They added that Homer 's antics with the computer , such as the scene in which he tries to find the any key , and Mr. Burns running exercise classes are the highlights of the episode .
Nick Offerman has cited this as his favorite Simpsons episode .
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= Spring Creek Dam =
Spring Creek Debris Dam is an earthfill dam on Spring Creek , a tributary of the Sacramento River , in Shasta County in the U.S. state of California . Completed in 1963 , the dam , maintained by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , serves primarily to collect severe acid mine drainage stemming from the Iron Mountain Mine . The dam forms the Spring Creek Reservoir , less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . Spring Creek and South Fork Spring Creek flow into the reservoir from a 16 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 41 km2 ) watershed . The dam is directly upstream from the city of Keswick , California and the Keswick Reservoir . The operation is part of the Trinity River Division of the Central Valley Project .
The primary purpose of the Spring Creek Dam was to collect acid mine drainage from the old Iron Mountain Mine , which was heavily polluting Spring Creek and its tributaries . The dam was built in response to these pollutants that were contaminating the Sacramento River , the primary water supply for millions of Californians . Although the watershed is small in comparison to that of the Sacramento River , the stream is among the most polluted and acidic in the world .
The dam and reservoir , along with other treatment structures built at and below the mine , have successfully reduced the dry weather pollution of Spring Creek by up to ninety @-@ five percent . Problems , though , still occur mainly in the form of large uncontrolled spills from the reservoir . Several concerns about the structural integrity and safety of the dam , both physically and biologically , arose in the 1990s . Emergency releases from Shasta Lake , often in the value of thousands of acre feet of water , have occurred from time to time to dilute massive acid spills from the Spring Creek drainage .
= = History = =
= = = Mining = = =
The Iron Mountain Mine , the most productive copper mine in California in at least one point along its history , operated along the banks of two Spring Creek tributaries , upstream from the current dam site , from 1879 to the 1960s . The mine extracted iron ore , silver , gold , copper sulfide ore , and pyrite from a rock formation dating to approximately 780 @,@ 000 years ago . The potential of a mine at the site was discovered in 1860 , when two men , surveyor William Magee and settler Charles Camden , discovered an extensive iron ore deposit along one of the tributaries of Spring Creek . In 1879 , silver was also discovered at the site , and the mine was begun . The ownership was transferred to Mountain Mines Ltd . , a London company , in 1894 . At the very end of the 19th century , Iron Mountain Mine took blames for several fish kills in the Sacramento River . Nevertheless , mining activity continued , and by 1928 , 600 tons of ore were being extracted from the site per day .
The still continuing problem of Iron Mountain Mine runoff has once been described as :
... [ acid mine drainage is ] most vividly illustrated by the problems at the Iron Mountain Mine in California .
... release of this waste resulted in virtual elimination of aquatic life in many of the creeks surrounding the Iron Mountain Mine site .
... work is continuing on what is possibly the largest and most difficult acid mine drainage problem in the United States .
-P . Aarne Vesilind . Controlling Environmental Pollution , 2005
= = = Events prompting construction = = =
The construction of Shasta Dam and its afterbay ( regulating downstream dam ) , Keswick Dam , in 1943 and 1950 , respectively , severely impaired the capability of the Sacramento River to flush away pollutants from the mine . Acid mine drainage flowed , unfettered , down Spring Creek directly into the Keswick Reservoir , depositing contaminated sediment and turning a portion of the water a rusty red shade . Previously , the water would have continued down the creek into the river , and flushed to the Pacific Ocean . The pooling of the water , however , made it extremely difficult for the pollutants to be removed . From 1955 to 1962 , open pit mining began on the site . At its peak , the mine discharged 5 tons of iron , 650 pounds ( 290 kg ) of copper , and 1 @,@ 800 pounds ( 820 kg ) of zinc into the stream per day . By then , the water flowing down the drainage was so contaminated that it necessitated the construction of a holding dam , the Spring Creek Dam .
Spring Creek Dam was begun in 1961 , when a company named Gibbons and Reed was awarded the contract . The clearing operations began in July of that same year , and the dam was officially dedicated by the Bureau of Reclamation on September 12 , 1961 . Construction of the dam began on October 20 , 1961 , with the placing of the dam embankment , which at least partially consists of acidic sediment dredged from Spring Creek . Riprap was laid on the upstream face of the dam beginning November 9 of that year . In 1962 , a series of labor strikes impacted communities in the Central Valley , also affecting construction of the dam , which was temporarily halted on May 3 of that year . After work restarted on June 26 , pervious core material for the dam was soon out of supply , so impervious material was used to complete the dam core .
Eventually , the Iron Mountain Mine closed , but pollution continued and still continues , and in 1983 , the Iron Mountain Mine was listed on the National Priorities List . The Iron Mountain Mine is known for having the most acidic naturally found water content on Earth , with samples having up to a − 3 @.@ 6 pH value when tested in the early 1990s , which is roughly 100 times the acidity of battery acid . However , this pH value is only found inside and near the mine , as the average pH of water entering the Spring Creek Reservoir is 4 @.@ 12 .
= = = Storage expansion = = =
The Spring Creek Dam was later deemed " undersized " for the Spring Creek watershed , as the large flows of both natural drainage and acid mine drainage caused frequent uncontrollable spills at the dam . The spills contain many volatile components in acid mine drainage , which include the most acidic naturally occurring ( i.e. not in a laboratory ) water on Earth . Several alternatives were considered for remediating this problem :
Enlarge the Spring Creek Dam to create a reservoir three times its original size : This plan was considered , but never built , as the cost of it was estimated at US $ 75 million .
Partial capping ( covering ) of the site : The ore body in Iron Mountain was determined to be shallow , so this alternative was considered . However , the recurring high occurrence of fractures in the mountain made this inefficient , so it was also never implemented .
Construction of dams upstream : This proposal called for several dams upstream that would " reduce the watershed by 40 percent " , including a dam on Slickrock Creek , a branch of Spring Creek . This plan was implemented , removing the need for the dam enlargement .
Waste rock removal : Rock extracted from the mine was removed from tailings piles and disposed of in a compacted cell . In Boulder Creek , another tributary of Spring Creek , the acidity level has lowered slightly .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 1985 , it was found that water seepage into the foundations of the Spring Creek Dam could possibly cause its collapse . Shortly after the discovery , a controversy over the irregular spills of mine toxins from the dam began in the 1990s . Two years later , in March 1992 , an uncontrolled , unexpected spill of acidic water rushed from the dam down Spring Creek . This spill heavily contaminated the Keswick Reservoir and threatened the water supply of Redding , California . Despite the fact that the region was suffering from a drought , 77 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 95 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water were released from Shasta Lake , which was only half full , to dilute the pollution . The loss of the water , which was badly needed by Central Valley agricultural users , was estimated at US $ 18 million .
A water treatment plant was built on a site named Minnesota Flats near the Iron Mountain Mine , using lime to balance the pH of the acid mine drainage . Water is also diverted from Slickrock Creek to the treatment site . Altogether , over 95 percent of toxins in the water are removed by the treatment process . Roughly 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of specialized acid @-@ resistant pipeline , with a cost of over US $ 1 million per mile , are included in the treatment process . Most water flowing directly from the mine has a pH level close to 1 ; the − 3 @.@ 2 pH mentioned earlier is only found in small amounts . Water is further diluted by natural flow in the tributaries and water diverted from nearby Clear Creek , however , the acidic water still requires treatment .
= = Hydrography = =
Spring Creek is a southeast @-@ flowing , 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) long tributary of the Sacramento River , receiving water from approximately 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) of land . The creek begins in the Klamath Mountains above the Sacramento River drainage , and flows in a generally south @-@ east direction before turning south and sharply west into the Spring Creek Reservoir . From the reservoir , it continues due west until it empties directly into an arm of the Keswick Reservoir . The creek never actually runs by the mine . The acid mine drainage found in the creek is actually carried in by two smaller tributaries , which are Boulder Creek and Slickrock Creek . The former stream runs southeast from the north side of Iron Mountain Mine to Spring Creek , while the latter stream drains the south side of the mine and also flows southeast into Spring Creek . South Fork Spring Creek is a small tributary that flows west and north the Spring Creek Reservoir , but since its basin lies far from the mine , it receives no acid mine drainage . The inflow and outflow from the reservoir are highly erratic , ranging from 0 cubic feet ( 0 m3 ) per second to roughly 225 cubic feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m3 ) per second in a particular 10 @-@ day period from March to April .
Flat Creek , a small southeast @-@ flowing stream , rises in two forks and empties into the Sacramento River upstream of Spring Creek . The stream receives contaminated runoff from the Minnesota Flats Tailing Pile , but is not nearly as polluted or acidic as Spring Creek . Another stream , Rock Creek , rises in three forks and flows east to meet the Sacramento River downstream of Spring Creek and the Keswick Reservoir .
= = Dimensions and operations = =
The Spring Creek Dam is 196 feet ( 60 m ) high , 1 @,@ 110 feet ( 340 m ) long along its crest , and 1 @,@ 040 feet ( 320 m ) thick at its base . Its crest stands 816 feet ( 249 m ) above sea level . The reservoir is 795 feet ( 242 m ) above sea level at full pool and spillway crest level . When at full pool , the reservoir holds 5 @,@ 870 acre feet ( 7 @,@ 240 dam3 ) of water with a depth of roughly 184 feet ( 56 m ) . One spillway runs over the crest of the dam on the left bank of the canyon . The spillway is 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide , able to accommodate a water flow of 5 @,@ 260 cubic feet ( 149 m3 ) per second . The outlet works of the dam are located at the base , and can accommodate a water flow of 660 cubic feet ( 19 m3 ) per second . The Spring Creek Powerplant downstream of the dam generates up to 180 @,@ 000 kilowatts .
= = = Spring Creek Powerplant = = =
The Spring Creek Powerplant is located at the base of the Spring Creek Dam , and is actually supplied by flow from Whiskeytown Lake . The lake , formed by Whiskeytown Dam , is on Clear Creek , a drainage downstream along the Sacramento River from Spring Creek . Both streams run east into the river . The power plant was completed and began operations in 1964 , with a capacity of 150 @,@ 000 kW . The capacity was later upgraded to 180 @,@ 000 kW . The plant is a peaking power plant with two separate generators , generating power for operations and distributing excess power to the local power grid . Water from Whiskeytown Lake is diverted through the Spring Creek Tunnel , a conduit roughly 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) long and 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) in diameter .
The Bureau of Reclamation gives a detailed report on the specifications of the generating plant :
The powerplant houses two 13.8kV generators each rated at 100 @,@ 000 kVA , .90 power factor , along with Francis turbines . Spring Creek Power Conduit conveys water from Whiskeytown Reservoir , located on Clear Creek , to the Spring Creek Powerplant . The Spring Creek power conduit varies in diameter between 5 @.@ 64 metres ( 18 @.@ 5 ft ) and 5 @.@ 18 metres ( 17 @.@ 0 ft ) and is about 4 @.@ 8 km ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) in length . The power conduit consists of Tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 , and Rock Creek Siphon . Twin penstocks take off from Tunnel No. 2 leading to the powerplant .
– U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , Trinity River Division of the Central Valley Project
= = = Spring Creek Reservoir = = =
Spring Creek Reservoir is the artificial lake formed behind the dam . The reservoir is used mostly for flood control storage , and is rarely filled to its 5 @,@ 870 acre feet ( 7 @,@ 240 dam3 ) capacity . During the dry season , water from Spring Creek pools in a small , stagnant pond retained behind the dam , depositing contaminated sediment and acidic mine waste in the reservoir space . When flows from the Shasta Dam , upstream on the Sacramento River , are sufficient to flush contaminated water away , water held in the reservoir is released through the outlet works into the Keswick Reservoir and the Sacramento River . Despite this operation strategy , the reservoir was eventually deemed inadequate for the watershed , and can be filled to capacity by a single heavy storm event . Uncontrollable spills frequently poured into the Sacramento River during floods , through the crest spillway of the dam , which lacks gates . As a result , numerous fish kills have occurred during these sudden releases of contaminants , a major one of which was in 1969 . Due to this consistent acid pollution from the reservoir , most large fish spawn downstream of Red Bluff Diversion Dam , a dam also on the Sacramento River near Red Bluff , California .
= = = Spillway and outlet works = = =
The Spring Creek Dam is able to release up to 5 @,@ 920 cubic feet ( 168 m3 ) of water per second from the Spring Creek Reservoir , through a crest spillway and outlet works . The spillway begins on the left bank of the dam at elevation 795 feet ( 242 m ) , and drops roughly 184 feet ( 56 m ) in vertical distance down the face of the dam into a stilling basin , before flowing into Spring Creek and into the Sacramento River . It is roughly 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide and can carry 5 @,@ 260 cubic feet ( 149 m3 ) per second . The outlet works tunnel through the dam from an elevation much lower than that of the spillway ; the conduit terminates at a culvert exit , a design commonly seen on storm drains but rarely seen on dams , at the base of the dam . The maximum capacity of the outlet works is 660 cubic feet ( 19 m3 ) per second .
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= New Jersey Route 42 =
Route 42 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey within the Camden area . It runs 14 @.@ 28 mi ( 22 @.@ 98 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 Spur in Monroe Township , Gloucester County to an intersection with Interstate 76 and Interstate 295 in Bellmawr , Camden County . The route is a mix of freeway and divided four @-@ lane arterial road . The southern portion of Route 42 is a local arterial route and one of several highways comprising the Black Horse Pike , a road that runs from Camden to Atlantic City . The northern portion is a six- to eight @-@ lane freeway referred to locally as the North – South Freeway ( or simply the 42 Freeway ) that is directly connected to the Atlantic City Expressway . Major intersections along the route include the Atlantic City Expressway and the southern terminus of Route 168 in Turnersville , another intersection with Route 168 in Blackwood , and Route 41 and Route 55 in Deptford Township .
Route 42 was originally designated in 1927 to run along the Black Horse Pike between Ferry Avenue in Camden and the present U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 322 split in the McKee City section of Hamilton Township , Atlantic County . In 1953 , the southern terminus was cut back to its current terminus in the Williamstown section of Monroe Township to avoid the concurrency it shared with U.S. Route 322 . After the completion of the North – South Freeway between Bellmawr and Turnersville in 1959 , Route 42 was moved to this freeway , and the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168 .
The freeway portion of Route 42 has been improved many times . Construction work has commenced on a project known as the " I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection " , which is reconstructing the dangerous and congested Route 42 / Interstate 295 / Interstate 76 interchange in Bellmawr .
= = Route description = =
= = = Black Horse Pike = = =
Route 42 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 Spur in Monroe Township , Gloucester County where it heads to the north on the Black Horse Pike . For the first portion of the route , Route 42 is a divided four – lane arterial highway that intersects various local roads . Some intersections along this section feature jughandles . There are also many businesses lining the highway . The route crosses County Route 689 ( Berlin @-@ Cross Keys Road ) and enters Washington Township . It then intersects the northern terminus of County Route 555 ( Tuckahoe Road ) . After the intersection with County Route 555 , Route 42 intersects three more county routes : County Route 655 ( Fries Mill Road ) , County Route 639 ( Ganttown Road ) , and County Route 651 ( Greentree Road ) . The Atlantic City Expressway then starts to the right at an unnumbered intersection , Route 168 continues to the north on the Black Horse Pike , and Route 42 becomes the six – lane North – South Freeway .
= = = North – South Freeway = = =
Upon becoming the North – South Freeway , Route 42 crosses into Gloucester Township , Camden County and comes to the first numbered exit for County Route 705 , which provides access to Route 168 . Following that , the freeway reaches the County Route 673 ( College Drive ) interchange , serving Camden County College and the Gloucester Premium Outlets . County Route 534 interchanges with a southbound exit and northbound entrance and then Coles Road interchanges with a northbound exit and southbound entrance . Next , Route 42 encounters Exits 9B and 10A for Route 168 . Exit 9B serves northbound Route 168 and provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike , and Exit 10A serves southbound Route 168 . County Route 681 interchanges after Route 168 , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance , and Route 42 enters Gloucester County again in Deptford Township after crossing the South Branch of Big Timber Creek .
In Deptford Township , Route 41 interchanges with a northbound exit and an entrance in both directions . Past this interchange , County Route 544 interchanges with a southbound exit and an entrance in both directions . Both of these interchanges provide access to the Deptford Mall and , in the case of the Route 41 interchange , to Route 55 from northbound Route 42 since the northbound lanes have no direct access to Route 55 . Route 42 meets the northern terminus of the Route 55 freeway at Exit 13 with a southbound exit and northbound entrance then widens to eight lanes . Route 42 crosses the Big Timber Creek into Runnemede , Camden County , where it passes over the New Jersey Turnpike without an interchange . The freeway then enters Bellmawr , where it features right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps with Leaf Avenue , that provide access to County Route 753 ( Creek Road ) . Route 42 then continues north to its terminus at Interstate 295 where the North – South Freeway becomes Interstate 76 , which heads to Camden and Philadelphia .
The North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 is a major route for daily commuters from southern New Jersey to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania via the Walt Whitman Bridge and Ben Franklin Bridge and weekend commuters from southeastern Pennsylvania to the southern Jersey Shore via Route 55 and the Atlantic City Expressway . Even though Route 42 ends at I @-@ 295 , the north – south Freeway is sometimes called " Route 42 " all the way to the Interstate 76 / Interstate 676 split .
Snow removal , litter control , and landscaping of Route 42 between the end of the Atlantic City Expressway and Interstate 295 is performed by the South Jersey Transportation Authority .
= = History = =
In 1927 , Route 42 was legislated to run along the Black Horse Pike , a road that traces its origins back to 1855 . In that year , the Camden and Blackwoodstown Turnpike Company was established by entrepreneurs who had helped create the White Horse Pike to build a gravel road that would run from Camden south to Blackwoodtown and eventually to Atlantic City , from Ferry Avenue in Camden to Route 48 ( now U.S. Route 40 ) in McKee City . By 1941 , U.S. Route 322 was assigned to follow the routing of Route 42 between Williamstown and McKee City . With the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. Routes and State Routes , the southern terminus of Route 42 was cut back to Williamstown to avoid the concurrency with U.S. Route 322 .
The North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 was originally planned as a parkway in 1932 that would run from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to Atlantic City ; however , this proposal never materialized . In the late 1940s , the North – South Freeway was proposed by the New Jersey State Highway Department to run from the Ben Franklin Bridge to Turnersville . In the early 1950s , right @-@ of @-@ way for the freeway was acquired and actual construction of the freeway followed . The Route 42 freeway opened between Interstate 295 in Bellmawr and the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood in 1958 . It opened between the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood and Turnersville in 1959 . With the completion of the North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 , the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168 .
Following its completion , the North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 has seen many improvements . In 1965 , the freeway was widened to six lanes for most of its length with the northernmost part being widened to eight lanes due to the completion of the Atlantic City Expressway and development occurring along the route . The route had its interchange with Route 55 open in 1985 , when the Route 55 Freeway was opened from Route 42 to Route 41 to the south . Between 1996 and August 1999 , the route was widened to eight lanes between Interstate 295 and Route 55 in Deptford Township . In the early 2000s , the interchanges with Route 41 and County Route 544 in Deptford were rebuilt at a cost of $ 13 million to improve movements within the area . In October 2003 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) installed exit tabs along the stretch of the freeway portion of Route 42 . On August 27 , 2010 , an interchange opened at County Route 673 ( College Drive ) , providing better access to Camden County College .
= = Future = =
NJDOT has broken ground on the missing express connection between Interstate 295 and Route 42 to provide an easier connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and points south to Atlantic City and vice versa . The project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection , will reconstruct the dangerous and congested Route 42 / Interstate 295 / Interstate 76 interchange , which currently requires traffic on I @-@ 295 to use 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ramps that merge onto the North – South Freeway for a short distance , among a series of other indirect connections . In 2007 , " Alternative D " for the reconstructed interchange was selected , calling for I @-@ 295 to cross over the North – South Freeway . This interchange is projected to cost $ 900 million . Construction began in 2013 and is scheduled to be complete in 2021 . NJDOT has long term plans for 2011 – 2020 to reconstruct the entire Route 42 freeway from the Atlantic City Expressway to I @-@ 295 .
On May 12 , 2009 , New Jersey Governor Jon S. Corzine and the Delaware River Port Authority , the agency which manages the PATCO Speedline , announced plans for a Camden @-@ Philadelphia BRT ( bus rapid transit system ) along the Route 42 freeway and the adjacent Route 55 freeway as part of a comprehensive transportation plan for South Jersey that would include a diesel light rail line between Camden and Glassboro , improvements to the Atlantic City Line , and enhanced connections to the Atlantic City International Airport .
= = Major intersections = =
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= 47 Ursae Majoris c =
47 Ursae Majoris c ( abbreviated 47 UMa c ) , also named Taphao Kaew ( Thai : ตะเภาแก ้ ว , rtgs : Taphaokaeo , pronounced [ tā.pʰāw.kɛ ̂ ːw ] ) , is an extrasolar planet approximately 46 light @-@ years from Earth in the constellation of Ursa Major . The planet was discovered located in a long @-@ period around the star 47 Ursae Majoris . Its orbit lasts 6 @.@ 55 years and the planet has a mass at least 0 @.@ 540 times that of Jupiter .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Taphao Kaew for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Thai Astronomical Society of Thailand . Taphaokaeo was one of two sisters associated with a Thai folk tale .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , 47 Ursae Majoris c was discovered by detecting changes in its star 's radial velocity caused by the planet 's gravity . This was done by measuring the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum .
At the time of discovery in 2001 , 47 Ursae Majoris was already known to host one extrasolar planet , designated 47 Ursae Majoris b . Further measurements of the radial velocity revealed another periodicity in the data unaccounted for by the first planet . This periodicity could be explained by assuming that a second planet , designated 47 Ursae Majoris c , existed in the system with an orbital period close to 7 years . Observations of the photosphere of 47 Ursae Majoris suggested that the periodicity could not be explained by stellar activity , making the planet interpretation more likely . The planet was announced in 2002 .
Further measurements of 47 Ursae Majoris failed to detect the planet , calling its existence into question . Furthermore , it was noted that the data used to determine its existence left the planet 's parameters " almost unconstrained " . A more recent study with datasets spanning over 6 @,@ 900 days came to the conclusion that while the existence of a second planet in the system is likely , periods around 2 @,@ 500 days have high false @-@ alarm probabilities , and gave a best @-@ fit period of 7 @,@ 586 days ( almost 21 years ) .
In 2010 , a study was published that determined that there are three giant planets orbiting 47 Ursae Majoris , including one at 2 @,@ 391 days that corresponds well with the original claims for 47 Ursae Majoris c .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Since 47 Ursae Majoris c was detected indirectly , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . Based on its high mass , the planet is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface .
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= Pentemont Abbey =
Pentemont Abbey ( French : Abbaye de Penthemont , or Pentemont , or Panthemont , or Pantemont ) is a set of 18th and 19th century buildings at the corner of Rue de Grenelle and Rue de Bellechasse in the 7th arrondissement of Paris . The abbey was a Cistercian convent founded near Beauvais in 1217 and moved to its current site in Paris in 1672 at the behest of Louis XIV . A reconstruction of the abbey was initiated in 1745 by the Abbess Marie @-@ Catherine Béthisy de Mézières and work was completed in 1783 . In the late 18th century the abbey was one of the most prestigious educational institutions in Paris for daughters of the elite , including two of Thomas Jefferson 's . The abbey also provided rooms for ladies of good standing who were in search of rest , including Joséphine de Beauharnais when the case of her separation from her first husband was heard .
The abbey was disestablished during the French Revolution and the buildings were turned over to military use , first as the home of the National Guard , then the Imperial Guard , and later the Cent @-@ gardes . It continues to be occupied by the Ministère de la Défense with the exception of the former chapel , which since 1844 has been a Protestant church , the Temple Penthemont . In August 2014 the Ministry of Defence , facing budget cuts due to austerity policies , sold the buildings to a real estate investment trust , Foncière des 6ème et 7ème Arrondissements de Paris , with plans to move all ministry offices out of the abbey by the end of October , 2016 .
= = History = =
= = = Beauvais ( 1217 – 1672 ) = = =
Philip of Dreux , the famed crusader bishop of Beauvais , wished to found a convent of the Cistercian order . In 1217 he set aside an orchard southwest of Beauvais , on which were traced out the plans for construction , as well as seven arpents ( 6 @-@ 7 acres ) of vines . Philip died before the project was completed and his successor , Bishop Milo of Nanteuil , raised the rest of the funds , and it was completed in 1218 . Pope Gregory IX issued a bull from the Lateran Palace on the 8 June 1230 which sanctioned the new abbey and declared the funds raised for its endowment protected . The abbey took its name , meaning mountain slope , from its location at the foot of the Montagne de St @-@ Symphorien .
In 1554 the abbey provided refuge to Charlotte I de Monceaux , the abbess of the neighboring Abbey of Saint @-@ Paul , whose election as abbess was opposed by Henry II . She fled to Pentemont after the arrival of the king 's soldiers at her own abbey . However , they followed her to Pentemont and demanded by force that she renounce her position , a request to which she was compelled to accede .
In 1671 , after the abbey was damaged in a flood , and for economic and geographical reasons , the abbess Hélène de Tourville moved the abbey to Paris . At the time , the convent had twelve sisters . The previous building was demolished and returned to agricultural work as part of the Pentemont farm .
= = = Paris ( 1672 – 1790 ) = = =
In Paris the abbey took up residence in a former convent , recently suppressed , of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word , located on Rue de Grenelle at the current site of the abbey . The sisters dedicated themselves to the education of young women and later added rooms in which women of good standing could find rest . The abbey quickly acquired a distinguished reputation and by the time of its dissolution in 1790 had revenues of 58 @,@ 000 livres , a great sum for the era .
The final abbess , Marie III Catherine de Béthisy de Mézières , spent 45 years and a great deal of money rebuilding and expanding the abbey . A competition for plans for a reconstruction attracted multiple proposals including one from the royal architect , François II Franque , which drew praise from Denis Diderot in the Encyclopédie for its combination of grandeur and simplicity . The winning proposal , however , was from Pierre Contant d 'Ivry .
The many famous students educated at the abbey included the noted abbess and princess Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon , and Louise d 'Esparbès de Lussan , the mistress of the Count of Artois , the future Charles X of France . Thomas Jefferson 's daughters Martha and Mary were both educated at the Pentemont Abbey while he was Minister to France . Their entry into the school was sponsored by the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette . The future first lady Abigail Adams was shocked that Jefferson would send his girls to a Catholic school but he assured her that there were many Protestants at the abbey . Conditions were austere for the students , despite the presence of three princesses , with no fires until the water froze and a prohibition on speaking outside of class and recreation . Her time at the school led Martha , nicknamed Patsy , to write a letter to her father expressing her desire to become a nun . Jefferson quickly removed his daughters from the care of the convent .
The abbey also provided elegant apartments to highborn women seeking independence from families or difficult marriages . The ladies were free to come and go as they liked , with constraints on the hours allowed outside the convent , often had their children and servants with them , and spent their evenings socializing and commiserating in the abbey 's salons . One such resident was Joséphine de Beauharnais , the future Empress of France , during her separation from her first husband , Alexandre de Beauharnais . The court granted her temporary independence from her husband and required her to stay at Pentemont with her children at the expense of Alexandre . It is also speculated that James Smithson , the founder of the Smithsonian Institution , who was born in Paris the illegitimate son of the Duke of Northumberland , was born in the Pentemont Abbey , as it had strong connections to the Duke , whose illegitimate daughters it educated .
= = = State Property ( 1790 – 2015 ) = = =
= = = = Military = = = =
During the French Revolution , the Abbey was suppressed and its properties confiscated . The abbey 's affairs were wound down in 1791 @-@ 2 , with its properties in Beauvais sold to pay off state debt . With the abbey now state property it came to serve first as home to the National Guard , then the Imperial Guard . In 1835 , the building was expanded to Rue de Bellechasse which required the demolition of some parts of the original structure . Under the Second Empire the abbey served as the barracks of the Cent @-@ gardes Squadron , an elite cavalry unit that provided personal protection for Napoleon III and the Tuileries Palace .
In the twentieth century , Pentemont Abbey housed the Ministry of War Pensions , Bonuses and Benefits . In 1937 , a bunker was constructed underneath the Court of Honor including two stationary bicycles intended to provide electricity in case of power loss due to enemy bombardment . The courtyard has a war memorial that reads " From veterans to their comrades who gave their lives for their country . In memoriam . " It is also home to a number of commemorative plaques , including ones for André Maginot and Henri Frenay .
= = = = Protestant Church = = = =
The chapel was used to store grain during the Revolution and later hay when the army took over the abbey . After the Concordat of 1801 provided formal recognition of the Reformed Church in France , it was decided that three former Catholic churches in Paris be turned over to Reformed congregations , Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre , Sainte @-@ Marie @-@ des @-@ Anges , and the chapel of the Pentemont Abbey .
In 1598 , Protestant worship had been forbidden in Paris by the Edict of Nantes . In 1685 , the Edict of Fontainebleau made non @-@ Catholic services illegal in all of France . This inaugurated a long period of persecution for French Protestants though some in Paris were able to worship in the chapels of the Dutch and Swedish embassies . The handover of the chapel of the abbey as well as the other churches ushered in a new era of open Protestant worship in Paris .
The actual opening of the former abbey as a Reformed congregation was delayed by decades of bureaucratic obstacles as well as opposition during the Bourbon Restoration to turning over a former Catholic building to Protestant use . It was not until 1844 that architect Victor Baltard began work to convert the chapel into a Protestant church . He isolated the chapel from the rest of the building , added new doors in place of two of the previous windows , and converted the former choir to a nave . He also closed off the original entrance by adding a massive organ , built by Aristide Cavaillé @-@ Coll and installed in 1846 for the opening of the church . The organ has undergone various modifications over the years including a restoration from 2011 @-@ 14 to restore the remaining original elements . The church itself underwent restoration from 2005 @-@ 2007 commissioned by the City of Paris and accomplished by Benjamin Mouton , the chief architect of historic monuments , and the firm Aubert @-@ Labansat .
= = List of Abbesses of Pentemont = =
= = Gallery = =
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= Dyspanopeus sayi =
Dyspanopeus sayi is a species of mud crab that is native to the Atlantic coast of North America . It has also become established outside its native range , living in Swansea Docks since 1960 , the Mediterranean Sea since the 1970s , the North Sea since 2007 and the Black Sea since 2010 . It can reach a carapace width of 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) , and has black tips to its unequal claws . It feeds on bivalves and barnacles , and is in turn eaten by predators including the Atlantic blue crab , Callinectes sapidus . Eggs are produced from spring to autumn , the offspring reach sexual maturity the following summer , and individuals can live for up to two years . The closest relative of D. sayi is D. texanus , which lives in the Gulf of Mexico ; the two species differ in subtle features of the genitalia and the last pair of walking legs .
= = Description = =
Dyspanopeus sayi is a small crab , similar in appearance to Eurypanopeus depressus . It reaches a maximum carapace width of 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) , with sexually mature females having a carapace 6 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) or more across . The carapace is roughly hexagonal , about 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 times as wide as long and strongly convex . It has a finely granular surface , and has a light covering of hair , especially towards the front and sides . The chelae ( claws ) are unequal : the right claw is stouter , and the left claw is narrower . The carapace is olive @-@ green to brown , but the tips of the claws are black .
= = Distribution = =
The natural range of D. sayi extends from the Baie des Chaleurs ( eastern Canada ) to the Florida Keys ( south @-@ eastern United States ) , where it lives from the intertidal zone down to depths of 46 metres ( 151 ft ) . It tolerates a wide range of temperatures and salinities .
D. sayi has also been recorded from a number of locations in Europe . The first sighting was in Swansea Docks , South Wales ( United Kingdom ) in 1960 , and the scientist who reported it , E. Naylor , believed there was " no doubt " that the species had arrived through trans @-@ Atlantic shipping . The first record from the Mediterranean Sea was made in 1993 , when the species was discovered in the Venetian Lagoon ( north @-@ eastern Italy ) , although it is thought to have been living there since the late 1970s . In 2007 , D. sayi was recorded from the North Sea coast of the Netherlands . It was discovered in the Black Sea in 2010 , living in Constanța harbour ( Romania ) , and in the Ebro delta of the Balearic Sea ( western Mediterranean Sea ) in 2012 .
= = Ecology = =
Dyspanopeus sayi lives predominantly on muddy bottoms , where it is a predator of bivalve molluscs . In its native environment , it hides among colonies of polychaetes to avoid being preyed on by the Atlantic blue crab , Callinectes sapidus . It is an important predator of the quahog , Mercenaria mercenaria , in Narragansett Bay , and of the barnacle Balanus improvisus in Delaware Bay . In the Adriatic Sea , it has been observed to feed on the striped venus clam , Chamelea gallina , and the introduced Asian date mussel , Musculista senhousia .
= = Life cycle = =
The life cycle of D. sayi begins with copulation , which normally takes place shortly after the female has moulted , while her exoskeleton is still soft . Spawning occurs within hours or days of copulation , and the eggs are brooded on the female 's pleopods ( swimmerets ) until they are ready to hatch . Females have been found carrying eggs from April to October ; in a study of crabs caught at Gloucester Point , Virginia in 1978 , females were observed to carry between 686 and 14 @,@ 735 eggs . The number of eggs increases with carapace width according to a power law ; extrapolation of the power law suggests that the largest D. sayi females are capable of carrying over 32 @,@ 000 eggs each .
At 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) , the eggs can take only 9 or 10 days to develop , and this increases to 16 days at temperatures of 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The young crabs hatch as zoea larvae , and pass through three further zoeal stages and one megalopa before becoming juveniles . Juveniles are thought to reach maturity in the summer after they hatch . The total lifespan of an individual can be up to 2 years .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species had been noticed by the American zoologist Thomas Say , and formed part of the species he called " Cancer panope " – a junior homonym of " Cancer panope " Herbst , 1801 , which is itself a junior synonym of Sphaerozius scaber ( Fabricius , 1798 ) . In 1869 , Sidney Irving Smith described seven new species in the genus Panopeus , including " P. sayi " , in addition to the twelve species already placed in the genus at that time . Common names for the species include " Say 's mud crab " and " Say mud crab " .
Smith noted the similarity of the species to " Panopeus texanus " , which had been described ten years earlier by William Stimpson , and Smith considered that the two might be the same species . In 1880 , John Sterling Kingsley and Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards independently synonymised " P. sayi " with " P. texana " , which remained until Mary J. Rathbun moved both taxa to the genus Neopanope and re @-@ established Smith 's taxon as a subspecies of " N. texana " . She argued that the two taxa should be considered subspecies , as hybrids between them occurred , although the specimens she saw are now thought to be D. sayi .
In 1972 , Lawrence G. Abele re @-@ examined " N. texanus texanus " , " N. texanus sayi " and N. packardi , and concluded that they were all good species , and so re @-@ elevated " N. sayi " to the rank of species . In 1986 , Joel W. Martin and Abele placed N. texanus and N. sayi in a separate genus , Dyspanopeus , reaffirming their close relationship . However , P. texana only occurs in the Gulf of Mexico , and can be distinguished from P. sayi by the form of the fifth pereiopod ( last walking leg ) and that of the male gonopod .
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= Field Spaniel =
The Field Spaniel is a medium @-@ sized breed dog of the spaniel type . They were originally developed to be all @-@ black show dogs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and were unpopular for work as a hunting dog . However , during the mid @-@ 20th century they were redeveloped as a longer @-@ legged dog that was more suitable to be used for field work . They are now considered to be a rare breed , and are registered as a Vulnerable Native Breed by The Kennel Club .
Their fur is darker than other spaniels and have no undercoat . Their coats come mostly in solid colours with some occasional markings on the chest . They can make good family dogs and are patient with children , but can require some sort of purpose , be it hunting or agility work in order to prevent them from becoming bored and destructive .
= = History = =
The Field Spaniel was originally developed for the show ring by competitors who were attempting to develop an all @-@ black Spaniel . Some of the breeding methods of those early developers were criticised ; one of the first breeders of the Field Spaniel , Thomas Jacobs , said of the origin ; " Much has been written and said on the purity of the breed ; deprecating the means I have adopted to produce them as calculated to alter a presumed type , and frequent missiles have at me and my dogs from behind the hedge . But where is the pure bred black spaniel we hear so much about ? Proof of the existence of the pure bred one ( if there ever was one ! ) has not been forthcoming . Like most sporting dogs , they are the result of different crosses . "
They were unpopular with sportsmen as the dark colours of the breed did not show up in hunting conditions , and the elongated and short shape of the early breed was not very practical for moving easily through cover . The low @-@ slung variety of Field Spaniel were developed by Phineas Bullock from dogs previously owned by Sir Francis Burdett , the secretary of the Birmingham Dog Show . Burdett was said to have owned a variety of black Cocker Spaniels . Bullock crossed the Field Spaniel with the Sussex Spaniel and the English Water Spaniel . In the 1870s he was very successful in the show ring with his variety of Field Spaniel ; however , it resulted in a dog that was almost exactly like a Sussex Spaniel with the exception of the head itself .
The dog who is considered to be the father of the modern English Cocker Spaniel is Ch . Obo , who was born in 1879 to a Sussex Spaniel father and a Field Spaniel mother . Obo 's son Ch . Obo II is considered to be the father of the modern American Cocker Spaniel , who was described as being only ten inches high with quite a long body .
By 1909 , the average weight of a Field Spaniel was 35 – 45 pounds ( 16 – 20 kg ) . Further mixing of the breed occurred with elements of the Basset Hound introduced . Various genetic health issues arose and action was taken in order to correct the problems within the breed . English Springer Spaniels were used to introduce healthier elements into the breed and resulted in the longer legged spaniel that we know today . Most of the modern breed can be traced to four dogs from the 1950s ; Colombina of Teffont , Elmbury Morwena of Rhiwlas , Gormac Teal , and Ronayne Regal .
The Field Spaniel remains a rare breed , even in the UK . In 2009 , a total of 51 dogs were registered with The Kennel Club and has been in steady decline since 2000 . Out of all the Spaniel breeds registered with The Kennel Club , the Field Spaniel has the lowest numbered registered year on year , with only the Sussex Spaniel coming a close second with 60 registrations in 2009 . This is compared to the English Springer Spaniel with 12 @,@ 700 and the English Cocker Spaniel with 22 @,@ 211 registrations in 2009 alone . In order to promote the breed , they have been registered as a Vulnerable Native Breed by The Kennel Club .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
The standard size for a Field Spaniel is 17 – 18 inches ( 43 – 46 cm ) tall at the withers , and a weight of between 40 – 55 pounds ( 18 – 25 kg ) . This places it roughly between the English Cocker Spaniel and the English Springer Spaniel in size . Its long , silky coat comes in solid colours of black , liver , or roan . Tan points , white markings on the throat and the chest can be ticked or the same colour as the rest of the body .
They have a moderately long single coat with no undercoat . Feathering of the fur appears on the chest , belly , ears and on the back of the legs . The coat is not as heavy as that of a Cocker Spaniel but will require grooming in order to prevent mats from appearing in the fur . Docked tails were often used in working dogs , as poor blood flow left healing of the non docked tail difficult .
= = = Temperament = = =
The Field Spaniel can be a good family dog while it has a job to do . They are suitable for dog agility and hunting . Without some sort of purpose , the dog can often try to amuse itself and cause mischief . However , they are patient with children and like to stay close to their family . When socialised , they are good with other dogs . They are generally docile and independent , and are not as excitable as Cocker Spaniels . Stanley Coren 's The Intelligence of Dogs lists the breed as being above average in working intelligence .
= = Health = =
There are a few ocular conditions to which the Field Spaniel has a predisposition . These include cataracts , retinal atrophy and retinal dysplasia . Hip dysplasia has appeared in British lines of Field Spaniels . In a health survey conducted by the Kennel Club ( UK ) , the primary cause of death in Field Spaniels was cancer , with the second most frequent cause being old age . The median lifespan for the breed was found to be eleven years and eight months , which is five months higher than the median age for all dog breeds .
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= Scandium =
Scandium is a chemical element with symbol Sc and atomic number 21 . A silvery @-@ white metallic d @-@ block element , it has historically been sometimes classified as a rare earth element , together with yttrium and the lanthanoids . It was discovered in 1879 by spectral analysis of the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia .
Scandium is present in most of the deposits of rare earth and uranium compounds , but it is extracted from these ores in only a few mines worldwide . Because of the low availability and the difficulties in the preparation of metallic scandium , which was first done in 1937 , applications for scandium were not developed until the 1970s . The positive effects of scandium on aluminium alloys were discovered in the 1970s , and its use in such alloys remains its only major application . The global trade of scandium oxide is about 10 tonnes per year .
The properties of scandium compounds are intermediate between those of aluminium and yttrium . A diagonal relationship exists between the behavior of magnesium and scandium , just as there is between beryllium and aluminium . In the chemical compounds of the elements in group 3 , the predominant oxidation state is + 3 .
= = Properties = =
= = = Chemical characteristics of the element = = =
Scandium is a soft metal with a silvery appearance . It develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when oxidized by air . It is susceptible to weathering and dissolves slowly in most dilute acids . It does not react with a 1 : 1 mixture of nitric acid ( HNO3 ) and 48 % hydrofluoric acid ( HF ) , possibly due to the formation of an impermeable passive layer . Scandium turnings ignite in air with a brilliant yellow flame to form scandium ( III ) oxide .
= = = Isotopes = = =
In nature , scandium is found exclusively as the isotope 45Sc , which has a nuclear spin of 7 / 2 . Thirteen radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 46Sc , which has a half @-@ life of 83 @.@ 8 days ; 47Sc , 3 @.@ 35 days ; the positron emitter 44Sc , 4 h ; and 48Sc , 43 @.@ 7 hours . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives less than 4 hours , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives less than 2 minutes . This element also has five meta states , with the most stable being 44mSc ( t1 / 2 = 58 @.@ 6 h ) .
The isotopes of scandium range from 36Sc to 60Sc . The primary decay mode at masses lower than the only stable isotope , 45Sc , is electron capture , and the primary mode at masses above it is beta emission . The primary decay products at atomic weights below 45Sc are calcium isotopes and the primary products from higher atomic weights are titanium isotopes .
= = = Occurrence = = =
In Earth 's crust , scandium is not rare . Estimates vary from 18 to 25 ppm , which is comparable to the abundance of cobalt ( 20 – 30 ppm ) . Scandium is only the 50th most common element on Earth ( 35th most abundant in the crust ) , but it is the 23rd most common element in the Sun . However , scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals . Rare minerals from Scandinavia and Madagascar such as thortveitite , euxenite , and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element . Thortveitite can contain up to 45 % of scandium in the form of scandium ( III ) oxide .
The stable form of scandium is created in supernovas via the r @-@ process .
= = Production = =
The world production of scandium is in the order of 10 tonnes per year , in the form of scandium oxide . The demand is about 50 % higher , and both the production and demand keep increasing . In 2003 , only three mines produced scandium : the uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody in Ukraine , the rare earth mines in Bayan Obo , China , and the apatite mines in the Kola peninsula , Russia ; since then many other countries have built scandium @-@ producing facilities . In each case scandium is a byproduct from the extraction of other elements and is sold as scandium oxide .
To produce metallic scandium , the oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and reduced with metallic calcium .
Madagascar and Iveland @-@ Evje region in Norway have the only deposits of minerals with high scandium content , thortveitite ( Sc , Y ) 2 ( Si2O7 ) and kolbeckite ScPO4 · 2H2O , but these are not being exploited .
The absence of reliable , secure , stable , and long term production has limited commercial applications of scandium . Despite this low level of use , scandium offers significant benefits . Particularly promising is the strengthening of aluminium alloys with as little as 0 @.@ 5 % scandium . Scandium @-@ stabilized zirconia enjoys a growing market demand for use as a high efficiency electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells .
= = Compounds = =
Scandium chemistry is almost completely dominated by the trivalent ion , Sc3 + . The radii of M3 + ions in the table below indicate that the chemical properties of scandium ions have more in common with yttrium ions than with aluminium ions . In part because of this similarity , scandium is often classified as a lanthanide @-@ like element .
= = = Oxides and hydroxides = = =
The oxide Sc2O3 and the hydroxide Sc ( OH ) 3 are amphoteric :
Sc ( OH ) 3 + 3 OH − → Sc ( OH ) 3 −
6
Sc ( OH ) 3 + 3 H + + 3 H2O → [ Sc ( H2O ) 6 ] 3 +
The α- and γ- forms of scandium oxide hydroxide ( ScO ( OH ) ) , are isostructural with their aluminium oxide hydroxide counterparts . Solutions of Sc3 + in water are acidic because of hydrolysis .
= = = Halides and pseudohalides = = =
The halides , ScX3 , are very soluble in water where X = Cl , Br , or I , but ScF3 is insoluble . In all four halides , the scandium is 6 @-@ coordinated . The halides are Lewis acids ; for example , ScF3 dissolves in a solution containing excess fluoride ion to form [ ScF6 ] 3 − . The coordination number 6 is typical of Sc ( III ) . In the larger Y3 + and La3 + ions , coordination numbers of 8 and 9 are common . Scandium ( III ) triflate is sometimes used as a Lewis acid catalyst in organic chemistry .
= = = Organic derivatives = = =
Scandium forms a series of organometallic compounds with cyclopentadienyl ligands ( Cp ) , similar to the behavior of the lanthanides . One example is the chlorine @-@ bridged dimer , [ ScCp2Cl ] 2 and related derivatives of pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligands .
= = = Uncommon oxidation states = = =
Compounds that feature scandium in the oxidation state other than + 3 are rare but well characterized . The blue @-@ black compound CsScCl3 is one of the simplest . This material adopts a sheet @-@ like structure that exhibits extensive bonding between the scandium ( II ) centers . Scandium hydride is not well understood , although it appears not to be a saline hydride of Sc ( II ) . As is observed for most elements , a diatomic scandium hydride has been observed spectroscopically at high temperatures in the gas phase . Scandium borides and carbides are non @-@ stoichiometric , as is typical for neighboring elements .
Lower oxidation states ( + 2 , + 1 , 0 ) have also been observed in organoscandium compounds .
= = History = =
Dmitri Mendeleev , who is referred to as the father of the periodic table , predicted the existence of an element ekaboron , with an atomic mass between 40 and 48 in 1869 . Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team detected this element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite . Nilson prepared 2 grams of scandium oxide of high purity . He named the element scandium , from the Latin Scandia meaning " Scandinavia " . Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev 's prediction , but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev .
Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of potassium , lithium , and scandium chlorides , at 700 – 800 ° C. The first pound of 99 % pure scandium metal was produced in 1960 . Production of aluminium alloys began in 1971 , following a US patent . Aluminium @-@ scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR .
Laser crystals of gadolinium @-@ scandium @-@ gallium garnet ( GSGG ) were used in strategic defense applications developed for the Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) in the 1980s and 1990s .
= = Applications = =
The addition of scandium to aluminium limits the grain growth in the heat zone of welded aluminium components . This has two beneficial effects : the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than in other aluminium alloys , and the volume of precipitate @-@ free zones at the grain boundaries of age @-@ hardening aluminium alloys is reduced . Both of these effects increase the usefulness of the alloy . However , titanium alloys , which are similar in lightness and strength , are cheaper and much more widely used .
The alloy Al20Li20Mg10Sc20Ti30 is as strong as titanium , light as aluminium , and hard as ceramic .
The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium @-@ scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components . These alloys contain between 0 @.@ 1 % and 0 @.@ 5 % of scandium . They were used in the Russian military aircraft , specifically the MiG @-@ 21 and MiG @-@ 29 .
Some items of sports equipment , which rely on high performance materials , have been made with scandium @-@ aluminium alloys , including baseball bats and bicycle frames and components . Lacrosse sticks are also made with scandium . The American firearm manufacturing company , Smith & Wesson , produces revolvers with frames of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium or carbon steel .
Dentists use erbium , chromium : yttrium @-@ scandium @-@ gallium garnet ( Er , Cr : YSGG ) lasers for cavity preparation and in endodontics .
The first scandium @-@ based metal halide lamps were patented by General Electric and initially made in North America , although they are now produced in all major industrialized countries . Approximately 20 kg ( as Sc2O3 ) of scandium is used annually in the United States for high @-@ intensity discharge lamps . One type of metal halide lamp , similar to the mercury @-@ vapor lamp , is made from Scandium iodide and sodium iodide . This lamp is a white light source with high color rendering index that sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good color @-@ reproduction with TV cameras . About 80 kg of scandium is used in metal halide lamps / light bulbs globally per year .
The radioactive isotope 46Sc is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent . Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry .
= = Health and safety = =
Elemental scandium is considered non @-@ toxic , though extensive animal testing of scandium compounds has not been done . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) levels for scandium ( III ) chloride for rats have been determined as 4 mg / kg for intraperitoneal and 755 mg / kg for oral administration . In the light of these results compounds of scandium should be handled as compounds of moderate toxicity .
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= Interstate 70 in Utah =
Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) is a mainline route of the Interstate Highway System in the United States connecting Utah and Maryland . The Utah section runs east – west for 232 @.@ 15 miles ( 373 @.@ 61 km ) across the central part of the state . Richfield is the largest Utah city served by the freeway , which does not serve or connect any urban areas in the state . The freeway was built as part of a system of highways connecting Los Angeles and the northeastern United States . I @-@ 70 was the second attempt to connect southern California to the east coast of the United States via central Utah , the first being a failed attempt to construct a transcontinental railroad . Parts of that effort were re @-@ used in the laying out of the route of I @-@ 70 .
Unlike most Interstate Highways , much of I @-@ 70 in Utah was not constructed parallel to or on top of an existing U.S. Highway . Portions of I @-@ 70 were constructed in areas where previously there were no paved roads . Because it was built over an entirely new route , I @-@ 70 has many features that are unique in the Interstate Highway System . For example , the 110 miles ( 177 km ) between Green River and Salina makes up the longest distance anywhere in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services . This same piece is noted as the longest highway in the United States built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway , and the longest piece of Interstate Highway to open at a given time . The construction of the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System .
The choice of the route had a significant impact on the character and culture of the Sevier Valley . It has also been a motivating factor for environmentalists to create a new National Park along the path of the highway to protect scenic areas around the route . I @-@ 70 from Green River to Grand Junction , Colorado is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , making I @-@ 70 one of the few Interstate Highways to be named a National Scenic Byway . Attractions listed by the Federal Highway Administration for the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway on or near I @-@ 70 include , Arches National Park , Canyonlands National Park , Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry , Goblin Valley State Park and Westwater . The designation lists several side roads branching from I @-@ 70 that lead to dinosaur bones or footprints .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 70 begins at a trumpet interchange with Interstate 15 , near Cove Fort . It then proceeds east over the Pavant Range , cresting at an unnamed summit with an elevation of 7 @,@ 076 feet ( 2 @,@ 157 m ) . The eastern descent from the Pavant range features bridges high above Clear Creek and its side canyons . The longest of these bridges is the Fish Creek bridge at 1 @,@ 180 feet ( 360 m ) long . The descent into Clear Creek features a brake check area and runaway truck ramp to aid truckers down the steep slope . The freeway then skirts the edge of Fremont Indian State Park before entering Sevier Valley .
= = = Sevier Valley = = =
I @-@ 70 serves as the main thoroughfare of the valley , the only area traversed by the freeway in the state with more than a few hundred residents . Richfield is the largest city along I @-@ 70 in the state . The highway enters the valley just north of Big Rock Candy Mountain , a mountain named for a song attributed to Harry McClintock . The highway proceeds northeast along the western edge of the valley , passing to the west of the communities of the valley , including Joseph , Monroe , Elsinore , and Richfield . As I @-@ 70 approaches Salina it cuts across the valley passing to the south of that town . The highway avoids the downtown areas of all of these cities . The portion between Richfield and Salina is the busiest , with an annual average daily traffic of 11 @,@ 535 vehicles in 2006 . In the Sevier Valley , I @-@ 70 was built parallel to U.S. Route 89 .
= = = Wasatch Plateau = = =
At Salina , US @-@ 50 joins I @-@ 70 , and the two highways run concurrent for the rest of the way through Utah . After leaving Salina I @-@ 70 departs on a 110 @-@ mile ( 177 km ) course to Green River . This is the longest distance in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services . The route to Green River crosses two major geographic obstacles , the Wasatch Plateau and the San Rafael Swell .
I @-@ 70 ascends the Wasatch Plateau via Salina Canyon . The top of the canyon is the highest point of any of Utah 's Interstate Highways , although the elevation differs from source to source . The Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) has listed the elevation at 7 @,@ 923 feet ( 2 @,@ 415 m ) and 7 @,@ 886 feet ( 2 @,@ 404 m ) . Other maps have listed the figure 7 @,@ 980 feet ( 2 @,@ 432 m ) . At least one map has given this point a name , Emigrant Pass . This portion of I @-@ 70 is on protected lands as part of Fishlake National Forest . The freeway exits the Wasatch Plateau at Fremont Junction , the name of the junction of I @-@ 70 with State Route 10 .
= = = San Rafael Swell = = =
Between Fremont Junction and the junction of SR @-@ 24 near Green River , Interstate 70 crosses a geologic feature called the San Rafael Swell . The construction of the freeway through the swell is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System , with one engineer claiming this section as " one of the most significant highway construction feats of its time " . The construction of I @-@ 70 through the swell required boring through many solid rock canyons , cliffs , and mountains . The swell is noted for its sheer canyons and rock formations and is home to a large amount of exposed dinosaur remains . This includes the largest known collection of Jurassic period dinosaur remains at the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry at the north end of the swell .
The highway ascends the western edge of the swell on a steady slope loosely following the north rim of Devils Canyon . At the top of the grade is a view area with a view of Devils Canyon and an overlook of the country west of the swell . It then crosses Eagle Canyon via a pair of steel arch bridges . The eastbound bridge is 489 feet ( 149 m ) long and the westbound bridge is 523 feet ( 159 m ) long .
The highway then ascends Ghost Rock Summit , the highest point for I @-@ 70 inside the swell . At the summit is another view area overlooking the Little Grand Canyon of the San Rafael River . The summit is named for unusual rock formations nearby . The Ghost Rocks themselves are at 7 @,@ 405 feet ( 2 @,@ 257 m ) , although the freeway is slightly lower . I @-@ 70 meanders through a relatively flat portion of the swell until reaching Spotted Wolf Canyon , which provides the exit route to the swell . The eastern descent features one brake check area and two runaway truck ramps to aid trucks down . About halfway down is a view area of the canyon narrowing as it approaches the eastern escarpment of the swell , the San Rafael Reef . Just as the highway exits the swell it passes to the north of Goblin Valley State Park . The highway exits the swell near Green River .
= = = Book Cliffs = = =
West of Green River , US @-@ 6 and 191 join I @-@ 70 . Also at Green River , the freeway reaches the southern edge of the Book Cliffs , a mountain range which I @-@ 70 follows to Grand Junction , Colorado . This portion of I @-@ 70 is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , recognized as a scenic byway by both the National Scenic Byways and Utah Scenic Byways programs . Listed attractions along the byway in the Green River area include Crystal Geyser , Capitol Reef National Park and Green River State Park .
From this point east the freeway is routed across a flat area between the Book Cliffs and the Colorado River , called Sagers Flat . Along the way it passes by the towns of Crescent Junction , Thompson Springs and Cisco . Natural features visible from this portion include Arches National Park and Castle Valley . Other listed attractions along the byway near this section include Canyonlands National Park and various areas with Morrison Formation , a layer of rock where dinosaur remains are common . I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 6 , and US @-@ 50 all enter Colorado concurrently . Where I @-@ 70 follows the Book Cliffs , it was built parallel to or on top of US @-@ 6 / 50 .
= = History = =
= = = Old Spanish Trail = = =
The first route through this portion of Utah was the Old Spanish Trail , a trade route between Santa Fe , New Mexico and Los Angeles , California . The trail was in common use before the Mexican @-@ American War in 1848 . Although the trail serves a different route than I @-@ 70 , they were both intended to connect southern California with points further east . I @-@ 70 generally parallels the route of the Old Spanish Trail west of Crescent Junction . I @-@ 15 south of the junction with I @-@ 70 also generally parallels the trail .
= = = Transcontinental railroads = = =
The first attempt to build a modern trade route through the area is credited to William Jackson Palmer , founder of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad ( D & RG ) . Palmer started a project in 1880 to make what had been a local railroad from Colorado into a transcontinental railroad empire . This would mean a second transcontinental railroad would be built across Utah . This would also place the D & RG in competition with the First Transcontinental Railroad , then operated by Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad .
Disagreements in the company led to two proposals . Both proposals called for extending the railroad west from Colorado as far as what is now Green River . West of Green River a " northern route " would extend the railroad towards Ogden , Utah , there connecting with the established Overland Route . This proposal was eventually completed as the Utah Division , loosely following the route of modern U.S. Route 6 across eastern Utah . This line soon became the main line of the D & RG and remains one of the main transcontinental rail arteries of the U.S , now operated by the Union Pacific Railroad as the Central Corridor .
The second proposal was a " southern route " that would continue due west from Green River and head towards Los Angeles , similar to the route of modern I @-@ 70 . This proposal would require extending the railroad farther west , to connect with what would become the Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad .
Due to disagreements in management and poor communication , construction began on both routes . It was soon obvious that the southern route was unfeasible given the remote area , technology available at the time and the rough terrain of the San Rafael Swell . The D & RG spent $ 217 @,@ 470 ( 1883 , equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 6 million in 2007 ) on the project before declaring it a failure . One of the accounts in the book Utah Ghost Rails states the railroad fired the lead surveyor , even though the workers had graded a path past the San Rafael Reef . This route today is a jeep trail . According to a sign placed by the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) , had the southern route succeeded it would have been the shortest transcontinental railroad in the U.S.
Construction resumed in 1901 on a portion of the southern route , to build a spur line to service coal mines on the Wasatch Plateau . The railroad branched from an existing line at Salina and traveled east up Salina Canyon . After the mines closed , the railroad bed was used to improve State Route 10 , between Salina and Fremont Junction . I @-@ 70 would later use the railroad bed for a path across the Wasatch Plateau .
= = = Plans for Interstate 70 = = =
By the time the Interstate Highway System was in the planning stages , no paved road had yet entered the San Rafael Swell . The established highway through the area was US @-@ 6 / US @-@ 50 which , like the railroad , entered Utah from Colorado and turned north around the swell .
As first proposed in 1956 , the western terminus of I @-@ 70 was Denver , Colorado . Officials from Colorado pressured the federal government to extend the plans for I @-@ 70 further west . After several discussions with Utah officials , Utah supported an extension that would follow US @-@ 6 / 50 ( now US @-@ 6 ) , to connect with I @-@ 15 at Spanish Fork . This proposal would connect the Salt Lake City area with Denver . While accepting the Colorado / Utah proposal , federal planners also decided to show a modified proposal , with the terminus of I @-@ 70 at Cove Fort , to planners at the Department of the Army . The planners opposed the extension to Salt Lake , but felt the modified proposal would benefit the U.S. Army , by providing a better connection to southern California . The new route would shorten the distance between Los Angeles and Denver by about 200 miles ( 320 km ) . The route to Cove Fort was approved on October 18 , 1957 . A general announcement was made , with no prior notice given to Utah officials of the modification . The commissioner of the Bureau of Public Roads later admitted that the lack of notice was intentional , fearing infighting if the bureau did not announce a final decision .
A state historian stated the news hit Utah " like a bombshell " . Except for the officials in Utah that represented the area , most opposed a freeway that would serve no populated areas in the state . The route was mocked as a public relations blunder and a " road to nowhere " . Utah officials attempted to revert plans to their preferred alternative , but later resigned to construct I @-@ 70 on the federally selected route . Governor George Dewey Clyde concluded , " Utah had no choice but to accept the Cove Fort routing , or have none at all . " Even attempts to route the freeway slightly north , to serve more cities in Emery County , were blocked . Federal planners insisted the freeway pass Green River on a southwest course and not turn north . Even today , there is no direct interstate link between Salt Lake and Denver . Motorists must choose between the two lane routes ( US @-@ 6 or US @-@ 40 ) or detour on I @-@ 80 through Wyoming .
= = = Construction = = =
With the plans for I @-@ 70 extended , a transcontinental route would again be attempted across the San Rafael Swell . The area west of Green River was so remote that survey crews followed wild horses with jeeps to survey parts of the route . According to a story told at the highway 's dedication , by an engineer who surveyed the highway , his group was approached by a sheep rancher and asked what they were doing . The rancher fell over laughing when he was told they were building a freeway .
The survey crew did not use the route of the railroad past the San Rafael Reef . However , they did use the route of the railroad across the Wasatch Plateau . The construction crews destroyed two of four tunnels when the bed was widened for the freeway . The two remaining tunnels are visible just south of the freeway and are used by a frontage road .
Some portions of I @-@ 70 over the Pavant Range and Wasatch Plateau were opened to traffic before the portion over the San Rafael Swell . These portions were temporarily signed as State Route 4 . The portion over the San Rafael Swell opened to traffic in 1970 , finally making the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 a drivable route .
Interstate 70 was dedicated on December 5 , 1970 , at the Ghost Rocks view area inside the swell , even though it would take another 20 years to fully complete the freeway . At the ceremony the mayors of cities recently made neighbors , including Grand Junction , Colorado , introduced themselves . Then Governor Calvin L. Rampton noted that I @-@ 70 was the longest road the U.S. had built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway , during World War II . It was also noted this was the longest piece of the Interstate Highway System to open at a given time .
Initially only two lanes , now the eastbound lanes , through the swell were constructed . The official highway map for Utah noted the new freeway , but qualified its existence with the words " two lanes open " . The first portions of I @-@ 70 to be constructed to Interstate Highway standards were along the non @-@ disputed portion of the route east of Green River .
The Utah portion of I @-@ 70 was not completed to Interstate Highway standards until 1990 , when the second Eagle Canyon bridge was dedicated . A second dedication ceremony was held at the bridge declaring the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 complete . Archie Hamilton , one of three engineers who worked for Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) long enough to see I @-@ 70 progress from conception to completion , said the most memorable moment was seeing the excavation at Spotted Wolf Canyon . He said before construction began , he could stand in one spot and touch both sides of the canyon . To carve the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) through the canyon required excavating 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of rock . It was estimated construction cost for the San Rafael Swell portion was $ 183 @.@ 5 million , $ 105 @.@ 5 million ( 1970 , $ 595 million in 2008 ) to build the first two lanes , and $ 78 million ( 1990 , $ 130 million in 2008 ) to construct the rest . At the 1970 dedication , it was noted the cost of land acquisition helped to offset the cost of the massive excavation . UDOT acquired the right of way to build the majority of I @-@ 70 from the BLM at the lowest cost per mile of any highway in Utah .
= = = Effect on rural Utah = = =
In 2002 , the Salt Lake Tribune interviewed the mayor of Richfield about the change I @-@ 70 brought to the Sevier Valley . Previously these were isolated farming communities , whose residents felt they were unaccustomed to the crime and other effects that a transcontinental highway can bring . Residents of Richfield soon started to call I @-@ 70 " Cocaine Lane " . The mayor stated that I @-@ 70 is a mixed blessing . He stated the highway is a boon to the hospitality industry and has made Richfield more accessible to other cities . However , the new road brought types of crime previously unknown to the city . The mayor lamented that after the completion of I @-@ 70 , many residents started locking their doors for the first time . The interview resulted from an event that served as a " wake @-@ up call " , that rural Utah is " not isolated from crime " . Panic ensued after the public witnessed Utah Highway Patrol troopers carrying away a suspect in handcuffs , while removing plastic bags and coolers full of body parts from the trunk of his car . The event caused a frenzy of people checking on their neighbors , fearing the murder victims were local residents . In 2007 , there were 11 violent crimes in Sevier County , a county of 19 @,@ 386 residents .
Green River is the largest , and only incorporated city directly served by I @-@ 70 in eastern Utah . Unlike the communities of the Sevier Valley , Green River was founded as a stopover for travelers along transcontinental arteries . The area was first used as a stopover for travelers navigating the Green River . Later the town was formed to serve travelers along the Old Spanish Trail and stagecoach mail routes . Green River was an established stopover by the time the railroad and later highways were built through the area .
= = = Effect on the San Rafael Swell = = =
Before the construction of I @-@ 70 the San Rafael Swell was relatively inaccessible and not well known or explored . There were , however , a few efforts to protect the swell as early as 1935 . Since the construction of the freeway the number of visitors to the swell has increased significantly , as the swell can now be accessed by automobile . As such , several groups are increasing efforts for protected status of the area , via National Park , National Monument or wilderness designation .
A major push occurred in 2002 when officials from Emery County , joined by Utah governor Mike Leavitt , petitioned President George W. Bush to use the authority of the Antiquities Act and create a San Rafael Swell National Monument . This effort lost momentum after the governor promised to honor the wishes of Emery County residents via a non @-@ binding referendum , which did not pass . Common reasons given by residents for opposing the designation included fear of the federal government restricting access and a repetition of events that occurred with the Grand Staircase @-@ Escalante National Monument . This monument was established in 1996 , by President Bill Clinton . In that case the monument was proposed at the federal level in secret . Boundaries were drawn without the consent or even knowledge of local residents . This incited anger and triggered a backlash in rural Utah .
Currently most of the swell is administered by the BLM and is not given special consideration . A small portion on the eastern edge is protected as Goblin Valley State Park , administered by the Utah Division of Parks and Recreation . Today the Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance continues to lobby for protection .
= = = Route number changes = = =
Before the formation of I @-@ 70 , there was a road over the Pavant Range numbered SR @-@ 13 that was similar to the route of I @-@ 70 . The highway , which largely still exists as a two @-@ lane road between SR @-@ 161 ( former US @-@ 91 ) at Cove Fort and US @-@ 89 at Sevier , had been taken over by the state on August 2 , 1912 , and assigned the label by the early 1920s as part of Utah 's initial highway numbering . In the Wasatch Plateau , the base for I @-@ 70 was derived from a portion of SR @-@ 10 . Both of these were transferred to State Route 4 , which was the state legislative designation for all of I @-@ 70 in Utah , in 1962 . U.S. Route 50 was changed to overlap with Interstate 70 through most of Utah in 1976 , with U.S. Route 6 remaining on its former route . In 1977 , Utah renumbered its state routes so that the legislative and signed numbers would match . With this change , the state designation for Interstate 70 is now State Route 70 .
= = Exit list = =
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= Can 't Be Tamed ( song ) =
" Can 't Be Tamed " is a song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus for her third studio album of the same name ( 2010 ) . It was released on May 14 , 2010 by Hollywood Records as the lead single from the record . The song was written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Paul Neumann , and Marek Pompetzki , while production was handled by Armato and James . A Rockangeles remix version featuring rapper Lil Jon was included as a bonus track on digital editions of the album . According to Cyrus , " Can 't Be Tamed " describes a desire to break out and experience freedom . The lyrics deal with the themes of freedom and self @-@ expression , approached by sultry lyrics .
" Can 't Be Tamed " received generally positive responses by music critics . It also garnered commercial success . The song peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached its highest peak at number five on both the Irish Singles Chart and New Zealand Singles Chart . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Robert Hales and follows Cyrus performing with backup dancers throughout a museum . Cyrus is first trapped in a giant cage , being observed by spectators ; she then escapes and trashes the museum . She has promoted " Can 't Be Tamed " by performing it at several venues , including a performance on Britain 's Got Talent that resulted in negative reactions from the media . The song is also a part of Cyrus ' second and third world tours , Gypsy Heart Tour and Bangerz Tour .
= = Background = =
" Can 't Be Tamed " was co @-@ written by Miley , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Paul Neumann , and Marek Pompetzki and produced by Armato and James . According to Cyrus , the track 's moral is to free yourself from any biding or hindrance , in particular application to women . Cyrus said the song 's message applies to different situations . Personally to her , " it is about being a cage and people looking at you . " As for others , she believed it could describe high school , in a situation where " someone feeling they have to be one way to be with a clique and they want to be who they are . A relationship , or whatever , it is just breaking out and feeling free . " Hollywood Records described " Can 't Be Tamed " as " a self @-@ empowering song in which Miley asserts that she has to stay true to herself in relationships " .
At four meetings throughout Europe , Cyrus ' manager , Jason Morey , presented the album Can 't Be Tamed to representatives from Universal Music Group ; the representatives confirmed what Hollywood Records in the United States had already decided , that the track would be released as the lead single . " Can 't Be Tamed " premiered on April 30 , 2010 on Cyrus ' official MySpace page ; it was officially released for airplay on May 3 , 2010 and released as a digital download on May 18 , 2010 . In May 2010 , Cyrus recorded the Rockangeles remix version of " Can 't Be Tamed " with rapper Lil Jon at Rock Mafia Studios in Santa Monica , California . Lil Jon said the collaboration was " crazy " and thought audiences would enjoy the remix . Cyrus added , " He just came in and let it out . It 's pretty rockin . " They believed Lil Jon gave the remix more energy than the original version had .
= = Composition = =
" Can 't Be Tamed " is a length of two minutes and 48 seconds . The song has been described as " grown @-@ up club sound " . The song is set in compound time of 12 / 8 and has a fast tempo of 118 beats per minute . It is written in the key of B minor and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from A3 to D5 . Cyrus belts her way through the choruses , while some lines in the verses feature processed vocals with the use of auto @-@ tune . It follows the chord progression B5 – D – A. Driven by a dark , pounding beat and the heavy use of synths , " Can 't Be Tamed " ' s instrumentation relies on drum machine .
Written solely in first person , " Can 't Be Tamed " explores the themes of freedom and self @-@ expression , approached by sultry lyrics . It puts emphasis to how she cannot be changed or molded into being something she is not . In the verses , Cyrus addresses confidence and the attempt to discover for what she is yearning for , respectively . Choruses have Cyrus shouting the title and variations of it in a repetitive manner , against the beat of the song . Monica Herrera of Billboard interpreted the lyrics " If there was a question about my intentions , I 'll tell ya / I 'm not here to sell ya " to be an official declaration of rebellion in order to dispose herself of tween role @-@ model responsibilities . Likewise , various other critics believed " Can 't Be Tamed " spoke of her completely drawing away from the image she had developed through Hannah Montana , which first aired in March 2006 .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics typically reviewed " Can 't Be Tamed " favorably . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly felt the song was " not bad business for stationary cardio , but not the stuff year @-@ end top tens are made of , either . " She said it didn 't offer " major sensations " and found it similar to Christina Aguilera ’ s " Not Myself Tonight " ( 2010 ) . Greenblatt was also disappointed with the song 's rhyming in the lines , " I 'm not here to sell ya ' / Or tell you to go to hell " . Sonya Sorich of Ledger @-@ Enquirer said that while she anticipated some negative reception , " Can 't Be Tamed " was also a prime candidate for a guilty pleasure dance track . " Heather Phares of Allmusic referred to " Can 't Be Tamed " as " stomping " and selected it as one of the album 's best . Fraser McAlpine of BBC said that though the song has strong sexual undercurrents , Cyrus maintained classy throughout the track . " If Miley 's gonna weather the Ensexification Moment it 'll be because she 's doing it during a period of extrema GaGa , when videos are less about acreage of flesh and more about feathers and Victorian scientists . Oh , and because she 's got the songs and the voice , that always helps " , McAlpine concluded .
Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone rated the song three out of five stars and compared it to the musical styles of Rihanna . He added , " It 's no ' Party in the U.S.A. ' or ' See You Again , ' but the chorus packs plenty of electro @-@ fizz pizzazz " . Bill Lamb of About.com rated " Can 't Be Tamed " two and half out of five stars . He criticized the song for lyrics that headed into a " selfish territory " , however , believing it would have airplay success . Monica Herrera of Billboard gave " Can 't Be Tamed " a favorable review , writing , " But Cyrus knows how to proffer her sass . When she sneers , ' I 'm not a fake , it 's in my DNA , ' in pre @-@ emptive retaliation against her critics , she does it with the professionalism of a Disney @-@ groomed star . " Jarett Wieselman of The New York Post said he liked the song and that though he did not buy Cyrus ' " Party in the U.S.A. " ( 2009 ) , he feared he would not " be able to resist " buying " Can 't Be Tamed " . He said the song had a " naughty old school Britney Spears " vibe , called it " totally catchy " and predicted it would be a summer hit . Ailbhe Malone of The Irish Times wrote , " Miley ’ s taken a sexy electro @-@ edge . Less " Party in the U.S.A. " , more Party With My Parents Away , we like this . A LOT . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending June 5 , 2010 , " Can 't Be Tamed " became the week 's " hot shot debut " by entering and peaking at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 191 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The sales marked Cyrus ' second @-@ best debut sales week , following " Party in the U.S.A. " , which sold 226 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week in August 2009 . With the appearance on the chart , the song became her fourth top ten debut on the Billboard Hot 100 , including a song credited to her alias Hannah Montana . In the following week , the song descended ten positions to number 18 . It spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending August 7 , 2010 , spending a total of ten weeks on the chart . " Can 't Be Tamed " also peaked at number 16 on Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) . The song peaked at number six on the Canadian Hot 100 and spent a total of 14 weeks upon the chart . It also sold over a million copies in the US and was certified platinum by the RIAA .
The song also achieved commercial success in Australia and New Zealand . " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted at number 18 on the Australian Singles Chart on the week ending June 6 , 2010 . After six weeks of ascending the Australian Singles Chart , the song found a new peak at number 17 . In the succeeding week , it reached its peak at number 14 and spent 11 weeks on the chart . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping over 35 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending May 24 , 2010 , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted and peaked at number five on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It spent nine weeks ascending and descending the New Zealand Singles Chart before completely dropping from the chart on the week ending July 19 , 2010 . In Japan , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted at number 53 and peaked at number 12 . In the United Kingdom , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted and peaked at number 13 on the week ending June 12 , 2010 . It spent eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart . The song peaked at number five on the Irish Singles Chart . In mainland Europe , " Can 't Be Tamed " maintained similar outcomes . It became Cyrus ' best @-@ charting single on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , peaking at number 15 in July 2010 and surpassing " Party in the U.S.A. " , which peaked at number 17 in January 2010 . It peaked at number 15 on the French Singles Chart , number 15 on the Norwegian Singles Chart , and number 14 on the Spanish Singles Chart . It also charted within the top 30 in Austria and Germany and within the top 40 of Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " Can 't Be Tamed " ' was directed by Robert Hales . The dance routines were choreographed by Jamal Sims , who also choreographed Cyrus ' " Hoedown Throwdown " . Cyrus and Sims conceived the plot for the video together and proposed it to Hales , who " envisioned it the way [ they ] did " . In regards to the video 's theme , Cyrus explained , " I think the video explains my life but it doesn 't exclude other people 's lives . It 's not just about how fabulous and glamorous and all this . It 's about the core of ' I don 't wanna be in a cage . I want to be free and do what I love ' " . The video was meant to transition Cyrus away from the good @-@ girl image she had developed through Hannah Montana . However , she believed her fans would be able to identify with the video 's message through their own circumstances ; for example , she believed that her desire to " stand out [ rather ] than fit in " was shared by teenagers hoping to break out of high school cliques . In an interview with the singer , Ryan Seacrest noted the video 's strong sexual appeal . Cyrus agreed that the video was sexy , though it was not supposed to be the premise : " The video isn 't about being sexy or who can wear the less clothes [ ... ] It 's about explaining the song and living the lyrics . " The music video has been viewed over 100 million times on vevo .
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The music video was shot on April 10 and April 11 , 2010 at Sony Studios in Culver City , California . Over twenty female and twenty male backup dancers were used . The video casts Cyrus as an exotic songbird breaking out of its cage , symbolizing Cyrus as a singer breaking out of her good @-@ girl image . Prior to the shoot , Cyrus meticulously recorded her ideas for the video on paper . For example , she chose her back @-@ up dancers make @-@ up pallets and contemplated their outfits ; while she did not want her dancer 's bodies " to look like normal bodies " , she also did not want for them to wear scales as , according to her , it would make them resemble to be fish and look scary . Hales wanted Cyrus to resemble a bird without " actually having a beak " or otherwise being overly explicit , so Cyrus ' stylists invented bird @-@ like accessories . Among these were arm bands with long leather straps , feathered shoulder pads , and a feathered vest worn over a black leotard and thigh @-@ high black leather boots . Cyrus said she had originally worn a " completely different " outfit , but wasn 't " feeling it " the morning of the shoot . " So we made this one right there in the morning , and we added pieces throughout the day ... more leather and more feathers . I think it 's really fun and kept changing the look , " she said . Cyrus ' make @-@ up artist , Denika Bedrossian , focused on the singer 's eyes ; he used " rich jewel @-@ toned shades " and eyelashes with feathered tips to give Cyrus a " deep peacock eye " . In cut @-@ scenes , Cyrus wears a corset made of 2 @,@ 400 silver metal pieces and numerous peacock feathers . It was designed by The Blonds , debuted during their fall 2010 fashion show , and cost $ 25 @,@ 000 .
The video commences with formally dressed spectators entering a museum as a curator introduces " a creature so rare it was believed to be extinct . In captivity for the first time , the rarest creature on Earth , Avis Cyrus . White curtains are pulled down to reveal Cyrus , dressed in a black leotard and expansive black CGI wings , asleep in a giant bird nest locked inside a giant cage . Cyrus rises and approaches the audience , but a camera flash startles her and causes her to shield her face with her wings . The music starts , and Cyrus unveils herself again and joins a large group of feathered dancers . As Cyrus sings , she and the dancers escape the cage and prowl the museum , shattering museum exhibits as they pass them . They perform provocative dances both inside the cage and in darkened museum halls . Cut @-@ scenes feature Cyrus lying down , dressed in a silver corset attached to a bed of peacock feathers , or writhing alone in her nest in the cage . The video ends with Cyrus back in her cage and the museum empty and trashed .
= = = Reception = = =
The video premiered on May 4 , 2010 on E ! News . The video received generally positive reviews from critics . It also received numerous comparisons to videos by Britney Spears and Lady Gaga , though Cyrus said she " wanted it to be something different for a female artist " . Cristina Gibson of E ! described the video as " edgy " , similar to Cyrus ' video for " Party in the U.S.A. " , but " on steroids " . Tina Warren of MTV News said the video was a good step toward ridding Cyrus of her good @-@ girl image and gave the video a positive review , calling it " intriguing " and stating , " The video [ ... ] is actually quite magnetic and you can ’ t look away " . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly agreed . While he acknowledged the video " might be dark and a tad conceptually racy " , he claimed it was smart move . " She isn ’ t moving too fast , honestly [ ... ] it ’ s not like Miley is stripping or baring much skin " . Rather , Stransky said Cyrus had " some super @-@ fun dance moves " and " [ made ] a statement " , albeit a darker one . Chinese newspaper People 's Daily said the video featured " bold " costumes and " revealed Cyrus ' sexy side " . The website , Yahoo ! added the video to the list of " Worst Music Videos of 2010 " Daniel Rutledge of 3 News in New Zealand said Cyrus had made " it very clear she wishes to cast aside any resemblance to the Disney alter ego that made her famous and be regarded from now on as an adult singer . " Singaporean newspaper My Paper defended Cyrus against claims that the video was too provocative and reported , " If nothing else , this vid shows that Cyrus knows how to entertain , and marks the beginning of truly high @-@ quality videos . " Mary Elizabeth Williams of Salon.com offered a contrary opinion , stating that while Cyrus is a " talented singer [ who ] deserves to break out of her Disney mold " , the " Can 't Be Tamed " music video was poor . Williams said Cyrus has " talent galore " and " incredible pipes " , but her video was " predictable , derivative and dumb " due to its unoriginality . According to People magazine , online reaction to the music video has been greatly varied . " Fans and bloggers lit up the Web with comments ranging from ' stunning , gorgeous , fierce ' to ' wow way too much for someone her age ' " , the magazine reported . NME put the video at number 28 on their list of the " 50 Worst Music Videos Ever " .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus first performed " Can 't Be Tamed " live on May 18 , 2010 on Dancing With the Stars . Donning the black leotard and accessories used in the music video , Cyrus appeared in a human @-@ sized cage and then performed throughout the stage with many costumed backup dancers ; Cyrus ' dancing was minimal . Her first performance of the song outside the United States was at the Rock in Rio concert in Lisbon , Portugal on May 29 , 2010 . Cyrus appeared on June 1 , 2010 at the Paris , France nightclub 1515 Club and on June 3 , 2010 on Britain 's Got Talent 's semifinals to perform " Can 't Be Tamed " . On the latter , Cyrus wore hot pants , fishnets and boots as she performed . Midway through the performance , Cyrus grabbed a female backup dancer , dipping her low , and simulated a kiss . The performance was met with negative reactions from the media and caused her to release a statement in which Cyrus promised she did not kiss the backup dancer . Cyrus wrote , " It is ridiculous that two entertainers can ’ t even rock out with each other without the media making it some type of story . I really hope my fans are not disappointed in me because the truth is I did nothing wrong . I got up there and did my job which is to perform to the best of my ability . " Cyrus later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concert in Madrid , Spain and the London , England nightclubs Heaven and G @-@ A @-@ Y. She has performed the track on Good Morning America , Late Show with David Letterman , MuchMusic Video Awards , and concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles , California , which was streamed across over thirty websites owned by MTV Networks .
Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour . She also performed the song during her ongoing Bangerz Tour . She wore a black sequined bra and furry monochrome chaps with falconry gloves during the performance . She was also accompanied by an enormous replica of her dog , Floyd . The performance received positive reviews from critics .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Tokyo Tower =
Tokyo Tower ( 東京タワー , Tōkyō tawā ) is a communications and observation tower located in the Shiba @-@ koen district of Minato , Tokyo , Japan . At 332 @.@ 9 metres ( 1 @,@ 092 ft ) , it is the second @-@ tallest structure in Japan . The structure is an Eiffel Tower @-@ inspired lattice tower that is painted white and international orange to comply with air safety regulations .
Built in 1958 , the tower 's main sources of revenue are tourism and antenna leasing . Over 150 million people have visited the tower since its opening . FootTown , a four @-@ story building located directly under the tower , houses museums , restaurants and shops . Departing from there , guests can visit two observation decks . The two @-@ story Main Observatory is located at 150 metres ( 490 ft ) , while the smaller Special Observatory reaches a height of 249 @.@ 6 metres ( 819 ft ) .
The tower acts as a support structure for an antenna . Originally intended for television broadcasting , radio antennas were installed in 1961 , but the tower is now used to broadcast signals for Japanese media outlets such as NHK , TBS and Fuji TV . Japan 's planned digital television transition by July 2011 was problematic , however ; Tokyo Tower 's height , 332 @.@ 9 m ( 1 @,@ 092 ft ) was not high enough to adequately support complete terrestrial digital broadcasting to the area . A taller digital broadcasting tower , known as Tokyo Skytree , was completed on February 29 , 2012 .
= = Construction = =
A large broadcasting tower was needed in the Kantō region after NHK , Japan 's public broadcasting station , began television broadcasting in 1953 . Private broadcasting companies began operating in the months following the construction of NHK 's own transmission tower . This communications boom led the Japanese government to believe that transmission towers would soon be built all over Tokyo , eventually overrunning the city . The proposed solution was the construction of one large tower capable of transmitting to the entire region . Furthermore , because of the country 's postwar boom in the 1950s , Japan was searching for a monument to symbolize its ascendancy as a global economic powerhouse .
Hisakichi Maeda , founder and president of Nippon Denpatō , the tower 's owner and operator , originally planned for the tower to be taller than the Empire State Building , which at 381 meters was the highest structure in the world . However , the plan fell through because of the lack of both funds and materials . The tower 's height was eventually determined by the distance the TV stations needed to transmit throughout the Kantō region , a distance of about 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) . Tachū Naitō , renowned designer of tall buildings in Japan , was chosen to design the newly proposed tower . Looking to the Western world for inspiration , Naitō based his design on the Eiffel Tower in Paris , France . With the help of engineering company Nikken Sekkei Ltd . , Naitō claimed his design could withstand earthquakes with twice the intensity of the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake or typhoons with wind speeds of up to 220 kilometres per hour ( 140 mph ) .
The new construction project attracted hundreds of tobi ( 鳶 ) , traditional Japanese construction workers who specialized in the construction of high @-@ rise structures . The Takenaka Corporation broke ground in June 1957 and each day at least 400 laborers worked on the tower . It was constructed of steel , a third of which was scrap metal taken from US tanks damaged in the Korean War . When the 90 @-@ metre antenna was bolted into place on October 14 , 1958 , Tokyo Tower was the tallest freestanding tower in the world , taking the title from the Eiffel Tower by 13 metres . Despite being taller than the Eiffel Tower , Tokyo Tower only weighs about 4 @,@ 000 tons , 3 @,@ 300 tons less than the Eiffel Tower . While other towers have since surpassed Tokyo Tower 's height , the structure was still the tallest artificial structure in Japan until April 2010 , when the new Tokyo Skytree became the tallest building of Japan . It was opened to the public on December 23 , 1958 at a final cost of ¥ 2 @.@ 8 billion ( $ 8 @.@ 4 million in 1958 ) . Tokyo Tower was mortgaged for ¥ 10 billion in 2000 .
Planned as an antenna for telecommunications and brightly colored in accordance with the time 's Aviation Law , the tower 's two panoramic observatories are mostly frequented by tourists today ; the tower constitutes a clear reference point in the center 's chaotic skyline , forming a strong landmark , both night and day .
= = Maintenance = =
Every 5 years the tower is repainted in a process that takes about 12 months .
= = Functions = =
Tokyo Tower 's two main revenue sources are antenna leasing and tourism . It functions as a radio and television broadcasting antenna support structure and is a tourist destination that houses several different attractions . Over 150 million people have visited the tower in total since its opening in late 1958 . Tower attendance had been steadily declining until it bottomed out at 2 @.@ 3 million in 2000 . Since then , attendance has been rising , and it has recently been attracting approximately 3 million visitors per year . The first area tourists must visit upon reaching the tower is FootTown , a four @-@ story building stationed directly under the tower . Here , visitors can eat , shop and visit several museums and galleries . Elevators that depart from the first floor of FootTown can be used to reach the first of two observation decks , the two @-@ story Main Observatory . For the price of another ticket , visitors can board another set of elevators from the second floor of the Main Observatory to reach the final observation deck — the Special Observatory .
= = = Broadcasting = = =
Tokyo Tower , a member of the World Federation of Great Towers , is utilized by many organizations for various broadcasting purposes . The structure was originally intended for broadcasting television , but radio antennas were installed in 1961 because it could accommodate them . The tower now broadcasts analog television , digital television , radio and digital radio . Stations that use the tower 's antenna include :
NHK General TV Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 1 ( Analog )
NHK Educational TV Tokyo ( JOAB @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 2 ( Analog )
NHK Radio FM Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ FM ) : 82 @.@ 5 @-@ MHz
NHK Radio 1 AM Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ AM ) : 594 @-@ KHz
NHK Radio 2 AM Tokyo ( JOAB @-@ AM ) : 693 @-@ KHz
TV Asahi Tokyo ( JOEX @-@ TV ) : TV Asahi Analog Television / VHF Channel 10 ( Analog )
Fuji Television Tokyo ( JOCX @-@ TV ) : Fuji Television Analog / VHF Channel 8 ( Analog )
Tokyo Broadcasting System Television ( JORX @-@ TV ) : TBS Television / VHF Channel 6 ( Analog )
Nippon Television Tokyo ( JOAX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 4 ( Analog )
TV Tokyo ( JOTX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 12 ( Analog )
J @-@ WAVE ( JOAV @-@ FM ) : 81 @.@ 3 @-@ MHz
Tokyo FM ( JOAU @-@ FM ) : 80 @.@ 0 @-@ MHz
FM Interwave ( JODW @-@ FM ) : 76 @.@ 1 @-@ MHz
The University of the Air TV ( JOUD @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 16 ( Analog )
The University of the Air @-@ FM ( JOUD @-@ FM ) : 77 @.@ 1 @-@ MHz
Tokyo Metropolitan Television ( JOMX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 14 ( Analog )
Nikkei Radio Broadcasting Relay Antenna ( JOZ @-@ SW ) : 3 @.@ 925 @-@ MHz
Japan currently employs both analog and digital broadcasting , but by July 2011 all television broadcasting is to be digital . Tokyo Tower is not a reliable broadcasting antenna for completely digital broadcasting because the tower is not tall enough to transmit the higher frequency waves needed to areas surrounded by forests or high @-@ rise buildings . As an alternative , a new 634 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 2 @,@ 080 ft ) tower called the Tokyo Skytree was opened in 2012 . To make Tokyo Tower more appealing to NHK and five other commercial broadcasters who plan to move their transmitting stations to the new tower , Nihon Denpatō officials drafted a plan to extend its digital broadcasting antenna by 80 to 100 metres at a cost of approximately ¥ 4 billion ( US $ 50 million ) . Because these plans have not been realized , Tokyo Tower is expected to stop transmitting digital TV radio waves with the exception of Open University of Japan , who will continue to broadcast through the tower . FM radio stations will also continue to utilize the tower for broadcasting in the Tokyo area . Masahiro Kawada , the tower 's planning director , also pointed out the possibility of the tower becoming a backup for the Tokyo Skytree , depending on what the TV broadcasters want or need .
The tip of the antenna was damaged on March 11 , 2011 as a result of the Tōhoku earthquake . On July 19 , 2012 , the Tokyo Tower 's height shrank to 315 meters while the top antenna was repaired for damage sustained during the earthquake .
= = = Attractions = = =
= = = = FootTown = = = =
Located in the base of the tower is a 4 @-@ story building known as FootTown . The first floor includes the Aquarium Gallery , a reception hall , the 400 @-@ person @-@ capacity " Tower Restaurant " , a FamilyMart convenience store and a souvenir shop . This floor 's main attractions , however , are the three elevators that serve as a direct ride to the Main Observatory . The second floor is primarily a food and shopping area . In addition to the five standalone restaurants , the second floor 's food court consists of four restaurants , including a McDonald 's and a Pizza @-@ La .
FootTown 's third and fourth floors house several tourist attractions . The third floor is home to the Guinness World Records Museum Tokyo , a museum that houses life @-@ size figures , photo panels and memorabilia depicting interesting records that have been authenticated by the Guinness Book . The Tokyo Tower Wax Museum , opened in 1970 , displays wax figures imported from London where they were made . The figures on display range from pop culture icons such as The Beatles to religious figures such as Jesus Christ . A hologram gallery named the Gallery DeLux , a lounge and a few specialty stores are also located on this floor . Tokyo Tower 's Trick Art Gallery is located on the building 's fourth and final floor . This gallery displays optical illusions , including paintings and objects that visitors can interact with .
On the roof of the FootTown building is a small amusement park that contains several small rides and hosts live performances for children . On weekends and holidays , visitors can use the roof to access the tower 's outside stairwell . At approximately 660 steps , the stairwell is an alternative to the tower 's elevators and leads directly to the Main Observatory .
= = Appearance = =
Tokyo Tower requires a total of 28 @,@ 000 litres ( 7 @,@ 400 US gal ) of paint to completely paint the structure white and international orange , complying with air safety regulations . Before the tower 's 30th anniversary in 1987 , the only lighting on the tower were light bulbs located on the corner contours that extended from the base to the antenna . In the spring of 1987 , Nihon Denpatō invited lighting designer Motoko Ishii to visit the tower . Since its opening 30 years earlier , the tower 's annual ticket sales had dropped significantly , and in a bid to revitalize the tower and again establish it as an important tourist attraction and symbol of Tokyo , Ishii was hired to redesign Tokyo Tower 's lighting arrangement .
Unveiled in 1989 , the new lighting arrangement required the removal of the contour @-@ outlining light bulbs and the installation of 176 floodlights in and around the tower 's frame . From dusk to midnight , the floodlights illuminate the entire tower . Sodium vapor lamps are used from October 2 to July 6 to cover the tower in an orange color . From July 7 to October 1 , the lights are changed to metal halide lamps to illuminate the tower with a white color . The reasoning behind the change is a seasonal one . Ishii reasoned that orange is a warmer color and helps to offset the cold winter months . Conversely , white is thought a cool color that helps during the hot summer months .
Occasionally , Tokyo Tower 's lighting is changed to specific , unique arrangements for special events . The tower is specially lit for some annual events . Since 2000 , the entire tower has been illuminated in a pink light on October 1 to highlight the beginning of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month . The tower has also had a variety of special lighting arrangements for Christmas since 1994 . During New Year 's Eve , the tower lights up at midnight with a year number displayed on one side of the observatory to mark the arrival of the new year . Special Japanese events have also been cause to light the tower in several nontraditional ways . In 2002 , alternating sections of the tower were lit blue to help celebrate the opening of the FIFA World Cup in Japan . Alternating sections of the tower were lit green on Saint Patrick 's Day in 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Japanese @-@ Irish relations . On a few occasions , Tokyo Tower has even been specially lit to correspond with corporate events . For example , the top half of the tower was lit green to correspond with the Japanese premiere of The Matrix Reloaded and different sections of the tower were lit red , white and black to commemorate the first day of sales of Coca @-@ Cola C2 . The tower was also uniquely lit for the new millennium in 2000 with Motoko Ishii again reprising her role as the designer . In December 2008 , Nihon Denpatō spent $ 6 @.@ 5 million to create a new nighttime illumination scheme — titled the " Diamond Veil " — to celebrate the tower 's 50th anniversary . The arrangement featured 276 lights in seven colors equally distributed across the towers four faces .
When employing specialty lighting on the tower , the Main Observatory often plays an important role . During the second international " White Band Day " on September 10 , 2005 , the tower was completely unlit except for the Main Observatory , which was lit with a bright white light . The resulting white ring represented the White Band referenced in the day 's name . The two floors of windows that make up the exterior of the Main Observatory are utilized to display words or numbers . When the tower employed unique lighting to commemorate terrestrial digital broadcasting first being available in the Kantō region on December 1 , 2005 , each side of the Main Observatory displayed the characters 地デジ ( chi deji , an abbreviation for 地上デジタル放送 chijō dejitaru hōsō terrestrial digital broadcasting ) . More recently , the observatory displayed both " TOKYO " and " 2016 " to stress Tokyo 's 2016 Olympic bid . Primitive images , such as hearts , have also been displayed using the observatory 's windows .
= = Mascots = =
The Tokyo Tower has two mascots named Noppon . They are two brothers : Older Brother , who wears blue dungarees , and Younger Brother , who wears red dungarees . They were " born " on December 23 , 1998 to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Tokyo Tower .
= = In popular culture = =
Just as the Eiffel Tower is often used in popular culture to immediately locate a scene in Paris , France , the Tokyo Tower is often used in the same way for Tokyo . It is used in anime and manga such as Tokyo Magnitude 8 @.@ 0 , Magic Knight Rayearth , Please Save My Earth , Cardcaptor Sakura , Digimon , Detective Conan , Sailor Moon , and Death Note . The tower is also frequently used in the Japanese kaiju ( giant monster ) film genre . It has been the location of the climactic battles between Godzilla , Mothra and King Kong ( King Kong Escapes ) wherein it is frequently destroyed and rebuilt . Based on the popular manga series by Ryōhei Saigan , the 2005 film Always Sanchōme no Yūhi was a nostalgic view of life in the neighbourhoods under the construction of the Tokyo Tower .
The Japanese culture and lifestyle television show Begin Japanology aired on NHK World , featuring a full episode on Tokyo Tower in 2008 .
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= Camping ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Camping " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 38th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 24 , 2011 . In the episode , the parks department goes on a camping trip to think of a way to follow up on the harvest festival , but Leslie struggles to come up with an idea . Meanwhile , Chris returns to Pawnee as the new city manager , as Ann continues trying to cope with their recent break @-@ up .
The episode was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Rob Schrab . It marked the reappearance of Rob Lowe , who was originally expected to depart the show after the episode " Indianapolis " after a recurring guest role , but instead joined the regular cast . " Camping " featured guest appearances by Phil Reeves as outgoing city manager Paul and Annie O 'Donnell as the owner of a bed and breakfast .
Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Rashida Jones said she liked the new storylines that had developed for Ann Perkins ' character , preferring that she remain single than simply get back together with Chris . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Camping " was seen by 5 @.@ 15 million household viewers , a 39 percent increase from the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising Jones ' performance and the new direction her character was taking .
= = Plot = =
During a press conference about the success of the recent Pawnee harvest festival , city manager Paul ( Phil Reeves ) suffers a massive heart attack . Chris ( Rob Lowe ) accepts an offer to work as acting city manager while Paul recovers from bypass surgery . Chris requests of Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) more large @-@ scale ideas to generate revenue , placing pressure on her to follow up the harvest festival , so she organizes a camping trip for the parks department to discuss ideas . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) feels awkward now that Chris is back ; the two previously dated , but Chris broke up with Ann in such a friendly manner that she did not initially realize it was a break @-@ up . Leslie invites Ann to the camping trip to help her feel better .
Nobody except Leslie really cares about the trip : Ron ( Nick Offerman ) just wants to fish , Ben ( Adam Scott ) failed to bring a tent , and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) just wants to relax in his huge tent filled with luxury electronic items . Tom expresses confusion as to why Ben , a state auditor who had been helping with Pawnee 's financial problems , has not returned to his old job at Indianapolis ; Ben does not explain his reasons , but it is hinted he harbors romantic feelings for Leslie . Meanwhile , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) sets up a romantic tent for April ( Aubrey Plaza ) in the wrong campsite miles away , forcing him to trek through the wilderness to find everyone and leaving April miserable on the campsite without Andy . During brainstorming sessions , nobody produces any good ideas because they assume Leslie will think of one . However , she worriedly confides to Ann and Ben she cannot think of anything on the same level of the harvest festival .
Chris pays a visit during his nightly jog , and Ann leaves with him so they can clear the air . Over dinner , Chris once again acts so optimistic while discussing the break @-@ up that Ann thinks their relationship is back on and tries to kiss him , severely embarrassing her . Meanwhile , the camping trip proves unsuccessful and everybody decides to go home that night , but they are left without transportation because Tom and Ben have hooked all of their electronics to the van 's battery , draining it . Everybody hikes to a strange bed and breakfast filled with cats and dolls called The Quiet Corn , run by a strict old lady named Elsa Clack ( Annie O 'Donnell ) . Andy arrives and rebuilds the romantic tent in the yard for a flattered April . Leslie tells Ron about her mental block , worrying she will never again reproduce an idea better than harvest festival . Ron , recognizing how burnt out she is , solves Leslie 's problem by locking her in a bedroom and ordering her to get some sleep . With a rare full night 's sleep energizing her , Leslie wakes up with numerous big ideas that are well received by Chris .
= = Production = =
" Camping " was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Rob Schrab . It featured a guest appearance by Phil Reeves , who has played Pawnee township manager Paul Iaresco in several episodes dating back to the first season episode " Canvassing " . Paul 's departure from that position is used as a means to reintroduce Rob Lowe 's character , Chris Traeger . Lowe was originally expected to be a guest star departing from the show after the episode " Indianapolis " . However , after his original string of episodes were filmed , Lowe was signed as a permanent Parks and Recreation cast member , prompting the writers to find a way to reintroduce the character to the series . " Camping " also featured a guest appearance by New York @-@ based actress Annie O 'Donnell as Elsa Clack , owner of The Quiet Corn .
Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Rashida Jones said she liked the new storylines that had developed for Ann Perkins ' character , preferring that she remain single than simply get back together with Chris : " It was pretty embarrassing what Ann went through , so I think she kind of has to recover from that before anything else . And this is a good time for Ann to be single too , because she hasn 't been single ever on the show . I think she needs to do that a little bit . " Shortly after " Camping " first aired , a fake website for the bed and breakfast business The Quiet Corn was put up on the official NBC website , advertising the fictional establishment 's features , room amenities and meal services . During one scene in " Camping " , Tom refers to one of the gadgets in his tent as DJ Roomba , an iPod music player attached to an autonomous robotic vacuum cleaner . The gadget , built by Tom , was previously featured in the second season episode " Sweetums " .
= = Cultural references = =
Tom fills his tent with electronics and other extravagant items from Sky Mall , a chain of luxury item retail stores . He nicknames the tent " The Thunderdome " , named after the gladiator arena in the action film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome ( 1985 ) . While watching TV inside his tent , Tom claims to be recording the Food Network show Cupcake Wars , the CBS police procedural drama NCIS : Los Angeles and the sixth season of the Bravo reality series Top Chef . Later , while pitching his idea for a Pawnee amphitheatre , Tom expresses hope it would entice performances from such rappers as Lil Wayne , Drake and Jay @-@ Z.
While searching for inspiration for an idea , Leslie reads from her dream journal and recalls a dream where she happily married ALF , the alien protagonist of a science fiction sitcom of the same name . Later , Leslie listens to the Len song " Steal My Sunshine " , which she calls a one @-@ hit wonder and compares to her own lack of ability to come up with a second idea . Ben cheers Leslie up and compliments her work ethic by calling her the " Energizer Bunny of city government . " During a later scene , Tom mockingly calls Ben the " white Urkel " , a reference to the archetype nerd character Steve Urkel from the comedy series Family Matters . Donna can be seen reading a book called Your Erogenous Zones .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Camping " was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 15 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 5 share among all viewers and a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It constituted a 39 percent increase from the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " , which was seen by 4 @.@ 08 million household viewers , a low for the season . Parks and Recreation was defeated in its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot by the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by an average 10 @.@ 1 million households ; the Fox crime drama Bones , which was seen by 8 @.@ 78 million households ; and CBS coverage of NCAA basketball , which was seen by 6 @.@ 82 million household . In network television , it beat only a repeat of the CW Network drama Nikita , which drew 1 @.@ 397 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Camping " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising the performance of Rashida Jones and the new comedic direction her character was taking . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com praised how the script featured the entire ensemble cast together , rather than in separate subplots like recent episodes . He also enjoyed the developments with Ann 's character , claiming it gave Jones more opportunities to shine than past episodes . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she particularly enjoyed the jokes involving Jerry 's character , and said she enjoyed that Ann once again misinterpreted Chris , although she said the joke was predictable . Zap2it writer Rick Porter said the episode was not as funny as the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " , but said " if this is what qualifies as a ( slightly ) down episode for the show , then that 's the sign of a comedy that 's hitting for a very high average " . He particularly praised the " fantastic dynamic " that has developed between Rashida Jones and Rob Lowe . TV Squad writer Joel Keller said the camping trip was a good way to avoid making the show feel stale following " Harvest Festival " , and that the outdoors setting created strong potential for character @-@ driven jokes by putting them out of their elements .
Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the episode for highlighting each of its characters , all of whom he said were at their best except for April , who he said seemed out of place in the camping storyline . He also said he was glad Ann 's recent breakup with Chris " has allowed her true colors to shine through " . Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic called it a " tremendously enjoyable episode " and " mostly just a chance to sit back and spend time with these goofy , lovable individuals " . He praised the new storyline for Ann Perkins , claiming it created more comedic potential for Jones . Matt Fowler of IGN praised the performance of Rashida Jones and Chris Pratt , and called Leslie 's stress over failing to come up with a new idea a " great little story " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said " Camping " was not as funny as previous third season episodes but was still an enjoyable episode that he found more " slow and contemplative " , which he found indicative of the fact that the series was still on a strong track .
Steve Kandell of New York magazine compared it to the second season episode " Hunting Trip " , but said " Camping " was " somewhat more of a placeholder " . Kandell compared the characters ' pressure to meet the city 's expectations to those the show faces now that they have been renewed for a fourth season . ChicagoNow writer Andy Daglas called it " a fun episode , but also one that felt like sort of a pause , a chance to reset the pins " . He compared the pressure on Leslie to come up with an idea on the harvest festival to pressure on the show 's writing staff to follow up on the harvest festival story arc . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow called it funny and charming , but also a low point in the season following seven excellent episodes . He said it depended too much on the show 's romantic relationships , which he feels are growing stale , although he praised Rashida Jones 's performance and the focus on the strong platonic relationship between Leslie and Ron .
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= Tiffany Doggett =
Tiffany " Pennsatucky " Doggett is a fictional character in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black , portrayed by Taryn Manning . Manning was offered the role without needing to audition . The character of Doggett is based on a real life prisoner ; a " young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck " . She is originally from Waynesboro , Virginia . Prior to her imprisonment , she is shown to be exchanging sexual favours for soda or money . Doggett is also known to have had five abortions . She is charged with shooting an abortion doctor and decides to hire a Christian lawyer ; this leads to Doggett becoming a born @-@ again Christian .
Doggett makes her first appearance in the fifth episode of the first season and is initially an antagonist . In her debut episode , she unsuccessfully attempts to hang up a cross in the prison chapel and expresses homophobic views . She has conflict with Alex Vause and Piper Chapman throughout the first season . In the second season , Doggett 's storyline revolves around her friendships with Sam Healy and Carrie " Big Boo " Black . This friendship with Big Boo continues into the third season . Big Boo comforts Doggett when she is feeling remorse for her abortions and when she is raped by a correctional officer . The character of Doggett has received mixed reviews from critics , though Manning 's performance has received positive feedback .
= = Creation and casting = =
Tiffany Doggett 's nickname " Pennsatucky " is derived from Pennsyltucky ; a pejorative term for the people from the rural western and central parts of Pennsylvania . The author , Piper Kerman , of the book , Orange Is the New Black : My Year in a Women 's Prison , which inspired Orange is the New Black describes the real life version of Pennsatucky as " a young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck " . Kerman further describes her as someone addicted to crack cocaine and dealing with the loss of custody of her child .
Taryn Manning , already an established actress , did not have to audition for the role of Doggett and was offered it . Manning , when speaking about this to Joshua Rotter of Download.com , said that she immediately accepted the offer " I loved it and didn 't need to look any further . I was sold . " To prepare for the role , Manning did some research on faith healing and evangelistic ceremonies . She also states that her inspiration for Doggett at least partly comes from the White family in the 2009 documentary film The Wild and Wonderful Whites of West Virginia . The only make @-@ up that Manning wears for her role as Doggett , in the first season , is on her teeth to create the effect of receding gums and missing teeth . From the second season onwards , however , Doggett has false teeth in place and so the teeth seen are Manning 's own .
= = Fictional background = =
Doggett is from Waynesboro , Virginia . After Doggett has her first period , her mother gives her advice about sex : " go on and let them [ referring to men ] do their business . " This leads to her , later in life , to have sex with men in exchange for soda or money . Her perspective of sex changes when she meets Nathan . Jonathon Dornbush , of Entertainment Weekly writes " [ Nathan ] wants them both to enjoy the experience [ of sex ] , and it opens Tiffany 's perception of relationships . " Nathan and his family move away , causing their relationship to end , and , almost immediately afterwards , Doggett is raped by an ex @-@ boyfriend .
Doggett has had five abortions . After having her fifth abortion , which takes place at an abortion clinic in Fishersville , Virginia , the nurse remarks " we should give you a punch card , get the sixth one free . " Doggett is so offended by this joke that she shoots the nurse with a shotgun . She agrees to have a Christian lawyer as it was likely to lead to a lighter sentence and her legal bills being paid for . Since she shot an abortion nurse , she became a ' hero ' of the pro @-@ life movement . Although her Christian faith was initially fake , at some point Doggett did become a Christian ; this was confirmed by Manning in an interview . Manning describes Doggett 's faith as " a hybrid of Christianity , Baptism , Presbyterian " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Doggett first appears in the fifth episode . She wishes to hang up a cross in Litchfield Penitentiary 's chapel but is refused permission . She ignores this and hangs her cross up on a light fixture ; this causes the entire fixture to fall down and hence damages the chapel 's ceiling . She also displays transphobia ; calling the transgender woman Sophia Burset ( played by Laverne Cox ) an ' abomination ' and ' it ' and blaming her for the damage to the chapel . Doggett has numerous clashes with Alex Vause ( played by Laura Prepon ) ; firstly Vause threatens to rape Doggett after growing tired of her complaining about Piper Chapman ( played by Taylor Schilling ) ; Doggett locks Vause in a dryer while she is helping Chapman to fix it and , lastly , Doggett snitches on Chapman and Vause for dancing provocatively with each other ; resulting in Chapman being placed in solitary confinement .
Chapman and Vause get revenge on Doggett and trick her into believing that she has faith healing powers , eventually culminating in her being sent to the psychiatric ward . Although Chapman aids in Doggett 's release from the psychiatric ward , Doggett still bears a grudge against her . Doggett 's lawyer encourages her to evangelize to Chapman instead and this leads to Chapman ' converting ' but then refusing to be baptized . Doggett sees this as disrespectful and expresses a wish to kill Chapman . The two have a confrontation at the end of the season 's final episode . Doggett attacks Chapman with a shiv made from a wooden cross ; Chapman throws Doggett to the ground and hits her repeatedly .
= = = Season 2 = = =
It is revealed in the third episode that Suzanne Warren ( played by Uzo Aduba ) is also involved in the fight at the end of season one . She punches Chapman in the face twice and knocks her unconscious ( Doggett is already unconscious at this stage ) . This gives the impression that Doggett and Chapman were evenly matched and therefore equally responsible . Following Doggett 's return to full health , she finds that her previous best friends , Leanne Taylor ( played by Emma Myles ) and Angie Rice ( played by Julie Lake ) , no longer want to be associated with her . This leaves Doggett seeking prison counsellor Sam Healy ( played by Michael J. Harney ) for comfort .
Following her friendships with Taylor and Rice continuing to deteriorate , Doggett forms friendships with Healy and Carrie " Big Boo " Black ( played by Lea DeLaria ) . Healy and Doggett unite to form " Safe Place " , a therapy group where prisoners can share their feelings in a confidential and supportive environment . " Safe Place " is short @-@ lived , however , and Healy decides to cancel the group indefinitely after Doggett fails to attend one of the sessions ; when he investigates her reason for non @-@ attendance , he finds her getting a hair cut from Burset . Doggett initially talks to Big Boo , an openly lesbian inmate , during a blackout in the prison as she believes that there is a secret ' gay agenda ' and she believes that Big Boo will give her the answers that she is seeking . Doggett 's physical appearance also changes in this season ; she has white false teeth , neater hair and her skin looks smoother .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In the first episode , Big Boo and Doggett 's friendship continues to develop . Seeing that Doggett bears strong feelings of guilt relating to the six abortions that she has had , Big Boo makes reference to the book Freakonomics , which suggests that crime rates in the 1990s fell because of Roe v. Wade . Following Lorna Morello ( played by Yael Stone ) being relieved of her duty of driving the prison van , the role is given to Doggett . She comes into contact with one of the new correctional officers called Charlie Coates ( played by James McMenamin ) . Coates is initially friendly towards Doggett . Despite relationships between prison staff and prisoners being forbidden , Coates kisses Doggett , against her will , after feeding some ducks . Following another outing , Coates gets in trouble with his boss Joe Caputo ( played by Nick Sandow ) for being late for count and is placed on probation . Doggett apologises for having caused him trouble , and he rapes her in the back of the prison van .
When Big Boo learns of the rape , she encourages Doggett to take revenge on Coates by making him unconscious and then raping him with a broomstick . Whilst they successfully drug Coates , neither of them are willing to violate him with the broomstick . In order to end contact with Coates , Doggett fakes a seizure on her next outing with him and is declared unfit for driving a van . She is replaced as prison van driver by another inmate , Maritza Ramos ( played by Diane Guerrero ) .
= = Critical commentary = =
Doggett was widely perceived to have been the series ' main antagonist in its first season . She was seen to be homophobic and racist ; one Cosmopolitan critic described her as ' vile ' . A critic for TV Insider described the first season Doggett as " terrifying , manipulative and so entirely unlikable " but also " hypnotic to watch " . Horatia Harrod 's review in the Daily Telegraph described Manning 's portrayal of Doggett as " brilliantly unhinged " . Other critics have praised the character , especially in the final episode of season one ; calling her " fantastic " , a " solid character " and " one of the best characters on the show " . Some also felt that Manning 's performance was worthy of an Emmy nomination .
Following the release of the first season of Orange is the New Black , Doggett received some criticism from different media . Writing for The American Conservative , B. D. McClay claimed that Doggett was a poor and inaccurate representation of American Christians ; " Pennsatucky is such an aggressively terrible character " and " her faith is neither well @-@ understood nor well @-@ drawn " . Laura Leonard of Christianity Today , supports Clay 's view and goes further to say " it was frustrating to see this one painful narrative represent Christian faith on OITNB , a show that masters other aspects of the melting pot so well " , speaking about Doggett 's background story and conflict with Chapman . Two critics for The A.V. Club also gave negative reviews of Doggett ; Todd VanDerWerff says that " Pennsatucky never really comes together as a character in the same way as some of the others on the show " and Myles McNutt opted to criticize the storyline of the final episode of the first season specifically , saying that it " [ treats ] her like a cartoon villain instead of a real character " . Betsy Leondar @-@ Wright accused the series ' creators of classism and said that Doggett was an " outrageous Redneck stereotype " .
Doggett 's rape storyline in the third season garnered much reaction , both positive and negative . Jada Yuan of Vulture described the rape scenes ( both the one in the flashback and the one involving correctional officer Coates ) as " heartbreaking " and praised episode director Jesse Peretz 's decision to keep the camera focused on Manning during the scenes . Megan Vick praised the ' transformation ' of the character of Doggett , calling it " the season ’ s breakout storyline and performance " . McNutt , who had been critical of Doggett in the first season , spoke positively about the rape storyline .
Marissa Higgins , writing for xoJane , contended that the show " didn 't accomplish anything with their portrayal of sexual assault " and said that she disliked the way that the story ended with Doggett effectively quitting her job as van driver in order to avoid further contact with Coates . Emma Eisenberg , of Salon , criticized the scenes depicting Doggett growing up in Waynesboro , as being " riddled with excessive Appalachian clichés " . She went further by calling Doggett 's mother unrealistic in her attitude towards sex : " the mothers I met [ near Waynesboro ] wanted their daughters to understand sex and to make informed choices " . Eisenberg claimed that , therefore , Doggett 's mother 's speech about sex − " it ’ s like a bee sting , in and out , over before you knew it was happening " − was not representative of people in Waynesboro at that time . Chloe Stillwell completely disagreed with Eisenberg and insisted that the character of Doggett was realistic : " Eisenberg 's argument completely misses the point that perhaps the show is trying to be as real as possible , and acknowledging that there are real life Pennsatuckies in this world isn 't to disenfranchise Appalachia . "
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= Victoria Cross =
The Victoria Cross ( VC ) is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system . It is awarded for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " to members of the British armed forces . It may be awarded posthumously . It was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries , most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours . It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians under military command although no civilian has received the award since 1879 . Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 , two thirds of all awards have been personally presented by the British monarch . These investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace .
The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War . Since then , the medal has been awarded 1 @,@ 358 times to 1 @,@ 355 individual recipients . Only 15 medals , 11 to members of the British Army , and four to the Australian Army , have been awarded since the Second World War . The traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol . Some research suggested a variety of origins for the material actually making up the medals themselves . Research has established that the metal for the medals came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855 .
Owing to its rarity , the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £ 400 @,@ 000 at auction . A number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross . The private collection of Lord Ashcroft , amassed since 1986 , contains over one @-@ tenth of all VCs awarded . Following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum , the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museum 's Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010 .
Beginning with the Centennial of Confederation in 1967 , Canada followed in 1975 by Australia and New Zealand developed their own national honours systems , separate and independent of the British or Imperial honours system . As each country 's system evolved , operational gallantry awards were developed with the premier award of each system , the VC for Australia , the Canadian VC and the VC for New Zealand being created and named in honour of the Victoria Cross . These are unique awards of each honours system , recommended , assessed , gazetted and presented by each country .
= = Origin = =
In 1854 , after 39 years of peace , Britain found itself fighting a major war against Russia . The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting , and the dispatches of William Howard Russell described many acts of bravery and valour by British servicemen that went unrewarded .
Before the Crimean War , there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces . Officers were eligible for an award of one of the junior grades of the Order of the Bath and brevet promotions while a Mention in Despatches existed as an alternative award for acts of lesser gallantry . This structure was very limited ; in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank . Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the immediate notice of the commanders in the field , generally members of the commander 's own staff .
Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank ; France awarded the Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour , established 1802 ) and The Netherlands gave the Order of William ( established in 1815 ) . There was a growing feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a man 's lengthy or meritorious service . Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign @-@ manual on 29 January 1856 ( gazetted 5 February 1856 ) that officially constituted the VC . The order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War .
Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class . The medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services . To maintain its simplicity , Queen Victoria , under the guidance of Prince Albert , vetoed the suggestion that the award be called The Military Order of Victoria and instead suggested the name Victoria Cross . The original warrant stated that the Victoria Cross would only be awarded to soldiers who have served in the presence of the enemy and had performed some signal act of valour or devotion . The first ceremony was held on 26 June 1857 where Queen Victoria invested 62 of the 111 Crimean recipients in a ceremony in Hyde Park , London .
It was originally intended that the VCs would be cast from the cascabels of two cannon that were captured from the Russians at the siege of Sevastopol . In 1990 Creagh and Ashton conducted a metallurgical examination of the VCs in the custody of the Australian War Memorial . Later , the historian John Glanfield , wrote that , through the use of x @-@ ray studies of older Victoria Crosses , it was determined that the metal used for VCs is from antique Chinese guns and not of Russian origin . Theories abound . One theory is that the cannon were originally Chinese weapons but the Russians captured them and deployed them at Sevastopol . However , there had been no hostilities between Russia and China for nearly 200 years before 1855 and no ready explanation of how such cannons would come to be in Sebastopol . They are indeed Chinese cannon : Creagh noted the existence of Chinese inscriptions on the cannon which are now barely legible due to corrosion . A more likely explanation is that these cannons were taken as trophies during Britain 's military intervention in China in the 1840s and held in the Woolwich repository . Whilst it had been suggested that the new medal be made of Sebastopol cannons , the Hancocks employees who went to cut metal picked the Chinese guns instead . There is no evidence that the VC guns have ever been near Sebastopol . It was also thought that some medals made during the First World War were composed of metal captured from different Chinese guns during the Boxer Rebellion . This is not so , however . The VCs examined by Creagh and Ashton both in Australia ( 58 ) and at the QE II Army Memorial Museum in New Zealand ( 14 ) spanned the entire time during which VCs have been issued and no compositional inconsistencies were found . It was also believed that another source of metal was used between 1942 and 1945 to create five Second World War VCs when the Sevastopol metal " went missing " . Creagh accessed the Army records at MoD Donnington in 1991 and did not find any gaps in the custodial record . The composition found in the WW2 VCs , amongst them those for Edwards ( Australia ) and Upham ( New Zealand ) , is similar to that for the early WW1 medals . This is likely to be due to the reuse of material from earlier pourings , casting sprues , defective medals , etc .
The barrels of the cannon in question are on display at Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum at Woolwich . The remaining portion of the only remaining cascabel , weighing 358 oz ( 10 kg ) , is stored in a vault maintained by 15 Regiment Royal Logistic Corps at MoD Donnington . It can only be removed under armed guard . It is estimated that approximately 80 to 85 more VCs could be cast from this source . A single company of jewellers , Hancocks of London , has been responsible for the production of every VC awarded since its inception .
= = Appearance = =
The decoration is a bronze cross pattée , 1 39 / 64 " ( 41 mm ) high , 1 27 / 64 " ( 36 mm ) wide , bearing the crown of Saint Edward surmounted by a lion , and the inscription FOR VALOUR . This was originally to have been FOR THE BRAVE , until it was changed on the recommendation of Queen Victoria , as it implied that not all men in battle were brave . The decoration , suspension bar and link weigh about 0 @.@ 87 troy ounces ( 27 g ) .
The cross is suspended by a ring from a seriffed " V " to a bar ornamented with laurel leaves , through which the ribbon passes . The reverse of the suspension bar is engraved with the recipient 's name , rank , number and unit . On the reverse of the medal is a circular panel on which the date of the act for which it was awarded is engraved in the centre .
The Original Warrant Clause 1 states that the Victoria Cross " shall consist of a Maltese cross of bronze " . Nonetheless , it has always been a cross pattée ; the discrepancy with the Warrant has never been corrected .
The ribbon is crimson , 1 1 / 2 " ( 38 mm ) wide . The original ( 1856 ) specification for the award stated that the ribbon should be red for army recipients and dark blue for naval recipients . However the dark blue ribbon was abolished soon after the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918 . On 22 May 1920 King George V signed a warrant that stated all recipients would now receive a red ribbon and the living recipients of the naval version were required to exchange their ribbons for the new colour . Although the army warrants state the colour as being red it is defined by most commentators as being crimson or " wine @-@ red " .
= = Award process = =
The Victoria Cross is awarded for
... most conspicuous bravery , or some daring or pre @-@ eminent act of valour or self @-@ sacrifice , or extreme devotion to duty in the presence of the enemy .
A recommendation for the VC is normally issued by an officer at regimental level , or equivalent , and has to be supported by three witnesses , although this has been waived on occasion . The recommendation is then passed up the military hierarchy until it reaches the Secretary of State for Defence . The recommendation is then laid before the monarch who approves the award with his or her signature . Victoria Cross awards are always promulgated in the London Gazette with the single exception of the award to the American Unknown Soldier in 1921 . The Victoria Cross warrant makes no specific provision as to who should actually present the medals to the recipients . Queen Victoria indicated that she would like to present the medals in person and she presented 185 medals out of the 472 gazetted during her reign . Including the first 62 medals presented at a parade in Hyde Park on 26 June 1857 by Queen Victoria , nearly 900 awards have been personally presented to the recipient by the reigning British monarch . Nearly 300 awards have been presented by a member of the royal family or by a civil or military dignitary . About 150 awards were either forwarded to the recipient or next of kin by registered post or no details of the presentations are known .
The original Royal Warrant did not contain a specific clause regarding posthumous awards , although official policy was not to award the VC posthumously . Between the Indian Mutiny in 1857 and the beginning of the Second Boer War the names of six officers and men were published in the London Gazette with a memorandum stating they would have been awarded the Victoria Cross had they survived . A further three notices were published in the London Gazette in September 1900 and April 1901 for gallantry in the Second Boer War . In an exception to policy for the South Africa War 1899 – 1902 , six posthumous Victoria Crosses , three to the officers and men mentioned in the notices in 1900 and 1901 and a further three , the first official posthumous awards , were granted on 8 August 1902 . Five years later in 1907 , the posthumous policy was reversed and medals were sent to the next of kin of the six officers and men . The awards were mentioned in notices in the Gazette dating back to the Indian Mutiny . The Victoria Cross warrant was not amended to explicitly allow posthumous awards until 1920 , but one quarter of all awards for World War I were posthumous . Although the 1920 Royal Warrant made provision for awards to women serving in the Armed Forces , no women have been awarded a VC .
In the case of a gallant and daring act being performed by a squadron , ship 's company or a detached body of men ( such as marines ) in which all men are deemed equally brave and deserving of the Victoria Cross then a ballot is drawn . The officers select one officer , the NCOs select one individual and the private soldiers or seamen select two individuals . In all 46 awards have been awarded by ballot with 29 of the awards during the Indian Mutiny . Four further awards were granted to Q Battery , Royal Horse Artillery at Korn Spruit on 31 March 1900 during the Second Boer War . The final ballot awards for the army were the six awards to the Lancashire Fusiliers at W Beach during the landing at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 although three of the awards were not gazetted until 1917 . The final seven ballot awards were the only naval ballot awards with three awards to two Q @-@ Ships in 1917 and four awards for the Zeebrugge Raid in 1918 . The provision for awards by ballot is still included in the Victoria Cross warrant but there have been no further such awards since 1918 .
Between 1858 and 1881 the Victoria Cross could be awarded for actions taken " under circumstances of extreme danger " not in the face of the enemy . Six such awards were made during this period — five of them for a single incident during an Expedition to the Andaman Islands in 1867 . In 1881 , the criteria were changed again and the VC was only awarded for acts of valour " in the face of the enemy " . Due to this it has been suggested by many historians including Lord Ashcroft that the changing nature of warfare will result in fewer VCs being awarded .
= = = Colonial awards = = =
The Victoria Cross was extended to colonial troops in 1867 . The extension was made following a recommendation for gallantry regarding colonial soldier Major Charles Heaphy for action in the New Zealand land wars in 1864 . He was operating under British command and the VC was gazetted in 1867 . Later that year , the Government of New Zealand assumed full responsibility for operations but no further recommendations for the Victoria Cross were raised for local troops who distinguished themselves in action . Following gallant actions by three New Zealand soldiers in November 1868 and January 1869 during the New Zealand land wars , an Order in Council on 10 March 1869 created a " Distinctive Decoration " for members of the local forces without seeking permission from the Secretary of State for the Colonies . Although the governor was chided for exceeding his authority , the Order in Council was ratified by the Queen . The title " Distinctive Decoration " was later replaced by the title New Zealand Cross .
The question of whether recommendations could be made for colonial troops not serving with British troops was not asked in New Zealand , but in 1881 , the question was asked in South Africa . Surgeon John McCrea , an officer of the South African forces was recommended for gallantry during hostilities which had not been approved by British Government . He was awarded the Victoria Cross and the principle was established that gallant conduct could be rewarded independently of any political consideration of military operations . More recently , four Australian soldiers were awarded the Victoria Cross in Vietnam although Britain was not involved in the conflict .
Indian troops were not originally eligible for the Victoria Cross since they had been eligible for the Indian Order of Merit since 1837 which was the oldest British gallantry award for general issue . When the Victoria Cross was created , Indian troops were still controlled by the Honourable East India Company and did not come under Crown control until 1860 . European officers and men serving with the Honourable East India Company were not eligible for the Indian Order of Merit and the Victoria Cross was extended to cover them in October 1857 . It was only at the end of the 19th century that calls for Indian troops to be awarded the Victoria Cross intensified . Indian troops became eligible for the award in 1911 . The first awards to Indian troops appeared in the London Gazette on 7 December 1914 to Darwan Sing Negi and Khudadad Khan . Negi was presented with the Victoria Cross by King George V during a visit to troops in France . The presentation occurred on 5 December 1914 and he is one of a very few soldiers presented with his award before it appeared in the London Gazette .
= = = Separate Commonwealth awards = = =
Since the Second World War , most but not all Commonwealth countries have created their own honours systems and no longer participate in the British honours system . This began soon after the Partition of India in 1947 , when the new countries of India and Pakistan introduced their own systems of awards . The VC was replaced by the Param Vir Chakra ( PVC ) and Nishan @-@ e @-@ Haider ( NH ) respectively . Most if not all new honours systems continued to permit recipients of British honours to wear their awards according to the rules of each nation 's order of wear . Sri Lanka , whose defence personnel were eligible to receive the Victoria Cross until 1972 , introduced its own equivalent , the Parama Weera Vibhushanaya medal . Three Commonwealth realms — Australia , Canada and New Zealand — have each introduced their own decorations for gallantry and bravery , replacing British decorations such as the Victoria Cross with their own . The only Commonwealth countries that still can recommend the VC are the small nations , none of whose forces have ever been awarded the VC , that still participate in the British honours system .
With effect from 6 April 1952 , when the Union of South Africa instituted its own range of military decorations and medals , these new awards took precedence before all earlier British decorations and medals awarded to South Africans , with the exception of the Victoria Cross , which still took precedence before all other awards . The other older British awards continued to be worn in the order prescribed by the British Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood .
Australia was the first Commonwealth realm to create its own VC , on 15 January 1991 . Although it is a separate award , its appearance is identical to its British counterpart . Canada followed suit when in 1993 Queen Elizabeth signed Letters Patent creating the Canadian VC , which is also similar to the British version , except that the legend has been changed from FOR VALOUR to the Latin PRO VALORE This language was chosen so as to favour neither French nor English , the two official languages of Canada . New Zealand was the third country to adapt the VC into its own honours system . While the New Zealand and Australian VCs are technically separate awards , the decoration is identical to the British design , including being cast from the same Crimean War gunmetal as the British VC . The Canadian Victoria Cross also includes metal from the same cannon , along with copper and other metals from all regions of Canada .
Five of the separate VCs have so far been awarded . Willie Apiata received the Victoria Cross for New Zealand on 2 July 2007 , for his actions in the War in Afghanistan in 2004 . The Victoria Cross for Australia has been awarded four times . Mark Donaldson was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 16 January 2009 for actions during Operation Slipper , the Australian contribution to the War in Afghanistan . Ben Roberts @-@ Smith was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 23 January 2011 for actions in the Shah Wali Kot Offensive , part of the War in Afghanistan . Daniel Keighran was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 1 November 2012 for his actions during the Battle of Derapet in Oruzgan Province , Afghanistan , on 24 August 2010 . A posthumous award was made to Corporal Cameron Baird for actions in Afghanistan in 2013 . A Canadian version has been cast that was originally to be awarded to the Unknown Soldier at the rededication of the Vimy Memorial on 7 April 2007 . This date was chosen as it was the 90th anniversary of the battle of Vimy Ridge but pressure from veterans ' organisations caused the plan to be dropped .
= = Authority and privileges = =
As the highest award for valour of the United Kingdom , the Victoria Cross is always the first award to be presented at an investiture , even before knighthoods , as was shown at the investiture of Private Johnson Beharry , who received his medal before General Sir Mike Jackson received his knighthood . Owing to its status , the VC is always the first decoration worn in a row of medals and it is the first set of post @-@ nominal letters used to indicate any decoration or order . Similar acts of extreme valour that do not take place in the face of the enemy are honoured with the George Cross , which has equal precedence but is awarded second because the GC is newer .
There is a widespread though erroneous belief that it is statutory for " all ranks to salute a bearer of the Victoria Cross " . There is no official requirement that appears in the official Warrant of the VC , nor in Queen 's Regulations and Orders , but tradition dictates that this occurs and as such the Chiefs of Staff will salute a Private awarded a VC or GC .
The Victoria Cross was at first worn as the recipient fancied . It was popular to pin it on the left side of the chest over the heart , with other decorations grouped around the VC . The Queen 's Regulations for the Army of 1881 gave clear instructions on how to wear it ; the VC had to follow the badge of the Order of the Indian Empire . In 1900 it was ordained in Dress Regulations for the Army that it should be worn after the cross of a Member of the Royal Victorian Order . It was only in 1902 that King Edward VII gave the cross its present position on a bar brooch . The cross is also worn as a miniature decoration on a brooch or a chain with mess jacket , white tie or black tie . As a bearer of the VC is not a Companion in an Order of Chivalry , the VC has no place in a coat of arms .
= = = Annuity = = =
The original warrant stated that NCOs and private soldiers or seamen on the Victoria Cross Register were entitled to a £ 10 per annum annuity . In 1898 , Queen Victoria raised the pension to £ 50 for those that could not earn a livelihood , be it from old age or infirmity . Today holders of the Victoria Cross or George Cross are entitled to an annuity , the amount of which is determined by the awarding government . Since 2015 , the annuity paid by the British Government is £ 10 @,@ 000 per year . This is exempted from tax for British taxpayers by Section 638 Income Tax ( Earnings and Pensions ) Act 2003 , along with pensions or annuities from other awards for bravery . In Canada under the Gallantry Awards Order , members of the Canadian Forces or people who joined the British forces before 31 March 1949 while domiciled in Canada or Newfoundland receive Can $ 3 @,@ 000 per year . Under Subsection 103 @.@ 4 of the Veterans ' Entitlements Act 1986 , the Australian Government provides a Victoria Cross Allowance . Until November 2005 the amount was A $ 3 @,@ 230 per year . Since then this amount has been increased annually in line with the Australian Consumer Price Index .
= = = Forfeited awards = = =
The original Royal Warrant involved an expulsion clause that allowed for a recipient 's name to be erased from the official register in certain wholly discreditable circumstances and his pension cancelled . King George V felt very strongly that the decoration should never be forfeited and in a letter from his Private Secretary , Lord Stamfordham , on 26 July 1920 , his views are forcefully expressed :
The King feels so strongly that , no matter the crime committed by anyone on whom the VC has been conferred , the decoration should not be forfeited . Even were a VC to be sentenced to be hanged for murder , he should be allowed to wear his VC on the scaffold .
The power to cancel and restore awards is still included in the Victoria Cross warrant but none has been forfeited since 1908 .
= = Recipients = =
A total of 1 @,@ 358 Victoria Crosses have been awarded since 1856 to 1 @,@ 355 men . There are several statistics related to the greatest number of VCs awarded in individual battles or wars . The greatest number of Victoria Crosses won on a single day is 24 , for deeds performed on 16 November 1857 in Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny . The greatest number won by a single unit during a single action is seven , to the 2nd / 24th Foot , for the defence of Rorke 's Drift , 22 – 23 January 1879 , during the Zulu War . The greatest number won in a single conflict is 628 , being for the First World War . There are only six living holders of the VC — four British , one Australian , one Gurkha — one award for the Second World War and four awards since ; in addition one New Zealander holds the Victoria Cross for New Zealand and four Australians hold the Victoria Cross for Australia . Eight of the then @-@ twelve surviving holders of the Victoria Cross attended the 150th Anniversary service of remembrance at Westminster Abbey on 26 June 2006 .
In 1921 the Victoria Cross was given to the American Unknown Soldier of the First World War ( the British Unknown Warrior was reciprocally awarded the US Medal of Honor ) . One VC is in existence that is not counted in any official records . In 1856 , Queen Victoria laid the first Victoria Cross beneath the foundation stone of Netley Military hospital . When the hospital was demolished in 1966 the VC , known as " The Netley VC " , was retrieved and is now on display in the Army Medical Services Museum , Mytchett , near Aldershot .
Three people have been awarded the VC and Bar , the bar representing a second award of the VC . They are : Noel Chavasse and Arthur Martin @-@ Leake , both doctors in the Royal Army Medical Corps , for rescuing wounded under fire ; and New Zealander Charles Upham , an infantryman , for combat actions . Upham remains the only combatant soldier to have received a VC and Bar . An Irishman , Surgeon General William Manley , remains the sole recipient of both the Victoria Cross and the Iron Cross . The VC was awarded for his actions during the Waikato @-@ Hauhau Maori War , New Zealand on 29 April 1864 while the Iron Cross was awarded for tending the wounded during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 . Royal New Zealand Air Force Flying Officer Lloyd Trigg has the distinction of being the only serviceman ever awarded a VC on evidence solely provided by the enemy , for an action in which there were no surviving Allied witnesses . The recommendation was made by the captain of the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 468 sunk by Trigg 's aircraft . Lieutenant Commander Gerard Roope was also awarded a VC on recommendation of the enemy , the captain of the Admiral Hipper , but there were also numerous surviving Allied witnesses to corroborate his actions .
The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot on 28 March 1942 , a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France , resulted in the award of five Victoria Crosses .
Since the end of the Second World War the original VC has been awarded 15 times : four in the Korean War , one in the Indonesia @-@ Malaysia confrontation in 1965 , four to Australians in the Vietnam War , two during the Falklands War in 1982 , one in the Iraq War in 2004 , and three in the War in Afghanistan in 2006 and 2012 . On 18 March 2005 , Lance Sergeant ( then Private ) Johnson Beharry of the 1st Battalion , Princess of Wales 's Royal Regiment became the first recipient of the VC since Sergeant Ian McKay in 1982 . Three VCs have been awarded since then in actions arising form the UK 's involvement in Afghanistan .
= = Public sales = =
Since 1879 , more than 300 Victoria Crosses have been publicly auctioned or advertised . Others have been privately sold . The value of the VC can be seen by the increasing sums that the medals reach at auction . In 1955 the set of medals awarded to Edmund Barron Hartley was bought at Sotheby 's for the then record price of £ 300 ( approximately £ 7100 in present @-@ day terms ) . In October 1966 the Middlesex Regiment paid a new record figure of £ 900 ( approximately £ 15100 in present @-@ day terms ) for a VC awarded after the Battle of the Somme . In January 1969 , the record reached £ 1700 ( £ 25200 ) for the medal set of William Rennie . In April 2004 the VC awarded in 1944 to Sergeant Norman Jackson , RAF , was sold at auction for £ 235 @,@ 250 . On 24 July 2006 , an auction at Bonhams in Sydney of the VC awarded to Captain Alfred Shout fetched a world record hammer price of A $ 1 million ( approximately £ 410 @,@ 000 at then exchange rates ) .
= = Thefts = =
Several VCs have been stolen and , being valuable , have been placed on the Interpol watch @-@ list for stolen items . The VC awarded to Milton Gregg , which was donated to the Royal Canadian Regiment Museum in London , Ontario Canada in 1979 , was stolen on Canada Day ( 1 July 1980 ) , when the museum was overcrowded and has been missing since . A VC awarded in 1917 to Canadian soldier Corporal Filip Konowal was stolen from the same museum in 1973 and was not recovered until 2004 .
On 2 December 2007 , nine VCs were among 100 medals stolen from locked , reinforced glass cabinets at the QEII Army Memorial Museum in Waiouru , New Zealand with a value of around NZD $ 20 million . Charles Upham 's VC and Bar was among these . A reward of NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 was posted for information leading to the recovery of the decorations and conviction of the thieves , although at the time there was much public debate about the need to offer reward money to retrieve the medals . On 16 February 2008 New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered .
= = Collections = =
= = = Ashcroft collection = = =
The VC collection of businessman and politician Lord Ashcroft , amassed since 1986 , contains 162 medals , over one @-@ tenth of all VCs awarded . It is the largest collection of such decorations . In July 2008 it was announced that Ashcroft was to donate £ 5 million for a permanent gallery at the Imperial War Museum where the 50 VCs held by the museum will be put on display alongside his collection . The Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum opened on 12 November 2010 containing a total of 210 VCs and 31 GCs .
= = = Australian War Memorial = = =
Prior to November 2010 , the largest collection of VCs on public display was held by the Australian War Memorial , whose collection includes all nine VCs awarded to Australians at Gallipoli . Of the 100 medals awarded to Australians ( 96 VCs , and 4 VCs for Australia ) , this collection contains around 70 medals , including 3 medals awarded to British soldiers ( Grady , 1854 ; Holbrook , 1914 ; and Whirlpool , 1858 ) , and 3 of the VCs for Australia ( Donaldson , 2008 ; Keighran , 2010 ; and Roberts @-@ Smith , 2010 ) .
= = = List of collections = = =
Museums with holdings of ten or more VCs include :
( note 1 = Many VCs are on loan to the museums and are owned by individuals and not owned by the museums themselves . )
= = Other = =
= = = Memorials = = =
In 2004 a national Victoria Cross and George Cross memorial was installed in Westminster Abbey close to the tomb of the Unknown Warrior . Westminster Abbey is a living monument to British history in that it contains monuments and memorials to central figures in British History including Isaac Newton , Charles Darwin and James VI & I. As such it was a significant honour for the VC to be commemorated in Westminster Abbey .
Canon William Lummis , MC , was a military historian who built up an archive on the service records and final resting places of Victoria Cross holders . This was then summarised into a pamphlet which was taken to be an authoritative source on these matters . However , Lummis was aware of short @-@ comings in his work and encouraged David Harvey to continue it . The result was Harvey 's seminal book Monuments to Courage . In 2007 the Royal Mail used material from Lummis ' archives to produce a collection of stamps commemorating Victoria Cross recipients .
It is a tradition within the Australian Army for soldiers ' recreational clubs on military bases to be named after a particular recipient of the Victoria Cross . Australia has a unique means of remembering recipients of the Victoria Cross . Remembrance Drive is a path through city streets and highways linking Sydney and Canberra . Trees were planted in February 1954 by Queen Elizabeth II in a park near Sydney Harbour and at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , marking either end of the route , with various plantations along the roadsides in memory of the fallen . Beginning in 1995 , 23 rest stop memorials named for Australian recipients of the VC from World War II onwards have been sited along the route , providing picnic facilities and public amenities to encourage drivers to take a break on long drives . 23 of the 26 memorial sites have been dedicated , with a further three reserved for the surviving VC recipients , including two of the newer Victoria Cross for Australia awards . Edward Kenna , VC , was honoured with the most recent rest stop on 16 August 2012 , having died in 2009 .
= = = In art = = =
The subject of soldiers earning the VC has been popular with artists since the medal 's inception . In particular are the fifty paintings by Louis William Desanges that were painted in the late 1850s and early 1860s . Many of these were exhibited at the Egyptian Gallery in Piccadilly , but in 1900 , they were brought together by Lord Wantage as the Victoria Cross Gallery and exhibited in the town of Wantage , Berkshire . Later the collection was broken up and many of the paintings were sent to the various regiments depicted . Some were damaged or destroyed . A number of the acts were also portrayed in a Second World War propaganda pamphlet , and the images commissioned by the Ministry of Information are presented in an online gallery available on the website of The National Archives .
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= USS Philadelphia ( 1776 ) =
Philadelphia is a gunboat ( referred to in contemporary documents as a gundalow or gondola ) of the Continental Navy . Manned by Continental Army soldiers , she was part of a fleet under the command of General Benedict Arnold that fought the 11 October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island against a larger Royal Navy fleet on Lake Champlain . Although many of the American boats in the battle were damaged in the battle , Philadelphia was one of the few actually sunk that day . On the days following the main battle , most of the other boats in the American fleet were sunk , burned , or captured . She is one of a few such vessels used during the American Revolutionary War to be raised .
In 1935 , amateur military marine archaeologist Lorenzo Hagglund located her remains standing upright at the bottom of Lake Champlain , and had her raised . Bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution in 1961 , Philadelphia and associated artifacts are part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History , in Washington , D.C. , where curator Philip K. Lundeberg was responsible for arranging her initial display . The vessel is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark .
= = Background = =
The American Revolutionary War , which began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord , widened in September 1775 when the Continental Army embarked on an invasion of the British Province of Quebec . The province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies , and was at the time lightly defended . The invasion reached a peak on December 31 , 1775 , when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans . In the spring of 1776 , 10 @,@ 000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec , and General Guy Carleton , the provincial governor , drove the Continental Army out of Quebec and back to Fort Ticonderoga .
Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River , whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City . Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York , recently captured in the New York campaign by Major General William Howe . This strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those farther south and potentially quash the rebellion .
The only ships on the lake following the American retreat from Quebec were those of a small fleet of lightly armed ships that Benedict Arnold had assembled following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 . This fleet , even if it had been in British hands , was too small to transport the large British army to Fort Ticonderoga .
= = Fleet development = =
During their retreat from Quebec , the Americans carefully took or destroyed all ships on Lake Champlain that might prove useful to the British . When Arnold and his troops , making up the rear guard of the army , abandoned Fort Saint @-@ Jean , they burned or sank all the boats they could not use , and set fire to the sawmill and the fort . These actions effectively denied the British any hope of immediately moving onto the lake .
The two sides set about building fleets : the British at Saint @-@ Jean and the Americans at the other end of the lake in Skenesborough ( present @-@ day Whitehall , New York ) . While planning Quebec 's defenses in 1775 , General Carleton had anticipated the problem of transportation on Lake Champlain , and had requested the provisioning of prefabricated ships from Europe . Because of this planning , the British were able to assemble a fleet that significantly overpowered that of the Americans . In total , the British fleet ( 25 armed vessels ) had more firepower than the Americans ' 15 vessels , with more than 80 guns outweighing the 74 smaller American guns .
The American shipbuilding effort at Skenesborough was overseen by Hermanus Schuyler ( possibly a relation of Major General Philip Schuyler ) , and the outfitting was managed by military engineer Jeduthan Baldwin . Schuyler began work in April to produce boats larger and more suitable for combat than the small shallow @-@ draft boats known as bateaux that were used for transport on the lake . The process eventually came to involve General Benedict Arnold , who was an experienced ship 's captain , and David Waterbury , a Connecticut militia leader with maritime experience . Major General Horatio Gates , in charge of the overall defense of the lake , eventually asked Arnold to take more responsibility in the shipbuilding effort , because " I am intirely uninform 'd as to Marine Affairs . "
= = Construction of Philadelphia = =
Philadelphia was one of eight gundalows ( also called gondolas in contemporary documents ) constructed at Skenesboro . She was laid down early in July 1776 and launched in mid @-@ August . Constructed primarily of oak , she was larger than a bateaux at 53 ft 2 in ( 16 @.@ 21 m ) long with a beam of 15 ft 2 in ( 4 @.@ 62 m ) . She featured a single 36 @-@ foot ( 10 @.@ 97 m ) mast with square @-@ rigged sail and topsail , and mounted three cannons , one 12 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) facing forward and two 9 pounders ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) facing port and starboard respectively . She also had mounting points for up to eight swivel guns , and was estimated by the Smithsonian to displace 29 long tons ( 32 @.@ 5 short tons ; 29 @.@ 5 t ) . Late in her construction General Arnold ordered that her aft deck be raised in order to accommodate a mortar . This modification was apparently undone after the mortar exploded during test firing at Fort Ticonderoga . In order to maintain equilibrium , ballast rocks were probably used in the aft portion of the boat once the mortar was removed . For the relative comfort of its crew , the boat had a canvas awning aft of the mast and fascines were probably lashed to its sides to diffuse musket fire aimed at the boat .
= = Service history = =
Philadelphia was placed in service under a Captain Rice shortly after she was completed . Late in August General Arnold assembled his fleet and cruised provocatively on the northern stretches of Lake Champlain . On September 23 , in anticipation of the larger British fleet 's arrival , he stationed his ships in Valcour Bay , the strait separating the western shore of the lake from Valcour Island . When the two forces clashed on October 11 , Philadelphia was under the command of Benjamin Rue , and was part of the formation Arnold established in the Valcour strait . Early in the six @-@ hour fight the 12 @-@ gun schooner USS Royal Savage ran aground and was burned . Toward dusk the British guns holed Philadelphia with a 24 @-@ pound ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) shot and she soon sank . Darkness ended the action , and Arnold was able to slip away during the night . Many of his remaining ships were burned , sunk , or captured over the next two days as the British pursued him toward Ticonderoga .
In sea trials of the replica Philadelphia II , the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum determined that the boat was not particularly maneuverable : contemporary accounts of sailing the vessels include reports that the gondolas skipped across the waters of the lake , blown by the wind , and needed safe shelter when winds were high .
= = Raising the wreck = =
In the 1930s , Lorenzo Hagglund , a veteran of World War I and a history buff , began searching the strait for remains of the battle . In 1932 he found the remains of Royal Savage 's hull , which he successfully raised in 1934 . Hagglund followed up his discovery of Royal Savage with the discovery of Philadelphia 's remains in 1935 , sitting upright on the lake bottom . He raised her that year ; in addition to the guns and hull , hundreds of other items were recovered from the vessel . These relics included shot , cooking utensils , tools , buttons , buckles and human bones .
Philadelphia was exhibited at various locations on Lake Champlain and the Hudson River before becoming a long @-@ term display at Exeter , New York . Lorenzo Hagglund spent years searching for other ships in Arnold 's fleet , and raised another gunboat in 1952 . Funding for a structure to house that find and the Royal Savage fell through , and that boat 's remains were eventually ruined through neglect and looting .
In the wake of that failure Hagglund approached the Smithsonian Institution to preserve Philadelphia , and in 1961 , bequeathed her and associated artifacts to that organization . According to the Whitehall Times , the remains had suffered more damage during their time above water than below . The boat and artifacts are now part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History , in Washington , D.C. She is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is designated a National Historic Landmark . She remains in precarious condition : as of 2001 the wood and iron fittings continued to show signs of deterioration despite attempts to stabilize them .
In 1997 , another pristine underwater wreck was located during a survey by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum . Two years later it was conclusively identified as the gundalow Spitfire .
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= Mundo Perdido , Tikal =
The Mundo Perdido ( Spanish for " Lost World " ) is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at the ancient Maya city of Tikal , in the Petén Department of northern Guatemala . The complex was organised as a large E @-@ Group astronomical complex consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples . The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history . By AD 250 – 300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico , including the use of the talud @-@ tablero form . During the Early Classic period ( c . 250 – 600 ) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city , the other being the North Acropolis . From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis . The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania .
The large plaza centred upon the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) and the ceremonial platform to the west ( 5C @-@ 53 ) is divided into two clearly demarcated areas referred to as the High Plaza and the Low Plaza . The High Plaza is the area around the Lost World Pyramid . It is closed on the south side by Structures 6C @-@ 24 and 6C @-@ 25 . A range of eight adjoining structures divide the High Plaza from the Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . On the north side , the Plaza is principally delimited by Structures 5D @-@ 77 , 5D @-@ 45 , 5D @-@ 46 , together with some smaller structures . The Low Plaza lies to the west of the Lost World Pyramid , centred upon Structure 5C @-@ 53 , a low platform . The Low Plaza is closed on its north side by the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) , which is the second largest structure in the whole complex . The complex has a surface area of approximately 60 @,@ 000 square metres ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
Guatemalan archaeologists have made major discoveries in the Mundo Perdido since the 1970s . The National Tikal Project ( Proyecto Nacional Tikal ) investigated the Mundo Perdido from 1979 until 1985 , and partially restored the principal structures of the complex . The Mundo Perdido was the first architectural complex to be built at Tikal in the Preclassic period and the last to be abandoned during the Terminal Classic .
= = History = =
= = = Preclassic = = =
The Mundo Perdido underwent six phases of construction ; four of these date to the Preclassic and two to the Classic . Each construction phase produced a new version of the E @-@ Group ( the Lost World Pyramid and the East Platform ) . Evidence recovered from the Mundo Perdido dates back to the earliest years of occupation at Tikal in the Middle Preclassic prior to 700 BC , although these remains represent rubbish rather than structures . The complex began to take form around the end of the Middle Preclassic , around 600 BC , when structures started to be added to a series of artificially levelled surfaces or platforms . Gradually both the complexity and the height of the structures increased . The Lost World Pyramid and the East Platform together form an E @-@ Group that is the oldest architectural complex in Tikal . During the Late Preclassic a causeway was built to unite the Mundo Perdido with the North Acropolis ; this causeway channelled runoff rainwater into a canal that fed into the Temple Reservoir . About AD 100 , toward the end of the Late Preclassic , three temples were built upon the East Platform .
= = = Early Classic = = =
Around AD 250 , at the beginning of the Early Classic , the Mundo Perdido plaza was expanded westwards in order to make the Lost World Pyramid the centre of the complex rather than the western extreme . It was this construction phase that led to the Mundo Perdido achieving its final surface area of around 60 @,@ 000 square metres ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . After this the various structures in the Mundo Perdido were remodelled many times to match the architectural styles developing throughout the city .
A small platform was added to the East Platform in the Early Classic , the surface of the platform possesses a series of holes that may have supported banners . The platform covered a large pit that contained the bodies of seventeen sacrificial victims , including men , women and children , possibly sacrificed during a dedicatory ceremony for the platform itself . In the 4th century AD the first version of Structure 5D @-@ 82 was built , to the north of the East Platform . In the second half of the 4th century six tombs were built in the East Platform . Ceramic offerings in the tombs included effigy vessels representing monkeys and macaws . The high artistic and technical quality of the funerary offerings in these tombs identify the deceased as members of Tikal 's elite ; they may have been members of a line of the ruling dynasty that lost power among the political upheaval of the late 4th century and included the kings K 'inich Muwaan Jol and Chak Tok Ich 'aak I. With the entry of Siyaj K 'ak ' and the establishment of a new political order in the city , the focus of royal funerary rites was shifted from the Mundo Perdido to the North Acropolis .
From the 4th century through to the 6th century the use of talud @-@ tablero architecture became notable in the Mundo Perdido . In the 5th century the talud @-@ tablero form was applied to Structures 5C @-@ 51 and 5C @-@ 52 at the western limit of the complex , and 6C @-@ 24 on the south side . In the latter part of the 6th century or during the 7th century a fifth version of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple 5C @-@ 49 was built , with a new stairway and summit shrine .
= = = Late Classic = = =
During the 7th century there were significant changes to the East Platform , including a new version of Temple 5D @-@ 87 that faced away from the Mundo Perdido . Around AD 700 this version was sealed and another version built on top , making Temple 5D @-@ 87 one of the three highest structures in the Mundo Perdido . This new version created a new orienting axis in the complex , breaking the primary axis associated with the ancient E @-@ Group complex and its relationship with the old solar cult , thus marking a major change in the ceremonial use of the Mundo Perdido complex . It is about this same time that the twin pyramid complex came into use , demonstrating a major internal reorganisation of the city . During the Late Classic , access to the complex was gradually restricted by closing various access points with new structures , this included discontinuing the use of the causeway that had linked the complex with the North Acropolis since the Preclassic . A new palace complex was built in the northern section of the Mundo Perdido , developing during the 7th and 8th centuries AD ; This marked an important change in the use of the Mundo Perdido , which until then had been dedicated to purely ritual activities . The construction of the palace indicates the permanent inhabitation of the complex by an elite group , apparently involved in some way with the administration of the city .
The Mundo Perdido continued to serve as an important burial site during the 8th and 9th centuries . The final version of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple received three elite status burials , possibly members of the royal family to judge by the extremely high quality of the associated offerings . These burials have been dated to the second half of the 8th century , during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin II .
= = = Terminal Classic = = =
Tikal as a whole went into general decline during the Terminal Classic , with some parts of the city apparently being abandoned . The Mundo Perdido , however , continued to be a centre of vigorous ceremonial activity . Evidence of this continued activity in the complex includes burials and collections of ceramic and lithic artefacts , together with significant construction activity . The main Late Classic structures were fitted with new benches and a change to access routes to the complex took place . Activity was concentrated in the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido , perhaps because it was closest to the Temple Reservoir water supply . Some minor changes were made to the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple at this time . The greatest residential activity during the Terminal Classic took place in the vaulted palace immediately to the east of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( Structures 5C @-@ 45 through to 5C @-@ 47 ) . This activity included complex construction projects and indicates that the elite were still in residence immediately prior to the complete abandonment of the city . Further construction activity , in the form of structural strengthening , also took place in other structures in the northern sector , including Structures 5D @-@ 77 and 5D @-@ 82 . Ritual activity also continued , and the bottom half of Early Classic Stela 39 was placed in Temple 5D @-@ 86 on the East Platform and worshipped .
That a large population remained in residence in the north sector of Mundo Perdido during the Terminal Classic is evidenced by the quantity of burials of differing gender and age . Some were interred inside collapsed buildings or in casual graves . They were usually accompanied by very few funerary offerings , generally bone and lithic artefacts . The dense occupation of the north sector , which included elite activity , continued for at least a hundred years after the abandonment of the rest of Tikal and is perhaps linked to the nearby water supply and to continued ritual activity at Temple III . While the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido continued in use , the rest of the complex was partially abandoned . The occupation of the Mundo Perdido came to an end in the Terminal Classic and very few traces of Postclassic activity have been recovered , limited to a few ceramic finds in Structure 3D @-@ 43 to the north .
= = = Modern history = = =
The University of Pennsylvania carried out exploratory investigations of the Lost World Pyramid prior to the work undertaken by the Proyecto Nacional Tikal . These included test cores and trenches in the summit as well as the west and south sides . Exploratory tunnels excavated up to 27 metres ( 89 ft ) into the pyramid 's interior recovered surprisingly early ceramic fragments , which led to the complex becoming the focus of later investigations . A wide @-@ ranging programme of investigations of the Mundo Perdido was instigated by the newly formed Proyecto Nacional Tikal in September 1979 . The first operation carried out was the clearing of forest overgrowth from the Lost World Pyramid late that year . The main phase of investigations ran until 1982 , although test pitting and topographical surveys continued until 1984 . Both the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) and the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple were excavated and restored from 1980 through to 1982 . Soon after work started upon the Mundo Perdido in 1979 adverse weather conditions resulted in severe damage to various structures , including the collapse of the east face of the Lost World Pyramid , the northeast corner of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) and the north wall of Structure 5D @-@ 77 .
= = Structures = =
Archaeologist William R. Coe divided the Mundo Perdido complex into two clearly demarcated areas that he referred to as the High Plaza and the Low Plaza . The High Plaza is the area around the Lost World Pyramid . It is closed on the south side by Structures 6C @-@ 24 and 6C @-@ 25 . A range of eight adjoining structures divide the High Plaza from the Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . On the north side , the Plaza is principally delimited by Structures 5D @-@ 77 , 5C @-@ 45 , 5C @-@ 46 , together with some smaller structures . The Low Plaza lies to the west of the Lost World Pyramid , centred upon Structure 5C @-@ 53 , a low platform . The Low Plaza is closed on its north side by the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) , which is the second largest structure in the whole complex .
More recently , the Proyecto Nacional Tikal has defined the complex as an area divided into four plazas . The North , East and West Plazas are defined by their relationship to the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) while the South Plaza is on the south side of Structures 6C @-@ 25 and 6C @-@ 25 , themselves to the south of the Lost World Pyramid .
= = = E @-@ Group = = =
The original core of the Mundo Perdido was an E @-@ Group astronomical complex . The east stairway of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) was the observation point and the three original temples on the East Platform ( 5D @-@ 84 , 5D @-@ 86 and 5D @-@ 88 ) were markers used to plot the sunrise on the equinoxes and the solstices . Over the course of Tikal 's history the E @-@ Group underwent seven distinct construction phases , with the earliest dating to the end of the Middle Preclassic period .
= = = = Lost World Pyramid = = = =
The Lost World Pyramid ( Structure 5C @-@ 54 , also known as the Great Pyramid ) dates to the Late Preclassic . This structure is the focus of the Mundo Perdido complex ; it currently stands approximately 31 metres ( 102 ft ) high and has a maximum width across the base of 67 @.@ 5 metres ( 221 ft ) . The Lost World Pyramid was one of the most massive construction projects ever undertaken at Tikal . The pyramid is accessed via a stairway on the west side ; this was flanked by giant masks . The final version of the structure had stairways on both the east and west sides that extended to the top , with additional stairways on the north and south sides climbing only as far as the eighth of ten levels . This structure was one of the most massive buildings in the whole of Late Preclassic Mesoamerica and its construction used masonry blocks that measured over 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The pyramid was periodically rebuilt throughout its history , in common with the rest of the complex . The version now visible is the fifth version , dating to around AD 250 . When it was built it was the tallest structure in the entire city . The stepped levels of the pyramid have inset vertical panels that were forerunners of the talud @-@ tablero style ; these early tableros first made an appearance in the second half of the 3rd century AD when they were built into the fifth construction phase of the pyramid . The masks that once adorned the sides of the building are now so eroded that it is not possible to determine if they were anthropomorphic or zoomorphic . Traces of painted stucco on the final version of the pyramid reveal that at some point the exterior of the structure was painted blue and red .
The five versions of the Lost World Pyramid were each larger than the previous version . They were not built directly centred upon the preceding version due to the necessity of maintaining the E @-@ Group plaza area between the pyramid and the East Platform . This led to the destruction of the previous version 's east face each time a new version was superimposed over the older version .
= = = = = Phase 1 = = = = =
The earliest version of the pyramid was built at the end of the Middle Preclassic ; it was raised upon a 1 @.@ 42 @-@ metre ( 4 @.@ 7 ft ) deep infill that levelled the natural terrain . This earliest phase of construction has not survived in its entirety but is believed to have possessed three stepped levels with stairways on all four sides . It measured 23 @.@ 46 metres ( 77 @.@ 0 ft ) north @-@ south and stood 2 @.@ 94 metres ( 9 @.@ 6 ft ) high .
= = = = = Phase 2 = = = = =
The second version dates to the Late Preclassic , between 600 and 400 BC . At this time two adult males were interred without funerary offerings under the summit platform of the pyramid ( Burials PNT @-@ 002 and PNT @-@ 003 ) . Although they lacked associated offerings , the presence of cranial deformation and dental decoration suggests that the deceased may have been members of the elite . The investigating archaeologists of the Proyecto Nacional Tikal consider that the deceased themselves were a dedicatory offering upon construction of this newer version of the pyramid . The second version of the pyramid possessed four stepped levels and measured 37 @.@ 25 metres ( 122 @.@ 2 ft ) north @-@ south ; it stood 7 @.@ 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high .
= = = = = Phase 3 = = = = =
The third version was built between 400 and 200 BC as a part of the formal layout of the E @-@ Group . This version measured 37 @.@ 67 metres ( 123 @.@ 6 ft ) north @-@ south and stood 9 @.@ 46 metres ( 31 @.@ 0 ft ) high . The construction of the third version of the temple damaged the underlying second version and covered it completely . The third version was a radial pyramid with six stepped levels and a raised upper platform built from stone blocks that were not finished with stucco . This upper platform had rounded corners . The three lower levels of the pyramid had a talud ( sloping @-@ sided ) form , while the fourth had a tablero ( vertical @-@ sided ) form . The fifth level was of greater height and supported the weight of giant masks flanking the central stairways as they ascend the upper ( sixth ) level . The pyramid possessed auxiliary stairways that climbed the lower four levels , flanking the central stairways ; they ascended the fifth level in a modified form , such that they enclosed the giant masks between the auxiliary stairways and the central stairways on each side . Upon the upper platform was a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high bench accessed via three steps on its east and west sides only . The third version pyramid was of high quality construction with complex architectural detail and fine quality stucco covering . Burial PNT @-@ 001 was discovered interred within the infill of the upper level of the fourth version of the pyramid ; it was accompanied by a number of offerings .
= = = = = Phase 4 = = = = =
The fourth version of the pyramid was built upon a much larger scale ; it was built sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD . It stood 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high and measured 60 metres ( 200 ft ) across . This represented the greatest leap in volume between successive versions of the pyramid . Once again it was a radial pyramid with auxiliary stairways ; the temple had at least eight stepped levels although archaeologists could not determine the exact number due to the destruction wrought upon the summit by the construction of the next ( fifth and final ) version . It possessed giant masks on the fifth stepped level . Due to the method of construction employed , with weight dispersed across the shorter sides of its stone blocks , the fourth version of the pyramid was structurally weak and it required periodic reinforcement . The architects soon realised their error and the architectural techniques used in the construction of the fourth version were never used again ; the fourth version itself remained in use for a relatively short period of time before being replaced by the fifth version .
= = = = = Phase 5 = = = = =
The fifth and final version of the Lost World Pyramid was built around 200 @-@ 300 AD . When excavated it was found to be poorly preserved due to the poor quality structural infill used in its construction ; its sides had subsided in a number of places . The final version of the pyramid had ten levels and stood 30 @.@ 7 metres ( 101 ft ) high . The pyramid measured 72 by 67 @.@ 5 metres ( 236 by 221 ft ) ( NS by EW ) through its central axis . This narrowed to 61 @.@ 3 by 56 @.@ 25 metres ( 201 @.@ 1 by 184 @.@ 5 ft ) measuring from corner to corner . These measurements make it the most massive construction project at Tikal . The fifth version of the pyramid started with 8 levels between 200 to 300 AD ; a ninth level was added in the 4th century and the tenth level sometime between the late 4th century and the early 6th century . Each of the stairways was flanked by large tablero panels . The 0 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) bench upon the summit faced west , breaking the long tradition that incorporated the pyramid within the ancient E @-@ Group . A large slab of slate measuring 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high by 0 @.@ 35 metres ( 1 @.@ 1 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 24 metres ( 0 @.@ 79 ft ) thick was found embedded in the bench ; it was highly eroded and may have been a stela that was erected upon the pyramid during the Late Classic . Large quantities of Early and Late Classic ceramic fragments were found upon the pyramid , demonstrating the continued importance of the structure within Tikal as a whole . A well @-@ preserved limestone model of an architectural complex was recovered from the upper east side of the pyramid ; it may originally have been deposited in a cache and represented a number of pyramids and a Mesoamerican ballcourt - the model does not match any known architectural group at Tikal itself .
= = = = East Platform = = = =
The East Platform divides the Mundo Perdido complex from the Plaza of the Seven Temples . The structures are numbered from 5D @-@ 82 at the north end through to 5D @-@ 89 where it joins with the south range . Although this is one of the earliest examples of architecture at Tikal , this platform began to take on its final form around AD 100 when the first versions of the three temples 5D @-@ 84 , 5D @-@ 86 and 5D @-@ 88 were built upon the basal platform . In the 5th century AD the platform was remodeled with a huge talud @-@ tablero .
Structure 5D @-@ 82 is the northernmost structure adjoining the East Platform . The first version of this building was built in the 4th century AD . This early version was a semicircular platform supporting a building that possessed a single chamber . This building was decorated with an elaborate stucco frieze decorated with anthropomorphic figures and glyphs . The central figure in the frieze is believed by archaeologists to represent the deity Itzamna .
Structure 5D @-@ 84 is towards the north end of the east range ; the structure has three rooms and is flanked by Structure 5D @-@ 83 to the north and Structure 5D @-@ 86 to the south . This is one of the earliest three structures to be built upon the east platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic .
Structure 5D @-@ 85 is a double platform that provides access to the Plaza of the Seven Temples .
Structure 5D @-@ 86 possesses the remains of giant masks on its facade . It has been dated to the Late Classic period . Stela 39 was found in this building . The first version of this building was raised upon the East Platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic period , at around AD 100 . The temple had three rooms arranged one behind the other ; the central chamber is the smallest and is particularly notable for the presence of two giant zoomorphic masks on either side of its doorway . This is the only example known from the Late Preclassic Maya world where such masks were placed inside a building , a practice that would become common in the Late Classic period . Iconographic analysis of these two masks suggest that they are an early form of Nu B 'alam Chac , a spirit protector of the city that was closely associated with warfare . The first royal tomb in the Mundo Perdido was installed in this structure during the transition between the Late Preclassic and Early Classic periods .
Structure 5D @-@ 87 is also known as the Temple of the Skulls ( Templo de las Calaveras in Spanish ) . It is the third largest temple in the Mundo Perdido complex . A new version of this temple was superimposed upon a preceding version during the 7th century AD . This new version faced away from the Mundo Perdido and possessed a single room with five doorways that faced onto the adjacent Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . Around AD 700 , this version was sealed and a new version was built on top , at which time it became one of the highest structures in the Mundo Perdido . This version of the structure had a four @-@ level platform with an access stairway interrupted by a vaulted niche , as was the architectural style prevalent at Tikal during this time . The base of the niche was adorned with three sculpted skulls , one facing forwards and the two flanking skulls in profile .
Structure 5D @-@ 88 is a structure possessing three rooms . It was one of the first three temples to be built upon the East Platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic period .
Structure 5D @-@ 89 is another structure possessing three rooms .
= = = Northern sector = = =
= = = = Talud @-@ Tablero Temple = = = =
The Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( Structure 5C @-@ 49 ) is the second largest building in the Mundo Perdido . It is located on the north side of the west plaza , to the northwest of the Lost World Pyramid and directly north of the 5C @-@ 53 platform . The pyramid has a projecting stairway that rises to a summit shrine that possessed three corbel @-@ vaulted chambers and a roof comb ; the ceilings and roof comb had collapsed into the first two chambers prior to archaeological exploration . The ruined building currently stands over 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high ; with its summit shrine and roof comb intact it would have been taller . The Talud @-@ Tablero Temple was not investigated by the University of Pennsylvania and prior to its exploration by the Proyecto Nacional Tikal the summit shrine had served as the lair of a jaguar and was littered with the remains of its prey . The shrine has been badly damaged by multiple looters ' pits excavated in each of the interior chambers .
Three distinct construction phases are evident on the exterior of this pyramid . The first version of this pyramid was built in the latter half of the 3rd century AD ; it was built in a forerunner of the talud @-@ tablero style and had three levels . It stood 7 metres ( 23 ft ) tall with sides that measured 21 metres ( 69 ft ) at the base . It featured vertical unframed tableros that were painted black and a stairway flanked by balustrades . The stairway rose at an angle of 49 ° and projected 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) from the pyramid base . Three more construction phases took place in the Early Classic between AD 300 and 550 ; none of these three phases supported a masonry superstructure . Each of these phases was very similar , consisting mainly in an increase in the size of the building . Phase 2 had a basal surface area of 920 square metres ( 9 @,@ 900 sq ft ) ; the base of the third phase covered an area of 1 @,@ 065 square metres ( 11 @,@ 460 sq ft ) , this increased to 1 @,@ 240 square metres ( 13 @,@ 300 sq ft ) in the fourth construction phase . The second phase of construction took place in the 4th century in a local variation of the talud @-@ tablero style that only included framed tableros on the front of the pyramid , except for the upper level where the tableros extend around all four faces of the structure ; it had four stepped levels . The third phase of construction maintained the previous versions talud @-@ tablero variant and had five stepped levels . The fourth version of the pyramid once again had four stepped levels . The fifth phase of construction of this building took place between AD 550 and 700 and involved the construction of a new stairway on top of the previous version , although the older four @-@ level stepped pyramid with talud @-@ tablero sides was retained . The pyramid base now measured 37 metres ( 121 ft ) on each side . The stairway was widened by covering the balustrades and the pyramid was heightened by 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) by the addition of two more talud @-@ tablero @-@ style levels . This resulted in a base height of 16 @.@ 4 metres ( 54 ft ) ; a new summit shrine was built upon this , possessing three vaulted rooms and an elaborate roof comb . This construction phase took place around the same time that Temple V was built , the first of the major temples of Tikal , or slightly earlier . The shrine , in its final version , had three access doorways to the first chamber , which was 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide .
After AD 700 the pyramid served an important funerary function . Three elite burials have been excavated from the pyramid , two males and a female , accompanied by extremely high quality funerary offerings . The offerings include polychrome ceramics and objects crafted from shell , conch and mother of pearl that are inscribed with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic imagery . These associated finds are of sufficient quality that it is possible that the deceased were members of the royal family . The burials have been dated to the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin II , who ruled from AD 769 to 794 . During the Terminal Classic some minor changes were made to the temple chambers and there may have been structural reinforcement of the front of the temple . Although it is poorly preserved , the inside of the temple rooms were inscribed with graffiti that is likely to date to this time .
= = = = Palace = = = =
A three @-@ range palace complex is laid out in the form of a U in the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido . The three ranges are 5C @-@ 45 on the east side , 5C @-@ 46 on the south side and 5C @-@ 47 on the west side . All three ranges connect at the corners to form a single extended palace around a central courtyard with an area of 600 square metres ( 6 @,@ 500 sq ft ) ; the courtyard was open on the north side . This palace has furnished important information with regard to the Terminal Classic occupation the Mundo Perdido . The palace was built upon a Late Classic platform and gradually developed with the construction of the palace buildings in the 7th and 8th centuries AD . The structures each housed multiple corbel @-@ vaulted chambers . On two of the three structures the decorated facades faced outwards , although the buildings all opened onto the interior courtyard . During the 1500 @-@ year history of the Mundo Perdido complex , the palace was the only group of buildings in the entire complex that did not serve a uniquely ceremonial purpose .
Structure 5C @-@ 45 is the east range of a palace complex that also incorporates 5C @-@ 46 ( the south range ) and 5C @-@ 47 ( the west range ) . This structure was remodelled in the Terminal Classic with the closing of some doorways , addition of some benches and the construction of new sections with multiple doorways . Although Tikal was completely abandoned soon afterwards , this continuation in complex construction activity indicated that the elite residents were still inhabiting the palace at this time .
= = = Other structures = = =
Structure 5C @-@ 51 is on the western border of the complex . It was modelled in the talud @-@ tablero style in the 5th century AD .
Structure 5C @-@ 52 delimits the western extreme of the Mundo Perdido . In the 5th century AD it was built using the talud @-@ tablero style .
Structure 5C @-@ 53 is a low platform situated 33 metres ( 108 ft ) to the west of the Lost World Pyramid . The platform has access stairways on all four sides and has no sign of ever having supported any superstructure . Details of the sides of the platform suggest that its construction was influenced by Teotihuacan . The platform dates to the beginning of the Late Classic , around AD 600 .
Structure 6C @-@ 24 is a part of the south range of the Mundo Perdido . This is another building that was styled with talud @-@ tableros in the 5th century AD .
= = Monuments = =
Stela 39 is the broken bottom half of a stela that was found inside Temple 5D @-@ 86 , on the east @-@ west axis running through the East Platform from the Lost World Pyramid . The monument is sculpted on the front and back faces and was deliberately broken in ancient times and was moved inside the temple in order to save it . The front of the stela shows the bottom half of a person , who is identified as a ruler by his costume ; the back features two columns of hieroglyphs . The king depicted on the stela is Chak Tok Ich 'aak I , who governed in the 4th century AD . This king is standing over a bound captive ; the bearded captive appears to be a noble since he retains his clothing . The stela celebrates an event in AD 376 and appears to have been moved to the Mundo Perdido in relation to a funerary ceremony . The stela was possibly moved to the temple by king Yax Nuun Ayiin II to celebrate the changing of the 20 @-@ year k 'atun Maya calendrical cycle in AD 771 and thereby link himself to Chak Tok Ich 'aak I. It was placed directly over the most important of the late 4th century elite tombs . The stela continued to be worshipped in the Terminal Classic , as evidenced by the presence of polychrome ceramic offerings and incense burners .
= = Burials = =
Burial 5 was an elite burial interred in a stucco @-@ coated chamber under the rear chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The tomb had already been looted when it was discovered by archaeologists , with a looters trench cutting through the bench and floor of the shrine chamber above . The burial chamber measured 1 @.@ 77 by 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 8 by 2 @.@ 6 ft ) ( NS by EW ) and was 0 @.@ 87 metres ( 2 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The chamber contained the bones of an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old . Although the bones had been disturbed by the looters , it is likely that he had been laid out on his back with a north @-@ south orientation . A few broken ceramic remains among the looters ' debris dated the tomb to the late 8th century AD .
Burial 6 was a cist located under the first chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . It had been heavily looted , to an extent that it was not possible to determine if the scattered human remains of at least four people belonged to one burial or several . The bones belonged to two children and two young adult females and fragments of ceramic offerings were also identified .
Burial 7 was interred in a cist under the central chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . Although it had already been looted when it was discovered by archaeologists , the prior collapse of the ceiling of the summit shrine of the pyramid protected a section of the tomb from the looters . The remains were those of an adult male with an artificially deformed skull ; he was laid out on his back with a north @-@ south orientation with the head towards the north . The funerary offering included three polychrome ceramics ; a tripod plate , a plate painted with the figure of a dancer and a vessel bearing the images of human figures and a jaguar . Burial 7 was immediately above the cist of Burial 9 .
Burial 8 was interred towards the rear of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The deceased was a young adult male aged between 21 and 35 years old with an artificially deformed skull . He was buried near the surface lying on his side in a flexed position ; The remains were oriented north @-@ south and date to the Terminal Classic and were not accompanied by any funerary offering .
Burial 9 was interred in a cist immediately beneath Burial 7 in the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The chamber measured 2 @.@ 34 by 0 @.@ 64 metres ( 7 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 1 ft ) ( NS by EW ) . The remains were of an adolescent female lying on her back with her head towards the north . She was lying upon a layer of cinnabar mixed with blue and green pigments and was accompanied by a rich funerary offering . The offering included mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , jade and quartz beads , bone earspools inlaid with shell , shell figurines , glyphs crafted from shell , a jade pectoral crafted in the form of an anthropomorphic face , an alabaster bowl , a polychrome ceramic vessel decorated with human figures and a lengthy hieroglyphic text , a black bowl and a tripod plate decorated with an ajaw glyph .
Burial 21 was the first corbel @-@ vaulted tomb to be constructed in the Mundo Perdido ; it was placed within Structure 5D @-@ 86 . The deceased was interred upon the east @-@ west axis running through the centre of the E @-@ Group during the transition between the Late Preclassic and the Early Classic periods . The tomb was elite @-@ status and was perhaps the earliest royal burial in the Mundo Perdido . Any funerary offerings were removed during the 6th century AD during remodelling of the temple , at which time the offerings were redeposited under the third chamber of the shrine . The offerings included three polychrome plates with mammiform legs ; the painted designs on the plates perhaps have astronomical significance .
Burial PNT @-@ 001 dates to between 400 and 200 BC . It was inserted in a put among the infill of the upper level of the third version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) , 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) under the summit ( 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) including the summit bench ) . He was laid out upon a large rock lying face downwards . The deceased was a young adult male aged between 21 and 35 years who was aligned north @-@ south with the skull towards the south . Traces of cinnabar were found upon the bones . The body was accompanied by four ceramic vessels , five obsidian blades , a flint chisel , avian bones and some worked bone artefacts , among them an earspool . Although the burial could be a dedicatory offering due to its location upon the east @-@ west axis of the E @-@ Group , the high status offerings associated with it also open up the possibility that the deceased was a member of Tikal 's elite .
Burial PNT @-@ 002 was interred with Burial PNT @-@ 003 in the third stepped platform of the second version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) prior to the fourth platform being completed . The deceased was an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old ; he was found lying extended on his back with a southeast @-@ northwest orientation . Most of the bones were preserved to a certain degree ; although the skull was badly fragmented it was evident that artificial craneal deformation had taken place . One of the upper canine teeth was fitted with pyrite decoration ; the other canine had a crescent @-@ shaped hollow that had once held its decoration . The deceased had several items of shell jewellery .
Burial PNT @-@ 003 was interred at the same time as Burial PNT @-@ 002 . The deceased was an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old ; he was lying face down with a northwest @-@ southeast orientation . The remains were very poorly preserved but the upper canines were both decorated with pyrite incrustations . The deceased was not accompanied by jewellery or funerary offerings .
Burial PNT @-@ 004 was interred under a low platform associated with the third version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) . It was deposited near the bedrock 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) under the platform without any funerary offerings . The remains are those of a young adult male between 21 and 35 years old who was laid on his right hand side in a flexed position with an east @-@ west orientation , with the head lying to the west . The remains were associated with three pieces of worked stone that had traces of stucco and red paint . The burial has been dated to around 300 BC .
Burial PNT @-@ 032 may have been a dedicatory offering upon construction of the fourth version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) . It was buried at a depth of 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) without associated offerings . The remains were probably those of a female ; she was lying face down and oriented north @-@ south with the head pointing northwards . The remains were very poorly preserved but probably date to the early 1st century AD .
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= A8 ( Croatia ) =
The A8 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A8 ) is a 64 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 39 @.@ 8 mi ) toll motorway in Croatia . It connects the A7 motorway near Rijeka with the road network in the Istrian peninsula via the Učka Tunnel . The road terminates at the Kanfanar interchange with the A9 motorway , which with the A8 motorway forms the Istrian Y road system . The motorway 's national significance is reflected in its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects , as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia . The importance of the motorway for tourism is particularly high during the summer tourist season , when its traffic volume increases by about 65 % .
The construction of the A8 motorway and the Istrian Y can be traced back to 1968 when the Croatian Parliament decided to build a modern road linking Istria with the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , a bond to fund the construction was issued . The construction work started in 1976 ; in 1981 the Učka Tunnel was finished and a 22 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) section of the route between Matulji and Lupoglav was completed as a single @-@ carriageway , two @-@ lane expressway . The Lupoglav @-@ Cerovlje portion was the next one to be completed , in 1988 . The route was extended to the Rogovići interchange between 1992 and 1998 , and the remaining section to Kanfanar was completed in 1999 as a two @-@ lane road . In 2011 , the expressway route started to be expanded gradually with the addition of a new carriageway and emergency lanes , eventually making most of it a controlled @-@ access highway ; the expansion of the route 's first section , between Kanfanar and Rogovići , was completed in October 2011 . The route 's full expansion to motorway standards – including six lanes and grade separation of all its interchanges – is scheduled by 2015 , when a second tube for the Učka Tunnel and a new route connecting the tunnel to the A7 motorway are planned . Construction slowed down in the 1990s due to a lack of funding ; therefore , a build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession for the Istrian Y was granted to the BINA Istra corporation for a period of 32 years .
All intersections found along the route are grade separated , except for a single at @-@ grade intersection currently regulated by traffic lights ; a new route is planned to bypass this intersection . As of June 2012 , there were ten exits and two service areas along the route . The motorway is currently toll @-@ free except for the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar @-@ Rogovići section . However , most of the motorway is potentially a toll road using a ticket system , with each exit including a toll plaza except those of Veprinac , Opatija , and Matulji . The toll system of the A8 / A9 Istrian Y is integrated : no ticket needs to be turned in , gotten , or exchanged when going from the A8 to the A9 or vice versa .
= = Route description = =
The A8 motorway is an east – west motorway in Croatia , crossing the eastern and central parts of Istria . It connects the Matulji interchange near Rijeka , the largest city on the northern Adriatic coast of Croatia , to Istria via the Kanfanar interchange situated in the area of the city of Rovinj . The motorway represents a link between the A7 and the A9 motorway — spanning between border of Slovenia and the cities of Rijeka and Pula , respectively . This part of the road network of Croatia is also part of European route E751 , consisting of the Koper – Kanfanar – Pula and Kanfanar – Rijeka sections . The route is economically important to Croatia , especially for tourism and as a cargo transport route . The road carries significant cargo and tourist traffic as the largest @-@ capacity road link between the Istrian and Kvarner Gulf regions and the nation 's capital , Zagreb . Most of the road has a design speed of 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) ; the part meeting full motorway standards has a design speed of 120 kilometres per hour ( 75 mph ) . The final segment of the route – between the Učka tunnel and the Matulji interchange – has a design speed of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) because of the mountainous terrain crossed and proximity of residential structures .
The route originates in the Kanfanar interchange with the A9 motorway and the D303 road in central Istria , east of Rovinj . From that point , the A8 proceeds east towards the Žminj exit ; there it turns north towards the Rogovići interchange with the D48 road . The latter represents the western approach to Pazin , the capital of Istria County . The A8 section between Kanfanar and Rogovići consists of four traffic lanes with a central reservation . Beyond the Rogovići interchange , the A8 changes direction once again , running generally to the northeast ; it acts as a bypass around Pazin . It goes through rough karst terrain that requires three major bridges with a total length of 949 metres ( 3 @,@ 114 ft ) ; the longest bridge is the Drazej viaduct , at 444 metres ( 1 @,@ 457 ft ) . The road then heads toward Cerovlje , running along and near the Pazinčica river valley and the Cerovlje valley ; this includes a 1 @,@ 330 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 360 ft ) bridge over the Pazinčica river . After Cerovlje the road runs for 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , through hilly terrain requiring bridges for about 10 % of the route , to the Lupoglav exit and an interchange with the D44 road . Past Lupoglav , after going over the Lupoglav – Raša railway line the A8 heads southeast , until it reaches the D500 road at the Vranja exit and the western entrance to the 5 @.@ 062 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 145 mi ) Učka Tunnel ; this is the third @-@ longest road tunnel in Croatia . The tunnel carries the route east , through part of the Učka mountain range . It represents the end of the easternmost section of the Istrian Y system ( comprising the A8 and the A9 motorways ) where a toll is charged ; consequently , there are toll plazas adjacent to both tunnel entrances . East of the tunnel , the route runs northeast to the Matulji interchange with the A7 motorway and the eastern terminus of the A8 motorway . This section contains the Opatija and Veprinac exits , serving Opatija , Ičići , Lovran and other Opatija Riviera resorts . The elevation of the route 's 11 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) segment east of the tunnel drops from 520 metres ( 1 @,@ 710 feet ) above sea level at the eastern portal of the Učka Tunnel to approximately 180 metres ( 590 feet ) above sea level adjacent to the Matulji interchange . An additional climbing lane is present along parts of this segment . Unlike all the other exits found along the route , the Opatija exit is an at @-@ grade intersection regulated by a traffic light , while the Veprinac exit is executed as a partial cloverleaf interchange . Overall , the A8 is 64 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 39 @.@ 8 miles ) long with 10 exits along the route . A significant portion of the route has no emergency lanes as yet , but lay @-@ bys are available intermittently along the route . The traffic lanes ' width varies along the route , being 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 feet ) wide in all sections except between Cerovlje and Lupoglav , where the traffic lanes are 3 @.@ 25 metres ( 10 @.@ 7 feet ) wide .
The bulk of the route runs through forested areas , especially near the Učka range and near Pazin , with agricultural land in between those areas – most of it located between the Ivoli and Lupoglav interchanges . The final section of the route , near Opatija and the A7 motorway , runs through coastal areas affected by urbanization . The route crosses no major watercourses , although creeks adjacent to or spanned by the route drain into the Pazinčica and Boljunčica rivers , or directly into the Adriatic Sea in the case of watercourses flowing down Učka 's eastern slopes . The Učka Tunnel contains a spring discovered during its construction and used for the water supply of Opatija ever since .
The route runs through an area subject to significant air temperature variations . The temperature extremes measured in the area of the route range from − 18 to 40 ° C ( 0 to 104 ° F ) , imposing substantial maintenance requirements . The weather patterns prevailing along the route include : an average of three to four days of snow cover , especially in the central parts of Istria ; high winds and gales east of the Učka Tunnel , recorded during , respectively , 15 and 54 days per year on average ; and fog in the areas west of the Učka mountains and around Pazin , respectively occurring 80 and 50 days per year on average .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is installed along the motorway . It consists of measuring ( of both traffic and weather ) , control ( e.g. , variable speed limits ) , and signalling devices located in zones where driving conditions may vary , such as at the interchanges , viaducts , bridges , and zones where fog or strong wind are known to occur . The system uses variable @-@ message signs to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions , and other information to motorway users . In the Učka Tunnel there are 83 security cameras , 538 fire detectors , 39 fire hydrants , 74 emergency stations , and five vehicle emergency lay @-@ bys ; the speed limit is 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) .
= = Tolls = =
The A8 is a toll road based on the Croatian vehicle classification using a ticket system — charging for use of the motorway based on distance travelled . The system was introduced as a unified toll charge system throughout the Istrian Y motorways in June 2011 . Consequently , vehicles using either the A8 or the A9 or switching between the two at the Kanfanar interchange are charged a toll only when they leave the Istrian Y system , no matter where their toll ticket was issued . Along the A8 motorway , a toll is charged only for using the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar – Rogovići section ; the remaining sections of the motorway are toll @-@ free as of June 2012 . Despite this , toll tickets are issued and collected at all exits with toll plazas . For instance , vehicles traveling between Rogovići and Vranja interchanges are issued toll tickets and are required to stop at toll plazas when entering and leaving the A8 , but they are not charged for using the route . The toll charge for travelling the entire length of the motorway ranges from 36 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 4 @.@ 80 ) for passenger cars to 205 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 27 @.@ 33 ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll can be paid in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards , debit cards and several prepaid toll collection systems , including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC ; the last is an electronic toll collection system that is shared between all motorways in Croatia except the A2 , providing drivers with discounted toll rates and dedicated lanes at toll plazas .
In 2010 , BINA Istra ( the operator of the motorway ) collected € 38 million in revenues while its expenditure reached € 230 million . In the first half of 2011 , however , BINA Istra reported 65 @.@ 8 million kuna ( € 8 @.@ 9 million ) of income in the first half of 2011 , without VAT . This income represented a 30 @.@ 8 percent increase compared to the same period in the previous year . ( The figure includes income from the entire Istrian Y system , i.e. , both the A8 and A9 motorways . ) Most of this increase is attributed to the introduction of a closed toll system along the routes , replacing an open toll system in which a toll was charged only at the Mirna Bridge ( along the A9 motorway ) and the Učka Tunnel . In 1999 , the Croatian government negotiated amendments to the BINA Istra concession contract . These amendments allow the government to determine tolls along the A8 and A9 motorways , and the government decided to eliminate tolls on traffic flowing along the two @-@ lane sections of the routes ; to compensate for this loss of income , the government subsidizes BINA Istra – for instance , in 2012 it is expected to receive a 165 million kuna ( c . € 22 million ) subsidy . By the end of 2010 , the subsidy paid to BINA Istra reached a total of 1 @.@ 3 billion kuna ( c . € 173 million ) ; at the time , it was estimated that a further sum of 1 @.@ 9 billion kuna ( c . € 253 million ) may be paid in annual subsidies between 2011 and 2027 , when the concession contract expires . BINA Istra estimates the total investment value of the construction it has carried out or planned on the A8 and A9 routes at one billion euros .
= = History = =
The construction of the A8 motorway ( and the Istrian Y as a whole ) has its origin in 1968 , when the Croatian Parliament endorsed a petition by Istrian legislators for the construction of a modern road between the peninsula and the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , Istrian municipalities started a public bond to fund the construction of the Učka Tunnel . This construction happened between 1976 and 1981 , including the construction of a 22 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) route section between Matulji and Lupoglav .
The Y shape formed by the A8 and the A9 routes was originally defined by highway planning documents decided upon in Rijeka and Istria , subsequently incorporated in highway planning documents of the Republic of Croatia in 1988 . Lupoglav – Cerovlje was the next section to be completed , in 1988 . The A8 route was extended to the Rogovići interchange between 1992 and 1998 and the remaining section to Kanfanar was completed in 1999 .
As the construction was comparatively slow due to a lack of funding , a motorway concession for the A8 and A9 motorways was granted to BINA Istra for a period of 32 years . The build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession agreement mandated construction , maintenance and management of the route and its upgrade to motorway standards ; this requirement included the building of dual carriageways when the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) reached 10 @,@ 000 vehicles per day or when the average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) reached 16 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The latter was achieved in 2005 and the motorway upgrade started in 2008 , even though the AADT at the time was only 8 @,@ 500 vehicles . The A8 expansion was commenced by the operator , BINA Istra , immediately following a similar expansion of the A9 ; on the latter , the entire route was widened except for the two largest bridges , for which the expansion was postponed . The expansion of the A8 was initially limited to the Kanfanar – Rogovići section because the remainder of the route required additional permits and consequently an extended preparation period . On 29 October 2011 , the Kanfanar – Rogovići section was upgraded to motorway standards , including four traffic lanes , and the route 's designation changed from B8 to A8 ( as required by legislated standards ) . The construction performed along the section entailed deep and long cuts requiring temporary traffic stoppages due to explosive blasting .
= = Future = =
The government of Croatia and BINA Istra have agreed on a further expansion of the A8 route ; additional carriageway and emergency lanes will be constructed between the Rogovići and Matulji interchanges , including the second Učka Tunnel tube . As of 2010 , this construction was scheduled to finish by late 2014 or early 2015 . The 45 @-@ kilometre ( 28 mi ) section is expected to cost c . 300 million euros . As of October 2011 , it was in the design development stage , while appropriate permits were expected to be issued in the summer of 2012 . In 2003 , the government also proposed to build a new route between the Učka Tunnel and the Matulji interchange in order to bypass the Opatija exit with its at @-@ grade intersection , the only one of the route ; the changes would also limit the longitudinal grade of the route to 4 @.@ 9 % and increase the design speed to 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 miles per hour ) . The new route is planned to intersect with the A7 motorway west of the Matulji interchange ( where the A8 currently ends ) , in a proposed Matulji 2 interchange , with two additional interchanges ( Anđeli and Frančići ) planned between Veprinac and the new terminus . The existing Veprinac interchange is scheduled for reconstruction for an additional carriageway . The new section is expected to be 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) long ; it will be part of the Rijeka transport hub , aimed at improving the road , rail and sea transport facilities in and around Rijeka .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic levels are regularly determined and reported by BINA Istra , operator of the motorway , and published by Hrvatske ceste . In 2010 the traffic volume was only measured in two sections : in the Učka Tunnel and between Lupoglav and Cerovlje . In 2011 , traffic counting was started in each section of the A8 between Kanfanar interchange and the Učka Tunnel using the toll ticket counts . As of June 2012 , only the ASDT figures for 2011 have been published . The largest AADT volume was recorded in the Učka Tunnel ; it represents the only high @-@ performance link between Istria and the rest of the Croatian motorway network .
The differences between the AADT and ASDT traffic volumes in 2010 are attributed to the motorway 's carriage of substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts along the Istrian peninsula . On average , the A8 motorway 's ASDT is at least 65 % more than the AADT . The largest increase of the ASDT relative to the AADT , 68 % , is observed in the Veprinac – Vranja section ( which includes the Učka Tunnel ) . During the summer of 2007 , an ASDT of 14 @,@ 000 was observed in the tunnel , prompting BINA Istra to consider preparing to construct the second tunnel tube . BINA Istra expects the motorways it manages to carry more than 20 @,@ 000 vehicles per day during the peak tourist season periods .
= = Exit list = =
= = Service areas = =
As of June 2012 , there were two service areas along the A8 route . Croatian legislation identifies four types of service areas designated " A " through " D " : Type A service areas have a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; Type B service areas lack lodgings but are otherwise identical to Type A ; Type C service areas , which are very common , include a filling station and a café ( with waiters serving beverages , sandwiches , and snacks , but not full meals ) , but no restaurants or accommodations ; and Type D service areas only offer parking spaces , restrooms , and possibly picnicking tables and benches ( with an additional Type D1 also having a seasonal eating establishment ) . The service area filling stations frequently have small convenience stores , and some of them offer LPG fuel .
BINA Istra , the primary operator of the route , leases the type A , B , and C service areas to various operators through public tenders . As of September 2011 , INA was the rest @-@ area operator on the A8 and the A9 motorways . The service area operators are not permitted to sublease the fuel operations , but can sublease other parts of the service areas . The A8 's service areas are accessible from both sides of the motorway and operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .
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= Lil Freak =
" Lil Freak " is a song by American recording artist Usher , taken from his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond . Featuring guest vocals by Trinidadian recording artist Nicki Minaj , the song was written by her , Usher , Ester Dean , Blac Elvis and Polow da Don , the latter two producing the track . Its hook is based on a manipulated sample of American soul musician Stevie Wonder 's 1973 hit , " Living for the City " . " Lil Freak " was released as the second single from the album in the United States and Canada on March 2 , 2010 .
Carrying a dark tone , composed of heavy bass beats derived from R & B and hip hop music , the lyrics are about the thrill of orchestrating a ménage à trois in a club . The song received positive reviews from critics who complimented its sensual nature . It peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and eight on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , becoming Usher 's 16th top ten hit on the latter chart . The song 's accompanying music video has a secret society concept , dealing with an underground club , playing on the storyline of the song .
= = Background = =
In an interview with MTV News when asked if he was just entertaining , Usher said the song was based on real life , stating , " Yeah , I mean , I wrote about it . It happens in this day and time . Those are the best chicks to be friends with , honestly . " Usher reiterated his statements in another interview with Access Hollywood , and when asked if he thought the racy lyrics would raise eyebrows , he said it would , commenting that that was an objective of the song . Usher also said that the work was like the dichotomy of Raymond v. Raymond , distinguishing one world from another , as in " playing the nice guy " or " showing the other side . " Before official release , the song was leaked onto the Internet in December 2009 .
= = Composition = =
The song is midtempo , with supported by heavy bass beats produced by Polow da Don , which Prefix Magazine called " Jurrasic Park synths " . Chris Ryan of MTV News said " Usher pairs off with current queen MC Nicki Minaj , and the two glide over Polow Da Don 's minimal bass beat . " Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog said that the " heavy back @-@ beat tune confirms Usher 's old ways : " Yeah you the business / So What 's the business / Don 't be shy , I 'm just talkin ' to you girl . " Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media called the heavily manipulated " Living for the City " sample , " a monstrous swirl of orchestral exoticism " . Minaj makes several puns in her lines , one of them referring to Santa Claus 's reindeer in a runthrough which Prefix Magazine reviewed negatively . She also refers to P. Diddy and Cassie in her lines , that she 's " plotting on how I can take Cassie away from Diddy " .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics positively received the song , complimenting Minaj 's cameo and the track 's production and lyrics . Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine thought that Usher should have gone with " Lil Freak " as the album 's first big single , saying , " It ( OMG ) doesn 't come close to matching the filthy heights of " Little Freak [ sic ] ... " He also said the song was " by a wide margin , the best track to be leaked from Usher 's long @-@ delayed Raymond vs. Raymond album " . In his initial reaction , he pointed out flaws of the song , but said that the song " could become unavoidable if it gets traction on radio " . Chris Ryan of MTV News called the song , " slick , sexy hip @-@ hop @-@ infused R & B done to its finest " . He also called the song " nothing short of freak nasty , " and " is so full of sexy sexuality that it 's enough to make Tiger Woods blush " . Vibe magazine commented that " wedding ring is definitely off on this Usher cut " , and that Nicki Minaj stole the scene in the song . Pitchfork Media commented favourably on the songs explicit nature , stating the song " isn 't some R. Kelly @-@ esque devotional hymn to sexual addiction " , and that " The whole towering mess makes a drunken 3 a.m. threesome sound like the most epic endeavor anyone could hope for .. " The review also compared the song to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , stating , " it pushes into " Cry Me a River " territory for the same reason that " Cry Me a River " transcended : the gigantic , operatic backing track " .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 20 , 2010 , " Lil Freak " debuted at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It then fell to 66 , but rebounded ten spots to 56 , and later peaked at 40 on the chart . The song 's appearance on the Hot Digital Songs and Hot 100 Airplay charts at number 31 and 37 , respectively , helped stabilize its stay on the Hot 100 . " lil Freak " charted at number 28 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs months before its release due to it being leaked on the Internet . It eventually peaked at eight , and was Usher 's third straight top ten hit on the chart , and 16th overall . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it has sold 508 @,@ 000 units in the US as of October 3 , 2010 . Internationally , " Lil Freak " reached 109 on the UK Singles Chart . Usher performed the song in the United Kingdom on The Graham Norton Show on June 7 , 2010 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
Usher and Minaj shot the music video on March 9 , 2010 in Los Angeles with director Taj Stansberry , represented by Leah Harmony and Ciarra Pardo . In an interview with Vibe , Stansberry commented on the video 's sex appeal and the pairing of Usher and Minaj , stating , " This probably has the potential to be [ his sexiest video ever ] . Usher ’ s one of the best entertainers in the world , then you have Nicki Minaj who ’ s fresh on the scene . Put them together and there ’ s just sparks , it was real good . " When asked about the music video 's concept would redefine the word " freak " , commenting :
" My general idea was to take the word and show its many faceted sides , twisting and turning it to where there ’ s really no distinguishing between one freak and another . Usher went there . When you ’ re engaging in sexual activity , there are many transitions and this is not about what they look like literally , but what they look like metaphorically . It ’ s about luring people into a situation . Because you have your thoughts on a ménage à trois , but then we ’ re doing it in a non @-@ obvious way . "
On Minaj and her pairing with Usher , Stansberry said , " [ Nicki ] had a few looks that I really liked . She played the part , but still was her . If you really listen to her words in the song , you can kinda visualize her outfit . " Stansberry also confirmed that R & B singer Ciara and singer @-@ actor Jamie Foxx would make appearances in the video . In an interview with MTV News on the set of her video for " Massive Attack " , Minaj said that " The video is freaky . And it 's a great concept , a great story line , " Minaj told MTV News . " It felt just like one of the sequels to Saw . It was dope . " Stating that the video had a " secret society " concept , Usher told Access Hollywood that the place symbolized locations where people use to get away from pressures , and also said the movie Eyes Wide Shut was some sort of inspiration of the video . On March 22 , 2010 a thirty second preview of the music video was surfaced onto the internet . Two days later on March 24 , 2010 , Usher premiered the full music video on BET 's 106 & Park .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video begins with a woman walking in an underground tunnel , and she enters and elevator with Minaj , sporting a Cruella de Vil hairstyle , and other women . The elevator goes to what MTV News calls " Usher 's underground playground , " then soon finds Usher against a wall . A laptop is shown , and the video goes on to show people who are there , including Ciara playing a casino game . Then , girls are performing choreography on poles , as Usher sings his verses on the wall in the tunnel . Nicki Minaj then comes to sing her verse and starts talking to the unknown woman who was in the tunnel with Usher , and then Minaj guides the woman somewhere . Foxx makes appears near the end of the video , with a red light on him . Usher sings the rest of the song on the wall in the tunnel with choreography from the women , until the video fades out .
BET Sound Off complimented the video and that it stuck to the storyline of the song , stating " there 's only but so much you can do with a video like this " without the video being banned , being labelled offensive , or " resemble a video we ’ ve already seen . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Usher Raymond , Nicki Minaj , Polow da Don , Blac Elvis , Ester Dean , Stevie Wonder
Production - Blac Elvis , Polow da Don
Recording - Jay Stevenson
Mixing - Jaycen Joshua , assisted by Giancarlo Lino
Contains a sample from " Living For The City " , written and performed by Stevie Wonder , courtesy of Motown Records .
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Parks and Recreation ( season 1 ) =
The first season of Parks and Recreation originally aired in the United States on the NBC television network between April 9 and May 14 , 2009 . Produced by Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios , the series was created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur , who served as executive producers with Howard Klein .
The comedy series focuses on Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) , the deputy director of the parks and recreation department of the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . The season consisted of six 22 @-@ minute episodes , all of which aired at 8 : 30 p.m. on Thursdays . Daniels and Schur conceived the show when NBC officials asked Daniels to produce a spin @-@ off of his comedy series The Office , on which Schur was a writer . During development , the creators decided the new show would be a stand @-@ alone series , though it would share the mockumentary style of The Office . Like that show , Parks and Recreation encouraged improvisation among its cast members .
Early test screenings were poor , and many critics and industry observers were skeptical about the show 's chances of success . The first season received generally mixed reviews , and several commentators found it too similar to The Office . The premiere episode was watched by 6 @.@ 77 million households , but the viewership declined almost every week in the Nielsen ratings . A season low of 4 @.@ 25 million households watched the final episode , " Rock Show " . Despite the low rating , " Rock Show " received the best reviews of the season and convinced some critics that the series had finally found the right tone .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main = = =
Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope , the deputy director of the Pawnee parks department , who has not let politics dampen her sense of optimism ; her ultimate goal is to become President of the United States . She has a strong love for her home town of Pawnee , and desires to use her position to improve it .
Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse who begins a friendship with Leslie after she and her collaborate to turn an empty pit next to Ann 's house into a park . She slowly becomes more involved in the Pawnee government due to her friendship with Leslie .
Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner with the Pawnee municipal government . He has long been disillusioned with government after being unable to achieve his career ambitions . Leslie harbors a strong crush on Mark due to a romantic encounter they had several years ago , but Mark does not return her feelings . Mark assists Leslie with her plan to turn the pit next to Ann 's house into a park , despite believing that the plan has no chance of success .
Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , Leslie 's self @-@ absorbed and underachieving subordinate . While he is an employee at the parks department , he cares little about his job , and is instead more focused on his entrepreneurial ambitions . He takes great pride in his personal appearance and regularly pursues women despite being married .
Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson , the cynical director of the parks department and Leslie 's boss . Due to his incredibly negative view of politics , he regularly works to make his department as inefficient as possible . This leads him to butt heads with Leslie on a number of occasions , as her philosophy regarding politics is the polar opposite . Despite that , both he and Leslie have a large amount of respect for one another .
Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate , a young apathetic intern at the parks department . She cares little for her internship , and often shows annoyance at having to complete tasks . Due to her rebellious and emotionless attitude , she is often annoyed by her co @-@ workers , especially Leslie .
= = = Recurring = = =
Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer , Ann 's boyfriend and lead singer of a band called " Mouse Rat " . Before the start of the series , Andy falls into the pit next to Ann 's house and breaks both his legs . This leads Ann to advocate for the pit to be filled in , beginning her friendship with Leslie . Andy is shown to be immature and lazy , making Ann pamper him non @-@ stop due to his broken legs .
Jim O 'Heir as Jerry Gergich , an incompetent and widely ridiculed employee at the parks department .
Retta as Donna Meagle , the no @-@ nonsense office manager at the parks department .
Pamela Reed as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother . Marlene is a successful politician and figure in Pawnee 's school system . Due to her success , Leslie constantly strives to impress her mother , despite the fact that Marlene has low expectations regarding her daughter 's success .
= = = Guest stars = = =
Alison Becker as Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , a newspaper journalist for The Pawnee Journal .
Brian Huskey as Morgan , a sex offender .
Jim Meskimen as Martin Housely , an MC at many special events around Pawnee .
Lennon Parham as Kate Speevak , a mother who opposes the construction of Leslie 's park .
Phil Reeves as Paul Iaresco , the Pawnee city manager who supports Leslie 's plan for a new park .
Ian Roberts as Ian Winston , an angry citizen who complains about lewd behavior in one of Pawnee 's parks .
Cooper Thornton as Dr. Harris , Ann 's boss at Pawnee 's hospital .
Jama Williamson as Wendy Haverford , a surgeon and Tom 's attractive wife .
= = Episodes = =
† denotes an extended episode .
= = Production = =
= = = Crew = = =
Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios produced the first season of Parks and Recreation ; series creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur were executive producers with Howard Klein . Dana Gould , Morgan Sackett and Amy Poehler produced , and Tucker Cawley and Norm Hiscock served as consulting producers . Daniel J. Goor was the executive story editor for the season , and Rachel Axler was a story editor . Dean Holland , an editor on The Office , also worked as an editor on Parks and Recreation 's first season . Mike Scully , a former executive producer and show runner for The Simpsons , joined Parks and Recreation as a consulting producer starting with the episode " Boys ' Club " . Cawley left the show at the end of the first season to create the short @-@ lived ABC sitcom Hank , starring Kelsey Grammer . Gould left to focus on his stand @-@ up career . The other producers all returned for the second season . Allison Jones , who worked as a casting director for The Office , served in the same capacity for Parks and Recreation , along with Nancy Perkins , for whom the character Ann Perkins was named .
The pilot episode was directed by Greg Daniels , and the season finale was directed by Michael Schur , his debut in the position . Other directors included Seth Gordon , director of the documentary The King of Kong : A Fistful of Quarters ; Jeffrey Blitz , who had directed numerous episodes of The Office ; Michael McCullers , co @-@ writer of the first two Austin Powers films , who directed Poehler in the comedy film Baby Mama ; and Beth McCarthy Miller , a longtime television director who worked with Poehler on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . Daniels and Schur wrote the pilot episode , and the rest of the season 's episodes were written by Axler , Goor , Hiscock , Cawley and Alan Yang .
= = = Cast = = =
A principal cast of six actors received star billing in the show 's first season . Poehler portrayed the lead character , Leslie Knope , the naive but well @-@ meaning , eager @-@ to @-@ please deputy director of the parks and recreation department of the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . Also among the cast were Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , a sarcastic parks department employee , and Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse who befriends Leslie and tries to help her turn a giant construction pit into a park . Daniels and Schur intended to cast Ansari and Jones ( who previously appeared in The Office as Karen Filippelli ) from the series ' earliest stages of development , but the ultimate Parks and Recreation concept did not coalesce until they learned Poehler would be available to star . After her recruitment , the general concept of the series was established and the script for the pilot episode was written .
Nick Offerman portrayed Ron Swanson , the director of the parks and recreation department , and Aubrey Plaza played April Ludgate , a sarcastic and uninterested college intern . The part was written specifically for Plaza . After meeting her , casting director Allison Jones told Schur , " I just met the weirdest girl I 've ever met in my life . You have to meet her and put her on your show . " Schur of meeting her , " Aubrey came over to my office and made me feel really uncomfortable for like an hour , and immediately I wanted to put her in the show , " although the writers were not immediately sure what direction her character would take . Rounding out the main cast was Paul Schneider , best known for his work in independent films such as Lars and the Real Girl and The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford . He was cast as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner and Leslie 's unrequited love interest . She still harbors feelings for Mark from a one @-@ night sexual encounter years ago . Schneider said that early in the season he was insecure in the role because he was still trying to figure out the character 's motivations . Chris Pratt played Andy Dwyer , Ann 's well @-@ intentioned but lazy and simple @-@ minded boyfriend . Although Pratt appeared in every episode of season 1 , he was credited as guest star until the second season , when he was promoted to the main cast . Andy was originally supposed to appear only in the first season , but the producers liked Pratt so much that , almost immediately after casting him , they decided to make Andy a regular character if the show was renewed .
Jim O 'Heir and Retta made regular appearances as Jerry Gergich and Donna Meagle , two fellow employees at the Pawnee parks and recreation department . The personalities of the two characters did not become developed until the second season , but Schur said the Parks and Recreation staff liked the actors so decided to include them in the show and " figured we 'd work it out later " . Pamela Reed made several appearances as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother and an important figure in the Pawnee school system . Seth Gordon , who directed Reed in her first episode , " Canvassing " , said she improvised a great deal during her audition , creating many elements that helped define Marlene 's character . Jama Williamson appeared in " Rock Show " as Wendy , the attractive surgeon wife of Tom Haverford . Wendy would make numerous appearances in season 2 , during which it was revealed that the Haverfords have a green card marriage . Eric Edelstein guest starred in two season 1 episodes , " Canvassing " and " Boys ' Club " , as Lawrence , a disgruntled neighbor of Andy 's .
= = = Conception = = =
Immediately after Ben Silverman was named co @-@ chairman of NBC 's entertainment division in 2007 , he asked Greg Daniels to create a spin @-@ off of The Office , the half @-@ hour comedy Daniels adapted from the British comedy of the same name , created by Ricky Gervais . Daniels co @-@ created Parks and Recreation with Michael Schur , who had been a writer on The Office . Like Daniels , Schur had previously worked on the NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . The two spent months considering ideas for the new series and debating whether to make it a stand @-@ alone show rather than a spin @-@ off . According to Daniels , they eventually abandoned the original spin @-@ off plan because they " couldn 't find the right fit " . They considered a series about a local government official trying to rebuild a political career following a humiliating public spectacle , but ultimately abandoned the idea . However , it was ultimately incorporated into the backstory for Ben Wyatt , the character played by Adam Scott who was added late in the second season .
After Poehler agreed to play the lead , they decided the show would revolve around an optimistic bureaucrat in small @-@ town government . The idea was partly inspired by the portrayal of local politics on the HBO drama series The Wire , as well as the renewed interest in and optimism about politics stemming from the 2008 United States presidential election . The staff was also drawn to the idea of building a show around a female relationship , namely Leslie Knope and Ann Perkins . Reports that Daniels and Schur were developing a show together led to press speculation that it would , in fact , be a spin @-@ off of The Office . The producers insisted their new series would be entirely independent . Nevertheless , their concept for it shared several elements with The Office , particularly the mockumentary approach , which allows the actors to look at and directly address the camera . The new show would also include documentary @-@ style interviews , in which the characters speak one @-@ on @-@ one with the camera crew about the day 's events . Again as with The Office , the new series would be scripted but improvisation would be encouraged among the actors .
The series was scheduled as a mid @-@ season replacement and rushed into production to meet the premiere date of April 9 , 2009 . As a result , when the series was featured at a panel during the January 2009 television critics press tour , NBC did not have a finished episode to screen , only a copy of the pilot script available for review . Some of the parts were still not cast and the series , which did not yet have a name , was referred to as The Untitled Amy Poehler Project or TUAPP . The name Public Service was considered , but ultimately rejected because network officials did not want to be accused of mocking the idea . In a commercial that aired during NBC 's Super Bowl coverage in February , it was announced that the series would be called Parks and Recreation .
= = = Writing = = =
The show 's writers spent time researching local California politics and attending Los Angeles City Council meetings . Schur said they observed that many community hearings were attended only by those opposed , often angrily , to the proposals under consideration . This confirmed his existing impression : " I 've been to some community meetings in my life , and it is often this feeling of utter sparseness . That nobody cares . " The depiction of public hearings in several Parks and Recreation episodes was inspired by this perspective , which was also the basis for the entire " Canvassing " episode . Schur asked urban planners in Claremont , California , whether efforts to turn a construction pit into a park could realistically take several months or longer . They told him that was entirely plausible , and that they had recently broken ground on a park that had been in various planning stages for 18 years . Schur said the pit project was conceived as a device to bring all the characters together , which was partially inspired by the way various characters in The Wire were brought together to work toward a common goal or project . The writers originally envisioned the pit becoming a park only in the series finale , although those plans were later changed and the pit was filled in during the second season .
The Pawnee residents vocally opposed to Leslie 's park proposal were based on real @-@ life California residents the show 's producers encountered who fought the construction of parks in their hometowns . One such group , the Committee for a Better Park , was actually opposed to parks in general , and the deceptiveness of their name and mission inspired the producers ' writing for those characters . The Parks and Recreation staff worked with a number of consultants familiar with local government work , including Scott Albright , a California city planner who provided feedback for the Mark Brendanawicz character . Inspiration for Ron Swanson came from an encounter Schur had in Burbank with an elected official , a Libertarian who favored minimal government and admitted , " I don 't really believe in the mission of my job . "
Daniels and Schur wrote the script for the pilot episode in mid @-@ 2008 . The original script portrayed Leslie and Mark as slightly less likable than they appeared in the final draft . For example , in the premiere episode , Mark asks Ron to greenlight the park because he is inspired by Leslie 's optimism and wants to help her . In the original script , Mark intervened because he was attracted to Ann and wanted an excuse to keep seeing her . The characters were made more likable in response to feedback the episode received from focus groups and press tour screenings . The first season episodes were written and developed relatively quickly after each other , and Schur said the staff was treating the entire six @-@ episode season as if it was one television pilot . When the season concluded , the writers had not decided what would happen with the developing romantic plotlines between Leslie and Mark , or Mark and Ann .
Parks and Recreation involves a mixture of written dialogue and comedic improvisation . In one example from the pilot episode , Aziz Ansari 's character attempts to flirt with Rashida Jones 's when she speaks at a parks and recreation public forum . Ansari continued to improvise long after completing his scripted dialogue . In the season 's final episode , " Rock Show " , Andy goes through a list of the previous names of his rock band . About half the band names used in the episode came directly from the script , but after actor Chris Pratt made up one on the spot , the directors encouraged him to keep improvising . Pratt said he went through about 200 fake band names during the take .
= = = Filming = = =
Parks and Recreation faced early production delays because Poehler was pregnant when she signed on ; filming had to be postponed until she gave birth . Principal photography began on February 18 , 2009 . The show was filmed in Southern California , and the construction pit featured throughout the season was dug by the episode 's producers at an undeveloped property in Van Nuys , a district of Los Angeles . The producers went door @-@ to @-@ door in the neighborhood , seeking residents ' permission for the dig . The pit was guarded 24 hours a day , and paparazzi regularly came to the set to take photos of the actors during filming . The exterior of the Pawnee government building , and several of the hallway scenes , were shot at Pasadena City Hall . The parks and recreation department interiors , as well as the Town Hall courtyard , were filmed on a sound stage . The set 's windows were outfitted with water systems to simulate falling rain , and the windowsills included fake pigeons . Scenes set in playgrounds and elsewhere outdoors were filmed on location in Los Angeles , and the public forum scenes in the premiere episode were filmed in one of the city 's middle schools .
Schur said the Parks and Recreation producers approach each episode as if they are filming a real documentary . They typically shoot enough for a 35- or 40 @-@ minute episode , then cut it down to 22 minutes , using the best material . Due to the improvisational acting and hand @-@ held camerawork , a great deal of extra footage is shot that must be discarded for the final cut . According to Poehler , " For every show , there could probably be a second show of stuff we 've edited out . " The original cut of the 22 @-@ minute pilot was 48 minutes long . The producers film about nine pages of the script each day , a large amount by U.S. television standards .
Although the series shares a mockumentary style with The Office , Daniels and Schur sought to establish a slightly different tone in the camerawork of the pilot episode . The one @-@ on @-@ one interviews , for example , sometimes feature two separate camera angles on the same person ; the footage is intercut to create the final version of the scene . This technique was inspired by The Five Obstructions , a 2003 experimental documentary directed by Lars Von Trier and Jørgen Leth , which Daniels watched at the suggestion of actor Paul Schneider . Parks and Recreation also makes frequent use of the jump cut technique . For instance , one scene in the pilot episode repeatedly jump cuts between brief clips in which Leslie seeks permission from Ron to pursue the pit project . Early in the season , editor Dean Holland developed a technique that would be used throughout the series . During a scene in " The Reporter " in which Leslie reacts to quotes read to her by the journalist , Poehler improvised a number of jokes , many of which were ultimately going to be cut from the episode . Holland thought they were all funny , so he created a brief montage intercutting several of the lines . The producers sought to lend authenticity to the fictional Pawnee setting by incorporating real @-@ life Indiana elements . They contacted the Bloomington – based Upland Brewing Company and asked for empty beer bottles and labels to be used as background props .
The six episodes of the first season aired Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. The premiere was shown between two season 5 episodes of The Office : " Dream Team " and " Michael Scott Paper Company " . " The Reporter " was originally supposed to be the season 's second episode , but the schedule was changed and " Canvassing " , originally planned as the third episode , was shown second instead .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The first season of Parks and Recreation started to receive criticism before the premiere episode aired . According to a March 18 , 2009 , report that was leaked to television journalist Nikki Finke , focus groups responded poorly to a rough @-@ cut version of the pilot . Many focus group members felt the show was a " carbon copy " of The Office . Some found it predictable , slow paced and lacking in character development , and felt the beginning of the episode needed to better explain the setting and plot . Some viewers said the show lacked strong male characters , particularly a " datable " lead . On the other hand , viewers said the show 's portrayal of government bureaucracy was " very believable " and had the potential to generate amusing situations . While Poehler 's character drew mixed comments , the actress herself was " well liked " . The early feedback left many critics and industry observers skeptical about the show 's chances of success . In response to the leak , Ben Silverman , co @-@ chairman of NBC Entertainment , said the feedback on rough cuts is usually negative , even with ultimately successful shows . Schur said that the pilot had been completely re @-@ edited at least four times since the focus group described in the report were held .
The first season received generally mixed to negative reviews . Many critics said the series was too similar to The Office and its mock documentary style . In particular , several commentators said the naive and well @-@ meaning Leslie Knope character too closely resembled The Office protagonist Michael Scott , the well @-@ intentioned but dimwitted manager of a paper company sales office . Maureen Ryan , television reviewer for the Chicago Tribune , said Parks and Recreation surpassed the Friends spin @-@ off Joey as the " worst example of NBC 's tendency to extend its franchises well beyond what is desirable or logical . " Daniels said of the comparisons between Leslie Knope and Michael Scott , " My sense is that if we had built ' Parks and Recreation ' around a 90 @-@ year @-@ old Maasai warrior people would still have said , ' He reminds me of Michael Scott ' . There was just no way to escape it . " Poehler acknowledged that there was some validity to the comparisons , but felt that the series overcame them with the production of " Rock Show " : " I think it was something we had to work through in the beginning , and I ’ m kind of hoping we ’ re on the other side of that and people will start to judge the show on its own , for what it is and realize it ’ s just a completely different world in a similar style . "
Salon.com writer Jonah Weiner said of the first season , " Each episode wound up more or less the same way , with the humiliation of Poehler 's quixotic , adorably doofy bureaucrat " . Some critics said the show 's characters and overall tone were too mean @-@ spirited in the early episodes . While reviewers praised various cast members in individual episodes , some said the supporting characters in general needed to be more fully developed and provided with better material . Several wrote that some of the subplots were too predictable and risked becoming stale , such as Leslie 's long @-@ standing crush on Mark and the question of whether Andy and Ann would keep dating . Others said Leslie was too unintelligent and ditzy . Schur said that was not the intention of the writers , and the feedback prompted changes to the character in the second season . Years after the first season ended , Schur said he believed much of the early criticism stemmed from the fact that audiences were not yet familiar with the characters , and he believed viewers who revisited the episodes enjoyed them more because they had gotten to know the characters better as the series progressed .
Not all reviews were negative . Several commentators said the show had potential , and pointed out that early episodes of The Office had been flat before the series found its footing . The finale , " Rock Show " , received the best reviews of the season . Several commentators declared that Parks and Recreation had finally found the right tone both generally and for the Leslie Knope character in particular . Several reviewers , even those who did not enjoy the show , applauded Poehler 's comedic abilities and said her talent , timing and likability helped elevate the series above some of its flaws . Reviewers also said they particularly liked Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , and Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer . Some commentators approved of the Pawnee setting as offering a good opportunity to satirize small @-@ town government and politics .
= = = Ratings = = =
Parks and Recreation 's premiere was seen in 6 @.@ 77 million households . Media outlets described this as a solid result , comparable to the average Nielsen ratings for 30 Rock , another Thursday @-@ night show on NBC . However , viewership declined almost every week over the rest of the season , culminating in a season low of 4 @.@ 25 million households for the final episode . The average first season viewership was 5 @.@ 45 million households per episode . The Office experienced similarly poor ratings during its first season and later became a success . However , the low viewership presented a greater challenge for Parks and Recreation because NBC now trailed CBS , ABC and Fox in the ratings , and the move of comedian Jay Leno from The Tonight Show to a variety show in NBC 's 10 p.m. weeknight slot left less room on the network 's primetime schedule .
Retta said acting during the first season was stressful because it was unclear how long the show would stay on the air , due to the poor reviews and ratings . Likewise , Chris Pratt said there was a constant feeling among the Parks staff that the show could be canceled at any time : " At the end of season one Parks and Rec , you hug the people really , really fucking tight because you just don 't know . "
= = DVD release = =
The first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included all six episodes , as well as an " Extended Producer 's Cut " of the season finale , " Rock Show " . The disc also included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes .
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= Millennium ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the serial crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium commenced airing in the United States on October 25 , 1996 , concluding on May 16 , 1997 , and consisting of twenty @-@ two episodes . It tells the story of retired FBI Agent Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . Black has moved to Seattle , Washington with his family and has begun working with a mysterious organization known only as the Millennium Group . He investigates cases with members of the Group and the Seattle Police Department , contributing his remarkable capability of relating to the monsters responsible for horrific crimes . He finds that his daughter has inherited the same " gift " that he has , while the cases become increasingly more personal .
Critics received season one well . Although the show got the highest number of viewers for a pilot episode for the Fox Network at the time , it steadily dropped in the ratings , which led to it losing the Sunday slot to its sister show , The X @-@ Files . The main cast of the show were Henriksen as Frank Black and Megan Gallagher as Catherine Black .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The original idea behind Millennium came from an episode of The X @-@ Files Chris Carter had written about a serial killer . The episode got Carter thinking about the " monsters " who lurked in the shadows . Later , he started to flesh out a character which would become Frank Black , but he was busy working with other projects at the time . In the mid @-@ 1990s , after the success of The X @-@ Files , the Fox Network asked Carter if he could create another show for them .
Originally , the show was planned to include a new " murder mystery " each week , at the same time having a comprehensive storyline . So Carter created the idea of the new millennium , which could give the show its own " feel " . He felt he " could capitalise " and at the same time have a new murder mystery every week with a " millennial " twist to it . He also wanted to explore " evil " , not the " scientific approach " which was the psychological explanation of " evil " . Carter wanted to explore evil through an " unscientific approach " , an exploration where " the Bible " played an important role . While clearly stating that the show was not supposed to be heavily grounded in religious text , he felt in many ways that the Bible explained " things on various levels " and " not just in the modern scientific way . "
= = = Casting and characters = = =
Chris Carter had envisioned Lance Henriksen portraying the character of Frank Black , long before he was ever contacted . Although Carter 's colleagues responded positively to the selection , the Fox Network wanted someone younger to take the lead part . Fox asked William Hurt to play the lead role , but after finding out that Hurt had no interest in acting on television , Henriksen got the part .
When Henriksen first got the script , he mistook it for a film because of its " powerful " story . He was not fond of the idea of participating in a television project . Henriksen contacted Carter about the character ; his first question was " How are you going to make this hero a hero ? I mean , it is so dark , how are you going to handle this ? " Carter replied saying that Frank was a hero because he was able to " stand @-@ up " against all of this . Henriksen was also worried about the dark " feel " of the show , saying that all shows needs some glimpse of light at the end of the tunnel . According to Carter " The yellow house " was the light , which Henriksen later agreed upon .
Studio executive Ken Horton was very pleased with Megan Gallagher 's acting experiences . After winning the audition , she was given a " secret script " . Reacting positively towards the script , she later met up with Carter and David Nutter .
= = Critical reception = =
Peter Wunstorf was nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for his work on the pilot episode . Lance Henriksen was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for his portrayal of Frank Black but lost to E.R. performer , Anthony Edwards . Co @-@ star Brittany Tiplady was later nominated for a Young Artist Award but failed to win . The show itself was nominated for a People 's Choice Award in the category " Favorite Television New Dramatic Series " but did not win . Robert McLachlan was nominated and won a Canadian Society of Cinematographers in 1997 .
The first season was received well by critics . Keith Uhlich of Salon magazine called the season and series " Carter 's greatest series " , and that , " television work always improves in retrospect ; his seemingly haphazard , on @-@ the @-@ fly narratives become more coherent when taken out of the hellish , commercial break @-@ happy context wherein they spawned " . Paul Katz of Entertainment Weekly said , " Despite the unapologetic bleakness " of the show , it was Lance Henriksen performance that was the " real killer " . Mark Rahner from The Seattle Times said the " X @-@ Files follow @-@ up was uncompromisingly grim , fascinating , cinematically crafted " , and that the show was " years ahead " of such " forensic mysteries " as CSI : Crime Scene Investigation . USA Today writer Matt Roush said " With nightmare visions of bleeding walls , charred bodies , decapitations and a grisly live burial " , the show took a new " grim view " on " drama " .
Although the season premiere received good ratings , the series gradually lost viewers as they were reportedly " turned off by the morose and unnerving story lines . "
= = Main cast = =
= = = Starring = = =
Lance Henriksen as Frank Black
Megan Gallagher as Catherine Black
= = = Recurring = = =
Terry O 'Quinn as Peter Watts
Brittany Tiplady as Jordan Black
Stephen J. Lang as Det . Bob Giebelhouse
Bill Smitrovich as Lt. Robert Bletcher
= = Episodes = =
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= Algonquin Hotel =
The Algonquin Hotel is a historic hotel located at 59 West 44th Street in Manhattan ( New York , New York ) . The hotel has been designated as a New York City Historic Landmark .
The 181 @-@ room hotel , opened in 1902 , was designed by architect Goldwin Starrett . It was originally conceived as a residential hotel but was quickly converted to a traditional lodging establishment . Its first owner @-@ manager , Frank Case ( who bought the hotel in 1927 ) , established many of the hotel 's traditions . Perhaps its best @-@ known tradition is hosting literary and theatrical notables , most prominently the members of the Algonquin Round Table .
= = History = =
The Algonquin Hotel was originally designed as an apartment hotel , whose owner planned to rent rooms and suites on year @-@ long leases . When few leases sold , the owner decided to turn it into a hotel which he was originally going to name " The Puritan " . Frank Case , upon discovering that Algonquian tribes had been the first residents of the area , persuaded the owner to christen it " The Algonquin " instead .
Case took over the lease on the hotel in 1907 and bought the property on which the building sat in 1927 for US $ 1 million . Case remained owner and manager of the hotel until his death in June 1946 . In October that year , The Algonquin was purchased by Ben Bodne of Charleston , South Carolina for just over US $ 1 million . Bodne undertook an extensive restoration and renovation effort . Bodne sold the hotel in 1987 to a group of Japanese investors and the Algonquin changed hands a number of times before ending up with Miller Global Properties in 2002 . Following a two @-@ year , US $ 3 million renovation , the hotel was sold again in 2005 to HEI Hospitality .
HEI has affiliated it with Marriott International where it is part of Marriott ’ s Autograph Collection brand .
= = The Algonquin Round Table = =
In June 1919 the hotel became the site of the daily meetings of the Algonquin Round Table , a group of journalists , authors , publicists and actors who gathered to exchange bon mots over lunch in the main dining room . The group met almost daily for the better part of ten years . Some of the core members of the " Vicious Circle " included Franklin P. Adams , Robert Benchley , Heywood Broun , Marc Connelly , Jane Grant , Ruth Hale , George S. Kaufman , Neysa McMein , Dorothy Parker , Harold Ross , Robert E. Sherwood and Alexander Woollcott .
The Algonquin Round Table – a group of notorious literary figures ( mostly critics ) who made The Algonquin their daily meeting place – set forth to implement significant literary styles in the early 1900s .
At the end of World War I , Vanity Fair writers and Algonquin regulars Dorothy Parker , Robert Benchley , and Robert E. Sherwood started meeting for lunch at The Algonquin . Alexander Woollcott , acerbic critic and war correspondent , received a warm welcome from literary friends in 1919 . They gathered in the Rose Room that afternoon ; one person enjoyed the event enough to request that it become a daily event . That same request prompted a daily exchange of ideas and opinions shared between highly esteemed literary figures . George S. Kaufman , Heywood Broun , and Edna Ferber were also a part of this August assembly ; these individuals influenced writers like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway . They founded The New Yorker magazine ; all hotel guests receive free copies to this day .
Frank Case , owner of the hotel , ensured a daily luncheon for the talented group of young writers by treating them to free celery and popovers ; more importantly , they were provided with their own table and waiter . Edna Ferber , Franklin P. Adams , George S. Kaufman , Heywood Broun , and Marc Connelly eventually joined the group , expanding its membership . All members were affiliated with the Algonquin Round Table , although they referred to themselves as the Vicious Circle .
Visitors often request to dine at the actual “ round table ” where members originally met for decades .
= = The Oak Room = =
The Oak Room at the Algonquin was long one of New York City 's premier cabaret nightclubs . Opened in 1939 ( as the Oak Room Supper Club ) , it was soon closed on account of World War II , reopened as a regular venue in 1980 , and closed for good in 2012 . ( Before 1939 , it had been called the Pergola Room and was the first meeting place of what became the Algonquin Round Table ) .
Legendary European chanteuse Greta Keller was the room 's first star . When Donald Smith reopened the Oak Room in 1980 , the first regular and star was singer @-@ pianist Steve Ross . Other performers who have appeared at the Oak Room include Julie Wilson , Mary Cleere Haran , Karen Akers , KT Sullivan , Barbara Carroll , Sandy Stewart , Bill Charlap , Diana Krall , Jessica Molaskey , and John Pizzarelli . Andrea Marcovicci performed there over a span of 25 years , sometimes with her mother Helen Marcovicci ( né Stuart ) , becoming effectively an Algonquin institution . The Oak Room helped launch the careers of Harry Connick Jr. and Michael Feinstein . Sylvia Syms collapsed and died on stage there during a performance in 1992 .
With its oak panels and other decor recalling an earlier time , the heyday of cabaret , the Oak Room was small , intimate , and expensive ( at least $ 100 per person , more if one had dinner , except for matinees ) , and was not a big moneymaker for the Algonquin . Part of the space occupied by the former Oak Room was used to enlarge the Blue Bar , the rest was converted into a private breakfast room for Marriott Reward Elite customers .
= = Traditions = =
The hotel has a tradition of keeping a cat that has the run of the hotel . The practice dates to the 1930s , when Frank Case took in a stray male cat that was initially named " Rusty . " Hotel lore says actor John Barrymore suggested the cat needed a more " dignified " name , so the cat was renamed " Hamlet . " Nowadays , whenever the hotel has a male cat , he 's named Hamlet ; but if the hotel has a female cat , she 's named " Matilda . " The current Algonquin cat , a Matilda , is a Ragdoll that was named 2006 cat of the year at the Westchester ( New York ) Cat Show . Visitors can spot Matilda on her personal chaise longue in the lobby ; she can also be found in her favorite places : behind the computer on the front desk , or lounging on a baggage cart . The doormen feed her and the general manager 's executive assistant answers Matilda 's e @-@ mail . During 2011 , Matilda was temporarily confined to an upper floor or to the limits of a leash tethered to the check @-@ in desk , due to a directive from the city Department of Health . As of late 2011 , Matilda has been confined to the non @-@ food areas of the lobby by an electronic pet fence .
Although the Algonquin was " dry " even before Prohibition ( Case closed the hotel bar in 1917 and had harsh words for those who ran speakeasies ) , the hotel does have an eponymous cocktail , composed of rye whiskey , Noilly Prat and pineapple juice . More recently , a newer drink has hit the Algonquin 's menu , the $ 10 @,@ 000 Martini or " Martini on the Rock , " consisting of a martini of the buyer 's choice with a single piece of " ice , " a diamond , at the bottom of the glass . The martini was developed to mark completion of a major 29 @-@ day renovation that closed the hotel for the first time since its opening . Hoy Wong was a notable bartender at the hotel and was the oldest person to hold such a position in the state , serving at the Algonquin for 30 years until retiring in 2009 , well past the age of 90 .
In keeping with Frank Case 's long @-@ standing tradition of sending popovers and celery to the more impoverished members of the Round Table , the Algonquin offers lunch discounts to struggling writers . Formerly , writers on tour could stay one night at the hotel free in exchange for an autographed copy of their book , although the practice has been amended to include a discount on standard room rates .
= = Landmark status = =
The Algonquin Round Table , as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there , helped earn the hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark . The hotel was so designated in 1987 . In 1996 the hotel was designated a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA . The organization 's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel .
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= Pilot ( Devious Maids ) =
" Pilot " is the series premiere to the Lifetime series Devious Maids . The pilot had been ordered by ABC on January 31 , 2012 and cast during the following two months . Filming began in March . ABC declined to pick up the pilot on May 14 , but Lifetime did so on June 22 , ordering 13 episodes . Although most of the cast had been selected by this time three additional regular supporting characters were added in November 2012 for inclusion in the pilot and the continuing series . The series was once proposed to be a spinoff of Desperate Housewives , but is not one .
The episode revolves around the murder of a Latina maid in Beverly Hills and the introduction of her cadre of associates who are also Latina maids . The maids are shown in their employment surroundings with their upper class employers who play supporting roles . The main character is not actually a maid but rather the mother of the primary murder subject who poses as a maid to gain entrance into the world where she might find clues to prove her son 's innocence .
The pilot episode was released online in both Spanish and English on June 9 , 2013 , before its television debut on June 23 . The episode , which was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Paul McGuigan , debuted with a 1 @.@ 99 rating . The episode was the first episode of any television series with an all Latina leading cast , but the roles as maids was controversial due to its presentation of Latinas in stereotypical roles . Nonetheless , critical feedback was generally positive .
= = Plot = =
In the opening scene , Evelyn Powell ( Rebecca Wisocky ) gives her maid Flora ( Paula Garces ) the following warning " I think what you people do is heroic ... You wash clothes you can 't afford . You polish silver you will never dine with . ... I am in awe of your determination to succeed in this great country of ours . That said , if you don 't stop screwing my husband , I 'm going to have you deported . " Subsequently a season @-@ long story arc around which the show revolves begins with Flora 's murder .
Flora was stabbed by a mysterious figure while scrawling a rape claim that accuses Evelyn 's husband Adrian Powell ( Tom Irwin ) . She manages to drag herself to the pool during a lavish party and falls in . At her funeral , her four maid friends Zoila ( Judy Reyes ) , Valentina ( Edy Ganem ) , Rosie ( Dania Ramirez ) and Carmen ( Roselyn Sanchez ) agree not to divulge their knowledge of the infidelity and its circumstances .
The employer of Zoila and her daughter Valentina , Genevieve Delatour ( Susan Lucci ) , is enduring emotional distress . For both personal reasons and out of concern for Genevieve , Valentina comes up with the idea that Genevieve 's son Remi ( Drew Van Acker ) should return to live at home rather than University of Southern California campus housing in order to help stabilize his mother . Zoila eventually recognizes and tries to temper Valentina 's romantic interest in Remi .
Meanwhile , Rosie is fighting for her young son to join her from Mexico while working for the self @-@ absorbed Spence ( Grant Show ) and Peri ( Mariana Klaveno ) . Along with Sam Alexander ( Wolé Parks ) and Odessa Burakov ( Melinda Page Hamilton ) Carmen is a staff member for Latino music star Alejandro Rubio ( Matt Cedeño ) who she is trying to convince to help her start her music career . Marisol ( Ana Ortiz ) , who is not really a maid , successfully interviews to be the fifth maid for the show as an employee of second wife Taylor ( Brianna Brown ) and Michael ( Brett Cullen ) , who hires her despite objections from Taylor .
= = Background and production = =
The teleplay and story were written by series creator Marc Cherry , and the episode was directed by Paul McGuigan . Most filming occurred in and around Los Angeles . Cherry created the show with a multiple female lead dynamic that was similar to his previous success , Desperate Housewives . His first job in Hollywood was as a personal assistant , allowing him to relate to the maid characters to some degree . He felt that Devious Maids provided a vehicle to deal with themes that Desperate Housewives did not , while being very different than the similarly themed Downton Abbey , due to Downton 's historic nature . The format of the show that was pitched to ABC was as a spinoff of Desperate Housewives . While Roselyn Sanchez 's character Carmen appeared as a gardener in the final episode of Desperate Housewives , " Finishing the Hat " , the final version that was produced is not strictly a spinoff .
ABC ordered the pilot based on the Mexican telenovela Ellas son la Alegría del Hogar ( translation : " They Are the Home 's Joy " , which is sometimes referred to as The Disorderly Maids Of The Neighborhood ) , on January 31 , 2012 . Dania Ramirez was the first lead cast member to be cast , being announced on February 15 . Ana Ortiz joined the cast as the central character on February 17 . On February 23 , both Sanchez and Judy Reyes were added to the cast . When Edy Ganem was announced in the cast on March 2 the show was still described as centering on the other four maids ( Ortiz , Reyes , Sanchez and Ramirez ) .
Rebecca Wisocky , who joined the cast on February 23 , had previously guest starred on Desperate Housewives as Bree Van de Kamp 's mother . She had shot the final season episode , " Women and Death " less than a month before testing for Devious Maids . Most of the other supporting roles were filled in in March : Brianna Brown ( March 6 ) ; Susan Lucci , Drew Van Acker and Brett Cullen ( all March 9 ) ; Mariana Klaveno and Grant Show ( both March 12 ) ; and Tom Irwin ( March 16 ) ; By March 21 , filming had begun in Beverly Hills . Brown was considered for the show after she impressed executive producer Sabrina Wind with her 2011 season 1 guest appearance on Homeland .
Eva Longoria was announced as an executive producer on March 26 . She had worked previously with Cherry on Desperate Housewives , and was hired to add perspective to the Latina roles . ABC Studios gave Cherry permission to start making senior staffing offers for the show on May 1 , which was perceived as an indication that the show would be picked up .
On May 14 , 2012 , the pilot was not picked up by ABC for the 2012 – 13 United States network schedule . On June 22 , Lifetime picked up the pilot with a thirteen @-@ episode order . The network stated that they were " thrilled to be getting into business with one of entertainment ’ s true visionaries . This show and Marc Cherry ’ s unique story telling voice perfectly articulate Lifetime ’ s strategy of attracting top @-@ tier creatives with their most original and exciting projects . " Wolé Parks was added to the cast in a regular role on November 21 . Melinda Page Hamilton and Matt Cedeño were added to the cast in recurring roles with the promise of promotion if the show got picked up for a second season on November 26 . Both were expected to appear in the pilot episode .
The episode was marketed as an important milestone in television history because it was the debut of the first television show with an all Latina leading cast . However , in the days leading up to the debut , there was controversy surrounding the concept of having Latina actresses glorify the stereotypical roles of maids , nannies and gardeners . On May 3 , Tanisha Ramirez criticized the show in The Huffington Post as a wasted opportunity , but executive producer Longoria countered that the show presents " modern day woman 's view on universal themes . " Cosmopolitan for Latinas editor Michelle Herrera Mulligan responded to Longoria by calling the show an " insulting disgrace " . Cherry defended the show for its substantive themes : " Devious Maids deals with themes of racism , classism and immigration . These women all work in the homes of rich people , but they have goals and dreams that are much greater than the people they work for realize . "
The pilot episode was released online in both Spanish and English on June 9 , 2013 , before its television debut on a variety of platforms , including myLifetime.com and the Lifetime video watch app . The first two episodes were available on Lifetime . In the weeks before its June 23 premiere , the cast members were scheduled to host screenings around the country : Ramirez and Sanchez on June 4 in Miami , Reyes and Ganem on June 6 in Dallas , and Ortiz and Lucci on June 11 in Chicago . The show 's premier party was held in Los Angeles on June 17 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode first aired on June 23 , 2013 in the United States , debuting with a 1 @.@ 99 rating in the 10PM ( Eastern Time Zone ) time slot . In the adults 18 @-@ 49 viewer demographic , Devious Maids posted a 0 @.@ 65 rating , which lagged the 0 @.@ 74 rating for The Client List 's season finale the week before in the same time slot for Lifetime . Cable television shows in the same time slot included the Mad Men season 6 finale , " In Care Of " , on AMC ( which drew a 2 @.@ 69 rating ) , Falling Skies on TNT ( 3 @.@ 59 rating ) . The shows ratings were modest compared to other Lifetime drama series debuts such as Drop Dead Diva , The Client List and Army Wives , which all had ratings close to 3 million . Approximately one third of the Devious Maids viewership for the pilot ( 662 @,@ 000 ) were from the Lifetime network 's target demographic of women ages 25 – 54 . The pilot attracted higher ratings in subsequent weeks .
= = = Reviews = = =
The show resembles Desperate Housewives in many ways , including having a " pilot " that revolves around a death , according to Daily News critic David Hinckley . Hinckley states that the pilot presents each of the five main characters in a way that makes them intriguing , while tackling contemporary issues with a mix of comedy and drama . Hinckley lauded the show by saying " ... a Cherry drama rises or falls on the pretty simple test of whether it ’ s fun , and ' Devious Maids ' has the right stuff to get to there . " Alessandra Stanley , the chief television critic for The New York Times , at first described the show as a " landmark " where the rich " Beverly Hills employers are mere foils for the real heroines , who are poor , Hispanic and striving : desperate housekeepers . " Stanley felt that servant heroines are a bit of an overused perspective in 2013 as is the use of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor . After describing the evolution of maid , butler and nanny roles on television , Stanley notes that this was not a show that depicts " how the other half really lives " , but rather " an over @-@ the @-@ top dramedy " .
Robert Bianco of USA Today felt the show benefited from not being picked up by ABC , where it would have been in the shadow of Desperate Housewives , and from being scheduled as summer television , where its competition was weak . Bianco believed that the various storylines were gracefully woven together in the scenes of the episode . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described the show as a guilty pleasure . Owen stated that although the show was not original for following Desperate Housewives ' path , it was good summer entertainment that managed to slip in a bit of " social satire " . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times panned the show 's pilot , describing it as " a silly , hyperactive version of Downton Abbey " , although she acknowledged that the episode had elements of The Great Gatsby ( the opening murder ) and West Side Story ( the schoolgirl crush ) . San Francisco Chronicle critic David Wiegand said " the pilot episode may not break any new ground , but it 's energetic and funny " . He also noted that " it 's a hoot the first time we see the maids get the better of their shallow , self @-@ absorbed bosses ... " , but he felt that this theme might lack the depth to retain audience interest .
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= Dassault Rafale =
The Dassault Rafale ( French pronunciation : [ ʁafal ] , literally meaning " gust of wind " , and " burst of fire " in a more military sense ) is a French twin @-@ engine , canard delta wing , multirole fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation . Equipped with a wide range of weapons , the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy , interdiction , aerial reconnaissance , ground support , in @-@ depth strike , anti @-@ ship strike and nuclear deterrence missions . The Rafale is referred to as an " omnirole " aircraft by Dassault .
In the late 1970s , the French Air Force and Navy were seeking to replace and consolidate their current fleets of aircraft . In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales , France entered into an arrangement with four other European nations to produce an agile multi @-@ purpose fighter . Subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led to France 's pursuit of its own development program . Dassault built a technology demonstrator which first flew in July 1986 as part of an eight @-@ year flight @-@ test programme , paving the way for the go @-@ ahead of the project . The Rafale is distinct from other European fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country , involving most of France 's major defence contractors , such as Dassault , Thales and Safran .
Many of the aircraft 's avionics and features , such as direct voice input , the RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar and the optronique secteur frontal infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) sensor , were domestically developed and produced for the Rafale programme . Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996 , the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post @-@ Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities . The aircraft is available in three main variants : Rafale C single @-@ seat land @-@ based version , Rafale B twin @-@ seat land @-@ based version , and Rafale M single @-@ seat carrier @-@ based version .
Introduced in 2001 , the Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier @-@ based operations in the French Navy . The Rafale has been marketed for export to several countries , and it has been selected for purchase by the Indian Air Force , the Egyptian Air Force , and the Qatar Air Force . The Rafale has been used in combat over Afghanistan , Libya , Mali , Iraq and Syria . Several upgrades to the weapons and avionics of the Rafale are planned to be introduced by 2018 .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the mid @-@ 1970s , both the French Air Force ( Armée de l 'Air ) and Navy ( Marine nationale ) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service . Because their requirements were similar , and to reduce cost , both departments issued a common request for proposal . In 1975 , the French Ministry of Aviation initiated studies for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smaller Dassault Mirage 2000 , with each aircraft optimised for differing roles .
In 1979 , the French company Dassault joined the MBB / BAe " European Collaborative Fighter " ( ECA ) project which was renamed the " European Combat Aircraft " . The French company contributed the aerodynamic layout of a prospective twin @-@ engine , single @-@ seat fighter ; however , the project collapsed in 1981 due to differing operational requirements of each partner country . In 1983 , the " Future European Fighter Aircraft " ( FEFA ) programme was initiated , bringing together Italy , Spain , West Germany , France and the United Kingdom to jointly develop a new fighter , although the latter three had their own aircraft developments .
A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the other four countries . Around 1984 France reiterated its requirement for a carrier @-@ capable version and demanded a leading role . It also insisted on a swing @-@ role fighter that was lighter than the design favoured by the other four nations . West Germany , the UK and Italy opted out and established a new EFA programme . In Turin on 2 August 1985 , West Germany , the UK and Italy agreed to go ahead with the Eurofighter , and confirmed that France , along with Spain , had chosen not to proceed as a member of the project . Despite pressure from France , Spain rejoined the Eurofighter project in early September 1985 . The four @-@ nation project eventually resulted in the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon .
= = = Design phase and prototype = = =
In France , the government proceeded with its own programme . The French Ministry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground , all @-@ day and adverse weather operations . Unlike other contemporary European fighter projects that required some level of international collaboration and cost @-@ sharing , France was the sole developer of the Rafale 's airframe , avionics , propulsion system and armament , and as such the aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in the French Armed Forces . The Rafale would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of specialised platforms , including the Jaguar , Mirage F1C / CR / CT , Mirage 2000C / -5 / N in the Armée de l 'air , and the F @-@ 8P Crusader , Étendard IVP / M and Super Étendard in the Aéronavale .
During October – December 1978 , prior to France 's joining of the ECA , Dassault received contracts for the development of project ACT 92 ( Avion de Combat Tactique , meaning " Tactical Combat Airplane " ) . The following year , the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research began studying the possible configurations of the new fighter under the codename Rapace ( meaning " Bird of Prey " ) . By March 1980 , the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four , two of which had a combination of canards , delta wings and a single vertical tail @-@ fin . In October 1982 , the French Ministry of Defence announced that Dassault would build a technology demonstrator named Avion de Combat expérimental ( Experimental Combat Airplane ) , in short ACX . France wanted to collaborate with West Germany and the UK on the project , but was prepared to build the ACX by itself . In 1984 , the government decided to proceed with a combat variant of the ACX due to the conflicting technical criteria of the respective FEFA participant nations .
The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large @-@ delta winged fighter , with all @-@ moving canards , embodying fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) flight control system . Construction of the demonstrator commenced in March 1984 , even before a contract was signed with the DGA , France 's defence procurement agency . The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint @-@ Cloud , and took its maiden flight on 4 July 1986 from Istres @-@ Le Tubé Air Base in southern France . During the one @-@ hour flight , the project 's chief test pilot Guy Mitaux @-@ Maurouard took the aircraft to an altitude of 11 @,@ 000 metres ( 36 @,@ 000 ft ) and a speed of Mach 1 @.@ 3 . The 9 @.@ 5 @-@ tonne ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) demonstrator stopped in 300 metres ( 980 ft ) upon landing .
Throughout the flight test programme , the Rafale A performed numerous day and night take @-@ offs and landings aboard the carriers Clemenceau and Foch to investigate the pilot 's field of view during carrier operations . It reached a speed of Mach 2 ( 2 @,@ 450 km / h ; 1 @,@ 522 mph ; 1 @,@ 322 @.@ 9 kn ) and a height of 13 @,@ 000 metres ( 42 @,@ 000 ft ) . The demonstrator was initially powered by General Electric F404 @-@ GE @-@ 400 afterburning turbofans from the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , instead of the Snecma M88 , to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight , and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme . It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator to enable the aircraft to reach Mach 1 @.@ 4 and demonstrate supercruise , or sustained supersonic flight without use of afterburners . After 865 flights with four pilots , Rafale A was retired in January 1994 .
At the time of the Rafale A 's maiden flight , France entered unsuccessful talks with Belgium , Denmark , the Netherlands and Norway about a possible collaboration on the Rafale as a multinational project ; at the time , Belgium was reportedly interested in the Rafale B. In June 1987 , Prime Minister Jacques Chirac declared that the country would proceed with the US $ 30 billion project . Subsequently , on 21 April 1988 , the French government awarded Dassault a contract for four Rafale prototypes : one Rafale C , two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B. The first out of an expected 330 Rafales was scheduled to enter service in 1996 . However , the fall of the Berlin Wall , which signalled the end of the Cold War , as well as the need to reduce the national deficit , compelled the French government to drastically reduce its defence budget ; the 1994 budget for the Rafale programme was cut by some US $ 340 million . This reduced the size of the Rafale orders , which Dassault and other companies involved claimed impeded production management and led to higher costs , and delayed the entry of the aircraft into service . The French Air Force was reorganised , the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total of 55 Mirage F1Cs were upgraded to a tactical fighter configuration , redesignated as Mirage F1CT . The budget cuts prolonged the Rafale 's development considerably .
During the Rafale A flight test programme , the French government in 1989 looked at the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet as a potential replacement for the rapidly aging F @-@ 8 Crusader , which had been serving since the 1950s . The French Navy entered talks regarding the purchase of second @-@ hand F / A @-@ 18s with Australia , Canada and the US , after the decision was made not to upgrade the Crusaders . The US Navy agreed to supply two F / A @-@ 18s to the French Navy for " interoperability testing " aboard the French aircraft carrier Foch . The French government did not proceed with a purchase of the twin @-@ engine fighter .
= = = Testing = = =
To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft , the Air Force required two variants : the single @-@ seat " Rafale C " ( chasseur , meaning " fighter " or literally " hunter " ) and the " Rafale B " ( biplace , or two @-@ seater ) . The prototype of the C model ( designated C01 ) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991 , signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test the M88 @-@ 2 engines , man @-@ machine interface and weapons , and expand the flight envelope . Due to budget constraints , the second single @-@ seat prototype was never built .
The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator , it was smaller and more stealthy due to the gold @-@ coated canopy , a re @-@ design of the fuselage @-@ fin joint , and the addition of radar @-@ absorbent materials ( RAM ) . This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite and other materials , which both reduced the radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and weight . Moreover , Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake , which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight . The B01 , the only prototype of the two @-@ seat B variant , made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993 . It was 350 kilograms ( 770 lb ) heavier than the single @-@ seater , but carried 400 litres ( 110 US gal ) less fuel . The aircraft was used for weapon @-@ systems testing . Later it was tasked with validating weapon separation and , specifically , the carriage of heavy loads . The aircraft 's typical loadout consisted of two 2 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 530 US gal ) external tanks , two Apache / Scalp cruise missiles , in addition to four air @-@ to @-@ air missiles .
The Navy , meanwhile , sought a carrier @-@ based aircraft to supersede its fleet of ageing Étendard IPVMs , F @-@ 8P Crusaders and Super Étendard Modernisés . While the Navy initially modernised the Crusaders , in the long term , the requirement was met with the navalised Rafale M. The M01 , the naval prototype , first flew on 12 December 1991 , followed by the second on 8 November 1993 . Since France had no land @-@ based catapult test facility , catapult trials were initially carried out between during July – August 1992 and early the following year , at NAS Lakehurst in New Jersey . The aircraft then carried out trials aboard the carrier Foch in April 1993 . Flown by Dassault 's chief test pilot , Yves Kerhervé , M02 made its maiden flight in November that year , while the first prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993 .
The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings , an arrestor hook , and " jump strut " nosewheel , which only extends during short takeoffs , including catapult launches . It also features a built @-@ in ladder , carrier @-@ based microwave landing system , and the new fin @-@ tip Telemir system for syncing the inertial navigation system to external equipment . Altogether , the naval modifications of the Rafale M increase its weight by 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) compared to other variants . The Rafale M retains about 95 percent commonality with Air Force variants including , although unusual for land @-@ based aircraft , being unable to fold its multi @-@ spar wings to reduce storage space . The size constraints were offset by the introduction of Charles de Gaulle , France 's first nuclear @-@ powered carrier , which was considerably larger than previous carriers , Foch and Clemenceau .
= = = Production and upgrades = = =
Initially , the Rafale B was to be just a trainer , but the Gulf War showed that a second crew member was invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions . Therefore , in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two @-@ seater , announcing that the variant would constitute 60 percent of the Rafale fleet . The service originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales , but this was initially revised downwards to 234 aircraft , made up of 95 " A " and 139 " B " models " , and later to 212 aircraft . The Navy , meanwhile , had 60 Rafales on order , down from 86 due to budget cuts . Of the 60 , 25 would be M single @-@ seaters and 35 two @-@ seat Ns , though the two @-@ seater was later cancelled .
Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992 , but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty . Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defence and Dassault agreed on a 48 @-@ aircraft ( 28 firm and 20 options ) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007 . A further order of 59 F3 Rafales was announced in December 2004 . In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180 .
During the Rafale 's design phase , Dassault took advantage of Dassault Systèmes ' CATIA ( Computer Aided Three @-@ dimensional Interactive Application ) , a three @-@ dimensional computer @-@ aided design , manufacture and engineering software suite that would become standard across the industry . CATIA enabled digitisation and efficiency improvements throughout the Rafale programme , as it implemented recently developed processes such as digital mockup and product data management . It consisted of 15 GB databases of each of the Rafale 's components , assisting with various aspects of the design , manufacture and through @-@ life support .
According to the French magazine L 'Usine nouvelle , apart from several non @-@ sensitive components sourced from the United States , the Rafale is manufactured almost entirely in France . Different elements are produced in numerous factories across the country , and final assembly takes place near Bordeaux – Mérignac Airport . For example , the flight control surfaces are fabricated in Haute @-@ Savoie , the wings and avionics in Gironde , the centre fuselage in Val @-@ d 'Oise , and the engines in Essonne . Roughly 50 percent of the Rafale is produced by Dassault and the other half divided between two major partners , Thales and Safran , who rely on a network of 500 subcontractors . Altogether , the programme employs 7 @,@ 000 workers . As of 2012 , the fabrication process of each fighter took 24 months , with an annual production rate of eleven aircraft .
Deliveries of the Rafale 's naval version were a high priority to replace the Navy 's considerably aged F @-@ 8 Crusaders , and so the first production model for the French Navy undertook its first flight on 7 July 1999 . Their first naval deployment was in 2002 on board Charles de Gaulle ; by March 2002 , the aircraft carrier was stationed in the Gulf of Oman , where its complement of Rafales undertook training operations . In December 2004 , the Air Force received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d 'Expériences Aériennes Militaires ( CEAM , i.e. the Military Air Experiment Centre ) at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan , where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training .
The total programme cost , as of FY2013 , was around € 45 @.@ 9 billion , which translated to a unit programme cost of approximately € 160 @.@ 5 million . This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard , and which includes development costs over a period of 40 years , including inflation . The unit flyaway price as of 2010 was € 101 @.@ 1 million for the F3 + version .
In 2008 , French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch miniaturised satellites . In 2011 , upgrades under consideration included a software radio and satellite link , a new laser @-@ targeting pod , smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft 's data @-@ fusion capacity . In July 2012 , fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale 's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced .
In January 2014 , Defence Minister Jean @-@ Yves Le Drian announced that € 1 billion is allocated towards the development of the F3R standard . The standard will see the integration of the Meteor BVR missile , among other weapons and software updates . The standard is to be validated by 2018 . The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force 's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility ; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close @-@ coupled canard to maximize manoeuvrability . The aircraft is capable of withstanding from − 3.6g to 9g ( 10.5g on Rafale solo display and a maximum of 11g can be reached in case of emergency ) . The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft and uses digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability . The aircraft 's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots ( 213 km / h ; 132 mph ) ; while in flight , airspeeds as low as 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) have been observed during training missions . According to simulations by Dassault , the Rafale has sufficient low speed performance to operate from STOBAR @-@ configured aircraft carriers , and can take off using a ski @-@ jump with no modifications .
Although not a full @-@ aspect stealth aircraft , the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably excessive , the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and infrared signature . In order to reduce the RCS , changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail @-@ fin , fuselage reshaping , repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft 's wing , and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards . 70 % of the Rafale 's surface area is composite . Many of the features designed to reduce the Rafale 's visibility to threats remain classified .
= = = Cockpit = = =
The Rafale 's glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion – a central computer intelligently selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control . The primary flight controls are arranged in a hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) -compatible configuration , with a right @-@ handed side @-@ stick controller and a left @-@ handed throttle . The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29 ° to improve g @-@ force tolerance during manoeuvring and to provide a less restricted external pilot view . An intelligent flight suit worn by the pilot is automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to calculated g @-@ forces .
Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation across all operations . Among the features of the highly digitised cockpit is an integrated direct voice input ( DVI ) system , allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by spoken voice commands , simplifying the pilot 's access to many of the controls . Developed by Crouzet , the DVI is capable of managing radio communications and countermeasures systems , the selection of armaments and radar modes , and controlling navigational functions . For safety reasons , DVI is deliberately not employed for safety @-@ critical elements of the aircraft 's operation , such as the final release of armaments .
For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across the aircraft , the cockpit features a wide @-@ angle holographic head @-@ up display ( HUD ) system , two head @-@ down flat @-@ panel colour multi @-@ function displays ( MFDs ) as well as a central collimated display . These displays have been strategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment . Some displays feature a touch interface for ease of Human – computer interaction ( HCI ) . A head @-@ mounted display ( HMD ) for target controlling , while optional according to customer preferences , can also be integrated . The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles ( NVG ) .
In the area of life @-@ support , the Rafale is fitted with a Martin @-@ Baker Mark 16F " zero @-@ zero ” ejection seat , capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude . An on @-@ board oxygen generating system , developed by Air Liquide , eliminates the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters . The Rafale 's flight computer has been programmed to counteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of the aircraft during negative flight conditions . The auto @-@ pilot and autothrottle controls are also integrated , and are activated by switches located on the primary flight controls .
= = = Avionics and equipment = = =
The Rafale core avionics systems employ an integrated modular avionics ( IMA ) , called MDPU ( modular data processing unit ) . This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as the flight management system , data fusion , fire control , and the man @-@ machine interface . The total value of the radar , electronic communications and self @-@ protection equipment is about 30 percent of the cost of the entire aircraft . The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters , and incorporated into the civilian airliner , the Airbus A380 . According to Dassault , the IMA greatly assists combat operations via data fusion , the continuous integration and analysis of the various sensor systems throughout the aircraft , and has been designed for the incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale 's service life .
The Rafale features an integrated defensive @-@ aids system named SPECTRA , which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats , developed as a joint venture between Thales and MBDA . Various methods of detection , jamming , and decoying have been incorporated , and the system has been designed to be highly re @-@ programmable for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub @-@ systems in the future . Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA , allowing Rafales to perform missions independently from the support of dedicated Suppression of Enemy Air Defences ( SEAD ) platforms .
The Rafale 's ground attack capability is heavily reliant upon sensory targeting pods , such as Thales Optronics 's Reco New Generation / Areos reconnaissance pod and Damocles electro @-@ optical / laser designation pod . Together , these systems provide targeting information , enable tactical reconnaissance missions , and are integrated with the Rafale 's IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and ground stations , as well as to the pilot . Damocles provides targeting information to the various armaments carried by the Rafale and is directly integrated with the Rafale 's VHF / UHF secure radio to communicate target information with other aircraft . It also performs other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated with the navigation system as a FLIR .
The Damocles designation pod were described as " lacking competitiveness " when compared to rivals such as the Sniper and LITENING pods ; so work began on an upgraded pod , designated Damocles XF , with additional sensors and added ability to transmit live video feeds . A new Thales targeting pod , the Talios , was officially unveiled at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show and is expected to be integrated on the Rafale by 2018 . Thales ' Areos reconnaissance pod is an all @-@ weather , night @-@ and @-@ day @-@ capable reconnaissance system employed on the Rafale , and provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over preceding platforms . Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under various mission profiles and condition , using multiple day / night sensors and its own independent communications datalinks .
= = = Radar and sensors = = =
The Rafale was first outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi @-@ mode radar . Thales claims to have achieved increased levels of situational awareness as compared to earlier aircraft through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long @-@ range interception , as well as real @-@ time generation of three @-@ dimensional maps for terrain @-@ following and the real @-@ time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting . In early 1994 , it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayed the Rafale 's development by six months . In September 2006 , Flight International reported the Rafale 's unit cost had significantly increased due to additional development work to improve the RBE2 's detection range .
The RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar now replaces the previous passively scanned RBE2 . The RBE2 AA is reported to deliver a greater detection range of 200 km , improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands over the preceding radar . A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011 . By December 2009 , production of the pre @-@ series RBE2 AA radars was underway . In early October 2012 , the first Rafale equipped with an RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base for operational service ( the development was described by Thales and Dassault as " on time and on budget " ) . By early 2014 , the first Air Force front @-@ line squadron were supposed to receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar , following the French Navy which was slated to receive AESA @-@ equipped Rafales starting in 2013 .
To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role , it includes several passive sensor systems . The front @-@ sector electro @-@ optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal ( OSF ) , developed by Thales , is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths . The OSF enables the deployment of infrared missiles such as the MICA at beyond visual range distances ; it can also be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets , as well as those on the ground and at sea . Dassault describes the OSF as being immune to jamming and capable of providing covert long @-@ range surveillance . In 2012 , an improved version of the OSF was deployed operationally .
= = = Armaments and standards = = =
Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ( " France 1 " ) standard , these had been equipped for the air @-@ to @-@ air interceptor combat duties , but lacked any armaments for air @-@ to @-@ ground operations . Later deliveries were to the " F2 " standard , which added the capability for conducting both air @-@ to @-@ ground and reconnaissance operations ; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006 . Starting in 2008 onwards , Rafale deliveries have been to the nuclear @-@ capable F3 standard , and it has been reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s .
F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different mission roles with a range of equipment , namely air defence / superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , and precision ground attacks typically using SCALP EG cruise missiles and AASM Hammer air @-@ to @-@ surface armaments . In addition , anti @-@ shipping missions could be carried out using the AM39 Exocet sea skimming missile , while reconnaissance flights would use a combination of onboard and external pod @-@ based sensor equipment . Furthermore , the aircraft could conduct nuclear strikes when armed with ASMP @-@ A missiles . In 2010 , France ordered 200 MBDA Meteor beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles which will greatly increase the distance at which the Rafale can engage aerial targets when the missile enters service .
For compatibility with armaments of varying types and origins , the Rafale 's onboard store management system is compliant with MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1760 , an electrical interface between an aircraft and its carriage stores , thereby simplifying the incorporation of many of their existing weapons and equipment . The Rafale is typically outfitted with 14 hardpoints ( only 13 on Rafale M version ) , five of which are suitable for heavy armaments or equipment such as auxiliary fuel tanks , and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons . In addition to the above equipment , the Rafale carries the 30 mm GIAT 30 DEFA cannon and can be outfitted with a range of laser @-@ guided bombs and ground @-@ attack munitions . According to Dassault , the Rafale 's onboard mission systems enable ground attack and air @-@ to @-@ air combat operations to be carried out within a single sortie , with many functions capable of simultaneous execution in conjunction with another , increasing survivability and versatility .
= = = Engines = = =
The Rafale is fitted with two Snecma M88 engines , each capable of providing up to 50 kN ( 11 @,@ 250 lbf ) of dry thrust and 75 kN ( 16 @,@ 900 lbf ) with afterburners . The engines feature several advances , including a non @-@ polluting combustion chamber , single @-@ crystal turbine blades , powder metallurgy disks , and technology to reduce radar and infrared signatures . The M88 enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying four missiles and one drop tank .
Qualification of the M88 @-@ 2 engine ended in 1996 and the first production engine was delivered by the end of the year . Due to delays in engine production , some of the early Rafales were temporarily powered by the General Electric F404 engine . In May 2010 , a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88 @-@ 4E engine , an upgraded variant with greater thrust and lower maintenance requirements than the preceding M88 @-@ 2 . The engine is of a modular design for ease of construction and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved subsections upon availability , such as existing M88 @-@ 2s being upgraded to M88 @-@ 4E standard . There has been interest in more powerful M88 engines by potential export customers , such as the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) . As of 2007 , a thrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88 @-@ 3D was also under development .
= = Operational history = =
= = = France = = =
= = = = Aéronavale = = = =
In December 2000 , the French Naval Aviation ( Aéronavale ) , the air arm of the French Navy , received its first two Rafale M fighters . On 18 May the following year , the squadron Flottille 12F , which had previously operated the F @-@ 8 Crusader , became the first squadron to operate the Rafale after it was officially re @-@ activated prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale . Flottille 12F immediately participated in Trident d ’ Or aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle with warships from ten other nations . During the maritime exercise , the Navy tested the Rafale 's avionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft , in addition to carrier take @-@ offs and landings . After almost four years of training , the Rafale M was declared operational with the French Navy in June 2004 .
The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks . On 4 June 2010 , during an exercise on USS Harry S. Truman ( CVN @-@ 75 ) , a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier .
In 2002 , the Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone ; seven Rafale Ms embarked aboard Charles de Gaulle of the French Navy during " Mission Héraclès " , the French participation in " Operation Enduring Freedom " . They flew from the aircraft carrier over Afghanistan , but the F1 standard precluded air @-@ to @-@ ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action . In June 2002 , while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea , Rafales conducted several patrols near the India @-@ Pakistan border .
= = = = French Air Force = = = =
Rafales were delivered to the French Air Force several years after the naval variant , initially with the Centre d ’ Expériences Aériennes Militaires ( French Air Force Evaluation Centre ) at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base in the trials and training role . By this time , it was expected that Escadron de Chasse ( Fighter Squadron ) 1 / 7 at Saint @-@ Dizier would receive a nucleus of 8 – 10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006 , in preparation for full operational service ( with robust air @-@ to @-@ air and stand off air @-@ to @-@ ground precision attack capabilities ) starting from mid @-@ 2007 ( when EC 1 / 7 would have about 20 aircraft , 15 two @-@ seaters and five single @-@ seaters ) .
In 2007 , after a " crash program " enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser @-@ guided bombs , in view of engaging them in Afghanistan . Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan , while the three others were Rafale Marine of the Navy on board Charles De Gaulle . The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007 , and the first GBU @-@ 12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan , marking the operational début of the Rafale . Between January 2009 and December 2011 , a minimum of three Rafales were stationed at Kandahar International Airport to conduct combat operations in support of NATO ground forces .
On 19 March 2011 , French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan , in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 ; initial targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi . The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of SEAD aircraft , using the onboard SPECTRA self @-@ defence system instead . On 24 March 2011 , it was reported that a Rafale had destroyed a Libyan Air Force G @-@ 2 / Galeb light attack / trainer aircraft on the runway .
During the conflict , Rafales typically conducted six @-@ hour sorties over Libyan airspace , carrying an armament of four MICA air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , four or six AASM " Hammer " bombs , a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two drop tanks ; these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling operations per sortie from coalition tanker aircraft . The AASM precision @-@ guidance weapon system , using bombs weighing between 125 kilograms ( 280 lb ) and 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , allowed the Rafale to conduct high @-@ altitude bombing missions . Reportedly , Rafale crews preferred to use GPS @-@ guided munitions due to greater reliability and range . Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties , including one against a Libyan airbase at Al @-@ Jufra . In 2011 , aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale 's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotal to its export future , reporting that the Rafale had maintained a high operational rate throughout the deployment . Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused several urgent operational requirements to present themselves , such as the need for a lighter ground @-@ attack munition and to modify the AASM weapon to be more effective in the close air support role .
In January 2013 , the Rafale took part in " Opération Serval " , the French military intervention in support to the government of Mali against the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa . The first mission was carried out on 13 January , when four Rafales took off from an airbase in France to strike rebel training camps , depots and facilities in the city of Gao , eastern Mali . Subsequent airstrikes in the following days by Rafale and Mirage fighters were reportedly instrumental in the withdrawal of Islamist militant forces from Timbuktu and Douentza . Both Rafale and Mirage 2000D aircraft used in the conflict have been based outside of North Africa , making use of aerial refuelling tanker aircraft to fly long range sorties across Algerian airspace and into Mali .
In August 2013 , it was proposed that France may halve the number of Rafales to be delivered over the next six years for a total of 26 aircraft to be delivered during this period ; foreign export procurements have been viewed as critical to maintain production under this proposal . While production would be slowed , France would still receive the same number of Rafales overall .
In September 2014 , Rafales began flying reconnaissance missions over Iraq as part of Opération Chammal , France 's contribution to the international effort to combat Islamic State ( IS ) militants . Six ( later nine ) Rafales were initially tasked with identifying IS positions in support of US airstrikes , flying from Al Dhafra Air Base , UAE . On 18 September , Rafales joined American operations in conducting attacks , launching four strikes near the Northern Iraqi town of Zumar that destroyed a logistics depot and killed dozens of IS fighters .
In December 2015 , American and French military officials reportedly discussed the possibility of French naval Rafale Ms flying combat missions from a US Navy Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carrier as soon as January 2017 . This would enable continued French Navy operations against ISIL while Charles de Gaulle undergoes its year and a half @-@ long major refit , scheduled to begin in early 2017 . Although Rafales have launched and landed on U.S. carriers to demonstrate interoperability , it would be the first time they would fly combat missions from one . As many as 18 Rafale Ms could be deployed on a carrier , although some room would have to be made for French Navy support crews familiar with maintaining the Rafale , as well as for spare parts and munitions .
= = = Egypt = = =
In November 2014 , it was reported by several sources , including the French newspaper La Tribune that Egypt was in negotiations with France to purchase 24 to 36 Rafales , subject to the financing agreement . By February 2015 , the two countries were negotiating a loan from France 's export credit agency to reach an export agreement for up to 24 Rafale fighters . Egypt hoped to complete deal quickly to have aircraft on display at the inauguration of the Suez Canal expansion in August 2015 .
On 16 February 2015 , Egypt became the Rafale 's first international customer when it officially ordered 24 Rafales , as part of a larger deal ( including a FREMM multipurpose frigate and a supply of missiles ) worth US $ 5 @.@ 9 billion ( € 5 @.@ 2 billion ) . In July 2015 , the official ceremony , marking the acceptance by Egypt of its first 3 Rafales , was held at the Dassault Aviation flight test center in Istres . In January 2016 , Egypt received three more Rafales for a total of six fighters . All six aircraft are two @-@ seat models and were diverted from delivery to the French Air Force ; Egypt 's order has 8 single @-@ seat models and 16 two @-@ seaters . In June 2016 , it was reported that Egypt is in negotiations with Dassault to acquire 12 additional Rafales for a total of 36 .
= = = Qatar = = =
From January 2011 the Qatar Emiri Air Force evaluated the Rafale alongside the Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , the Boeing F @-@ 15E , the Eurofighter Typhoon , and the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II to replace its then inventory of Dassault Mirage 2000 @-@ 5s . By June 2014 , Dassault had claimed it was close to signing a contract with Qatar for 72 Rafales . On 30 April 2015 , Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani announced to French President François Hollande that Qatar will order 24 Rafale with an option to buy additional 12 more aircraft . The € 6 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 7 @.@ 02 billion ) deal for 24 Rafales was signed on 4 May .
= = = India = = =
The Rafale was one of the six aircraft competing in the Indian MRCA competition for 126 multirole fighters . Originally , the Mirage 2000 had been considered for the competition , but Dassault withdrew it in favour of the Rafale . In February 2011 , French Rafales flew demonstrations in India , including air @-@ to @-@ air combat against Su @-@ 30MKIs . In April 2011 , the Indian Air Force ( IAF ) shortlisted the Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US $ 10 @.@ 4 billion contract . On 31 January 2012 , the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder . It was proposed that 18 Rafales would be supplied to the IAF by 2015 in fly @-@ away condition , while the remaining 108 would be manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ( HAL ) in India under transfer of technology agreements . The contract for 126 Rafales , services , and parts may have been worth up to US $ 20 billion .
The deal stalled due to disagreements over production in India . Dassault refused to take responsibility for the 108 HAL @-@ manufactured Rafales , as it had reservations about the ability of HAL to accommodate the complex manufacturing and technology transfers of the aircraft . Instead , Dassault said it would have to negotiate two separate production contracts by both companies . The Indian Defence Ministry instead wanted Dassault to be solely responsible for the sale and delivery of all 126 aircraft . In May 2013 , The Times of India reported that negotiations were " back on track " , with plans for the first 18 Rafales to be delivered in 2017 . Another point of contention was a provision where Dassault was to reinvest 50 percent of the deal 's earnings into India 's defence sectors , either through purchases or technological expertise . In March 2014 , the two sides were reported to have agreed that the first 18 aircraft would be delivered to India in flying condition and that the remaining 108 would be 70 percent built by HAL . In December 2014 , it was reported that India and France expect to sign a contract by March 2015 .
In April 2015 , during Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's visit to Paris , India requested the rapid delivery of 36 Rafales in fly @-@ away condition . Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated that these will be inducted into the IAF within two years . India officially withdrew the 126 @-@ aircraft MMRCA tender on 30 July 2015 . Shortly after , India and France missed the July target of finalizing the 36 @-@ aircraft agreement . The previously @-@ agreed @-@ upon terms in April totaled US $ 8 billion for 36 aircraft costing $ 200 million each , with an offset requirement of 30 percent of the deal 's value for France to reinvest in India 's defense sector and create infrastructure in India for the Rafale to operate . India is insisting on a 50 percent offset and two bases , which France says will increase price and require separate infrastructure and two sets of maintenance , training , and armament storage facilities .
In January 2016 , the Indian government directed the Indian Navy to undertake detailed briefings with Dassault regarding the Rafale , in a potential start to procurement of the naval version for its aircraft carriers . The government wants commonalities between logistics and spares for fighters with the Navy and Air Force , which could lead to a buy of 54 naval fighters . As of June 2016 , negotiations were ongoing .
= = = Potential operators = = =
Analysts view the relatively quick series of 84 orders from Egypt , India and Qatar as being influenced by the Arab Spring and uncertainty of US involvement in the Middle East .
= = = = Canada = = = =
The Rafale has been amongst various aircraft proposed to meet Canada 's need for a modern jet fighter to replace the aging McDonnell Douglas CF @-@ 18 Hornet of the Royal Canadian Air Force . In 2005 , according to Canada.com , a report compiled by Canada 's Defence Department reviewing several competing aircraft had noted concerns over the Rafale 's interoperability with US forces ; Dassault had also then been unable to confirm engine performance during cold weather conditions . In July 2010 , the Canadian government announced the replacement for the CF @-@ 18 was to be the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , as the country has been a partner in the Joint Strike Fighter program since 1997 and a Tier 3 partner for the F @-@ 35 since 2002 .
Then in December 2012 , the Canadian government announced that the purchase of the F @-@ 35 had been abandoned due to greatly escalating costs , and that a fresh procurement process would begin . In January 2013 , Dassault responded to a request for information from the Canadian government and announced its readiness to enter a future competition for a future fighter procurement . Various aircraft are to be considered to meet the requirement , including the F @-@ 35 . In January 2014 , it was reported that Dassault offered a contract with full transfer of technology to allow Canada to perform its own support and upgrades , thereby lowering long @-@ term service costs .
= = = = Finland = = = =
In June 2015 , a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the so @-@ called HX program to replace the Finnish Air Force 's current fleet of F / A @-@ 18 Hornets . The group recognises five potential types : Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon , Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen .
In December 2015 Finnish MoD sent a letter to Great Britain , France , Sweden and the United States where it informed that the fighter project was launched in the Defence Forces . The goal of the project is to replace the Hornet fleet , which will be decommissioned as of 2025 , with multi @-@ role fighters . The project has been named as HX Fighter Program . Dassault Rafale is mentioned in the letter as a potential fighter for the program . The request for information concerning the HX Fighter Program will be sent at the latest in March 2016 . A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021 .
= = = = Malaysia = = = =
The Rafale is one of contenders for the replacement of the Royal Malaysian Air Force 's ( RMAF ) Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 . The RMAF is looking to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighter aircraft with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 84 billion to US $ 2 @.@ 46 billion ) . The other competitors for the program are the Eurofighter Typhoon , Boeing F / A @-@ 18 / F Super Hornet and Saab JAS 39 Gripen .
= = = = United Arab Emirates = = = =
In 2009 , the United Arab Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar , and advanced air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . In October 2011 , Dassault was confident that a US $ 10 @-@ billion deal for up to 60 Rafale aircraft would be signed . However , Deputy Supreme Commander of the Union Defence Force , Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan , in November 2011 called the French offer " uncompetitive and unworkable " ; France had in 2010 asked the UAE to pay US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale . Consequently , the UAE started to explore a purchase of the Eurofighter Typhoon or the F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet .
The newspaper La Tribune reported in February 2012 , that the UAE was still considering the US $ 10 @-@ billion deal for 60 Rafales . Interoperatibility among the Gulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the Rafale from Qatar and Kuwait . In January 2013 , President Hollande stated that he would be discussing the potential sale of Rafale to the UAE during an official visit . In December 2013 , it was announced that UAE had decided not to proceed with a deal for the supply of defence and security services , including the supply of Typhoon aircraft . In September 2014 it was announced that the UAE could acquire 40 Rafales in addition to upgrades to its existing Mirage 2000s . In November 2015 , Reuters reported that Major General Ibrahim Nasser Al Alawi , commander of the UAE Air Force and Air Defence , had confirmed that the UAE was in final negotiations to purchase 60 Rafales .
= = = Failed bids = = =
The Rafale has been marketed for export to various countries . Various commentators and industry sources have highlighted the high cost of the aircraft as detrimental to the Rafale 's sales prospects . Its acquisition cost is roughly US $ 100 million ( 2010 ) , while its operational cost hovers around US $ 16 @,@ 500 ( 2012 ) for every flight @-@ hour . The Saab JAS Gripen , in comparison , costs only US $ 4 @,@ 700 per flight @-@ hour to operate . According to a 2009 article by the Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis , unlike the American government and its relationship with Boeing and Lockheed Martin , the lack of communication between the French government and Dassault has hampered a worldwide cooperative sales effort , as demonstrated by the case with Morocco in 2007 .
= = = = Brazil = = = =
In June 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force issued a request for information on the following aircraft : F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , Rafale , Su @-@ 35 , Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon . In October 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force selected three finalists for F @-@ X2 – Dassault Rafale , Gripen NG and Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F. On 5 January 2010 , media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders based on unit and operating costs . In February 2011 , the press announced that the new president of Brazil , Dilma Rousseff , had decided in favour of the American F @-@ 18 . After much delay due to budget constraints , in December 2013 the Brazilian government selected the Gripen NG in a US $ 5 billion deal to equip the country 's air force .
= = = = Singapore = = = =
In 2005 , the Republic of Singapore Air Force embarked on its Next Generation Fighter ( NGF ) programme to replace its fleet of ageing A @-@ 4SU Super Skyhawks . A number of options were considered and the Defence Science & Technology Agency ( DSTA ) conducted a detailed technical assessment , as well as simulations and other tests to determine the final selection . Following this , the original list of competitors was reduced to the final two – Dassault Rafale and the F @-@ 15SG Strike Eagle . In December 2005 , Singapore ordered 12 F @-@ 15SG aircraft . According to Defense Industry Daily , one major reason for the selection was that , while the Rafale had superior aerodynamics , it lacked the range and a capable radar , and had insufficient weapons and sensor integration .
= = = = Switzerland = = = =
In February 2007 , it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its Northrop F @-@ 5 Tiger IIs . The one @-@ month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approximately 30 evaluation flights . The Rafale along with the JAS 39 Gripen and the Typhoon were to be evaluated . Although a leaked Swiss Air Force evaluation report revealed that the Rafale won the competition on technical grounds , on 30 November 2011 , the Swiss Federal Council announced that it was planning to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to the aircraft 's lower acquisition and maintenance costs . Due to a referendum , this purchase never happened .
= = = = Libya = = = =
In January 2007 , the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya sought 13 – 18 Rafales " in a deal worth as much as US $ 3 @.@ 24 billion " . In December 2007 , Saif al @-@ Islam Gaddafi declared Libya 's interest in the Rafale , but no order was placed . French Rafales later came to Libya as part of the international military intervention during the 2011 Libyan civil war .
= = = = Kuwait = = = =
In February 2009 , French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales . In October 2009 , during a visit to Paris , the Kuwaiti Defence Minister expressed his interest in the Rafale and said that he was awaiting terms from Dassault . Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti national assembly threatened to block such a purchase , accusing the Defence Minister of lack of transparency and being manipulated by business interests . In January 2012 , the French Defence Minister said that both Kuwait and Qatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale and that Kuwait would look to buy 18 – 22 Rafales . However , on 11 September 2015 , Eurofighter announced that an agreement had been reached with Kuwait for the supply of 28 Eurofighter Typhoons .
= = = = Others = = = =
In 2002 , the Republic of Korea Air Force chose the F @-@ 15K Slam Eagle over the Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon and Sukhoi Su @-@ 35 for its 40 aircraft F @-@ X Phase 1 fighter competition .
During 2006 , while there was potentially trouble with Anglo @-@ American negotiations over the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy . However , in May 2012 , after having abandoned the F @-@ 35B STOVL version in favour of the F @-@ 35C CATOBAR variant in October 2010 , the UK reverted to purchasing the F @-@ 35B .
In late 2007 , La Tribune reported that a prospective US $ 2 @.@ 85 billion sale to Morocco had fallen through , the government selecting the F @-@ 16C / D instead . While French Defense Minister Herve Morin labelled the aircraft as overly sophisticated and too costly , defense analysists have said that miscalculations of the offer price by the DGA and hesitations about financing were detrimental to the negotiations .
In February 2009 , France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars . In December 2012 , Oman placed an order for 12 Typhoons , after reports surfaced that the country had preference for the fighter in 2010 .
= = Variants = =
Rafale A
Technology demonstrator , first flying in 1986 .
Rafale D
Dassault used this designation ( D for discrète ) in the early 1990s to emphasise the new semi @-@ stealthy design features .
Rafale B
Two @-@ seater version for the French Air Force .
Rafale C
Single @-@ seat version for the French Air Force .
Rafale M
Carrier @-@ borne version for the French Naval Aviation , which entered service in 2001 . For carrier operations , the M model has a strengthened airframe , longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose @-@ up attitude , larger tailhook between the engines , and a built @-@ in boarding ladder . Consequently , the Rafale M weighs about 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) more than the Rafale C. It is the only non @-@ US fighter type cleared to operate from the decks of US carriers , using catapults and their arresting gear , as demonstrated in 2008 when six Rafales from Flottille 12F integrated into the USS Theodore Roosevelt Carrier Air Wing interoperability exercise .
Rafale N
Originally called the Rafale BM , was a planned missile @-@ only two @-@ seater version for the Aéronavale . Budgetary and technical constraints have been cited as grounds for its cancellation .
Rafale R
Proposed reconnaissance @-@ oriented variant .
Rafale DM
Two @-@ seater version for the Egyptian Air Force .
Rafale EM
Single @-@ seat version for the Egyptian Air Force .
= = Operators = =
Egypt
Egyptian Air Force – 6 Rafale DMs are in service in January 2016 . ( 24 on order )
France
A total of 180 have been ordered out of a planned 286 , with an option for another 9 . Approximately 150 are confirmed to be delivered by 2019 . As of 2015 , 135 had been delivered .
French Air Force – 91Saint @-@ Dizier – Robinson Air Base
Escadron de Chasse 01 @-@ 007 " Provence " ( 2006 – present ) multirole fighter
Escadron de Chasse 01 @-@ 091 " Gascogne " ( 2009 – present ) nuclear strike
Escadron de Transformation Rafale 02 @-@ 092 " Aquitaine " ( October 2010 – present , French Air Force Operational Conversion Unit ( OCU ) jointly operated by French Air Force and French naval Aviation )
Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base
Escadron de Chasse 02 @-@ 030 " Normandie @-@ Niemen " ( 2012 – present ) multirole fighter
Escadron de Chasse et d 'Expérimentation 05 @-@ 330 " Côte d 'Argent " ( 2004 – present ) tactics development and evaluation
Al Dhafra Air Base , UAE
Escadron de Chasse 03 @-@ 030 " Lorraine " ( 2010 – present ) multirole fighter
French Navy – 44Naval Air Base Landivisiau
Flottille 11F ( 2011 – present ) multirole carrier fighter
Flottille 12F ( 2001 – present ) multirole carrier fighter
Flottille 17F ( to convert in mid @-@ 2016 ) multirole carrier fighter
India
Indian Air Force – 36 to be ordered . Final contract to be signed .
Qatar
Qatar Air Force – 24 on order
= = Accidents = =
On 6 December 2007 , a French Air Force twin @-@ seat Rafale crashed during a training flight . The pilot , who suffered from spatial disorientation , was killed in the accident .
On 24 September 2009 , after unarmed test flights , two French Navy Rafales returning to the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle , collided in mid @-@ air about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France . One test pilot , identified as François Duflot , was killed in the accident , while the other was rescued .
On 28 November 2010 , a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea . This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan . The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a rescue helicopter from the carrier . Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks .
On 2 July 2012 , during a joint exercise , a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle plunged into the Mediterranean Sea . The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by an American search and rescue helicopter from the carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Dassault Aviation , Superfighters , French Navy , International Directory of Military Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 1 – 2
Length : 15 @.@ 27 m ( 50 @.@ 1 ft )
Wingspan : 10 @.@ 80 m ( 35 @.@ 4 ft )
Height : 5 @.@ 34 m ( 17 @.@ 5 ft )
Wing area : 45 @.@ 7 m ² ( 492 ft ² )
Empty weight :
10 @,@ 300 kilograms ( 22 @,@ 700 lb ) ( B )
9 @,@ 850 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 720 lb ) ( C ) ( )
Loaded weight : 15 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) ( )
Max. takeoff weight : 24 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 54 @,@ 000 lb ) ( B / C / D ) ( )
Powerplant : 2 × Snecma M88 @-@ 2 turbofans
Dry thrust : 50 @.@ 04 kN ( 11 @,@ 250 lbf ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 75 @.@ 62 kN ( 17 @,@ 000 lbf ) each
Fuel capacity : 4 @,@ 700 kg ( 10 @,@ 360 lb ) internal
Performance
Maximum speed : High altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 8 ( 1 @,@ 912 km / h , 1 @,@ 032 knots )
Low altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 1 ( 1 @,@ 390 km / h , 750 knots )
Supercruise : Up to Mach 1 @.@ 4
Range : 3 @,@ 700 + km ( 2 @,@ 000 + nmi ) with 3 drop tanks
Combat radius : 1 @,@ 852 + km ( 1 @,@ 000 + nmi ) on penetration mission
Service ceiling : 15 @,@ 235 m ( 50 @,@ 000 ft )
Rate of climb : 304 @.@ 8 + m / s ( 60 @,@ 000 + ft / min )
Wing loading : 328 kg / m ² ( 67 @.@ 1 lb / ft ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 988 ( 100 % fuel , 2 EM A2A missile , 2 IR A2A missile ) version B
Maximum g @-@ load : + 9 / – 3 @.@ 6 g
Armament
Guns : 1 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) GIAT 30 / M791 autocannon with 125 rounds
Hardpoints : 14 for Air Force versions ( Rafale B / C ) , 13 for Navy version ( Rafale M ) with a capacity of 9 @,@ 500 kg ( 20 @,@ 900 lb ) external fuel and ordnance and provisions to carry combinations of :
Missiles :
Air @-@ to @-@ air :
Magic II
MBDA MICA IR or EM
MBDA Meteor in the future
Air @-@ to @-@ ground :
MBDA Apache
MBDA Storm Shadow / SCALP @-@ EG
AASM @-@ Hammer ( SBU @-@ 38 / 54 / 64 )
GBU @-@ 12 Paveway II , GBU @-@ 22 Paveway III , GBU @-@ 24 Paveway III , GBU @-@ 49 Enhanced Paveway II
AS @-@ 30L
Air @-@ to @-@ surface :
MBDA AM 39 @-@ Exocet anti @-@ ship missile
MBDA CVS401 @-@ Perseus in the future
Nuclear Deterrence :
ASMP @-@ A nuclear missile
Other : Thales Damocles targeting pod
Thales AREOS ( Airborne Recce Observation System ) reconnaissance pod
Thales TALIOS multi @-@ function targeting pod in the future ( F3R Standard )
Up to 5 drop tanks
Buddy @-@ buddy refuelling pod
Avionics
Thales RBE2 @-@ AA AESA radar
Thales SPECTRA Electronic Warfare system .
Thales / SAGEM @-@ OSF Optronique Secteur Frontal infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) system .
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= A Journey =
A Journey is a memoir by Tony Blair of his tenure as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Published in the UK on 1 September 2010 , it covers events from when he became leader of the Labour Party in 1994 and transformed it into " New Labour " , holding power for a party record three successive terms , to his resignation and replacement as Prime Minister by his Chancellor of the Exchequer , Gordon Brown . Blair donated his £ 4 @.@ 6 million advance , and all subsequent royalties , to the British Armed Forces charity The Royal British Legion . It became the fastest @-@ selling autobiography of all time at the bookstore chain Waterstones . Promotional events were marked by antiwar protests .
Two of the book 's major topics are the strains in Blair 's relationship with Brown after Blair allegedly reneged on the pair 's 1994 agreement to step down as Prime Minister much earlier , and his controversial decision to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Blair discusses Labour 's future after the 2010 general election , his relations with the Royal Family , and how he came to respect President George W. Bush . Reviews were mixed ; some criticised Blair 's writing style , but others called it candid .
Gordon Brown was reportedly unhappy over Blair 's comments about him , while David Runciman of The London Review of Books suggested there were episodes from Blair 's troubled relationship with his Chancellor that were absent from A Journey . Labour politician Alistair Darling said the book demonstrates how the country can be changed for the better when a government has a clear purpose , while the New Zealand Listener suggested Blair and his contemporaries had helped to write New Labour 's epitaph . Some families of servicemen and women who were killed in Iraq reacted angrily , with one antiwar commentator dismissing Blair 's regrets over the loss of life . Shortly after the release of A Journey , the screenwriter of the 2006 film The Queen , which depicts Blair 's first months in office , accused Blair of plagiarising a conversation with Elizabeth II from him .
= = History = =
In March 2010 , it was reported that Blair 's memoirs , under the title The Journey , would be published in September . Gail Rebuck , chairman and chief executive of Random House , announced that the memoirs would be published by Hutchinson in the United Kingdom . She predicted that the book would " break new ground in prime ministerial memoirs just as Blair himself broke the mould of British politics . " Preliminary images of the book 's cover , showing Blair in an open @-@ neck shirt , were released . In July , the memoir was retitled as A Journey ; one publishing expert speculated that it was changed to make Blair appear " less messianic " . The publisher did not give any reason . It was announced the book would be published by Knopf in the United States and Canada under the title A Journey : My Political Life ; and in Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , and India by Random House . It was also released as an audiobook , read by Blair available for download and on 13 compact discs with a playing time of 16 hours . The book was published in the United Kingdom on 1 September .
Before the launch , Blair announced that he would give the £ 4.6m advance and all royalties from his memoirs to a sports centre for injured soldiers . In an interview with Jonathon Gatehouse , he conceded , " You wouldn 't be human if you didn 't feel both a sense of responsibility and a deep sadness for those who have lost their lives . That responsibility stays with me now , and will stay with me for the rest of my life . You know , I came to office as prime minister in 1997 , focusing on domestic policy and ended up in four conflicts – Sierra Leone , Kosovo , Afghanistan and Iraq . And it does change you , and so it should . " BBC political correspondent Norman Smith said Blair 's severest critics would see the donation as " guilt money " for taking the UK to war against Iraq in 2003 . The father of a soldier killed there decried the donation as " blood money " , while the father of another serviceman who died said Blair had a " guilty conscience . " A spokesperson for the Stop the War Coalition supported with the donation , but added , " No proportion of Tony Blair 's massive and ill @-@ gotten fortune can buy him innocence or forgiveness . He took this country to war on a series of lies against the best legal advice and in defiance of majority opinion . " A spokesman for Blair said that it had long been his intention to give the money to a charity ; he added aiding soldiers undergoing rehabilitation at the Battle Back Challenge Centre was " his way of honouring their courage and sacrifice . " The announcement was welcomed by Chris Simpkins , director general of The Royal British Legion , who said , " Mr Blair 's generosity is much appreciated and will help us to make a real and lasting difference to the lives of hundreds of injured personnel . "
= = Synopsis = =
A Journey covers Blair 's time as leader of the Labour Party and then British Prime Minister following his party 's victory at the 1997 general election . His tenure as Labour leader begins in 1994 following the death of his predecessor , John Smith , an event Blair claims to have had a premonition about a month before Smith died . Blair believes he will succeed Smith as Labour leader rather than Gordon Brown , who is a strong contender for the job . Blair and Brown subsequently reach an agreement whereby Brown will not run against Blair for the position , and will succeed him later . But it leads to a difficult working relationship , which is discussed at length . He likens them both to " a couple who loved each other , arguing over whose career should come first . " To him , Brown is a " strange guy " with " zero " emotional intelligence .
Having been elected as leader Blair moves the Labour Party to the political centre ground , repackaging it as " New Labour " , and goes on to win the 1997 general election . At his first meeting with Elizabeth II following his election as Prime Minister Blair recalls the Queen telling him , " You are my tenth prime minister . The first was Winston . That was before you were born . " Within a few months his government must deal with the aftermath of the death of Diana , Princess of Wales , and following the Princess 's funeral , Elizabeth II tells Blair that lessons must be learned from the way things have been handled . Social occasions with the Queen are also recalled , including a gathering at Balmoral Castle where Prince Philip is described manning the barbecue while Elizabeth II dons a pair of rubber gloves to wash up afterwards .
From the outset Blair 's government plays a significant role in the Northern Ireland peace process , during which Blair admits to using " a certain amount of creative ambiguity " to secure an agreement , claiming the process would not have succeeded otherwise . He says that he stretched the truth " on occasions past breaking point " in the run @-@ up to the 2007 power @-@ sharing deal which enabled the return of devolved legislative powers from Westminster to the Northern Ireland Executive . Both Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin are praised for the part they played in the peace process .
One of the themes that dominates the latter part of Blair 's time in office is his decision to join US President George W. Bush in committing troops to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the aftermath of which he describes as a " nightmare " , but that he believes to have been necessary because Saddam Hussein " had not abandoned the strategy of WMD [ weapons of mass destruction ] , merely made a tactical decision to put it into abeyance " . He would make the same decision again with regard to Iran , warning that if that country develops nuclear weapons it will change the balance of power of the Middle East , to the region 's detriment . Blair believes some problems in Iraq still require a " resolution " and will fester if left unattended . Of the war dead he says , " I feel desperately sorry for them , sorry for the lives cut short , sorry for the families whose bereavement is made worse by the controversy over why their loved ones died , sorry for the utterly unfair selection that the loss should be theirs . " A year on from the invasion he hopes Bush will win a second term as US President : " I had come to like and admire George , " he writes .
In 2003 , Blair promises his Chancellor , Gordon Brown that he will resign before the next general election , but later changes his mind . Brown subsequently attempts to blackmail him , threatened to call for a Labour Party inquiry into the 2005 Cash for Honours affair during an argument over pension policy . Brown succeeds Blair as Labour Party leader and Prime Minister in 2007 . But while Blair praises Brown as a good Chancellor and a committed public servant , he believes his decision to abandon the New Labour policies of the Blair years leads to the party 's 2010 election defeat . However , Brown is right to restructure British banks and introduce an economic stimulus after the financial crisis .
The book closes with a final chapter offering a critique of Labour Party policy , and discusses its future . Blair warns Brown 's successor that if Labour is to remain electable they should continue with the policies of New Labour and not return to the left @-@ wing policies of the 1980s : " I won three elections . Up to then , Labour had never even won two successive full terms . The longest Labour government had lasted six years . This lasted 13 . It could have gone on longer , had it not abandoned New Labour . "
= = Publication = =
Within hours of its launch A Journey became the fastest @-@ selling autobiography of all time at bookseller Waterstones , where it sold more copies in one day than Peter Mandelson 's The Third Man : Life at the Heart of New Labour had done in its first three weeks earlier that year . It debuted at the top of Amazon.co.uk 's British best @-@ seller list . Within a week , Nielsen BookScan said that 92 @,@ 000 copies of A Journey had been sold in the United Kingdom , the best opening week for an autobiography since the company began keeping figures in 1998 . The New York Times reported that in the United States , an initial print run of 50 @,@ 000 copies had been extended by another 25 @,@ 000 , with the book set to debut at Number 3 on The New York Times hardcover best @-@ seller list . Andrew Lake , Waterstones ' political buyer , said , " Nothing can compare to the level of interest shown in this book . You have to look at hugely successful fiction authors such as Dan Brown or JK Rowling to find books that have sold more quickly on their first day . Mandelson may remain the prince but Blair has reclaimed his title as king , certainly in terms of book sales .
Blair recorded a series of promotional interviews for radio and television for , among others , the Arabic television network Al Jazeera , the ITV1 daytime magazine programme This Morning , and BBC Two , which aired an hour @-@ long interview with the journalist and political commentator Andrew Marr . He was in Washington , D.C. on the day of the UK launch to participate in peace talks with Middle East leaders and attend a White House dinner with Barack Obama , Hillary Clinton , and Israeli and Palestinian leaders . The British newspaper The Independent reported that Blair 's visit to the United States was a coincidence , and not an attempt to be out of the United Kingdom when the book was published . When Blair arrived for his first book signing at a leading bookshop on O 'Connell Street , Dublin on 4 September , demonstrators heckled , jeered and threw eggs and shoes at him . One activist posed as a purchaser to attempt a citizen 's arrest of Blair for war crimes . Protestors clashed with Irish police and tried to push over a security barrier outside the shop . The demonstrators — anti @-@ war protestors and Irish republicans opposed to the peace process — called queuing customers " traitors " and " West Brits " . Four people were arrested during the incident .
Several days after the launch of the book , Blair appeared on the series premiere of ITV1 's breakfast television programme Daybreak , where he criticised the Dublin protestors as a small minority given undue media attention . Since the book was selling well , and given fears that protesters would also be present at a forthcoming book signing in London on 8 September , he expressed doubts over whether that event was justifiable or worth the inevitable disruption . Later in the day it was confirmed the signing at Waterstones in Piccadilly would not go ahead . A spokesman for Blair announced that a planned launch party for the book scheduled for the Tate Modern would take place despite plans by the Stop the War Coalition to demonstrate . However , the following day this event was also cancelled as a result of threats of disruption by campaigners . In subsequent weeks , a number of media organisations reported that copies of A Journey were being moved from autobiographical sections in bookshops to sections on crime and horror . More than 10 @,@ 000 people had joined a Facebook page calling for that action .
= = Reception = =
= = = In the United Kingdom = = =
A Journey drew a mixed reception from critics . Financial Times editor Lionel Barber called it " part psychodrama , part treatise on the frustrations of leadership in a modern democracy ... written in a chummy style with touches of Mills & Boon " . He wrote that it made Blair seem " likable , if manipulative ; capable of dissembling while wonderfully fluent ; in short , a brilliant modern politician ( whatever his moans about the media ) . " Writing in The Independent on Sunday , Geoffrey Beattie said A Journey offered an understanding of Blair 's " underlying psychology . " John Rentoul , author of the Blair biography Tony Blair Prime Minister , was equally positive , giving particular praise to the chapter on the Iraq War . " The chapter on Iraq is tightly argued in some detail , which may persuade those with open minds to recognise that the decision to join the US invasion was a reasonable , if not very successful , one , rather than a conspiracy against life , the universe and everything decent , " he said . Mary Ann Sieghart , writing for The Independent said , " whatever its faults , and toe @-@ curling passages , [ A Journey ] has many good lessons on how to succeed in both opposition and government .
Other reviewers were less positive . The political journalist and author Andrew Rawnsley was critical of Blair 's writing style in The Observer . " It is Tony Blair 's boast that he wrote every word in longhand ' on hundreds of notepads ' . That I believe , " he wrote . " He was the most brilliant communicator of his era as a platform speaker or television interviewee , but he can be a ghastly writer . Anyone thinking about taking this journey needs to be given a travel advisory : much of the prose is execrable ... I could say that it is a pity that Tony Blair did not employ a ghostwriter to prettify the prose and organise his recollections more elegantly . " Rawnsley does , though , praise the book as being " a more honest political memoir than most and more open in many respects than I had anticipated . " Julian Glover , a columnist in The Guardian , said that " no political memoir has ever been like this : a book written as if in a dream — or a nightmare ; a literary out @-@ of @-@ body experience . By turns honest , confused , memorable , boastful , fitfully endearing , important , lazy , shallow , rambling and intellectually correct , it scampers through the last two decades like a trashy airport read . " The Sunday Telegraph was extremely critical of Blair 's writing style . " If Blair wants to tell you a funny story , he makes the mistake of signalling in advance that you should be laughing — what happened was ' hilarious ' , his first weekend at Balmoral was ' utterly freaky ' — thereby strangling the anecdote at birth . The book , like its author , is slightly embarrassing . " In the journal History Today , Archie Brown , Emeritus Professor of Politics at Oxford University was critical of what he believed to be Blair 's flawed sense of leadership , but had praise for the chapter on the Northern Ireland peace process : " Blair 's role in the Northern Ireland settlement was perhaps his single most noteworthy achievement . His account of it is also the best chapter in a book which , even by the standards of memoirists who fancy themselves to be remarkable leaders , is strikingly egocentric . "
= = = In the United States = = =
Reviews in the US sounded similar themes . In The New Yorker , British novelist John Lanchester called A Journey " a detailed account of scrambling , scraping , horse @-@ trading , bluffing , and fudging the way to a deal — a remarkable combination of the ramshackle and the historic . " Fareed Zakaria of the The New York Times Book Review praised Blair for his openness in the publication . " When speaking about the challenges of his first term in office , Blair writes honestly and openly , " the newspaper said . " The style is not the elegant Oxbridge prose that might have been expected of a former prime minister but one filled with Americanisms . It is breezy , informal and candid enough to keep the reader thoroughly engaged . " However , Zakaria attacked Blair 's " sweeping generalizations " about terrorism .
Writing in The Washington Post , Leonard Downie , Jr . , former editor of that paper , called the work a " notably wistful memoir " and is generally positive about its content : " Toward the end of this well @-@ written and perhaps unintentionally self @-@ revealing memoir , Tony Blair , who was Britain 's prime minister during an eventful decade from 1997 to 2007 , insists he is ' trying valiantly not to fall into self @-@ justifying mode — a bane of political memoirs . ' But he has done just that . " Tim Rutton of the Los Angeles Times also gave the memoirs a favourable review , declaring it " a political biography of unusual interest . "
= = = Internationally = = =
There are fewer reviews from newspapers outside the United Kingdom and United States , but those available are generally positive . Writing for Australia 's The Sydney Morning Herald Alexander Downer , who served as Foreign Minister in the Government of John Howard gave A Journey a favourable review : " His [ Blair 's ] commitment to humanity is sincere and convincing , and his personality infectiously amiable with a delightful sense of self @-@ deprecating humour . " Konrad Yakabuski , a senior political writer for Canada 's The Globe and Mail was also positive : " If Tony Blair has not continued to agonize over the tough decisions of his prime ministership , he does a pretty good job of persuading otherwise in A Journey . " India 's English language daily The Hindu said of the book , " It is by no means a confessional memoir but a brave attempt with only patchy success at self @-@ justification . "
= = Political reaction = =
The Queen reportedly felt a " profound sense of disappointment " in Blair for breaking with protocol by revealing in his memoirs sensitive details of private conversations he had with her during his time as Prime Minister . A spokesman for Buckingham Palace told a newspaper , " No prime minister before has ever done this and we can only hope that it will never happen again . " The Sunday Express claimed , quoting " renowned Royal biographer Hugo Vickers " and other " Royal insiders " , that because of the book 's contents , Elizabeth II would withhold granting Blair the Order of the Thistle , an honour which is bestowed at the sovereign 's personal prerogative and normally given almost automatically to leaders of Scottish descent after leaving office . Gordon Brown was said to be " seething " and " dismayed " over the criticism he received from Blair in the book , but had told aides not to criticise it . Ed Balls , a Brown ally who served in his government as Secretary of State for Children , Schools and Families said , " It would have been much better if the memoirs had been a celebration of success rather than recriminations . In that sense I thought it was all a bit sad . It was so one @-@ sided . I didn 't think it was comradely . "
Several more of Blair 's former colleagues and political opponents also commented on the book . Former Conservative minister Norman Tebbit wrote in The Daily Telegraph , " A Journey seems to be dominated by Blair 's anxiety to be seen as a great political leader who changed his country for the better . In fact it is , as I suppose all such books are to some extent , entirely about justifying himself and blaming others . " However , Tebbit admitted he had not read the book at the time of writing about it and based his opinion on media coverage . Writing in The Guardian , Alistair Darling , who was Chancellor under Gordon Brown , said that he " read with wry amusement how Tony Blair felt after much agonising that he couldn 't sack his Chancellor . History has a habit of repeating itself . " He concluded that the book was " a good read and shows us what can be done when we have confidence , clarity and a clear sense of purpose : we can win and change the country for the better . " Labour Member of Parliament Tom Harris said that the book " will be a reminder that opposition doesn 't have to be permanent , and that great things can be accomplished by a Labour government , but only if we have a leader capable of appealing to voters beyond our own party 's core . " Of Blair , he said , " There are still many , many Labour Party members who remember Blair as an election @-@ winning genius who , in office , was popular for an awful lot longer than he was unpopular . " Ed Miliband , then vying for the vacant position of Labour Party leader , said on the day of publication , " I think it is time to move on from Tony Blair and Gordon Brown and Peter Mandelson and to move on from the New Labour establishment and that is the candidate that I am at this election who can best turn the page . I think frankly most members of the public will want us to turn the page . " He was elected as Leader of the Labour Party several weeks later .
Some families of servicemen and servicewomen who were killed in Iraq reacted angrily to the book , in which Blair does not apologise for the invasion . " I can 't regret the decision to go to war . I can say never did I guess the bloody , destructive and chaotic nightmare that unfolded — and that too is part of the responsibility , " he says in the book . Reg Keys , whose son Tom Keys was killed in Iraq in 2003 , said that the book was " just crocodile tears from Blair . " Keys said , " The tears he claims to have shed are nothing like the tears I and my wife have shed for our son . They are nothing like the tears that tens of thousands of Iraqis have shed for their loved ones . They don 't even come close to it . They seem to me like crocodile tears . It is a cynical attempt to sanitise his legacy . " A spokesperson for Military Families Against the War said that Blair 's expression of regret over the loss of life was " completely meaningless . " The spokesperson added , " He has to prove his regret and giving money to charity doesn 't come close . He is giving a minuscule amount compared to the cost of war and rehabilitation of injured soldiers . It is laughable . "
Some of the dialogue Blair uses to describe his first meeting with Elizabeth II led to accusations of plagiarism from Peter Morgan , who wrote The Queen , set during the first few months of Blair 's premiership . Blair recalls his first meeting with Elizabeth II in which she tells him , " You are my 10th prime minister . The first was Winston . That was before you were born . " In the film , Helen Mirren 's fictionalised Elizabeth II says almost exactly the same thing . Morgan said it had been purely his own imagination .
= = Other accounts of the Blair years = =
Some commentators offered comparisons between A Journey and accounts of the Blair years written by other senior members of his government , particularly on Blair 's relationship with Gordon Brown . David Goodhart of Prospect Magazine wrote that in both Peter Mandelson 's memoir The Third Man and the first volume of Alastair Campbell 's Diaries ( 1994 – 97 ) , " Blair is important , but a rather weak figure buffeted by events and by Gordon Brown . In Blair 's own account , A Journey ( in which Mandelson features hardly at all , and Gordon Brown only at the end ) it is of course very different . Almost everything is driven forward by him ; the new Labour project was not imminent in Britain 's political history — it had to be shaped and moulded . " A similar theme was echoed by David Runciman in The London Review of Books , where he reflected that Mandelson 's memoirs " provide a much more complete account of the Blair / Brown relationship " , including details of Operation Teddy Bear , an aborted plot from 2003 to curb Brown 's increasing influence as Chancellor by dividing the Treasury to create a separate Office of Budget and Delivery that would be controlled directly by the Cabinet Office .
Writing for the journal British Politics , academic Mark Garnett provided a detailed analysis of the Blair and Mandelson memoirs , observing that while A Journey gives a more in @-@ depth account of what he termed " contemporary British government " , The Third Man is a more satisfying read : " The Third Man was a worthwhile effort for Peter Mandelson 's reputation , while Tony Blair has journeyed in vain . " The New Zealand Listener , on the other hand , suggested that A Journey and other memoirs written by prominent architects of New Labour had helped to seal its doom after David Miliband – the preferred candidate of all three as Brown 's successor – failed to be elected to the position : " All three backed David Miliband , and however much Miliband tried to distance himself – I 'm not New Labour , I 'm Next Labour – these three books and the publicity that surrounded them showed he had New Labour dye all over his hands . David was beaten to the leadership by his younger brother , Ed ( a man who lacked , as Blair himself might put it , the New Labour baggage ) , by a whisker – just over 1 % . And at a stroke , it 's clear these great , vocal proselytisers of New Labour have unwittingly written its epitaph . "
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= Aaron Loup =
Aaron Christopher Loup ( born December 19 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball . He stands 6 feet 0 inches ( 183 cm ) and weighs 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) . Born in Raceland , Louisiana , Loup played baseball at Hahnville High School and Tulane University , where he led his teams to several state playoff appearances and recorded a five @-@ hit shutout . He was drafted by the Blue Jays out of Tulane in the ninth round of the 2009 draft .
After playing for three years with minor @-@ league affiliates for the Toronto Blue Jays and even being chosen for the 2012 Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , Loup was called up to the Blue Jays as a replacement for Luis Pérez and retired all six batters he faced . He was later voted the 2012 Toronto Blue Jays Rookie of the Year by the Toronto chapter of the Baseball Writers Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Loup pitched 11 ⁄ 3 innings on Opening Day in 2013 , and would go on to win his first major league game on April 10 against the Detroit Tigers . He recorded his first two major league saves on April 12 and June 2 , and led the Blue Jays to a win in an 18 @-@ inning game on June 8 after a pair of groundouts .
Loup is a southpaw whose pitching drastically improved after coaches told him to become a sidearm pitcher . His fastball has been noted as particularly effective against both left- and right @-@ handed batters , but he continues to struggle with a changeup . Manager John Gibbons does not view Loup as a long reliever , but rather as a " situational , one @-@ inning guy . " He is known for his " relaxed " personality , which has improved after spending time with his teammates .
= = Early life = =
Loup was born December 19 , 1987 , in Raceland , Louisiana . His father and grandfather influenced his baseball interest the most when he was young , and he says that it was " just all baseball all the time " , with " a little football " . Loup said that when he was thirteen , " My dad had me in the backyard almost every day — or at least it seemed that way . I was always doing something , whether it was pitching off the mound or hitting in the cage . I wanted to play baseball and knew that I needed to work hard to get there . As a kid , I needed to be reminded of that sometimes . " His baseball role models growing up were Greg Maddux , John Smoltz , and Tom Glavine .
Loup played baseball at Hahnville High School , where he led the Hahnville Fighting Tigers to four state playoff appearances . As a sophomore , he threw a complete @-@ game no @-@ hitter against Terrebonne High School . He then attended Tulane University , where he majored in digital design and played for the Tulane Green Wave from freshman year until his junior year , when he was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays . As a freshman for the Green Wave , he held a 4 @.@ 37 earned run average ( ERA ) and 36 strikeouts in 35 innings . As a sophomore , he held a 5 @.@ 66 ERA in 472 ⁄ 3 innings , as well as pitching a perfect game of relief on April 26 , 2008 . Before being drafted in his junior year , he had thrown 571 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft = = =
The Blue Jays drafted Loup in the ninth round of the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft . Loup had shown a strong performance when he was playing for the Tulane Green Wave and was the second Green Wave player to be drafted . Loup said of the event , " I had 20 people text message me before I even heard anything and then my phone rang and I got the call . It 's exciting . They told me they would call me as soon as the draft was over and we would discuss details , so hopefully everything will shake out . "
= = = Minor league career = = =
After the draft , Loup played for the Gulf Coast League Blue Jays in 2009 . In the 2009 season , he held a 3 @.@ 86 ERA and 19 strikeouts in 161 ⁄ 3 innings . In 2010 , he was moved up to the Lansing Lugnuts , one of the Class A affiliates of the Blue Jays , where he held a 4 @.@ 54 ERA and 73 strikeouts in 731 ⁄ 3 innings . On June 22 , 2010 , Loup was chosen a Mid @-@ Season All @-@ Star . He missed the last two months of the season with an unknown injury and began 2011 on the disabled list . In 2011 , he was moved to the Dunedin Blue Jays , the Class A @-@ Advanced Blue Jays affiliate , where he held a 4 @.@ 66 ERA and 56 strikeouts in 652 ⁄ 3 innings .
In 2012 , Loup joined the New Hampshire Fisher Cats , the double @-@ A affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays . There , he boasted 36 Eastern League appearances , a 2 @.@ 84 ERA , and 43 strikeouts in 441 ⁄ 3 innings . After his teammate Sam Dyson was promoted to the Blue Jays , Loup was Dyson 's replacement for the Minor League Baseball 2012 Eastern League All @-@ Star Game .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays = = =
= = = = 2012 = = = =
Loup began 2012 with the Fisher Cats . In the 2012 season , the Toronto Blue Jays used 32 different pitchers due to frequent injuries , and Loup was among these . He was called up to replace Luis Pérez on July 14 after Pérez tore his ulnar collateral ligament . In his debut , Loup retired all six batters he faced .
On August 3 , Loup became the first pitcher in Blue Jays history to bat in an American League game , grounding out to begin the top of the 15th against the Oakland Athletics . Loup closed out the season posting a 0 @-@ 2 record with a 2 @.@ 64 ERA and 21 strikeouts in 302 ⁄ 3 innings . The Toronto chapter of the Baseball Writers Association of America ( BBWAA ) named him the Toronto Blue Jays 2012 Rookie of the Year that November .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Though he was considered one of the front @-@ runners , there was still much competition for one of the limited 2013 bullpen spots as a relief pitcher . His main competition was seen as Brett Cecil and J. A. Happ . John Gibbons said , " How it best fits the team , how it all stacks up down there is really what it 's going to come down to . But we 're going to go with the best guy , not because guys are out of options . " Reportedly , Loup learned that he had acquired one of the bullpen spots when Gibbons walked by his locker and said , " Oh , hey Loup — you made the team . "
Loup pitched 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings of relief for the Blue Jays against the Cleveland Indians on Opening Day . On April 10 , in a game against the Detroit Tigers , Loup recorded his first career win . On April 12 , Loup recorded his first major league save in a game against the Kansas City Royals . He would later record a second major league save in a game against the San Diego Padres on June 2 . On April 20 , Loup committed a two @-@ run throwing error in the eleventh inning against the New York Yankees . During the first two months of the Blue Jays ' lackluster 2013 season , Loup and other relief pitchers helped to keep the Blue Jays from more defeats . Loup was the ninth and final pitcher in an eighteen @-@ inning game against the Texas Rangers on June 8 . The game , which was the longest in Blue Jays history , resulted in a win after Loup gained a pair of groundouts . In another game against the Rangers on June 14 , Loup pitched in the eighth inning and participated in a shutout . Loup ended the 2013 season with a 4 – 6 record , 2 @.@ 47 ERA and 53 strikeouts in 691 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Loup was one of eight pitchers in the bullpen for the Blue Jays ' 2014 opening day . On April 20 , Loup walked three consecutive batters for the first time in his career , and took the loss as the Blue Jays fell to the Cleveland Indians 6 – 4 . On May 3 , the Blue Jays announced that Loup would replace Sergio Santos as the team 's closer until Casey Janssen returned from injury . After walking as many batters in three months as he had the entire last season , Loup regained confidence after pitching the last few innings of a game on June 4 that went from a 3 – 2 lead to an 8 – 2 win against the Detroit Tigers .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Loup took the loss in the Blue Jays ' second game of the 2015 season . Entering with a 3 – 1 lead against the New York Yankees in the eighth inning , he loaded the bases without recording an out . All three runners would come in to score and Toronto would lose , 4 – 3 . On April 12 , Loup pitched 12 ⁄ 3 perfect innings against the Orioles , taking the win by a score of 10 – 7 . Loup experienced ineffectiveness throughout the season , posting an ERA over 5 @.@ 00 into August . Following a 3 – 1 win over the Yankees on August 16 , Loup was optioned to the Triple @-@ A Buffalo Bisons . He was recalled on September 1 .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
On January 15 , 2016 , Loup and the Blue Jays avoided salary arbitration by agreeing to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 05 million contract . Loup began the 2016 season on the disabled list with a left forearm flexor strain . He began a rehab assignment with the Dunedin Blue Jays on May 14 . On May 21 , he was moved up to the Buffalo Bisons to continue rehabbing the injury .
= = = Scouting report = = =
= = = = Defense = = = =
Due to his non @-@ ideal size as a pitcher , some have seen issues in Loup 's stamina and durability . His pitches can also come across as " a bit too hittable . " He is , however , especially effective when pitching against left @-@ handed batters . In 2013 , Loup was viewed by the Blue Jays ' manager John Gibbons as " not necessarily a long guy ; he 's more a situational , one @-@ inning guy . " Despite his shortcomings , Loup has the lowest walk rate among all major league pitchers who have pitched at least seventy innings since 2012 , having walked only 2 @.@ 6 % of the batters he has faced . His consistency and endurance have made Loup the Blue Jays ' most @-@ used reliever , and he says " I 'm one of those guys that if my body would let me , I would pitch every day . "
The Baseball Cube 's player ratings , which are based solely on statistics on a scale from 0 @-@ 100 , gave Loup a 69 for control , a 62 for " K @-@ rating " , or strikeouts compared to batters faced , a 62 for efficiency , and a 52 for " vsPower " , or home runs compared to batters faced .
= = = = Pitching style = = = =
Loup is a left @-@ handed pitcher , or southpaw . He struggled at first with pitching until minor league pitching instructor Dane Johnson and Dunedin pitching coach Darold Knowles told him to lower his arm and become more of a sidearm pitcher . Now , as he pitches , he tracks a plane from his ear to his shoulder , which also helped his effectiveness against left @-@ handed batters . His slider and fastball improved drastically , but his changeup continued to struggle , and Loup says that he is still a little inconsistent with it . He can throw a low @-@ 90s " breaking " fastball that is just as effective against right @-@ handed batters as left @-@ handed batters . John Farrell , a previous Toronto Blue Jays manager , said that it was " [ Loup 's ] poise and his presence that allows him to maintain not only composure , but the ability to execute . " Blue Jays ' bullpen coach Pat Hentgen says that Loup " keeps things simple , he doesn 't over @-@ think . He stays aggressive . He 's got a lot of guts , goes right after hitters and you combine all those things and you 're going to have the success that he 's had . " One reporter compared Loup to Bran Flakes , stating that " [ y ] ou know exactly what you 're going to get from him every time he takes the mound and he 's not going to add any excitement to any situation . "
= = Personal life = =
Loup married his high school sweetheart Leigh Ann . The couple have one child , a daughter named Sophie Harper Loup , born the weekend of August 24 , 2013 . Loup went on the paternity list for the Blue Jays on August 23 , 2013 , but was called back on August 26 due to the three @-@ day paternity list limit . Loup and his wife spend the off @-@ season at Loup 's Louisiana home . An avid bowhunter , Loup prefers hunting deer with a compound bow . He has also been known to fish and hunt with a gun in the off @-@ season . He is known for having a more quiet and reserved personality , but he says that he has become " a little more comfortable " with his teammates by spending time and " connecting " with them , which he says contributes to his success .
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= System Shock 2 =
System Shock 2 is a first @-@ person action role @-@ playing survival horror video game for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux , designed by Ken Levine and co @-@ developed by Irrational Games and Looking Glass Studios . Originally intended to be a standalone title , its story was changed during production into a sequel to the 1994 PC game System Shock ; the alterations were made when Electronic Arts — who owned the System Shock franchise rights — signed on as publisher . System Shock 2 was released on August 11 , 1999 , in North America .
The game takes place on board a starship in a cyberpunk depiction of 2114 . The player assumes the role of a soldier trying to stem the outbreak of a genetic infection that has devastated the ship . Like System Shock , gameplay consists of combat and exploration . It incorporates role @-@ playing system elements , in which the player can develop skills and traits , such as hacking and psionic abilities .
System Shock 2 received positive reviews , but failed to meet commercial sales expectations . Many critics later determined that the game was highly influential in subsequent game design , particularly on first @-@ person shooters , and considered it far ahead of its time . It has been included in several " greatest games of all time " lists . In 2007 , Irrational Games released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series , titled BioShock , to critical acclaim and strong sales . System Shock 2 had been in intellectual property limbo following closure of Looking Glass Studios . Night Dive Studios were able to secure the rights to game and System Shock franchise in 2013 to produce an updated version of System Shock 2 for modern personal computers . OtherSide Entertainment announced in December 2015 that they have been licensed the rights from Night Dive Studios to produce a sequel , System Shock 3 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like in its predecessor , System Shock , gameplay in System Shock 2 is an amalgamation of the action role @-@ playing game and survival horror genres . The developers achieved this gameplay design by rendering the experience as a standard first @-@ person shooter and adding a character customization and development system , which are considered as signature role @-@ play elements . The player uses melee and projectile weapons to defeat enemies , while a role @-@ playing system allows the development of useful abilities . Navigation is presented from a first @-@ person view and complemented with a heads @-@ up display that shows character and weapon information , a map , and a drag and drop inventory .
The backstory is explained progressively through the player 's acquisition of audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions . At the beginning of the game the player chooses a career in a branch of the Unified National Nominate , a fictional military organization . Each branch of service gives the player a set of starting bonuses composed of certain skills , though may thereafter freely develop as the player chooses . The Marine begins with bonuses to weaponry , the Navy officer is skilled in repairing and hacking , and the OSA agent gets a starting set of psionic powers .
The player can upgrade their skills by using " cyber @-@ modules " given as rewards for completing objectives such as searching the ship , and then spend them at devices called " cyber @-@ upgrade units " to obtain enhanced skills . Operating system ( O / S ) units allow one @-@ time character upgrades to be made ( e.g. permanent health enhancement ) . An in @-@ game currency called " nanites " may be spent on items at vending machines , including ammunition supplies and health packs . " Quantum Bio @-@ Reconstruction Machines " can be activated and reconstitute the player for 10 nanites if they die inside the area in which the machine resides . Otherwise , the game ends and progress must be resumed from a save point . The player can hack devices , such as keypads to open alternate areas and vending machines to reduce prices . When a hack is attempted , a minigame begins that features a grid of green nodes ; the player must connect three in a straight row to succeed . Optionally , electronic lock picks , called " ICE @-@ picks " , can be found that will automatically hack a machine , regardless of its difficulty .
Throughout the game , the player can procure various weapons , including melee weapons , pistols , shotguns , and alien weapons . Non @-@ melee weapons degrade with use and will break if they are not regularly repaired with maintenance tools . There are a variety of ammunition types , each of which is most damaging to a specific enemy . For example , organic enemies are vulnerable to anti @-@ personnel rounds , while mechanical foes are weak against armor @-@ piercing rounds . Similarly , energy weapons cause the most damage against robots and cyborgs , and the annelid @-@ made exotic weaponry is particularly harmful to organic targets . Because ammunition is scarce , to be effective the player must use it sparingly and carefully search rooms for supplies .
The game includes a research function . When new objects are encountered in the game , especially enemies , their organs can be collected and , when combined with chemicals found in storage rooms , the player can research the enemies and thus improve their damage against them . Similarly , some exotic weapons and items can only be used after being researched . OSA agents effectively have a separate weapons tree available to them . Psionic powers can be learned , such as invisibility , fireballs and teleportation .
= = Plot = =
= = = Backstory = = =
In 2072 , after the Citadel Station 's demise , TriOptimum 's attempts to cover up the incident were exposed to the media and the corporation was brought up on charges from multiple individuals and companies for the ensuing scandal . The virus developed there killed the station 's population ; the ruthless malevolent A.I supercomputer named SHODAN controlled , and eventually destroyed the Citadel Station in hopes of enslaving and destroying humanity . After a massive number of trials , the company went bankrupt and their operations were shut down . The United Nations Nominate ( UNN ) , a UN successor , was established to combat the malevolence and corruption of power @-@ hungry corporations , including TriOptimum .
In 2100 , 28 years later , the company 's failed stocks and assets were bought by a Russian oligarch named Anatoly Korenchkin , a former black market operator who sought to make money in legitimate ways . He re @-@ licensed and restored the company to its former status in the following decade . Along with producing healthcare and consumer products , Korenchkin signed weapons contracts with various military organizations , private and political @-@ owned . The new UNN was almost virtually powerless with Korenchkin exercising control over them .
In January 2114 , 42 years after the Citadel events and 12 years into rebuilding TriOptimum , the company created an experimental FTL starship , the Von Braun , which is now on its maiden voyage . The ship is also followed by a UNN space vessel , the Rickenbacker , which is controlled by Captain William Bedford Diego , son of Edward Diego , the Citadel Station 's infamous commander and public hero of the Battle of the Boston Harbor during the Eastern States police action . Because the Rickenbacker does not have an FTL system of its own , the two ships are attached for the trip . However , Korenchkin was egoistical enough to make himself the captain of the Von Braun despite being inexperienced
In July 2114 , 5 months into the journey , the ships respond to a distress signal from the planet Tau Ceti V , outside the Solar System . A rescue team is sent to the planet 's surface where they discover strange eggs ; these eggs , found in an old ejection pod , infect the rescue team and integrate them into an alien communion known as the Many . The infection eventually spreads to both ships and the ships are overrun with the virus . The virus overruns most of the crew .
= = = Plot = = =
Owing to a computer malfunction , the remaining soldier awakens with amnesia in a cryo @-@ tube on the medical deck of the Von Braun , being implanted with an illegal cyber neural interface . He is immediately contacted by another survivor , Dr. Janice Polito , who guides him to safety before the cabin depressurizes . She demands that he meets her on deck 4 of the Von Braun . Along the way , the soldier battles the infected crew members . The Many also telepathically communicate with him , attempting to convince him to join them . After restarting the ship 's engine core , the soldier reaches deck 4 and discovers that Polito is dead . He is then confronted by SHODAN . It is revealed she has been posing as Polito to gain the soldier 's trust .
SHODAN mentions that she is responsible for creating the Many through her bioengineering experiments on Citadel Station . The Hacker , who created her , ejected the grove that contained her experiments to prevent them contaminating Earth , an act that allowed part of SHODAN to survive in the grove . The grove crash @-@ landed on Tau Ceti V. While SHODAN went into forced hibernation , The Many evolved beyond her control . SHODAN tells the soldier that his only chance for survival lies in helping destroy her creations . Efforts to regain control of XERXES , the main computer on the Von Braun , fail . SHODAN informs the soldier that destroying the ship is their only option , but he must transmit her program to the Rickenbacker first . While en route , the soldier briefly encounters two survivors , Tommy Suarez and Rebecca Siddons , who flee the ship aboard an escape pod .
With the transfer complete , the soldier travels to the Rickenbacker and learns both ships have been enveloped by the infection 's source , a gigantic mass of bio @-@ organic tissue . The soldier enters the biomass and destroys its core , stopping the infection . SHODAN congratulates him and tells of her intentions to merge real space and cyberspace through the Von Braun 's faster @-@ than @-@ light drive . The soldier confronts SHODAN in cyberspace and defeats her . The final scene shows Tommy and Rebecca receiving a message from the Von Braun . Tommy responds , saying they will return and noting that Rebecca is acting strange . Rebecca is shown speaking in a SHODAN @-@ like voice , asking Tommy if he " likes her new look " , as the screen fades to black .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Development of System Shock 2 began in 1997 when Looking Glass Studios approached Irrational Games with an idea to co @-@ develop a new game . The development team were fans of System Shock and sought to create a similar game . Early story ideas were similar to the novella Heart of Darkness . In an early draft , the player was tasked with assassinating an insane commander on a starship . The original title of the game , according to its pitch document , was Junction Point . The philosophy of the design was to continue to develop the concept of a dungeon crawler , like Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , in a science fiction setting , the basis for System Shock . However , the press mistook System Shock to be closer to a Doom clone which was cited for poor financial success of System Shock . With Junction Point , the goal was to add in a significant role @-@ playing elements and a persistent storyline as to distance the game from Doom .
The title took 18 months to create with a budget of $ 1 @.@ 7 million and was pitched to several publishers , until Electronic Arts — who owned the rights to the Shock franchise — responded by suggesting the game become a sequel to System Shock . The development team agreed ; Electronic Arts became the publisher and story changes were made to incorporate the franchise . The project was allotted one year to be completed , and to compensate for the short time frame , the staff began working with Looking Glass Studio 's unfinished Dark Engine , the same engine used to create Thief : The Dark Project .
The designers included role @-@ playing elements in the game . Similar to Ultima Underworld , another Looking Glass Studios project , the environment in System Shock 2 is persistent and constantly changes without the player 's presence . Paper @-@ and @-@ pencil role @-@ playing games were influential ; the character customization system was based on Traveller 's methodology and was implemented in the fictional military branches which , by allowing multiple character paths , the player could receive a more open @-@ ended gameplay experience . Horror was a key focus and four major points were identified to successfully incorporate it . Isolation was deemed primary , which resulted in the player having little physical contact with other sentient beings . Secondly , vulnerability was created by focusing on a fragile character . Last were the inclusion of moody sound effects and " the intelligent placement of lighting and shadows " . The game 's lead designer , Ken Levine , oversaw the return of System Shock villain SHODAN . Part of Levine 's design was to ally the player with her , as he believed that game characters were too trusting , stating " good guys are good , bad guys are bad . What you see and perceive is real " . Levine sought to challenge this notion by having SHODAN betray the player : " Sometimes characters are betrayed , but the player never is . I wanted to violate that trust and make the player feel that they , and not [ only ] the character , were led on and deceived " . This design choice was controversial with the development team .
Several problems were encountered during the project . Because the team comprised two software companies , tension emerged regarding job assignments and some developers left the project . Additionally , many employees were largely inexperienced , but in retrospect project manager Jonathan Chey felt this was advantageous , stating " inexperience also bred enthusiasm and commitment that might not have been present with a more jaded set of developers . " The Dark Engine posed problems of its own . It was unfinished , forcing the programmers to fix software bugs when encountered . In contrast , working closely with the engine code allowed them to write additional features . Not all setbacks were localized ; a demonstration build at E3 was hindered when it was requested all guns be removed from the presentation due to then @-@ recent Columbine High School massacre .
= = = Release = = =
A demo for the game , featuring a tutorial and a third of the first mission , was released on August 2 , 1999 . Nine days later , System Shock 2 was shipped to retailers . An enhancement patch was released a month later and added significant features , such as co @-@ operative multiplayer and control over weapon degradation and enemy respawn rates . A port was planned for the Dreamcast but was canceled .
= = = End @-@ of @-@ support and source code leak = = =
Around 2000 , with the end @-@ of @-@ support for the game by the developer and publisher , remaining bugs and compatibility with newer operating systems and hardware became a growing problem . To compensate the missing support , some fans of the game became active in the modding community to update the game . For instance , the " Rebirth " graphical enhancement mod replaced many low @-@ polygonal models with higher quality ones , a " Shock Texture Upgrade Project " increased the resolution of textures , and an updated level editor was released by the user community . In 2009 , a complete copy of System Shock 2 's Dark Engine source code was discovered in the possession of an ex @-@ Looking Glass Studios employee who was at the time continuing his work for Eidos Interactive . In late April 2010 , a user on the Dreamcast Talk forum disassembled the contents of a Dreamcast development kit he had purchased . In 2012 significant unofficial updates for System Shock 2 ( and other Dark Engine @-@ based games ) were published .
= = = Intellectual property debacle and re @-@ release = = =
The intellectual property ( IP ) rights of System Shock 2 were caught for years in complications between Electronic Arts and Meadowbrook Insurance Group ( a subsidiary of Star Insurance Company ) , the entity that acquired the assets of Looking Glass Studios on their closure , though according to a lawyer for Star Insurance , they themselves have since acquired the lingering intellectual property rights from EA .
In October 2012 Stephen Kick of Night Dive Studios , seeking to bring the game to modern systems , started negotiations with the rights holders and was able to secure the rights . Kick worked with GOG.com for a timed @-@ exclusive release on their digital distribution website on February 2013 , where the game was the most requested to be added to the catalog . This version , considered by GOG.com to be a " collector 's edition " , includes updates to the original game to make it work on modern systems while still allowing user @-@ made modifications to be applied , and contains additional material such as the game 's soundtrack , maps of the Von Braun , and the original pitch document for the game . The update rights also allowed a Mac OS X version of System Shock 2 to be subsequently released on June 18 , 2013 through GOG.com. The title was later also available on Steam on May 10 , 2013 . On April 2014 a Linux version was also released .
Since then , Night Dive Studios also acquired the rights to System Shock , releasing an enhanced version of the game in September 2015 . Kick has reported they have acquired full rights to the series since then .
= = Reception = =
System Shock 2 received over a dozen awards , including seven " Game of the Year " prizes . Reviews were very positive and lauded the title for its hybrid gameplay , moody sound design , and engaging story . System Shock 2 is regarded by critics as highly influential , particularly on first @-@ person shooters and the horror genre . In a retrospective article , GameSpot declared the title " well ahead of its time " and stated that it " upped the ante in dramatic and mechanical terms " by creating a horrific gameplay experience . Despite critical acclaim , the title did not perform well commercially ; only 58 @,@ 671 copies were sold by April 2000 .
Several publications praised the title for its open @-@ ended gameplay . With regard to character customization , Trent Ward of IGN stated the best element of the role @-@ playing system was allowing gamers to " play the game as completely different characters " , and felt this made each play @-@ through unique . Erik Reckase writing for Just Adventure agreed , saying " There are very few games that allow you [ to ] play the way you want " . Alec Norands of Allgame believed that the different character classes made the game “ diverse enough to demand instant replayability " . Robert Mayer from Computer Games Magazine called System Shock 2 " a game that truly defies classification in a single genre " , and ensured that " the action is occasionally fast @-@ paced , it 's more often tactical , placing a premium on thought rather than on reflexes . "
A number of critics described the game as frightening . Computer and Video Games described the atmosphere as " gripping " and guaranteed readers they would " jump out of [ their ] skin " numerous times . Allgame found the sound design particularly effective , calling it “ absolutely , teeth @-@ clenchingly disturbing " , while PC Gamer 's William Harms christened System Shock 2 as the most frightening game he had ever played . Some critics found the weapon degradation system to be irritating , and members of the development team have also expressed misgivings about the system . The role @-@ playing system was another point of contention ; GameSpot described the job system as " badly unbalanced " because the player can develop skills outside their career choice . Allgame felt similarly about the system , saying it " leaned towards a hacker character " .
Along with Deus Ex , Sid Shuman of GamePro christened System Shock 2 " [ one of the ] twin barrels of modern [ first @-@ person shooter ] innovation " , owing to its complex role @-@ playing gameplay . IGN writer Cam Shea referred to the game as " another reinvention of the FPS genre " , citing the story , characters , and RPG system . PC Zone lauded the game as a " fabulous example of a modern @-@ day computer game " and named it " a sci @-@ fi horror masterpiece " . The title has been inducted into a number of features listing the greatest games ever made , including ones by GameSpy , Edge , Empire , IGN , GameSpot and PC Gamer . IGN also ranked System Shock 2 as the 35th greatest first @-@ person shooter of all time . SHODAN has proven to be a popular character among most critics , including IGN , GameSpot and The Phoenix .
= = Sequel = =
System Shock 2 has amassed a cult following , with fans asking for a sequel . On January 9 , 2006 , GameSpot reported that Electronic Arts had renewed its trademark protection on the System Shock name , leading to speculation that System Shock 3 might be under development . Three days later , Computer and Video Games reported a reliable source had come forward and confirmed the title 's production . Electronic Arts UK made no comment when confronted with the information . PC Gamer UK stated the team behind The Godfather : The Game ( EA Redwood Shores ) was charged with its creation . Ken Levine , when asked whether he would helm a third installment , replied " that question is completely out of my hands " . He expressed optimism at the prospect of System Shock 3 , but revealed that EA had not shown interest in his own proposal for a sequel , and was not optimistic with regards to their abilities . Electronic Arts did not confirm a new title in the series and allowed the System Shock trademark registration to lapse . Redwood Shores ' next release was 2008 's Dead Space , a game with noted similarities in theme and presentation to the System Shock series .
In November 2015 , Night Dive Studios , after acquiring the rights for the System Shock franchise , stated they are considering developing a third title in the series . In December 2015 , OtherSide Entertainment , a studio founded by former Looking Glass Studios designer Paul Neurath , announced they were developing System Shock 3 with rights granted to them by Night Dive Studios . OtherSide had acquired rights to make sequels to System Shock some years before this point , but did not have the rights to the series name , which Night Dive was able to provide . The sequel will feature Terri Brosius reprising her voice for SHODAN , and will include work from original System Shock concept artist Robb Waters . Warren Spector , the producer of the first System Shock , announced in February 2016 that he has joined OtherSide Entertainment and will be working on System Shock 3 .
= = = Spiritual successors = = =
In 2007 , Irrational Games — briefly known as 2K Boston / 2K Australia — released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series , entitled BioShock . The game takes place in an abandoned underwater utopian community destroyed by the genetic modification of its populace and shares many gameplay elements with System Shock 2 : reconstitution stations can be activated , allowing the player to be resurrected when they die ; hacking , ammo conservation , and exploration are integral parts of gameplay ; and unique powers may be acquired via plasmids , special abilities that function similarly to psionics in System Shock 2 . The two titles also share plot similarities and employ audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions to reveal backstory . In BioShock Infinite , Irrational Games included a gameplay feature called " 1999 Mode " , specifically in reference to System Shock 2 's release year , designed to provide a similar game experience , with a higher difficulty and long @-@ lasting effects of choices made , that would remind players of System Shock 's unforgiving nature .
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= Battle of Plataea =
The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece . It took place in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia , and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city @-@ states , including Sparta , Athens , Corinth and Megara , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.
The previous year the Persian invasion force , led by the Persian king in person , had scored victories at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium and conquered Thessaly , Boeotia , Euboea and Attica . However , at the ensuing Battle of Salamis , the Allied Greek navy had won an unlikely but decisive victory , preventing the conquest of the Peloponnesus . Xerxes then retreated with much of his army , leaving his general Mardonius to finish off the Greeks the following year .
In the summer of 479 BC the Greeks assembled a huge ( by ancient standards ) army and marched out of the Peloponnesus . The Persians retreated to Boeotia and built a fortified camp near Plataea . The Greeks , however , refused to be drawn into the prime cavalry terrain around the Persian camp , resulting in a stalemate that lasted 11 days . While attempting a retreat after their supply lines were disrupted , the Greek battle line fragmented . Thinking the Greeks in full retreat , Mardonius ordered his forces to pursue them , but the Greeks ( particularly the Spartans , Tegeans and Athenians ) halted and gave battle , routing the lightly armed Persian infantry and killing Mardonius .
A large portion of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and slaughtered . The destruction of this army , and the remnants of the Persian navy allegedly on the same day at the Battle of Mycale , decisively ended the invasion . After Plataea and Mycale the Greek allies would take the offensive against the Persians , marking a new phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Plataea was in every sense a resounding victory , it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance ( even at the time ) as , for example , the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or the Spartan defeat at Thermopylae .
= = Background = =
The Greek city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499 – 494 BC . The Persian Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts by its subject peoples . Moreover , Darius was an usurper and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . The Ionian Revolt threatened the integrity of his empire , and he thus vowed to punish those involved ( especially those not already part of the empire ) . Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece . A preliminary expedition under Mardonius , in 492 BC , to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re @-@ conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia , the latter which had been a Persian vassal as early as the late 6th century BC . An amphibious task force was then sent out under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC , using Delos as an intermediate base at , successfully sacking Karystos and Eretria , before moving to attack Athens . However , at the ensuing Battle of Marathon , the Athenians won a remarkable victory , resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia .
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece . However , he died before the invasion could begin . The throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I , who quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece , including building two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont . In 481 BC Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water as a gesture of their submission , but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta ( both of whom were at open war with Persia ) . Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states . A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed ( hereafter referred to as " the Allies " ) . This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states in attendance were still technically at war with each other .
The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking land and sea approaches to southern Greece . Thus , in August 480 BC , after hearing of Xerxes ' approach , a small Allied army led by Spartan King Leonidas I blocked the Pass of Thermopylae , while an Athenian @-@ dominated navy sailed to the Straits of Artemisium . Famously , the massively outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae against the Persian army for three days before being outflanked by the Persians , who used a little @-@ known mountain path . Although much of the Greek army retreated , the rearguard , formed of the Spartan and Thespian contingents , was surrounded and annihilated . The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium , consisting of a series of naval encounters , was up to that point a stalemate ; however , when news of Thermopylae reached them , they also retreated , since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point .
Following Thermopylae the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities that had not surrendered , Plataea and Thespiae , before taking possession of the now @-@ evacuated city of Athens . The Allied army , meanwhile , prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth . Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season ; conversely , the allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese . The ensuing naval Battle of Salamis ended in a decisive victory for the Allies , marking a turning point in the conflict .
Following the defeat of his navy at Salamis , Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of his army . According to Herodotus , this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges , thereby trapping his army in Europe . He thus left Mardonius , with handpicked troops , to complete the conquest of Greece the following year . Mardonius evacuated Attica and wintered in Thessaly ; the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city . Over the winter there seems to have been some tension among the Allies . The Athenians in particular , who were not protected by the Isthmus but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnese , felt hard done by and demanded that an allied army march north the following year . When the Allies failed to commit to this , the Athenian fleet refused to join the Allied navy in the spring . The navy , now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides , thus skulked off Delos , while the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos , both sides unwilling to risk battle . Similarly , Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless , while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponnese .
Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of Alexander I of Macedon , offering peace , self @-@ government and territorial expansion . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer , and rejected it :
The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes ' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention . We are already well aware of it . But even so , such is our love of liberty , that we will never surrender .
Upon this refusal , the Persians marched south again . Athens was again evacuated and left to the enemy . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , along with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance and threatening to accept the Persian terms if it was not given . According to Herodotus , the Spartans , who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus , delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest , Chileos of Tegea , who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered .
= = Prelude = =
When Mardonius learned of the Spartan force , he completed the destruction of Athens , tearing down whatever was left standing . He then retreated towards Thebes , hoping to lure the Greek army into territory that would be suitable for the Persian cavalry . Mardonius created a fortified encampment on the north bank of the Asopus river in Boeotia covering the ground from Erythrae past Hysiae and up to the lands of Plataea .
The Athenians sent 8 @,@ 000 hoplites , led by Aristides , along with 600 Plataean exiles to join the Allied army . The army then marched in Boeotia across the passes of Mount Cithaeron , arriving near Plataea , and above the Persian position on the Asopus . Under the guidance of the commanding general , Pausanias , the Greeks took up position opposite the Persian lines but remained on high ground . Knowing that he had little hope of successfully attacking the Greek positions , Mardonius sought to either sow dissension among the Allies or lure them down into the plain . Plutarch reports that a conspiracy was discovered among some prominent Athenians , who were planning to betray the Allied cause ; although this account is not universally accepted , it may indicate Mardonius ' attempts of intrigue within the Greek ranks .
Mardonius also initiated hit @-@ and @-@ run cavalry attacks against the Greek lines , possibly trying to lure the Greeks down to the plain in pursuit . Although having some initial success , this strategy backfired when the Persian cavalry commander Masistius was killed ; with his death , the cavalry retreated .
Their morale boosted by this small victory , the Greeks moved forward , still remaining on higher ground , to a new position nearer more suited for encampment and better watered . The Spartans and Tegeans were on a ridge to the right of the line , the Athenians on a hillock on the left and the other contingents on the slightly lower ground between . In response , Mardonius brought his men up to the Asopus and arrayed them for battle ; However , neither the Persians nor the Greeks would attack ; Herodotus claims this is because both sides received bad omens during sacrificial rituals . The armies thus stayed camped in their locations for eight days , during which new Greek troops arrived . Mardonius then sought to break the stalemate by sending his cavalry to attack the passes of Mount Cithaeron ; this raid resulted in the capture of a convoy of provisions intended for the Greeks . Two more days passed , during which time the supply lines of the Greeks continued to be menaced . Mardonius then launched another cavalry raid on the Greek lines , which succeeded in blocking the Gargaphian Spring , which had been the only source of water for the Greek army ( they could not use the Asopus due to the threat posed by Persian archers ) . Coupled with the lack of food , the restriction of the water supply made the Greek position untenable , so they decided to retreat to a position in front of Plataea , from where they could guard the passes and have access to fresh water . To prevent the Persian cavalry from attacking during the retreat , it was to be performed that night .
However , the retreat went awry . The Allied contingents in the centre missed their appointed position and ended up scattered in front of Plataea itself . The Athenians , Tegeans and Spartans , who had been guarding the rear of the retreat , had not even begun to retreat by daybreak . A single Spartan division was thus left on the ridge to guard the rear , while the Spartans and Tegeans retreated uphill ; Pausanias also instructed the Athenians to begin the retreat and if possible join up with the Spartans . However , the Athenians at first retreated directly towards Plataea , and thus the Allied battle line remained fragmented as the Persian camp began to stir .
= = The opposing forces = =
= = = The Greeks = = =
According to Herodotus , the Spartans sent 45 @,@ 000 men — 5 @,@ 000 Spartiates ( full citizen soldiers ) , 5 @,@ 000 other Lacodaemonian hoplites ( perioeci ) and 35 @,@ 000 helots ( seven per Spartiate ) . This was probably the largest Spartan force ever assembled . The Greek army had been reinforced by contingents of hoplites from the other Allied city @-@ states , as shown in the table . Diodorus Siculus claims in his Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Greek troops approached one hundred thousand .
According to Herodotus , there were a total of 69 @,@ 500 lightly armed troops — 35 @,@ 000 helots and 34 @,@ 500 troops from the rest of Greece ; roughly one per hoplite . The number of 34 @,@ 500 has been suggested to represent one light skirmisher supporting each non @-@ Spartan hoplite ( 33 @,@ 700 ) , together with 800 Athenian archers , whose presence in the battle Herodotus later notes . Herodotus tells us that there were also 1 @,@ 800 Thespians ( but does not say how they were equipped ) , giving a total strength of 108 @,@ 200 men .
The number of hoplites is accepted as reasonable ( and possible ) ; the Athenians alone had fielded 10 @,@ 000 hoplites at the Battle of Marathon . Some historians have accepted the number of light troops and used them as a population census of Greece at the time . Certainly these numbers are theoretically possible . Athens , for instance , allegedly fielded a fleet of 180 triremes at Salamis , manned by approximately 36 @,@ 000 rowers and fighters . Thus 69 @,@ 500 light troops could easily have been sent to Plataea . Nevertheless , the number of light troops is often rejected as exaggerated , especially in view of the ratio of seven helots to one Spartiate . For instance , Lazenby accepts that hoplites from other Greek cities might have been accompanied by one lightly armoured retainer each , but rejects the number of seven helots per Spartiate . He further speculates that each Spartiate was accompanied by one armed helot , and that the remaining helots were employed in the logistical effort , transporting food for the army . Both Lazenby and Holland deem the lightly armed troops , whatever their number , as essentially irrelevant to the outcome of battle .
A further complication is that a certain proportion of the Allied manpower was needed to man the fleet , which amounted to at least 110 triremes , and thus approximately 22 @,@ 000 men . Since the Battle of Mycale was fought at least near @-@ simultaneously with the Battle of Plataea , then this was a pool of manpower which could not have contributed to Plataea , and further reduces the likelihood that 110 @,@ 000 Greeks assembled before Plataea .
The Greek forces were , as agreed by the Allied congress , under the overall command of Spartan royalty in the person of Pausanias , who was the regent for Leonidas ' young son , Pleistarchus , his cousin . Diodorus tells us that the Athenian contingent was under the command of Aristides ; it is probable that the other contingents also had their leaders . Herodotus tells us in several places that the Greeks held council during the prelude to the battle , implying that decisions were consensual and that Pausanias did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the other contingents . This style of leadership contributed to the way events unfolded during the battle itself . For instance , in the period immediately before the battle , Pausanias was unable to order the Athenians to join up with his forces , and thus the Greeks fought the battle completely separated from each other .
= = = The Persians = = =
According to Herodotus , the Persians numbered 300 @,@ 000 and were accompanied by troops from Greek city states that supported the Persian cause ( including Thebes ) . Herodotus admits that no one counted the latter , but he guesses that there were about 50 @,@ 000 of them .
Ctesias , who wrote a history of Persia based on Persian archives , claimed there were 120 @,@ 000 Persian and 7 @,@ 000 Greek soldiers , but his account is generally garbled ( for instance , placing this battle before Salamis , he also says there were only 300 Spartans , 1000 perioeci and 6000 from the other cities at Plataea , perhaps confusing it with Thermopylae ) .
Diodorus Siculus claims in his Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Persian troops was some five hundred thousand .
The figure of 300 @,@ 000 has been doubted , along with many of Herodotus ' numbers , by many historians ; modern consensus estimates the total number of troops for the Persian invasion at around 250 @,@ 000 . According to this consensus , Herodotus ' 300 @,@ 000 Persians at Plataea would self @-@ evidently be impossible . One approach to estimating the size of the Persian army has been to estimate how many men might feasibly have been accommodated within the Persian camp ; this approach gives figures of between 70 @,@ 000 and 120 @,@ 000 men . Lazenby , for instance , by comparison with later Roman military camps , calculates the number of troops at 70 @,@ 000 , including 10 @,@ 000 cavalry . Meanwhile , Connolly derives a number of 120 @,@ 000 from the same @-@ sized camp . Indeed , most estimates for the total Persian force are generally in this range . For instance , Delbrück , based on the distance the Persians marched in a day when Athens was attacked , concluded that 75 @,@ 000 was the upper limit for the size of the Persian army , including the supply personnel and other non @-@ combatants .
= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =
In some ways the run @-@ up to Plataea resembled that at the Battle of Marathon ; there was a prolonged stalemate in which neither side risked attacking the other . The reasons for this stalemate were primarily tactical , and similar to the situation at Marathon ; the Greek hoplites did not want to risk being outflanked by the Persian cavalry and the lightly armed Persian infantry could not hope to assault well @-@ defended positions .
According to Herodotus , both sides wished for a decisive battle that would tip the war in their favor . However , Lazenby believed that Mardonius ' actions during the Plataea campaign were not consistent with an aggressive policy . He interprets the Persian operations during the prelude not as attempts to force the Allies into battle but as attempts to force the Allies into retreat ( which indeed became the case ) . Mardonius may have felt he had little to gain in battle and that he could simply wait for the Greek alliance to fall apart ( as it had nearly done over the winter ) . There can be little doubt from Herodotus ' account that Mardonius was prepared to accept battle on his own terms , however . Regardless of the exact motives , the initial strategic situation allowed both sides to procrastinate , since food supplies were ample for both armies . Under these conditions , the tactical considerations outweighed the strategic need for action .
When Mardonius ' raids disrupted the Allied supply chain , it forced the Allies to rethink their strategy . Rather than now moving to attack , however , they instead looked to retreat and secure their lines of communication . Despite this defensive move by the Greeks , it was in fact the chaos resulting from this retreat that finally ended the stalemate . Mardonius perceived this as a full @-@ on retreat , in effect thinking that the battle was already over , and sought to pursue the Greeks . Since he did not expect the Greeks to fight , the tactical problems were no longer an issue and he tried to take advantage of the altered strategic situation he thought he had produced . Conversely , the Greeks had , inadvertently , lured Mardonius into attacking them on the higher ground and , despite being outnumbered , were thus at a tactical advantage .
= = The battle = =
Once the Persians discovered that the Greeks had abandoned their positions and appeared to be in retreat , Mardonius decided to set off in immediate pursuit with the elite Persian infantry . As he did so , the rest of the Persian army , unbidden , began to move forward . The Spartans and Tegeans had by now reached the Temple of Demeter . The rearguard under Amompharetus began to withdraw from the ridge , under pressure from Persian cavalry , to join them . Pausanias sent a messenger to the Athenians , asking them to join up with the Spartans . However , the Athenians had been engaged by the Theban phalanx and were unable to assist Pausanias . The Spartans and Tegeans were first assaulted by the Persian cavalry , while the Persian infantry made their way forward . They then planted their shields and began shooting arrows at the Greeks , while the cavalry withdrew .
According to Herodotus , Pausanias refused to advance because good omens were not divined in the goat sacrifices that were performed . At this point , as Greek soldiers began to fall under the barrage of arrows , the Tegeans started to run at the Persian lines . Offering one last sacrifice and a prayer to the heavens in front of the Temple of Hera , Pausanias finally received favourable omens and gave the command for the Spartans to advance , whereupon they also charged the Persian lines .
The numerically superior Persian infantry were of the heavy ( by Persian standards ) sparabara formation , but this was still much lighter than the Greek phalanx . The Persian defensive weapon was a large wicker shield and they used short spears ; by contrast , the hoplites were armored in bronze , with a bronze shield and a long spear . As at Marathon , it was a severe mismatch . The fight was fierce and long , but the Greeks ( Spartans and Tegeans ) continued to push into the Persian lines . The Persians tried to break the Greeks ' spears by grabbing hold of them , but the Greeks responded by switching to swords . Mardonius was present at the scene , riding a white horse , and surrounded by a bodyguard of 1 @,@ 000 men ; while he remained , the Persians stood their ground . However , the Spartans closed in on Mardonius ; a Spartan soldier named Arimnestus saw him astride his horse , picked up a large rock off the ground and threw it hard at Mardonius ; it hit him squarely in the head , killing him . With Mardonius dead , the Persians began to flee ; although his bodyguard remained , they were annihilated . Herodotus claims that the reason for their discomfort was a lack of armour . Quickly the rout became general , with many Persians fleeing in disorder to their camp . However , Artabazus ( who had earlier commanded the Sieges of Olynthus and Potidea ) , had disagreed with Mardonius about attacking the Greeks , and he had not fully engaged the forces under his command . As the rout commenced , he led these men ( 40 @,@ 000 , according to Herodotus ) away from the battlefield , on the road to Thessaly , hoping to escape eventually to the Hellespont .
On the opposite side of the battlefield the Athenians had triumphed in a tough battle against the Thebans . The other Greeks fighting for the Persians had deliberately fought badly , according to Herodotus . The Thebans retreated from the battle , but in a different direction from the Persians , allowing them to escape without further losses . The Allied Greeks , reinforced by the contingents who had not taken part in the main battle , then stormed the Persian camp . Although the Persians initially defended the wall vigorously , it was eventually breached ; the Persians , packed tightly together in the camp , were slaughtered by the Greeks . Of the Persians who had retreated to the camp , scarcely 3 @,@ 000 were left alive .
According to Herodotus , only 43 @,@ 000 Persians survived the battle . The number who died , of course , depends on how many there were in the first place ; there would be 257 @,@ 000 dead by Herodotus ' reckoning . Herodotus claims that the Greeks as a whole lost only 159 men . Furthermore , he claims that only Spartans , Tegeans and Athenians died , since they were the only ones who fought . Plutarch , who had access to other sources , gives 1 @,@ 360 Greek casualties , while both Ephorus and Diodorus Siculus tally the Greek casualties to over 10 @,@ 000 .
= = Accounts of individuals = =
Herodotus recounts several anecdotes about the conduct of specific Spartans during the battle .
Amompharetus : The leader of a battalion of Spartans , he refused to undertake the night @-@ time retreat towards Plataea before the battle , since doing so would be shameful for a Spartan . Herodotus has an angry debate continuing between Pausanias and Amompharetus until dawn , whereupon the rest of the Spartan army finally began to retreat , leaving Amompharetus ' division behind . Not expecting this , Amompharetus eventually led his men after the retreating Spartans . However , another tradition remembers Amompharetus as winning great renown at Plataea , and it has thus been suggested that Amompharetus , far from being insubordinate , had instead volunteered to guard the rear .
Aristodemus : The lone Spartan survivor of the slaughter of the 300 at the Battle of Thermopylae had , with a fellow Spartiate , been dismissed from the army by Leonidas I because of an eye infection . However , his colleague had insisted on being led into battle , partially blind , by a helot . Preferring to return to Sparta , Aristodemus was branded a coward and suffered a year of reproach before Plataea . Anxious to redeem his name , he charged the Persian lines by himself , killing in a savage fury before being cut down . Although the Spartans agreed that he had redeemed himself , they awarded him no special honour , because he failed to fight in the disciplined manner expected of a Spartan .
Callicrates : Considered the " most beautiful man , not among the Spartans only , but in the whole Greek camp " , Callicrates was eager to distinguish himself that day as a warrior but was deprived of the chance by a stray arrow that pierced his side while standing in formation . When the battle commenced he insisted on making the charge with the rest , but collapsed within a short distance . His last words , according to Herodotus , were , " I grieve not because I have to die for my country , but because I have not lifted my arm against the enemy . "
= = Aftermath = =
According to Herodotus , the Battle of Mycale occurred on the same afternoon as Plataea . A Greek fleet under the Spartan king Leotychides had sailed to Samos to challenge the remnants of the Persian fleet . The Persians , whose ships were in a poor state of repair , had decided not to risk fighting and instead drew their ships up on the beach at the feet of Mount Mycale in Ionia . An army of 60 @,@ 000 men had been left there by Xerxes and the fleet joined with them , building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships . However , Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet 's marines . Seeing the small size of the Greek force , the Persians emerged from the camp but the Greek hoplites again proved superior and destroyed much of the Persian force . The ships were abandoned to the Greeks , who burned them , crippling Xerxes ' sea power and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet .
With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale , the second Persian invasion of Greece was over . Moreover , the threat of future invasion was abated ; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again , over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished .
The remnants of the Persian army , under the command of Artabazus , tried to retreat back to Asia Minor . Travelling through the lands of Thessaly , Macedonia and Thrace by the shortest road , Artabazus eventually made it back to Byzantium , though losing many men to Thracian attacks , weariness and hunger . After the victory at Mycale , the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges , but found that this had already been done . The Peloponnesians sailed home , but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians . The Persians in the region , and their allies , made for Sestos , the strongest town in the region , and the Athenians laid siege to them there . After a protracted siege Sestos fell to the Athenians , marking the beginning of a new phase in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , the Greek counterattack . Herodotus ended his Histories after the Siege of Sestos . Over the next 30 years the Greeks , primarily the Athenian @-@ dominated Delian League , would expel ( or help expel ) the Persians from Macedon , Thrace , the Aegean islands and Ionia . Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias , finally ending a half @-@ century of warfare .
= = Significance = =
Plataea and Mycale have great significance in ancient history as the battles that decisively ended the second Persian invasion of Greece , thereby swinging the balance of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars in favour of the Greeks . They kept Persia from conquering all of Greece , although they paid a high price by losing many of their men . The Battle of Marathon showed that the Persians could be defeated , and the Battle of Salamis saved Greece from immediate conquest , but it was Plataea and Mycale that effectively ended that threat . However , neither of these battles is nearly as well known as Thermopylae , Salamis or Marathon . The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear ; it might , however , be a result of the circumstances in which the battle was fought . The fame of Thermopylae certainly lies in the doomed heroism of the Greeks in the face of overwhelming numbers ; and Marathon and Salamis perhaps because they were both fought against the odds , and in dire strategic situations . Conversely , the Battles of Plataea and Mycale were both fought from a relative position of Greek strength , and against lesser odds ; the Greeks , in fact , sought out battle on both occasions .
Militarily , the major lesson of both Plataea and Mycale ( since both were fought on land ) was to re @-@ emphasise the superiority of the hoplite over the more lightly armed Persian infantry , as had first been demonstrated at Marathon . Taking on this lesson , after the Greco @-@ Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries . One such mercenary expedition , the " Anabasis of the 10 @,@ 000 " as narrated by Xenophon , further proved to the Greeks that the Persians were militarily vulnerable even well within their own territory , and paved the way for the destruction of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great some decades later .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Monuments to the battle = = =
A bronze column in the shape of intertwined snakes ( the Serpent column ) was created from melted @-@ down Persian weapons , acquired in the plunder of the Persian camp , and was erected at Delphi . It commemorated all the Greek city @-@ states that had participated in the battle , listing them on the column , and thus confirming some of Herodotus ' claims . Most of it still survives in the Hippodrome of Constantinople ( present @-@ day Istanbul ) , where it was carried by Constantine the Great during the founding of his city on the Greek colony of Byzantium .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus ( 1920 ) . The Histories. with an English translation by A. D. Godley . Cambridge : Harvard University Press . At the Perseus Project of the Tufts University .
Ctesias , Persica ( excerpt in Photius 's epitome )
Diodorus Siculus ( 1967 ) . Library. in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation by C. H. Oldfather . Cambridge , Mass . ; London . At the Perseus Project of the Tufts University .
Plutarch , Aristides
Xenophon , Anabasis
= = = Modern sources = = =
Delbrück , Hans . History of the Art of War Vol I. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6584 @-@ 4
Holland , Tom . Persian Fire . Abacus , 2005 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 349 @-@ 11717 @-@ 1
Green , Peter . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1970 ; revised ed . , 1996 ( hardcover , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20573 @-@ 1 ) ; 1998 ( paperback , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20313 @-@ 5 ) .
Gibbon , Edward . The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8095 @-@ 9235 @-@ 7
Lazenby , JF . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7
Fehling , D. Herodotus and His " Sources " : Citation , Invention , and Narrative Art . Translated by J.G. Howie . Arca Classical and Medieval Texts , Papers , and Monographs , 21 . Leeds : Francis Cairns , 1989 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 905205 @-@ 70 @-@ 0
Connolly , P. Greece and Rome at War , 1981 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84832 @-@ 609 @-@ 5
Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .
Roisman , Joseph ; Worthington , Ian ( 2011 ) . A Companion to Ancient Macedonia . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 44 @-@ 435163 @-@ 7 .
Shepherd , William ( 2012 ) . Plataea 479 B.C. ; The most glorious victory ever seen . Osprey Campaign Series # 239 . Osprey Publishing . Illustrator : Peter Dennis . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84908 @-@ 554 @-@ 0
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= Henry Martyn =
Henry Martyn ( 18 February 1781 – 16 October 1812 ) was an Anglican priest and missionary to the peoples of India and Persia . Born in Truro , Cornwall , he was educated at Truro Grammar School and St John 's College , Cambridge . A chance encounter with Charles Simeon led him to become a missionary . He was ordained a priest in the Church of England and became a chaplain for the British East India Company .
Martyn arrived in India in April 1806 , where he preached and occupied himself in the study of linguistics . He translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu , Persian and Judaeo @-@ Persic . He also translated the Psalms into Persian and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu . From India , he set out for Bushire , Shiraz , Isfahan , and Tabriz .
Martyn was seized with fever , and , though the plague was raging at Tokat , he was forced to stop there , unable to continue . On 16 October 1812 he died . He was remembered for his courage , selflessness and his religious devotion . In parts of the Anglican Communion he is celebrated with a Lesser Festival on 19 October .
= = Early life = =
Martyn was born in Truro , Cornwall . His father , John Martyn , was a " captain " or mine @-@ agent at Gwennap . As a boy , he was educated at Truro grammar school under Dr. Cardew and he entered St John 's College , Cambridge , in the autumn of 1797 , and was senior wrangler and first Smith 's prizeman in 1801 . In 1802 , he was chosen as a fellow of his college .
He had intended to go to the bar , but in the October term of 1802 he chanced to hear Charles Simeon speaking of the good done in India by a single missionary , William Carey , and some time afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd , a missionary to the Native Americans . He resolved , accordingly , to become a missionary himself . On 22 October 1803 , he was ordained deacon at Ely , and afterwards priest , and served as Simeon 's curate at the Church of Holy Trinity , taking charge of the neighbouring parish of Lolworth .
= = Missionary work = =
Martyn wanted to offer his services to the Church Missionary Society , when a financial disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his unmarried sister of the income their father had left for them . It was necessary for Martyn to earn an income that would support his sister as well as himself . He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the British East India Company and left for India on 5 July 1805 . On his voyage to the East , Martyn happened to be present at the British conquest of the Cape Colony on 8 January 1806 . He spent that day tending to the dying soldiers and was distressed by seeing the horrors of war . He would come away feeling that it was Britain 's destiny to convert , not colonize , the world . He wrote in his diary :
I prayed that … England whilst she sent the thunder of her arms to distant regions of the globe , might not remain proud and ungodly at home ; but might show herself great indeed , by sending forth the ministers of her church to diffuse the gospel of peace .
= = = India = = =
Martyn arrived in India in April 1806 , and for some months he was stationed at Aldeen , near Serampur . In October 1806 , he proceeded to Dinapur , where he was soon able to conduct worship among the locals in the vernacular , and established schools . In April 1809 , he was transferred to Cawnpore , where he preached to British and Indians in his own compound , in spite of interruptions and threats from local non @-@ Christians .
He occupied himself in linguistic study , and had already , during his residence at Dinapur , been engaged in revising the sheets of his Hindustani version of the New Testament . He now translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu also , and into Persian twice . He translated the Psalms into Persian , the Gospels into Judaeo @-@ Persic , and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu , in spite of ill @-@ health and " the pride , pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat . " Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage , he obtained leave to go to Persia and correct his Persian New Testament . From there , he wanted to go to Arabia , and there compose an Arabic version . On 1 October 1810 , having seen his work at Cawnpore rewarded on the previous day by the opening of a church , he left for Calcutta , from where he sailed on 7 January 1811 for Bombay . The ship reached port on his thirtieth birthday .
= = Final voyage and death = =
From Bombay he set out for Bushire , bearing letters from Sir John Malcolm to men of position there , as also at Shiraz and Isfahan . After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz , and was soon plunged into discussion with the disputants of all classes , " Sufi , Muslim , Jew , and Jewish Muslim , even Armenian , all anxious to test their powers of argument with the first English priest who had visited them . " He next traveled to Tabriz to attempt to present the Shah with his translation of the New Testament , which proved unsuccessful . Sir Gore Ouseley , the British ambassador to the Shah , was unable to bring about a meeting , but did deliver the manuscript . Although Martyn could not present the Bible in person , the Shah later wrote him a letter :
In truth ( said the royal letter of thanks to the ambassador ) through the learned and unremitted exertions of the Reverend Henry Martyn it has been translated in a style most befitting sacred books , that is in an easy and simple diction ... The whole of the New Testament is completed in a most excellent manner , a source of pleasure to our enlightened and august mind .
At this time , he was seized with fever , and after a temporary recovery , had to seek a change of climate . He set off for Constantinople , where he intended to return on furlough to England to regain his strength and recruit help for the missions in India . On 12 September 1812 , he started with two Armenian servants and crossed the Aras River . Urged on from place to place by their Tatar guide , they rode from Tabriz to Erivan , from Erivan to Kars , and from Kars to Erzurum . They departed Erzurum and though the plague was raging at Tokat , he was forced to stop there , unable to continue . He wrote his final journal entry on 6 October . It read , in part :
Oh ! when shall time give place to eternity ? When shall appear that new heaven and new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness ? There , there shall in no wise enter in any thing that defileth : none of that wickedness which has made men worse than wild beasts , none of those corruptions which add still more to the miseries of mortality , shall be seen or heard of any more .
On 16 October 1812 he died and was given a Christian burial by Armenian clergy .
He was heard to say , " Let me burn out for God " . An indication of his zeal for the things of God .
= = Legacy = =
His devotion to his tasks won him much admiration in Great Britain and he was the hero of a number of literary publications . Thomas Babington Macaulay 's Epitaph , composed early in 1813 , testified to the impression made by his career :
An institution was established in his name in India , called the Henry Martyn Institute : An Interfaith Centre for Reconciliation and Research , Hyderabad , India . John McManners wrote in his Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity that Martyn was a man remembered for his courage , selflessness and his religious devotion . In parts of the Anglican Communion he is celebrated with a Lesser Festival on 19 October .
The Henry Martyn Trust based in Cambridge , England can trace its history back to 1897 , at a time of great enthusiasm in Cambridge for overseas missions , when an appeal was launched for a ' Proposed Missionary Library for Cambridge University ' , to be housed in the Henry Martyn Hall , erected ten years previously .
The Henry Martyn Library opened in the Hall in 1898 , and there it remained as a small collection of missionary biographies and other books until 1995 . The evolution of the Henry Martyn Library into the present Henry Martyn Centre began in 1992 , when Canon Graham Kings , now Bishop of Sherborne , was appointed as the first Henry Martyn Lecturer in Missiology in the Cambridge Theological Federation .
In 1999 the Centre became an Associate Institute of the Cambridge Theological Federation , one of the largest providers of theological education in the United Kingdom .
Today , the Centre continues to seek to promote the study of mission and world Christianity , developing strong links with mission study centres around the world and fulfilling the same aim that was stated by the founders of the Library in 1897 .
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= Carl Hans Lody =
Carl Hans Lody , alias Charles A. Inglis ( 20 January 1877 – 6 November 1914 ; name occasionally given as Karl Hans Lody ) , was a reserve officer of the Imperial German Navy who spied in the United Kingdom in the first few months of the First World War .
He grew up in Nordhausen in central Germany and was orphaned at an early age . After embarking on a nautical career at the age of 16 , he served briefly in the Imperial German Navy at the start of the 20th century . His ill health forced him to abandon a naval career , but he remained in the naval reserve . He joined the Hamburg America Line to work as a tour guide . While escorting a party of tourists , he met and married a German @-@ American woman , but the marriage broke down after only a few months . His wife divorced him and he returned to Berlin .
In May 1914 , two months before war broke out , Lody was approached by German naval intelligence officials . He agreed to their proposal to employ him as a peacetime spy in southern France , but the outbreak of the First World War on 28 July 1914 resulted in a change of plans . In late August , he was sent to the United Kingdom with orders to spy on the Royal Navy . He posed as an American — he could speak English fluently , with an American accent — using a genuine U.S. passport purloined from an American citizen in Germany . Over the course of a month , Lody travelled around Edinburgh and the Firth of Forth observing naval movements and coastal defences . By the end of September 1914 , he was becoming increasingly worried for his safety as a rising spy panic in Britain led to foreigners coming under suspicion . He travelled to Ireland , where he intended to keep a low profile until he could make his escape from the UK .
Lody had been given no training in espionage before embarking on his mission and within only a few days of arriving he was detected by the British authorities . His un @-@ coded communications were detected by British censors when he sent his first reports to an address in Stockholm that the British knew was a postbox for German agents . The British counter @-@ espionage agency MI5 , then known as MO5 ( g ) , allowed him to continue his activities in the hope of finding out more information about the German spy network . His first two messages were allowed to reach the Germans but later messages were stopped , as they contained sensitive military information . At the start of October 1914 , concern over the increasingly sensitive nature of his messages prompted MO5 ( g ) to order Lody 's arrest . He had left a trail of clues that enabled the police to track him to a hotel in Killarney , Ireland , in less than a day .
Lody was put on public trial — the only one held for a German spy captured in the UK in either World War — before a military court in London at the end of October . He did not attempt to deny that he was a German spy . His bearing in court was widely praised as forthright and courageous by the British press and even by the police and MO5 ( g ) officers who had tracked him down . He was convicted and sentenced to death after a three @-@ day hearing . Four days later , on 6 November 1914 , Lody was shot at dawn by a firing squad at the Tower of London in the first execution there in 167 years . His body was buried in an unmarked grave in East London . When the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933 , it declared him a national hero . Lody became the subject of memorials , namesake for a destroyer ship eulogies and commemorations in Germany before and during the Second World War .
= = Early life and career = =
Carl Hans Lody was born in Berlin on 20 January 1877 . His father was a lawyer in government service who served as mayor of Oderberg in 1881 . The Lody family subsequently moved to Nordhausen , where they lived at 8 Sedanstrasse ( today Rudolf @-@ Breitscheid @-@ Strasse ) . Lody 's father served as deputy mayor there in 1882 but died in June 1883 after a short illness and his mother died in 1885 . He was fostered for a time by a couple in Leipzig before entering the orphanage of the Francke Foundations in nearby Halle .
Lody began an apprenticeship at a grocery store in Halle in 1891 , before moving to Hamburg two years later to join the crew of the sailing ship Sirius as a cabin boy . He studied at the maritime academy in Geestemünde , qualifying as a helmsman , and immediately afterwards served with the Imperial German Navy for a year between 1900 and 1901 . Subsequently joining the First Naval Reserve , he enlisted as an officer on German merchant ships . In 1904 he returned to Geestemünde , where he successfully obtained a captain 's licence . He fell seriously ill with what he later said was a stomach abscess , " caused from a very badly cured typhoid attack of fever from which I suffered in Italy on account of the bad water at Genoa . " An operation was required , which weakened his left arm and his eyesight . As Lody put it , " Consequently , my career as a seaman was closed as soon as I discovered that , and my doctor told me that I could not go any further . "
Lody found alternative employment with the Hamburg America Line , which had inaugurated a personally guided tour service for wealthy travellers going from Europe to America . Lody became a tour guide responsible for looking after these clients , and in this capacity visited European countries , including Britain . During one such tour he met a German @-@ American woman named Louise Storz , the 23 @-@ year @-@ old adoptive daughter of a wealthy beer brewer , Gottlieb Storz of Omaha , Nebraska . Louise 's tour included several European countries , including Germany ; by its conclusion she and Lody were engaged . After visiting Lody 's family in Berlin , the couple travelled to the United States . They were married on 29 October 1912 in what the Omaha Daily Bee described as " a ' society ' wedding " :
The home was beautifully decorated with chrysanthemums , palms and ferns . The ceremony and the details that preceded it were elaborate . About seventy @-@ five guests attended . After an extended western honeymoon tour Mr. and Mrs. Lody established a residence at the Clarinda .
Despite the high profile of the wedding the couple lived together for only two months . Lody sought to obtain a position in the Storz Brewing Company but he lacked expertise in brewing . As the local Omaha Daily Bee newspaper put it , " Here he was in the United States with a wife to support and no position in sight . " He found a job working as a clerk for the Union Pacific Railroad for under $ 100 a month . Two months after they were married , Louise brought suit for divorce , charging that Lody had " beat [ en ] her , inflicting serious wounds to her body . " Lody left for Berlin shortly thereafter ; over six months later , he unexpectedly returned with a German lawyer to contest the suit in the Douglas County courts . The suit was withdrawn without explanation a few days later ; Lody returned to Berlin . The two sides apparently reached an amicable settlement ; in February 1914 the divorce suit was reinstated and Lody agreed not to contest it . The divorce was granted the following month .
The military historian Thomas Boghardt suggests that the Storz family did not approve of the match , and may have pressured the couple to separate . Lody said later that his former father @-@ in @-@ law gave him $ 10 @,@ 000 , possibly as compensation . The failed marriage had a lasting effect on Lody . He wrote in 1914 : " My feelings run riot when I can permit myself to review the dramatic events of the last three years and what is to be the probable climax of it all . "
= = Beginning of espionage career = =
On his return to Germany , Lody settled in Berlin , living in what he described as " well to do circumstances " . He stayed in the Adlon , the city 's most fashionable luxury hotel , while his sister Hanna lived with her doctor husband in the prosperous suburb of Westend in Charlottenburg . As tensions grew across Europe in the first half of 1914 , German naval intelligence – the Nachrichten @-@ Abteilung , or " N " – set out to recruit potential agents . Lody already had links with the service . During his time with the Imperial German Navy , Lody had served under Arthur Tapken , who later became N 's first director . The German Imperial Admiralty Staff , or Admiralstab , listed Lody as a possible recruitment target before the outbreak of war . The naval authorities regarded Hamburg America Line ( HAL ) employees such as Lody as ideal recruits because of their expertise in naval matters and presence in ports worldwide . The HAL had collaborated with the Admiralstab since the 1890s . The relationship became so close that in July 1914 , just before the outbreak of the war , the HAL 's director Albert Ballin told the Admiralstab that he would " place myself and the organisation subordinate to me at your Excellency 's disposal as best as possible . "
On 8 May 1914 , Fritz Prieger , the director of N , contacted Lody to ask whether he was willing to serve as a naval agent . Lody replied that he was " honoured " by Prieger 's trust and would serve at Prieger 's disposal . Within three weeks Lody had signed a formal agreement to operate as a " tension traveller " in southern France – an agent who would report back to Berlin in times of heightened international tensions . The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June and the subsequent July Crisis precipitated the outbreak of World War I on 28 July .
With the United Kingdom declaring war in support of France and Belgium , Prieger sent Lody to Britain as a war agent . Lody was ordered to base himself in the Edinburgh – Leith area and monitor British naval movements . He was to travel along the Scottish coast and report on the warships stationed there ; " If or when Mr. Lody comes to know that a naval battle has taken place , he will enquire as much and unobtrusively as possible regarding losses , damage etc . " His orders reflected the Admiralstab 's belief that the war would be decided by a single major naval battle .
To communicate with his handlers , Lody was instructed to write to certain addresses in Christiania ( now Oslo ) , Stockholm , New York and Rome . He acquired an American emergency passport in the name of Charles A. Inglis , a genuine document obtained from the US Embassy in Berlin . When Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August , newly imposed restrictions prevented foreigners from leaving Germany without travel documents . Embassies and consulates throughout the country experienced a rush of visitors as foreigners sought emergency passports ; these had to be submitted to the German Foreign Ministry to obtain exit permits for neutral Denmark or the Netherlands . One such applicant was the real Charles A. Inglis , whose passport went missing – lost , it was claimed , although in fact the Foreign Ministry had appropriated it for Lody 's use . As the passport lacked security features such as the holder 's photograph or fingerprints , being merely a single @-@ sheet document , it was well @-@ suited for use by a spy . Lody said later that he had received it in the post from his superiors at N. He was also given £ 250 in British banknotes , 1 @,@ 000 Danish krone and 1 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone to finance his mission to the UK , where he would travel via Denmark and Norway .
Gustav Steinhauer , the head of N 's British section , later wrote that he had met Lody shortly before the latter 's departure , and spoken with him on a couple of occasions . Steinhauer had been active in Britain shortly before the outbreak of war , and was keen to give Lody advice on the difficulties he would face :
When you are in England , Lody , you are not in Germany or France with a neutral frontier close at hand to assist your escape . You will have to get through a port , and it will not be easy ... It will mean death if you are in the slightest degree careless . You must remember that all foreigners will be watched everywhere . Your correspondence will be opened and your luggage will be ransacked . They will go over your passport with a microscope to see that it is not forged and they will make you notify every change of address that you have .
To Steinhauer 's apparent surprise , Lody appeared nonchalant about the danger that he was about to go into . " Well , after all , one might as well die that way as any other , " Lody said , according to Steinhauer ; " I shall be rendering the Fatherland a service and no other German can do more than that . " At a final meeting at the Anhalter Bahnhof in Berlin , Steinhauer repeated his warnings , but Lody " only laughed at me and told me my fears were groundless . " Steinhauer regarded Lody 's ability to carry out his mission as " practically nil " and warned the Chief of Naval Intelligence not to send him to the UK , but the warning went unheeded . He recalled that " as he had specially volunteered for the task – and I must admit there were very few people in Berlin just then anxious to accompany him – they allowed him to go . "
As Steinhauer noted in his autobiography , the UK was a dangerous environment for a foreign agent . Only five years previously , the country had not had a dedicated counter @-@ espionage organisation . In 1909 a series of spy scares fanned by the press led to the establishment of the Secret Service Bureau , jointly headed by Captain Vernon Kell and Lieutenant @-@ Commander Mansfield Cumming . They soon split their responsibilities ; Kell took charge of counter @-@ espionage , while Cumming focused on foreign intelligence . These two divisions of the Secret Service Bureau eventually became two independent intelligence agencies , MI5 and MI6 . The Bureau quickly identified a list of possible German agents in the UK . Just before the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914 , Chief Constables across Britain and Ireland were instructed to arrest suspects in their areas . This was done quickly and a number of German agents were caught , crippling German intelligence operations in the UK at a crucial moment in the war . Steinhauer himself had been lucky to escape arrest ; he was known by name to the British authorities and he had been spying on the Royal Navy in Scotland as recently as late June 1914 .
= = Scotland = =
Lody embarked on his mission " so hastily that he did not even have time to learn a code that might have assisted him to get his messages through " , according to Steinhauer Posing as an American tourist , Lody left Berlin on 14 August , travelling via Denmark to the Norwegian port of Bergen . There he boarded a ship that took him to Newcastle , arriving on the evening of 27 August . He took a train to the North British Hotel ( now the Balmoral Hotel ) adjacent to Edinburgh Waverley railway station . On 30 August , he sent a telegram from Edinburgh 's main post office to an Adolf Burchard at 4 Drottninggatan , Stockholm – a cover address for a German agent in Sweden . The message said : " Must cancel Johnson very ill last four days shall leave shortly " and was signed " Charles " . As it was an overseas telegram , he had to sign for it with his full ( alias ) name .
The Secret Service Bureau 's counter @-@ espionage section had by now become part of the War Office 's Directorate of Military Operations and was known as MO5 ( g ) . At the outbreak of war it instituted widespread censorship of letters and telegrams sent abroad . From 4 August all mails from the UK to Norway and Sweden had been brought to London for examination to identify any being sent to suspect addresses . Fatally for Lody , MO5 ( g ) was already aware that the Stockholm address was that of a German agent , and was watching for correspondence using the " Johnson " formula employed in Lody 's telegram . " Burchard " was later identified as a German agent by the name of K. Leipziger . After Lody sent his telegram to " Burchard " , exposing his " Charles Inglis " alias on the telegram form , MO5 ( g ) ' s Letter Interception Unit conducted a back @-@ tracking exercise to find any other messages sent to the same place . One of MO5 ( g ) ' s censors later described the scene at Salisbury House in London , where the Letter Interception Unit was based :
Several names were written on a large blackboard which hung on the wall , plainly visible , and we had to keep a sharp look @-@ out for any mention of these in letters we read . The names were those of persons suspected of sending information to Germany via neutral countries . In addition , a short sentence was scribbled up on this board : ' Johnson is ill ' . The Admiralty knew that somewhere in Britain a German officer was travelling about who intended to use this formula to convey the news of certain movements of the British fleet .
The " Johnson " telegram reached its destination and was only identified retrospectively by the British authorities . It was said to have indicated the presence of four British battleships , though the censors took its meaning to be that " he was being watched and in danger & would have to leave Edinburgh which he did later on . "
Having inadvertently exposed his assumed identity , Lody 's subsequent communications came under close scrutiny by MO5 ( g ) . He left his Edinburgh hotel on 1 September , and moved to a boarding @-@ house in Drumsheugh Gardens , where he gave his name as Charles A. Inglis of New York City and paid as a weekly boarder . Three days later he sent a letter in English to the same Stockholm address , enclosing an envelope with a second letter , in German and addressed to Berlin . This was intercepted by the British authorities , opened , photographed , sealed again and sent on to Sweden . A post @-@ war report by MI5 , the successor organisation to MO5 ( g ) , explains that it was treated this way " in the hope of learning more . "
In this instance MO5 ( g ) was happy to let Lody 's letters go through as they contained information that was wildly misleading and caused serious ( and needless ) worry to the German High Command . Lody had heard the widespread rumour that thousands of Russian troops with " snow on their boots " had passed through Scotland en route to the Western Front , and relayed it to his controllers in Berlin :
Will you kindly communicate with Berlin at once by wire ( code or whatever system at your disposal ) and inform them that on Sept . 3rd great masses of Russian soldiers have passed through Edinburgh on their way to London and France . Although it must be expected that Berlin has knowledge of these movements , which probably took its start at Archangel , it may be well to forward this information . It is estimated here that 60 @,@ 000 men have passed , numbers which seem greatly exaggerated . I went to the depot [ station ] and noticed trains passing through at high speed , blinds down . The landing in Scotland took place at Aberdeen . Yours very truly Charles .
Lody 's information was entirely inaccurate and had been gleaned , as he was to admit at his trial , purely from rumours : " I heard it in the boarding @-@ house and I heard it in the barber 's shop . " His second letter , in German , was addressed to " Herr Stammer " at German naval intelligence in Courbierestrasse , Berlin , and contained details of British naval losses and vessels stationed at Leith and Grangemouth . He had obtained details of the naval vessels simply by climbing Calton Hill in Edinburgh and observing the panorama from the summit , and by taking a promenade along the seafront at Grangemouth , used by thousands of citizens as a popular excursion . He was worried about the risks that he was taking and stated in his letter that he would not go near any place where he could be challenged , or where barricades and restrictions prevented access . His lack of training or preparation meant that these letters , like all of his communications , were written with no attempt at concealment whatsoever – no code or invisible ink – and were composed entirely en clair in ordinary written English or German .
On 7 September , Lody went to a cycle shop at Haymarket Terrace to hire a bicycle . He told the owner 's daughter that he was an American from New York who was sojourning in Edinburgh after the outbreak of war had spoiled a holiday in Europe . He was staying there for a few days while he waited for a berth to become available on a ship to America , as all the transatlantic vessels were fully booked with returnees . He said that he wanted to cycle to places around Edinburgh such as Rosyth and Queensferry and arranged to hire a bicycle . The owner 's daughter warned him that some roads were now guarded and he should stop immediately if challenged by a sentry , to which he replied , " Oh , I am only going to be cycling about for pleasure ! "
For the next week , Lody followed a routine of staying in his room until noon , going out for the afternoon and returning between 5 and 7 pm . He sometimes went out on his bicycle again in the evening . He spent his time looking for information and on 14 September sent a second envelope to Stockholm . This time it was merely a wrapper containing a second envelope , inside which was a letter addressed to the editor of a Berlin newspaper , Ullstein Verlag , in which Lody said :
Enclosed cutting from the Edinburgh The News of the World . Typical for the English way of causing ill @-@ feeling and at the same time characteristic of the perfect ignorance of journalists in this country regarding the difference between military weapons and military tools . But this does not make any difference , the population here believe everything . Yours truly Nazi .
This too was intercepted and photographed but , as it was a relatively harmless letter , it was forwarded on while the British authorities continued to monitor Lody 's communications in the hope of finding out more about the German espionage network . The day after sending it , on 15 September , Lody travelled to London to reconnoitre the city 's war preparations . Travelling light , he stayed for two nights at the Ivanhoe Hotel in Bloomsbury ( now the Bloomsbury Street Hotel ) and set to work finding information about the security measures at public buildings . He said later that he had not actually observed the buildings himself but had obtained cuttings from newspapers , which he intended to send to Berlin . He also wrote a report on 16 September , but claimed that he had never sent it – it was never found by the British – as he felt that it was poorly written .
Lody returned to Edinburgh on 17 September , taking the train from King 's Cross to Edinburgh . He met a young Scottish woman , Ida McClyment , gave her his card and talked with her a while before going into another carriage to smoke . There he overheard a conversation between two men , one apparently a submariner travelling to the naval base at Rosyth and the other a sailor who talked about Harwich . Lody later professed his surprise at how the two men were " talking in a rather free way , considering the present times " . One of the men talked about the difficulties of serving on a submarine , while the other asked Lody : " What country are you ? Are you from the other side ? " Lody replied , " Yes , I am an American . " They began discussing the war and talked about the recent sinking of the cruiser HMS Pathfinder , which had become the first ship ever to be sunk by a torpedo fired by a submarine . The sailor told Lody , " We are going to put out mines as the Germans have done so . We have a big surprise in store for the Germans . " Lody was not convinced and , after shaking hands with the sailor , left the smoking car .
Lody went back to his lodgings at Drumsheugh Gardens and continued to walk and cycle around the area . He made the acquaintance of two girls he met on Princes Street and went out with them on a couple of evenings . He gave up cycling after an accident on 25 September , in which he collided with a bicycle being ridden by one of his landlady 's friends while riding from Peebles to Edinburgh , causing her " some little injury " . He returned his damaged bicycle to the shop where he had rented it .
On 27 September , Lody wrote another letter in German to " Burchard " , enclosing press cuttings about the chivalry of British seamen and the sinking of the cruisers HMS Aboukir , Cressy and Hogue . The letter included a good deal of detailed information about naval movements and fortifications , such as the artillery defences of North Berwick , Kinghorn and North and South Queensferry . It was clear by now to Lody that his mission was not going successfully . The decisive naval battle that the German Admiralty had anticipated had not happened , and Lody was becoming increasingly fearful for his personal security . He said later :
I was in Edinburgh and I had nothing to do , and simply spent my time . I was terribly nervous . I was unaccustomed to it , and I was frightened walking about Edinburgh . I had this suit made . I was frightened to go about .
The environment in Lody 's boarding @-@ house was becoming increasingly hostile ; his hosts were growing suspicious of him . Their doubts grew as the ongoing espionage scare progressed . He had stayed there for more than three weeks and his evasive answers when questioned about when he expected to leave did not satisfy them . When they said that his accent appeared to be " more German than American " , he knew it was time to go . He wrote in his letter of 27 September that " the fear of espionage is very great and every day I see some Germans going to Redford Barracks under the escort of a soldier ... It is advisable for me to vanish for a few days , and to change my place of abode . I can only hope that my telegraphic and letter information have duly arrived . " He told his controllers that he would go to Ireland , disembarking at Dublin as it was the only Irish port not closed to foreigners . Despite his hopes , his letter was intercepted by the British ; this time it was retained as the information therein was of genuine military value .
= = Journey to Ireland and capture = =
Lody left his boarding @-@ house hastily on the morning of 27 September and stayed overnight at the Roxburgh Hotel in Edinburgh . He left some of his luggage there , telling the manageress that he would be away for about eight days , and travelled the next day to Liverpool , where he took a room at the London and North Western Hotel on Lime Street . He bought a ticket to Ireland and took the SS Munster to Dublin via Kingstown ( now Dún Laoghaire ) . It stopped at Holyhead in Anglesey , where an immigration official challenged Lody . His American travel documents proved sufficient to demonstrate his bona fides , and he proceeded on his way .
Lody 's controllers realised that his mission was not going according to plan and attempted to get in touch with him to provide assistance . A letter dated 8 September was sent to Charles A. Inglis c / o Thomas Cook , Edinburgh , but he never collected it , and may never have been aware of it . Another German agent , Paul Daelen , was ordered to go to Britain and provide Lody with a new cover address . Daelen reached England too late . Lody had already travelled to Ireland without giving his controllers a means of contacting him .
During his journey to Ireland , Lody met a Minneapolis doctor , John William Lee , who had been studying eye , ear , nose and throat diseases in Vienna before the outbreak of war had compelled him to leave . Lee was planning to travel back to New York aboard the RMS Baltic , leaving Queenstown ( now Cobh ) on 7 October , and intended to spend a few days exploring Ireland before his departure . Lody asked where Lee was planning to stay in Dublin ; Lee told him that it would probably be the Gresham Hotel on Sackville Street , to which Lody replied , " All right , let 's go there . " They travelled together to the hotel , booked into separate rooms , had dinner together and went to the Empire Theatre . Lody told Lee that he had been based in Germany working for an American adding @-@ machine company . When the conversation turned to the war , Lody opined that the German army was a very well @-@ trained body of strong @-@ bodied and enduring men , and that it would be hard to beat them . The following day they had breakfast together and went for a walk in Phoenix Park .
While Lee was exchanging some money at Thomas Cook on 30 September , Lody wrote a further letter in German to " Burchard " , clarifying his reasons for coming to Ireland and describing what he had seen on his journey . He explained :
I think it is absolutely necessary to disappear for some time because several people have approached me in a disagreeable manner . That does not happen to me only , but several Americans here have told me that they are sharply watched . Fear of espionage is very great and one smells a spy in every stranger .
Lody described anti @-@ Zeppelin precautions he had heard about in London and provided details of the conversions of the Cunard Line steamships RMS Aquitania and Lusitania for their wartime service , which he had seen while in Liverpool . Once again the letter was intercepted by the British and not allowed to go forward to Stockholm . Lody and Lee spent another evening in Dublin before going on a day @-@ trip by coach to Glendalough to see the lough and the surrounding countryside . On 2 October they parted with an agreement to meet again in Killarney the following day . Lee travelled to Drogheda , where he stayed overnight , while Lody went straight to Killarney and found a room at the Great Southern Hotel ( now the Malton Hotel ) .
Lody was unaware that his latest letters had galvanised the British authorities into action . They had hitherto been content with merely monitoring his communications but the militarily significant content of his most recent letters caused them to consider him now to be a serious threat . It did not take them long to catch up with him . His lack of even basic security precautions had left the authorities with a trail of clues that enabled them to track him down in less than a day .
While Lody was travelling to Killarney on the morning of 2 October , an Edinburgh City Police detective was ordered to enquire at hotels for a person named Inglis . The detective found that Lody had stayed at the Roxburgh Hotel and was shown his luggage , which still had a label attached bearing the name and address Charles A. Inglis , Bedford House , 12 Drumsheugh Gardens . An interview with the proprietor of the boarding @-@ house where Lody had stayed enabled the police to reconstruct his movements , while the manageress of the Roxburgh was able to tell them that he had gone to Ireland .
The police sent a report to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Vernon Kell of MO5 ( g ) on the same day to summarise their findings , and put a constant watch on the Roxburgh in case Lody returned . In the meantime , MO5 ( g ) contacted the Irish Sea ports to find whether Lody had passed through them . Affirmative answers came back from Liverpool and Holyhead . Later that same afternoon MO5 ( g ) sent a telegram to the Assistant Inspector General of the Royal Irish Constabulary in Dublin , which read :
Suspected German Agent believed to be passing in name of CHARLES INGLIS as American Subject travelled from Edinburgh after 26 Sept via Liverpool & Holyhead where his passport noted and name taken . Stayed last night Gresham Hotel Dublin believed moving on to Belfast . Should be arrested and all documents seized minutest search necessary probably has code with him . Important to get specimens of his handwriting if possible . Kindly wire result .
The RIC made the investigation a top priority and replied to London at 7 @.@ 23 pm on 2 October :
Dr John Lea [ sic ] of United States arrived in Dublin on 29th with Charles Inglis and stayed at same hotel Inglis has gone to the Country today Lea will join him there tomorrow should he be arrested also description 35 years five feet eight sallow complexion darkened cropped moustache . Had a letter from Austria with him . Inspector General RIC .
At 9 @.@ 45 pm , District Inspector Cheeseman of the RIC arrived at the Great Southern Hotel in Killarney with a group of constables . He found Lody 's name in the visitors ' book and went to his room , but did not find him there . Returning to the foyer , Cheeseman saw Lody entering the hotel . He said : " Mr. Inglis , I presume ? " to which Lody replied , " Yes , what do you want ? " Cheeseman asked him to come to his hotel room and noted that Lody looked upset and frightened . He arrested Lody under the provisions of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 ( DORA ) as a suspected German agent , prompting Lody to exclaim , " What is this ? Me , a German agent ? Take care now ; I am an American citizen . " When he was searched , his American identity documents were found along with £ 14 in German gold , 705 Norwegian krone and a small notebook . The latter listed British ships that had been sunk in the North Sea , names and addresses in Hamburg and Berlin and a possible cypher key . It also included copies of the four letters that he had sent to Stockholm . His bag contained a jacket that contained a tailor 's ticket reading " J. Steinberg , Berlin , C.H. Lody , 8 @.@ 5 @.@ 14 " .
Throughout all this , Lody 's demeanour was relatively calm after the initial shock . Cheeseman observed that Lody only appeared uneasy when his notebook was being examined ; the inspector later commented that Lody was not the usual class of man he was accustomed to dealing with , but admitted that he had never met a man under precisely similar circumstances . Cheeseman had been educated in Germany , knew the language and felt able to recognise a German accent ; he noticed that Lody 's American accent slipped from time to time , presumably due to stress , and became convinced that the man was German .
Lee was also arrested but was released without charge after two days when the investigation cleared him of any involvement in Lody 's espionage . He complained about his treatment and the British authorities ' refusal to let him see an American consul , and promised to take the matter up with the US State Department on his return . An MO5 ( g ) officer named R.H. Price smoothed things over with him on his release on 4 October , explaining what had prompted his arrest and paying his fare back to his hotel . Price reported , " I think he was quite soothed and he shook hands with me on parting . " Lee was unaware that the police had already recommended that both he and " Inglis " should be court @-@ martialled and shot if found guilty .
= = Legal complications = =
Lody was taken back to London where he was detained in Wellington Barracks under the watch of the 3rd Battalion , the Grenadier Guards . A meeting of the Cabinet on 8 October decided to try him for " war treason " , a decision that has been described as " legally , very curious " by the legal historian A. W. B. Simpson . He was not charged with espionage under either of the two relevant statutes , the Official Secrets Act 1911 or DORA . The principal reason lay in the wording of the Hague Convention of 1907 , which states : " A person can only be considered a spy when , acting clandestinely or on false pretences , he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent , with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party . " Lody was operating in the British Isles , outside the zone of operations , and was therefore not covered by this definition . Such circumstances had been anticipated by the most recent edition of the British Manual of Military Law , published in February 1914 , which recommended that individuals in such cases should be tried for war treason : " Indeed in every case where it is doubtful whether the act consists of espionage , once the fact is established that an individual has furnished or attempted to furnish information to the enemy , no time need be wasted in examining whether the case corresponds exactly to the definition of espionage . "
War treason as defined by the Manual covered a very wide range of offences , including " obtaining , supplying and carrying of information to the enemy " or attempting to do so . Its application in Lody 's case , rather than the government relying on DORA , was the result of a misunderstanding by the War Office . It had been misinformed in August 1914 that an unidentified German had been captured with a radio transmitter and interned in Bodmin Prison . In fact , no such person existed , but the story led Lord Kitchener , the Secretary of State for War , to ask the Lord Chancellor , Lord Haldane , for advice on how the supposed spy should be dealt with . Haldane stated that the individual should be put before a court martial and executed if found guilty . He wrote :
If an alien belligerent is caught in this country spying or otherwise waging war he can , in my opinion , be Court Martialled and executed . The mere fact that he is resident here and has what is popularly called a domicile is not enough ... When war breaks out an alien becomes prima facie an outlaw ... if he is a spy or takes up arms ... and he becomes a person without legal rights . By international law he must have a trial before punishment but the trial may be by Court Martial . He cannot invoke the jurisdiction of the civil courts .
This theory was relied upon by the Cabinet and the Army Council , which ordered on 9 August that Lody was to be tried by a court martial . There was some confusion about whether Haldane had really meant a court martial rather than a military tribunal , and the Adjutant General questioned whether DORA had limited the maximum punishment for espionage to penal servitude for life , rather than the death penalty . Further confusion was caused by the fact that Lody 's identity had not yet been fully established . If he really was an American citizen , he was not an " alien belligerent " and could not be court martialled .
On 21 October 1914 the Cabinet decided that Lody should be handed over to the civil police and tried by the High Court . After Lody then made a statement voluntarily admitting his real name and his status as a German subject , the Cabinet determined the following day that the original plan would be followed after all . The venue for the court martial was to be the Middlesex Guildhall in Parliament Square ; Major General Lord Cheylesmore would preside , sitting with eight other officers . In hindsight , according to Simpson , it is doubtful whether the charge and eventual sentence were lawful . A later revision of the Manual of Military Law rejected the view that a spy commits a war crime and alluded to the Lody case in suggesting that war treason was not an applicable charge in such cases . Simpson comments that " it is fairly plain that Lody 's execution was unlawful under domestic and international law . " This objection was not raised during Lody 's trial but it would not have done him any good in any case , as there was no appeal for a decision made by a court martial . In the event , Lody 's trial was unique . No other spies captured in Britain were tried for war treason under international law . DORA was amended in November 1914 to permit a death sentence to be imposed . All of the subsequent 26 courts martial of accused spies were heard under DORA , resulting in 10 executions .
Another question that arose was whether Lody 's trial should be held in public or in camera . Captain Reginald Drake , MO5 ( g ) ' s head of counter @-@ espionage , wanted Lody to be tried secretly so that he could implement " an ingenious method for conveying false information to the enemy which depended on their not knowing which of their agents had been caught . " He was overruled , as the British Government believed that it would be more advantageous to publicise the threat of German spies to remove any doubt in the public mind that German espionage posed a serious threat in the UK . It was hoped that this would also generate support for the intelligence and censorship apparatus that was rapidly taking shape and would deter possible imitators . In the event , Lody 's was the only spy trial in either World War held in public in the UK . In pursuing this policy the Government sacrificed the chance to " turn " captured spies and turn them into assets for the British intelligence services . It was an opportunity that was taken in the Second World War when the highly successful Double @-@ Cross System was implemented .
= = Trial = =
The court martial was held over three days between Friday 30 October and Monday 2 November . Lody was charged with two offences of war treason concerning the two letters he had sent from Edinburgh on 27 September and Dublin on 30 September . In both letters , the charge sheet stated that Lody had sought " to convey to a belligerent enemy of Great Britain , namely Germany " information relating to the UK 's defences and preparations for war . He pleaded not guilty to both charges . He made an immediate impression on observers when he first appeared in court . The Daily Express reporter described him as :
a South German in appearance – a short , well @-@ built man of thirty @-@ eight [ sic - actually 37 ] , with a broad , low forehead that slopes backward , black hair parted in the middle and brushed backward , a broad , short nose , large , deep @-@ set , dark eyes with a look of keen intelligence in their depths , and tight @-@ set lips .
Sir Archibald Bodkin , the Director of Public Prosecutions , set out the case for the prosecution . The evidence was overwhelming ; the prosecution case highlighted the contents of Lody 's notebook and the luggage that he had left at the Roxburgh Hotel , and called a series of witnesses , including the elderly Scottish woman who ran the boarding @-@ house in which he had stayed in Edinburgh and the fashionably dressed Ida McClyment , who caused a stir when she described her meeting with Lody aboard the London to Edinburgh train . Bodkin did not read the incriminating letters aloud , due to the sensitivity of their content , but described them in general terms . The witnesses testified about their interactions with Lody and identified him as the man who had posed as " Charles A. Inglis " , though the proprietress of the Edinburgh boarding @-@ house experienced some difficulty . When she " was asked if she could see ' Charles A. Inglis ' in court , [ she ] looked everywhere except at the dock . Lody , who was sitting , stood up and gently waved his hands to attract her attention , while he smiled broadly and almost broke into laughter at the absurdity of the situation . "
Late on 30 October , Lody wrote to a friend in Omaha to tell him about his feelings before he began his defence . He told his friend :
I am prepared to make a clean breast of all this trouble , but I must protect my friends in the Fatherland and avoid as much possible humiliation for those who have been near and dear to me .
I am in the Tower [ sic – actually Wellington Barracks ] . Hourly while I am confined here an unfriendly guard paces the corridor . My counsellor [ George Elliot QC ] is an attorney of standing , but I ofttimes feel that he is trying to do his duty to his country rather than defend his client . Next week I shall know my fate , although there can hardly be a doubt as to what it is to be . I have attended to such legal matters as were necessary , but whether my wishes will ever be carried out I do not know .
You may have an opportunity to say a word to some of those for whom I feel an interest . Ask them to judge me not harshly , When they hear of me again , doubtless my body shall have been placed in concrete beneath this old tower , or my bones shall have made a pyre . But I shall have served my country . Maybe some historian will record me among the despised class of war victims … Doubtless my demise shall be heralded as that of a spy , but I have spiritual consolation . Others have suffered and I must accept the reward of fate .
The second day of the trial was interrupted when a young man whom The Times described as being " of foreign appearance " was arrested and removed from the court on the orders of Captain Reginald " Blinker " Hall , the Director of Naval Intelligence . The interloper was one Charles Stuart Nairne , an Irishman and former Royal Navy lieutenant whom Hall spotted in the public gallery and considered to be " either a lunatic or a very dangerous person " . As Nairne was being removed into military custody , he attempted to shake Lody 's hand in the dock .
Lody was then called to give evidence . It was revealed to the public for the first time that he was an officer in the Imperial German Navy and that he had been ordered by a superior officer to spy in Britain . When he was asked for the name of that individual , his composure temporarily deserted him , as The Times ' reporter recorded :
For the space of perhaps half a minute the prisoner hesitated , and then , in a voice broken by gradually deepening emotion , said , " I have pledged my word not to give that name . I cannot do it . Where names are found in my documents I certainly do not feel I have broken my word , but that name I cannot give . I have given my word of honour . "
The prisoner sobbed a moment , then turned pale , and gazed before him in a dazed manner . Recovering his self @-@ possession he said , " I beg pardon ; my nerves have given way . " A glass of water was handed up to the prisoner .
Lody stated that he had been sent to the UK " to remain until the first [ naval ] encounter had taken place between the two Powers , and to send accurate information as regards the actual losses of the British Fleet " , as well as to observe what he could of Fleet movements off the coast . The court martial went into an in camera session while sensitive evidence was being heard . Lody claimed that he had asked in August to be erased from military service on the grounds of poor health and to be allowed to travel to the United States . This was refused , he went on , but a member of naval intelligence whom he had previously never met coaxed him into undertaking a mission in the UK on the condition that he could go to the US afterwards . Lody told the tribunal that he was not pressured but that " I have never been a coward in my life and I certainly would not be a shirker " , and that he had persisted with his mission because " once a man has promised to do a thing he does it , that is the understanding . " His services were provided " absolutely as an honour and free " , while he had never intended to be a spy : " I was pressed for secret service , but not as a spy – oh , no . If that would have been mentioned to me at Berlin I surely would have refused . The word in the sentence , I do not think it goes together . " He claimed that he had " pledged my word of honour " not to name his controller .
Little of this was true , but at the time the British had no way of knowing this . The files of the Admiralstab in Berlin show that he was approached by N , rather than volunteering for intelligence service , entered their employment as early as May 1914 ( rather than in August as he claimed ) , received regular pay rather than being unpaid , and intended to return to Berlin on completing his mission . It is unknown whether he really had any intention of going to the US , and there is no indication from the Admiralstab files that he had been asked to keep his controller 's name a secret . After hearing Lody 's evidence the court martial was adjourned until the following Monday .
On the final day of the court martial , 2 November 1914 , the prosecution and defence put forward their final arguments . Lody 's counsel argued for mitigation on the grounds that Lody had " [ come ] to this country actuated by patriotic German motives , entirely paying his own expenses and carrying his life in his hands , to fulfil the mandate of his supporters . " As one newspaper report put it ,
He wished to go down to his final fate as a brave man , an honest man , and as an open @-@ hearted man . There was no suggestion of an attempt at pleading for mercy or for favourable treatment . " Englishmen will not deny him respect for the courage he has shown , " said Mr. Elliott . " His own grandfather , an old soldier , held a fortress against Napoleon … He knows that he carried his life in his hands , and he stands before the Court in that spirit … And he will face the decision of the Court like a man . " Lody was asked if he had any statement to make but said , " I have nothing more to say . "
The finding of guilt and sentence of death were pronounced in camera , without Lody present , before the court martial was adjourned .
= = Execution = =
No public announcement was made of the court martial 's verdict . Instead , the following day , the General Officer Commanding London District was sent instructions ordering the sentence to be promulgated on 5 November , with Lody being told , and for the sentence to be carried out at least 18 hours later . Great secrecy surrounded the proceedings which , when combined with the short timeframe , caused problems for the GOC in finding a suitable place of execution . He contacted Major @-@ General Henry Pipon , the Major of the Tower of London , to tell him :
I have been directed to carry out the execution of the German Spy who has been convicted by General Court Martial . The time given me has been short , so short that I have had only a few hours to arrange and have been directed to keep it secret . Under the circumstances the Tower is the only possible place and has been approved by the War Office .
While the Tower may have been " the only possible place " , in some respects it was a strange choice . It had not been used as a state prison for many years and the last execution there – that of Lord Lovat , the Jacobite rebel – had taken place in 1747 . It was one of London 's most popular tourist attractions , recording over 400 @,@ 000 visitors a year by the end of the 19th century , and remained open to tourists even on the day of Lody 's execution . During the Tower 's heyday , executions had been carried out in the open air on Tower Hill or Tower Green , but Lody 's execution was to take place at the Tower 's rifle range located in the eastern part of the Outer Ward between Martin and Constable Towers , behind the Outer Curtain wall and out of public sight . The Tower 's custodians , the Yeomen Warders ( " Beefeaters " ) , had long since become tourist guides rather than active @-@ duty soldiers , so eight men were selected from the 3rd Battalion , to carry out the sentence .
Lody was informed of his impending execution on the evening of 5 November and was brought to the Tower in a police van . According to the Daily Express , he " received the news calmly and with no sign of surprise . " He was held in the Casemates on the west side of the Tower , an area where the Yeoman Warders now live . His last meal was probably prepared by one of the Warders ' wives , as the Tower had no proper accommodation or dining facilities for prisoners . While at the Tower he wrote a couple of final letters . One was addressed to the Commanding Officer of the 3rd Battalion to thank his captors for their care of him :
Sir ,
I feel it my duty as a German officer to express my sincere thanks and appreciation towards the staff of officers and men who were in charge of my person during my confinement .
Their kind and considered treatment has called my highest esteem and admiration as regards good fellowship even towards the enemy and if I may be permitted , I would thank you for making this known to them .
The Guards apparently never saw the letter ; the Adjutant General instead directed the letter to be placed in a War Office file rather than being sent to the regiment .
Lody also wrote a letter to his sister , which was published posthumously in the Frankfurter Zeitung newspaper , in which he told her and his other relatives :
My dear ones ,
I have trusted in God and He has decided . My hour has come , and I must start on the journey through the Dark Valley like so many of my comrades in this terrible War of Nations . May my life be offered as a humble offering on the altar of the Fatherland .
A hero 's death on the battlefield is certainly finer , but such is not to be my lot , and I die here in the Enemy 's country silent and unknown , but the consciousness that I die in the service of the Fatherland makes death easy .
The Supreme Court @-@ Martial of London has sentenced me to death for Military Conspiracy . Tomorrow I shall be shot here in the Tower . I have had just Judges , and I shall die as an Officer , not as a spy .
Farewell . God bless you ,
Hans .
Lody also left instructions that his ring was to be forwarded to his ex @-@ wife , which was carried out after his execution .
At dawn on the morning of 6 November 1914 , in cold , foggy and bleak weather , Lody was fetched from his cell by the Assistant Provost @-@ Marshal , Lord Athlumney . He asked , " I suppose that you will not care to shake hands with a German spy ? " , to which the reply came , " No . But I will shake hands with a brave man . " A small procession formed up for the short journey to the rifle range , comprising Lody and his armed escort , the Tower 's Chaplain and the eight @-@ man firing squad . John Fraser , one of the Yeoman Warders , witnessed it and later described it :
Nobody liked this sort of thing . It was altogether too cold @-@ blooded for an ordinary stomach ( particularly that of a soldier , who hates cold @-@ bloodedness ) to face with equanimity , and it is not too much to say that , of that sad little procession , the calmest and most composed member was the condemned man himself .
For the Chaplain , in particular , it was a bad time . He had never had a similar experience , and his voice had a shake in it as he intoned the solemn words of the Burial Service over the living form of the man it most concerned . . .
The escort and the firing @-@ party , too , were far from comfortable , and one could see that the slow march suitable to the occasion was getting badly on their nerves . They wanted to hurry over it , and get the beastly business finished .
But the prisoner walked steadily , stiffly upright , and yet as easily and unconcernedly as though he was going to a tea @-@ party , instead of to his death . His eyes were upturned to the gloomy skies , and his nostrils eagerly drank in the precious air that was soon to be denied them . But his face was quite calm and composed – almost expressionless .
At the rifle range Lody was strapped into a chair . He refused to have his eyes bandaged , as he wished to die with his eyes open . A few moments later the inhabitants of the Tower heard " the muffled sound of a single volley " . His body was taken away to be buried in an unmarked grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow . The War Office issued a terse announcement of the execution a few days later on 10 November : " Sentence is duly confirmed . "
= = Reaction = =
Lody 's courageous demeanour in court produced widespread sympathy and admiration , a development that neither side had anticipated . Even his captors were captivated ; although MO5 ( g ) had recommended his execution as early as 3 October , by the time the trial was over , Kell was said by his wife to have considered Lody a " really fine man " of whom Kell " felt it deeply that so brave a man should have to pay the death penalty for carrying out what he considered to be his duty to his country . " Sir Basil Thomson of Scotland Yard commented that " there was some difference of opinion as to whether it was sound policy to execute spies and to begin with a patriotic spy like Lody . " According to Robert Jackson , the biographer of Lody 's prosecutor Sir Archibald Bodkin , Lody 's " bearing and frankness when caught so impressed Britain 's spy @-@ catchers and prosecutors that they talked about trying to get the Government to waive the internationally recognised rule that spies caught in wartime automatically are put to death . Only the certainty that Germany would not be as merciful to our own spies made them refrain . " Thomson also paid tribute to Lody in his 1937 book The Scene Changes :
Lody won the respect of all who came into contact with him . In the quiet heroism with which he faced his trial and his execution there was no suspicion of play @-@ acting . He never flinched , he never cringed , but he died as one would wish all Englishmen to die – quietly and undramatically , supported by the proud consciousness of having done his duty .
Lody 's conduct was contrasted favourably with the German spies captured after him , many of whom were nationals of neutral countries , who followed him to the execution chair . Lady Constance Kell commented that " most of the agents employed by the Germans worked only for the money they gained and were regarded with utter contempt " . Similarly , Thomson described " the scum of neutral spies " , of whom he said , " we came to wish that a distinction could have been made between patriotic spies like Lody and the hirelings who pestered us through the ensuing years " . Shortly after Lody 's death he was described in the House of Commons as " a patriot who had died for his country as much as any soldier who fell in the field . "
The British and German publics also took a positive view of Lody . His trial became something of a celebrity occasion ; as The New York Times observed , on the first day , " many fashionably dressed women thronged the galleries of the courtroom " and the final day was attended by " many leaders of London society as well as by prominent jurists , politicians , and military and naval men . " The Daily Express opined that " one cannot withhold a tribute to his daring resourcefulness and inflexible courage " and called Lody " one of the cleverest spies in Steinhauer 's service " , though it advised its readers to bear in mind that he was " a most dangerous spy . "
Louise Storz , Lody 's former wife , received his ring in early December along with a letter from him . She refused to disclose its contents , saying , " It is his last message to me and in no way concerns anyone else . The ring had also been our wedding ring . " She spoke of her reaction to his death in an interview in November 1914 with The Kansas City Star while visiting Excelsior Springs , Missouri . She said :
My nerves are completely upset and I have come to this quiet place where I hope to escape even the loving sympathy of my many friends in Omaha . I want to forget . But the awfulness of such a fate , I fear , I cannot soon erase from my memory ... He was so fine in so many ways . Of fine learning , an accomplished linguist , and of high courage . He used to talk entrancingly of his love and devotion to his country . It must have been a beautiful thing , according to his way of thinking , to die if need be for his Fatherland . But I want to forget . I owe it to myself and my parents to call the chapter closed .
Her father refused to comment , saying that his interest in the Lody case was " only a passing one " . A rumour had it that the German government paid Louise Storz $ 15 @,@ 000 in compensation for her ex @-@ husband 's death , but she denied this in 1915 .
In Germany , Lody 's home town of Nordhausen planted an oak tree in his memory . Newspaper commentary was limited ; the first article about the case that The Times noted was only published around 19 November , in the Frankfurter Zeitung , in which a pseudonymous columnist suggested that the British might have been tempted to show Lody mercy : " I myself am convinced that the noble manliness with which this strong German composure bore itself before the Court touched the heart of the Judge , that the Judge said " If only we English had many such Hans Lodys ! " and that Hans Lody lives ... We shall not forget him , for he staked his country more than his life – his name and his honour . " A death notice was published in early December in the Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt , stating that he had " died the hero 's death for the Fatherland in England , November 6 " .
Lody 's death produced a low @-@ key response from the German government . The Admiralstab recommended at the end of 1914 that he should be awarded a posthumous Iron Cross , Second Class , and argued that the recruitment of naval agents would be assisted if espionage could be rewarded with such a prestigious medal . The Kaiser agreed , though not without some reluctance .
The bravery Lody exhibited during his trial and execution was praised by many post @-@ war British writers . Sir George Aston , writing in his 1930 book Secret Service , called on his readers to " pay a tribute to a real German spy of the highest type ... Karl Lody " , while John Bulloch commented in his 1963 history of MI5 that Lody 's bearing made him " something of a hero even in the country against which he was working . " E.T. Woodhall , a former detective , collected accounts from officers who had been involved in the investigation and wrote in 1932 : " They are unanimous in their admiration for his manly and brazen qualities , but they all criticise his amazing lack of caution ... He was admired by everybody for his bravery and straightforward , patriotic devotion to his country . "
Lody may have had more complex motives than simple patriotism . Thomas Boghardt notes the " exceptional " way in which Lody bore himself at his trial , pointing out that " virtually all other German agents accused of espionage understandably tried to deny or minimise their involvement with N " . Boghardt had the advantage of being able to review the Admiralstab 's files on the case and highlights " small but important changes " , or rather discrepancies , between Lody 's statements in court and the facts preserved in the case files . As Boghardt puts it ,
All this suggests that Lody was less concerned with averting a harsh sentence than he was with projecting a certain image of himself , that of a patriot who , despite his reluctance to join the secret service , rendered his fatherland a final service before starting a new life in America ; in short , a ' man of honour ' rather than a traitorous spy . Until his death , Lody conformed superbly to this image ... During the last weeks of his life , Lody tried to shatter the negative image usually attached to spies , and in this regard he was utterly successful .
Lody , suggests Boghardt , " had accepted his trial and probable execution as a form of expiation for events that had occurred long before his becoming a secret agent . " He raises the possibility that Lody was motivated by what had happened two years earlier in Omaha , when Lody had responded to the accusations of being a wife @-@ beater by declaring that he would " defend the honour of a gentleman " . Boghardt comments that " his eagerness to display his honour may indicate a concern that others doubted this very quality in him . While presenting himself to the world as a man of honour and accepting his fate courageously , Lody may have found comfort and strength in the thought that whoever had doubted his honour previously would now be persuade otherwise . "
= = From spy to national hero = =
During the Nazi era , Lody 's memory was appropriated by the new regime to promote a more muscular image of German patriotism . An elaborate commemoration of his death was held in Lübeck on 6 November 1934 , when flags across the city flew at half @-@ mast and bells tolled between 6 @.@ 45 and 7 am , the time of his execution . Later that day a memorial was unveiled at the Burgtor gateway near the harbour , depicting a knight in armour with a closed visor ( representing Lody ) , with his hands fettered ( representing captivity ) and a serpent entwining his feet ( representing betrayal ) . Below it an inscription was set into the gate 's brickwork , reading " CARL HANS LODY starb für uns 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 1914 im Tower zu London " ( " Carl Hans Lody died for us 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 1914 in the Tower of London " ) .
During the unveiling ceremony , which was attended by Lody 's sister and representatives of the present Reichsmarine and old Imperial German Navy , the road leading from the gateway to the harbour was also renamed " Karl @-@ Hans @-@ Lody @-@ Weg " . On the same day , officers from the Hamburg @-@ America Line presented city officials with a ship 's bell bearing the inscription " In Memory of Karl Hans Lody " , to be rung each 6 November at the time of his death . After World War II , when Lübeck was part of the British Zone of Occupation , the statue was taken down and the niche in which it stood was bricked up , though the inscription was allowed to remain and is still visible today .
Lody was further memorialised in 1937 when the newly launched destroyer Z10 was christened Hans Lody . Other ships in the same class were also given the names of German officers who had died in action . The ship served throughout the Second World War in the Baltic and North Sea theatres , survived the war and was captured by the British in 1945 . After a few years in Royal Navy service she was scrapped in Sunderland in 1949 .
Lody was also the subject of literary and stage works ; a hagiographic biographical account , Lody – Ein Weg um Ehre ( Lody – One Way to Honour ) , was published by Hans Fuchs in 1936 and a play called Lody : vom Leben und Sterben eines deutschen Offiziers ( Lody : the life and death of a German officer ) , by Walter Heuer , premiered on Germany 's National Heroes ' Day in 1937 . It depicts Lody as brave and patriotic but clumsy , leaving a trail of clues behind him as he travels in the UK : wearing clothes marked " Made in Germany " , writing naval secrets on the back of a bus ticket which he loses and a Scotland Yard detective finds , coming to attention when an orchestra in London plays the German naval anthem , arousing suspicion when he calls for German wine while writing secret reports to Berlin , and leaving incriminating letters in the pockets of suits which he sends to be pressed . Lody is arrested in London and sentenced to death . Offered a chance to escape , he refuses and drinks a glass of wine with the firing squad , toasting Anglo @-@ German friendship . He is led out to his execution , saying his final words : " I shall see Germany once more – from the stars . " The Dundee Evening Telegraph described the storyline as " quaint " .
The Lodystraße in Berlin was named in his honour .
= = Burial = =
The 17 @-@ year @-@ old Bertolt Brecht wrote a eulogy to Lody in 1915 in which he imagined the purpose behind the spy 's death :
The reality was very different . Lody 's body was buried in an unmarked common grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow along with seventeen other men – ten executed spies and seven prisoners who died of ill @-@ health or accidents . It was not until 1924 that the grave received a marker , at the instigation of the German Embassy . Lody 's relatives were visiting it once a year and enquired whether his body could be exhumed and buried in a private grave . The War Office agreed , providing that the body could be identified , but the Foreign Office was more reluctant and pointed out that a licence for exhumation would have to be authorised by the Home Office . The Lody family placed a white headstone and kerb on the grave some time around 1934 .
In September 1937 the German government again requested that Lody 's body be exhumed and moved to a separate grave . This proved impractical for several reasons ; he had been buried with seven other men , each coffin had been cemented down and the lapse of time would make identification very difficult . Instead , the British Imperial War Graves Commission suggested that a memorial should be constructed in another part of the cemetery to bear the names of all the German civilians who were buried there . The proposal met with German agreement and the memorial was duly installed . During the Second World War , Lody 's original headstone was destroyed by misaimed Luftwaffe bombs . It was replaced in 1974 .
One further proposal was made to rebury Lody in the 1960s . In 1959 the British and German governments agreed to move German war dead who had been buried in various locations around the UK to a new central cemetery at Cannock Chase in Staffordshire . The German War Graves Commission ( VDK ) asked if it would be possible to disinter Lody 's body and move it to Cannock Chase . By that time , the plot had been reused for further common graves , buried above Lody 's body . The VDK was told that it would not be possible to disinter the other bodies without the permission of the relatives , which would have been an almost impossible task where common graves were concerned . The proposal was abandoned and Lody 's body remains at Plaistow .
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= Ontario Highway 77 =
King 's Highway 77 , commonly referred to as Highway 77 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . One of three highways within Essex County , Highway 77 serves to interconnect Highway 3 near Leamington with Highway 401 near Tilbury . Prior to 1998 , the highway extended south into Leamington , ending at the former routing of Highway 3 and Highway 18 . This section was turned over to Essex County and renamed Erie Street . The speed limit on Highway 77 is 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) in most places , dropping to 50 km / h in built @-@ up areas . It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
= = Route description = =
Due to the flat topography of Essex County , the land use surrounding Highway 77 is almost entirely agricultural . Soil conditions in Essex are ideal for farming , and as a result very few natural areas can be found in the county . Many streams have been diverted to irrigate the endless farmland to either side of the highway . Relief from the plain is provided only by the few hamlets along the route . In addition , Lake Erie and Lake St Clair are both a short distance from Highway 77 .
Highway 77 begins at the Leamington Bypass , north of the city of the same name . The western section of Highway 3 shares its eastern terminus with Highway 77 ; from there it travels west towards Windsor . Several greenhouses are visible near the southern end of the highway , a small percentage of the 610 hectares ( 1 @,@ 500 acres ) of land occupied by them in the Leamington area . Point Pelee National Park , the southernmost point in Canada , is also nearby .
The highway runs 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) north through Mount Carmel and Blytheswood to the village of Staples before turning to the east . It continues in this direction for 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) before returning to its northward orientation . North of there , the highway passes to the east of the Comber and District Historical Society Museum . The museum , which focuses on the history of agriculture , was established in the former Maple Grove Schoolhouse , which was built in 1894 . Pressing north to Highway 401 , it passes Middle Road ( once Highway 98 ) in the centre of Comber . Highway 401 provides access to Windsor and the United States to the west , and to the town of Tilbury and city of Chatham – Kent to the east . To the north , the road continues as Essex County Road 35 to Stoney Point on the shores of Lake Huron .
Traffic levels along Highway 77 vary , but are generally low . The busiest section of the highway lies at the southern end between Leamington and Blythesville , with an average of 6 @,@ 000 vehicles travelling it per day . North of that , traffic drops considerably to 3 @,@ 000 vehicles , but increases approaching Comber and Highway 401 to around 4 @,@ 500 .
= = History = =
The Highway 77 designation was first applied on August 5 , 1936 to a road running southeast from Rodney , Ontario to Highway 3 at New Glasgow . On December 5 , 1957 , the highway was transferred to Elgin County and is now known as Elgin County Road 103 . The current Highway 77 was designated between Leamington and Highway 401 on April 1 , 1963 . The southern end followed present @-@ day Erie Street south through the city to Talbot Road . At the time , Highway 3 travelled along that road ; Highway 77 continued south of Talbot Road as Highway 18 . In early December 1999 , the Leamington Bypass of Highway 3 opened . The southern terminus of Highway 77 was subsequently truncated by 1 @.@ 7 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) to end at the new bypass .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 77 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Essex County .
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= Chambersburg , Pennsylvania =
Chambersburg is a borough in the South Central region of Pennsylvania , United States . It is 13 miles ( 21 km ) miles north of Maryland and the Mason @-@ Dixon line and 52 miles ( 84 km ) southwest of Harrisburg in the Cumberland Valley , which is part of the Great Appalachian Valley . Chambersburg is the county seat of Franklin County . According to the United States Census Bureau the 2010 population was 20 @,@ 268 . When combined with the surrounding Greene , Hamilton , and Guilford Townships , the population of Greater Chambersburg is 52 @,@ 273 . Chambersburg is at the core of the Chambersburg , PA Micropolitan Statistical Area which includes surrounding Franklin County . The population of the Chambersburg Micropolitan Area in 2010 was 149 @,@ 618 .
Chambersburg 's settlement began in 1730 when water mills were built at the confluence of Conococheague Creek and Falling Spring Creek that now run through the center of the town . Its history includes episodes relating to the French and Indian War , the Whiskey Rebellion , John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry , and the American Civil War . The borough was the only major northern community burned down by Confederate forces during the war .
Chambersburg is located along the Lincoln Highway , U.S. 30 , between McConnellsburg and Gettysburg , Pennsylvania and along U.S. 11 , the Molly Pitcher Highway , between Shippensburg , Pennsylvania , and Hagerstown , Maryland . Interstate 81 skirts the borough to its east . The town also lies approximately midpoint on US Route 30 between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia with the local geography reflecting both flatter areas like Philadelphia and mountainous areas like Pittsburgh .
= = History = =
= = = European settlement = = =
Native Americans living or hunting in the area during the 18th century included the Iroquois , Lenape and Shawnee . " Falling Spring " was first settled by Benjamin Chambers , a Scots @-@ Irish immigrant , in 1730 , who started a grist mill and saw mill by a then @-@ 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) high waterfall where Falling Spring Creek joined Conococheague Creek . The creek provided power to the mills , and the settlement was known as " Falling Spring . "
On March 30 , 1734 , Chambers was issued a " Blunston license " for 400 acres ( 160 ha ) , from a representative of the Penn family , but European settlement in the area was of questionable legality until the treaty ending the French and Indian War , because not all Indian tribes with land claims had signed treaties . The Penn family encouraged settlement in the area in order to strengthen its case in a border dispute with the Maryland Colony , which had resulted in hostilities known as Cresap 's War . This dispute was not settled until 1767 and the surveying of the border known as the Mason @-@ Dixon line . Chambers traveled to England to testify in support of Penn 's claims . To maintain peace with the Indians , European settlers were sometimes removed from the nearby area . In May 1750 , Benjamin Chambers participated in removing settlers from nearby Burnt Cabins , which took its name from the incident .
The area was officially part of Chester County , then Lancaster , and then Cumberland until it became part of the newly established Franklin County in 1784 .
The Great Wagon Road connecting Philadelphia with the Shenandoah Valley passed nearby . In 1744 , it was completed through Harris 's Ferry , Carlisle , Shippensburg , and Chambersburg to the Potomac River .
In 1748 a local militia was formed for protection against Indians , with Benjamin Chambers being named colonel .
Chambersburg was on the frontier during the French and Indian War . The area 's population dropped from about 3 @,@ 000 in 1755 at the start of the war to about 300 , with most settlers not returning until after 1764 when the peace treaty was signed . Benjamin Chambers built a private stone fort during the war , which was equipped with two 4 pounder cannons and fighting occurred nearby . Because Chambers 's fort was otherwise lightly defended , the authorities attempted to remove the cannons to prevent them from being captured by Indians and used against other forts . The attempted removal was unsuccessful , and one of the cannons was used to celebrate Independence Day in 1840 . The Forbes Road and other trails going to Fort Pitt passed nearby as well . The Forbes Road developed into part of the main road connecting Pittsburg and Philadelphia , and much later into US 30 , and Chambersburg developed as a transportation hub at the crossroads of Forbes Road and the Great Wagon Road .
Fighting continued in the area after the war , most notably the Enoch Brown school massacre during Pontiac 's Rebellion and the Black Boys rebellion against British troops at Fort Loudon .
The first settlers were Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterians and German Protestants came soon afterward . Quakers and English Protestants , who made up a large proportion of early Pennsylvania settlers , did not often move as far west as Chambersburg . Blacks lived in Chambersburg almost from the start of settlement . Benjamin Chambers owned a black female slave sometime before the French and Indian War and twenty slaves were recorded as taxable property in 1786 .
The earliest church was established by Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterians in 1734 . Chambers gave land to the congregation in 1768 , requiring only a single rose as annual rent . Later land was given to the First Lutheran Church ( 1780 ) and Zion Reformed Church ( organized in 1780 ) under the same agreement , and these churches came to be known as the " Rose Rent Churches . " A Catholic community organized in 1785 . The Jewish cemetery dates back to 1840 . The Mt . Moriah First African Baptist Church dates to 1887 .
The town was first laid out in 1764 , and lots were advertised for sale on July 19 in Benjamin Franklin 's Pennsylvania Gazette
Notice is hereby given to the Public , that there is a town is laid out on Conegogig Creek , on both sides of the Great Falling Spring , where is falls into said creek , by Benjamin Chambers , of Cumberland County . Lots may be had on reasonable terms and Firm Deeds granted for them by said Chambers : the day appointed for drawing of said lots is the 28th day of June inst .. which is a Thursday . The situation of this town is very good for water and stone , both free and marble , and sand all handy to the spot , and a well timbered part of the country adjoining it ; within said town is a good Gistmill , Sawmill , and Grindstones going by water . The articles of the Town shall be read on the day appointed for the drawing of the Lots , and the terms of the sale published by me
= = = 1775 – 1858 = = =
In June 1775 , soon after the Battle of Lexington , local troops were raised to fight the British in the American Revolution under the command of Benjamin Chambers 's eldest son Captain James Chambers , as part of the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment . These troops were among the first non @-@ New Englanders to join the siege of Boston , arriving on August 7 , 1775 . James Chambers fought for seven years during the revolution , reaching the rank of Colonel of Continental troops on September 26 , 1776 . His two brothers , William and Benjamin , Jr . , each served for much of the war and reached the rank of Captain . James Chambers commanded local troops at the Battle of Long Island , and at White Plains , Trenton , Princeton , Brandywine , Germantown and Monmouth . He was part of the rear guard covering the retreat from Brooklyn , and was wounded at the Battle of Brandywine while facing Hessian troops under General Knuphausen at Chadds Ford .
During the Whiskey Rebellion , local citizens raised a liberty pole in support of the rebels , and to protest conscription of soldiers to put down the rebellion . Nevertheless , these citizens were censured in a town meeting and removed the pole the next day . President George Washington , while leading United States troops against the rebels , came through town on the way from Carlisle to Bedford , staying overnight on October 12 , 1794 . According to tradition , Washington lodged with Dr. Robert Johnson , a surgeon in the Pennsylvania line during the Revolution . This march was one of only two times that a sitting president personally commanded the military in the field . ( The other was after President James Madison fled the British occupation of Washington , D.C. during the War of 1812 . ) After sending the troops toward Pittsburgh from Bedford under General Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee , Washington returned through Chambersburg sometime between October 21 – 26 . James Chambers was appointed a Brigadier General of Militia during the Whiskey Rebellion .
Chambersburg was incorporated on March 21 , 1803 , and declared the County Seat when the State Assembly established a formal government . The first courthouse was John Jack 's tavern on the Diamond ( town square ) in 1784 , with a permanent courthouse built in 1793 , and the first county jail built 1795 . The " Old Jail " was built in 1818 , survived the fire of 1864 and is the oldest jail building in Pennsylvania . It was originally used as the sheriff 's residence and had the longest continuous use of any jail in the state , operating until 1971 . Today the Old Jail is a museum and home to the Franklin County – Kittochtinny Historical Society . The county 's gallows still stand in the jail 's courtyard .
Much of the town 's growth was due to its position as a transportation center , first as the starting point on the Forbes Road to Pittsburgh . The U.S. Congress placed Chambersburg on the Philadelphia @-@ Pittsburgh postal road in 1803 . The road was rebuilt as the Chambersburg @-@ Bedford Turnpike in 1811 . The Cumberland Valley Railroad was built in 1837 and was the area 's center of economic activity for nearly 100 years . Until the completion of the Pennsylvania Railroad 's main line in 1857 , the fastest route from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia was by stagecoach from Pittsburgh to Chambersburg , and then by train to Philadelphia .
= = = Civil War era = = =
= = = = Underground railroad / John Brown = = = =
By 1859 , Chambersburg was a stop on the Underground Railroad . John Brown stayed in an upstairs room at Mary Ritner 's boarding house between June and October , 1859 while preparing for his raid on Harpers Ferry . Several of his fellow raiders stayed in the house as well , and four of them escaped capture and briefly visited the house after the raid . The house still stands at 225 East King Street . While in Chambersburg Brown posed as Dr. Isaac Smith , an iron mine developer , and bought and stored weapons under the guise of mining equipment .
Brown ( using the name John Smith ) and John Henry Kagi met with Frederick Douglass and Shields Green at an abandoned quarry outside of town to discuss the raid on August 19 . According to Douglass 's account , Brown described the planned raid in detail and Douglass advised him against it . Douglass also provided $ 10 from a supporter , and had helped Green – a future raider – locate Brown .
= = = = First two Confederate occupations , selective burnings = = = =
During the American Civil War on October 10 , 1862 , Confederate Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart , with 1 @,@ 800 cavalrymen , raided Chambersburg , destroying $ 250 @,@ 000 of railroad property and taking 500 guns , hundreds of horses , and at least " eight young colored men and boys . " They failed , however , to accomplish one of the main targets of the raid : to burn the railroad bridge across the Conococheague Creek at Scotland , five miles ( 8 km ) north of town .
During the early days of the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign , a Virginia cavalry brigade under Brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins occupied the town and burned several warehouses and Cumberland Valley Railroad structures and the bridge at Scotland . From June 24 – 28 , 1863 , much of the Army of Northern Virginia passed through Chambersburg en route to Carlisle and Gettysburg , and Robert E. Lee established his headquarters at a nearby farm .
= = = = Burning of entire town 1864 = = = =
The following year , Chambersburg was invaded for a third time , as cavalry , dispatched from the Shenandoah Valley by Jubal Early , arrived . On July 30 , 1864 , a large portion of the town was burned down by Brig. Gen. John McCausland for failing to provide a ransom of $ 500 @,@ 000 in U.S. currency , or $ 100 @,@ 000 in gold . Among the few buildings left standing was the Masonic Temple , which had been guarded under orders by a Confederate mason . Norland , the home of Republican politician and editor Alexander McClure , was burned even though it was well north of the main fire .
One black Chambersburg resident was killed when Confederates refused to allow him to leave his burning house . Another man was asked by the Confederates if he had ever educated " niggers " ; after replying that he had , the Confederates burned his house as well . Subsequently , " Remember Chambersburg " soon became a Union battle cry .
= = = Civil War Legacy = = =
= = = = General Jubal Early accused of war crimes : flees the United States = = = =
Lieutenant General Jubal Early was accused of war crimes for ordering the burning of Chambersburg . When the Army of Northern Virginia surrendered on April 9 , 1865 , Early escaped to Texas by horseback , where he hoped to find a Confederate force still holding out . He proceeded to Mexico , and from there , sailed to Cuba and Canada . Living in Toronto , he wrote his memoir , A Memoir of the Last Year of the War for Independence , in the Confederate States of America , which focused on his Valley Campaign . The book was published in 1867 .
= = = = Reconstruction of town = = = =
The town was rebuilt with a combination of state and private funding . Many new buildings were erected quickly and were not initially built to the original standards .
It took more than 30 years to fully restore the town 's housing stock to pre @-@ Civil War standards .
= = = = Formation of first school for orphaned children of soldiers killed in the Civil War = = = =
Due to an incident where two children of dead Union soldiers came begging for food to the doors of Chambersburg residents , the first school in Pennsylvania was created to serve children of Veterans orphaned due to war . The Governor of the state eventually established 69 additional such schools across the state . The original school in Chambersburg was renamed " The Scotland School for Veterans Children " in the 1890s .
The school remained open until 2010 and graduated more than 10 @,@ 000 children during its lifetime .
= = = = Early memorialization of Civil War = = = =
Memorial Fountain , built in the center of the diamond to honor the Civil War soldiers , was dedicated on July 17 , 1878 with fifteen thousand people in attendance .
A statue of a Union soldier stands next to the fountain , facing south to guard against the return of southern raiders .
= = = = Contemporary memorialization = = = =
To this day , the Civil War burning of Chambersburg remains a part of the town 's historic identity and yearly memorial events are held .
Chambersburg has also recently been the subject of study on how people have historically perceived and responded to war tragedies .
= = = National Register of Historic Places = = =
The following places in Chambersburg are on the National Register of Historic Places :
= = = Historic images = = =
Colorized photographs taken from a series of 22 postcard views mailed in 1921 .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , Chambersburg has a total area of 6 @.@ 8 square miles ( 17 @.@ 6 km2 ) , all land . The elevation is 617 feet ( 188 m ) above sea level . Chambersburg is located in the Cumberland Valley next to the Appalachian Mountains . It also sits right outside of Caledonia State Park , a 1 @,@ 125 @-@ acre ( 455 ha ) park with fishing and hunting areas and hiking trails , including a section of the Appalachian Trail . Also outside of Chambersburg is Michaux State Forest , a 85 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) forest . Both of these places provide recreation for residents .
Conococheague Creek , a noted trout stream , runs through the center of town . It is a tributary of the Potomac River . The northernmost reach of the Potomac watershed is a few miles north of town .
Chambersburg has a cold climate , according to the United States Department of Energy . The area receives anywhere from 38 to 42 inches ( 970 to 1 @,@ 070 mm ) of precipitation per year . And Chambersburg falls within the warmest part of the Humid Continental Climate with some characteristics in the summer of a Humid Subtropical Climate , but bears much more characteristics of the former . The average January low is 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) and the average high is 37 ° F ( 3 ° C ) . The average July high is 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) and the average low is 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 17 @,@ 862 people , 7 @,@ 722 households , and 4 @,@ 386 families residing in the borough . The population density was 2 @,@ 601 @.@ 3 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 003 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 8 @,@ 305 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 209 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 466 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the borough was 86 @.@ 43 % White , 7 @.@ 56 % African American , 0 @.@ 18 % Native American , 0 @.@ 87 % Asian , 0 @.@ 05 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 08 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 83 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 @.@ 38 % of the population .
There were 7 @,@ 722 households , out of which 24 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 41 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 11 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 43 @.@ 2 % were non @-@ families . 37 @.@ 5 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 16 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 16 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 83 .
In the borough the population was spread out , with 20 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 1 % from 18 to 24 , 26 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 20 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 , and 22 @.@ 7 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 40 years . For every 100 females there were 81 @.@ 7 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 77 @.@ 1 males .
The median income for a household in the borough was $ 32 @,@ 336 , and the median income for a family was $ 40 @,@ 352 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 803 versus $ 21 @,@ 548 for females . The per capita income for the borough was $ 19 @,@ 278 . About 9 @.@ 8 % of families and 12 @.@ 9 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 18 @.@ 3 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .
The population stood at 7 @,@ 863 in 1890 ; 8 @,@ 864 in 1900 ; 11 @,@ 800 in 1910 ; 13 @,@ 171 in 1920 ; and 14 @,@ 852 in 1940 . It was estimated to be around 18 @,@ 000 people in January 2008 .
= = Economy = =
The surrounding area has a large farming population , including many Amish and Mennonite families . Franklin County 's largest crop is corn ( maize ) with 579 farms that cover 29 @,@ 916 acres ( 12 @,@ 107 ha ) of land . Franklin also has 344 wheat farms and 299 barley farms which combined cover 14 @,@ 063 acres ( 5 @,@ 691 ha ) . Manufacturing in Chambersburg includes machinery production , metal fabrication , and food processing according to the 1997 Economic Census of Franklin County . The largest sectors by payroll were manufacturing companies such as T B Wood 's Inc . , Manitowoc cranes , retail trade , and health care and social assistance . Despite suburban growth , much of the economy of the area is still largely based on agriculture .
Retail stores such as Wal @-@ Mart and Lowe 's serve the population with jobs and basic needs . The Chambersburg Mall with four anchor stores and about fifty smaller stores is located in the unincorporated village of Scotland , about four miles ( 6 km ) north of town on Interstate 81 . Chambersburg 's retail sector has grown quickly since 2006 with the opening of Target , Petsmart , Michaels , and Kohls near the newly built Exit 17 of Interstate 81 . Several restaurants new to the region have also opened , including Sonic , Starbucks , T.G.I. Fridays , Red Robin , Fuddruckers , Ruby Tuesday , Panera Bread , Chipotle , Texas Roadhouse , Olive Garden , and Longhorn Steakhouse .
The city 's location on Interstate 81 within 100 miles ( 160 km ) of both Washington , D.C. and Baltimore , Maryland encourages trucking and distribution businesses . The Letterkenny Army Depot five miles ( 8 km ) north of town is a major employer . Camp David also employs Chambersburg residents . In 2004 Chambersburg had a per capita personal income ( PCPI ) of $ 28 @,@ 208 , below the national average of $ 33 @,@ 050 .
= = Culture = =
Chambersburg is part of small town America . Recreation includes hunting , sports events such as baseball games at Henninger Field , and high school football games . The town also hosts a professional football team , the Chambersburg Cardinals , that plays in the Gridiron Developmental Football League . People in the area speak in Pittsburgh English or with a Central Pennsylvania accent , over @-@ pronouncing " O 's " and " I 's " . Caledonia State Park provides an area for outdoor activities , with the park especially busy on July 4 .
The Capitol Theatre was opened as a movie palace on Main Street in 1927 . In 2003 , it reopened as the Capitol Theatre Center and is home to the Capitol Theatre Main Stage and Auditorium , Chambersburg Council for the Arts , Caledonia Theatre Company , Chambersburg Ballet Theatre School , and Chambersburg Community Theatre . In 2009 , Chambersburg ranked among Newsmax magazine 's list of the " Top 25 Most Uniquely American Cities and Towns , " a piece written by current CBS News travel editor Peter Greenberg . In determining his ranking , Greenberg cited the Capitol Theatre .
Wilson College is home to the Cumberland Valley School of Music , a local school offering private instruction on various musical instruments . It offers a wide range of lessons , classes , workshops , and summer camps , as well as presenting numerous recitals and concerts in Thomson Hall . CVSM sponsors a children 's chorus ( the Cumberbunds ) , a community band , a community orchestra , a concert jazz band , and the New Horizons Band , for adults age 50 or older .
Journalist David Brooks in 2001 used Chambersburg and Franklin County to typify Republican “ Red America . ” According to Brooks , there is little obvious income inequality and people don ’ t define their place in society by their income level . They value the work ethic and are anti @-@ union , anti @-@ welfare , pro @-@ free market , and religious social conservatives .
= = Government = =
The municipal government operates under the Pennsylvania Borough Code , with the Town Council holding both legislative and executive authority . The ten councilmen are elected from five wards ; two from each ward with staggered four @-@ year terms . The Mayor administers the Police Department and can cast tie @-@ breaking votes on the Council . Other departments are administered by the Borough Manager .
Darren Brown became Mayor on January 6 , 2014 .
As of January 2016 , the town councilmen are :
Samantha J. Bietsch , 2nd Ward ( R )
Sharon A. Bigler , 4th Ward ( D )
Jeremy D. Cate , 4th Ward ( D )
Allen B. Coffman , 1st Ward ( R ) ( Council President )
Louisa C. Cowles , 3rd Ward ( D )
Herbert R. Dolaway , 5th Ward ( D )
Alice C. Elia , 1st Ward ( D )
Kathy J. Leedy . 3re Ward ( D )
John " Sean " A. Scott III , 2nd Ward ( D )
Heath E. Talhelm , 5th Ward ( D ) ( Council Vice President )
Chambersburg is part of the 9th Congressional District of Pennsylvania and represented by Bill Shuster ( R ) in the House of Representatives , and by Pat Toomey ( R ) , and Bob Casey , Jr . ( D ) in the Senate .
= = Education = =
= = = Wilson College = = =
Wilson College is a private , Presbyterian @-@ related , liberal arts women 's college founded in 1869 and named for its first major donor , Sarah Wilson of Chambersburg . The college has 800 students and is known for its Women With Children , Veterinary Medical Technician , and Equestrian programs . Once an all women 's school , it currently is co @-@ education . In 2009 , the school opened the first " green " campus building in Chambersburg , PA . The building is part of the science and technology department and features a full @-@ length waterfall in the lobby . The waterfall begins on the third floor and ends in the basement of the building .
= = = Public schools = = =
Chambersburg Area Senior High School ( CASHS ) is a public school with around 2 @,@ 400 students in grades 9 – 12 , drawn from the borough of Chambersburg and the surrounding townships of Hamilton , Greene , Lurgan , Letterkenny and Guilford . CASHS is accredited by the Middle States Association and has occupied its current facilities since 1955 . Principal Dr. Barry Purvis was recognized as the 2006 High School Principal of the Year by the Pennsylvania Association of Elementary and Secondary School Principals .
Until August 2011 , J. Frank Faust Junior High School was the only public junior high school for eighth and ninth grade students of the Chambersburg Area School District . It served about 1400 students . J. Frank Faust is now a middle school for Chambersburg area students in the north . CAMS NORTH . It has 6th through 8th grade .
Chambersburg Area Middle School SOUTH was the only middle school , but as of August 2011 , it became CAMS SOUTH , 6th through 8th grade . During the 2001 – 02 school year , CAMS was recognized with the Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education , the highest award an American school can receive .
The Franklin County Career and Technology Center is also located in Chambersburg . FCCTC is a school designated for students and adults to learn vocational trades while still learning core subjects in school . The school offers training in about 20 – 30 different concentrations . There are currently six different school districts with students attending FCCTC : Chambersburg , Fannett @-@ Metal , Greencastle @-@ Antrim , Shippensburg , Tuscarora , and Waynesboro .
The Chambersburg school district includes seventeen elementary schools . Many school are being upgraded , rebuilt , or closed because of out @-@ of @-@ date buildings and lack of space . As of July 2008 , the current School Board President is Stanley Helman . Other members include Anne Boryan , Renee Sharpe , Norman Blowers , Lori Leedy , Fred Rice , Dave Schiamanna , and Joe Tosten . One seat is currently being filled after the resignation of the previous board president , Dr. Thomas Orndorff .
= = = Scotland School for Veterans ' Children = = =
The Scotland School for Veterans ' Children ( SSVC ) was a state owned school that offered tuition @-@ free residential education programs for children of Pennsylvania residents who are veterans or are currently serving in the U.S. armed forces . Scotland School had an original founding date of 1863 . It was founded as a result of two orphaned children going door to door begging for food . They knocked on the door of then governor , Andrew Gregg Curtin . Governor Curtin and his wife realized there was a forgotten group of people resulting from the American Civil War , the orphaned children of soldiers . Governor Curtin set up 70 schools across the state and they became known as the ' Soldier 's Orphan Schools ' . As students graduated , the student bodies of the schools began to decline and in 1895 all of the schools closed saved one , the one located in Scotland . The name was changed to Scotland School for Veteran 's Children . The purpose was then changed to provide an education to any child of any veteran , whether that veteran was living or deceased . Because of this new purpose and subsequent name change , the founding date of the school was changed to 1895 . It was located about four miles ( 6 km ) north of Chambersburg in the unincorporated village of Scotland and had about 300 students in grades 3 – 12 . The school was established in 1895 as the Pennsylvania Soldiers Orphans Industrial School . Over 10 @,@ 000 students have been educated at the school . The 186 @-@ acre ( 75 ha ) campus contains about 70 buildings including residential cottages . In 2009 , Governor Ed Rendell removed funding for the school in the year 's state budget , thereby forcing the school to close .
= = = Private schools = = =
Private schools include Corpus Christi , a Catholic school with 310 students and over 20 teachers and Cumberland Valley Christian School , a private Christian kindergarten through twelfth grade academy located in Chambersburg . Cumberland Valley Christian School is affiliated with the Open Door Church and has approximately four hundred students . Other private schools include the Montessori Academy of Chambersburg ( 22 months @-@ 12th grade , non @-@ sectarian ) and Shalom Christian Academy ( K @-@ 12 , Mennonite affiliation ) , and several elementary schools with Mennonite , Baptist , Brethren , Christian Science , and other religious orientations .
= = = Library = = =
Coyle Free Library has roots going back to 1891 , when a library of 166 books was organized by the local Afternoon Club . A member of the club , Blanche Coyle , left a bequest of $ 30 @,@ 435 in 1915 to construct a library building . The building was completed in 1924 , located at the corner of Second and Queen Streets . Later the library was made part of the Franklin County Library and began to receive funds from the County and State , though the Afternoon Club still donated funds though at least 1979 . The building it currently occupies is a former post office .
= = Media = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
The Chambersburg Public Opinion is the only daily newspaper published in town , and has weekday circulation about 17 @,@ 000 . It was founded in 1869 and is now owned by Gannett .
= = = Television and radio = = =
Television reception can be poor because of the surrounding mountains . WJAL , a family oriented station broadcasts from Chambersburg , and Harrisburg PBS station WITF @-@ TV rebroadcasts via low @-@ powered translator W38AN . Franklin County is included in Harrisburg DMA . All Harrisburg TV stations are available off air and on cable . WHTM is the first network affiliated television station to establish a bureau in Chambersburg . WHAG @-@ TV , WWPB , and WWPX , broadcast from nearby Hagerstown , Maryland .
Chambersburg shares a radio market , the 165th largest in the United States , with Waynesboro , Pennsylvania , and Hagerstown , Maryland .
= = Sister city = =
Gotemba , Shizuoka , Japan
= = Notable people = =
Betty Andujar , Texas politician
Philip Berlin , inventor of the railroad sleeping car .
D. Dudley Bloom , United States Navy officer and American businessman
George K. Brady , United States Army officer . Briefly commander of the Department of Alaska .
Ike Brookens , MLB player in 1975 with the Detroit Tigers .
Tom Brookens , MLB player from 1979 – 1990 , played third @-@ base for the 1984 World Series Champion Detroit Tigers
Revolutionary War soldier Margaret Corbin , known as " Captain Molly "
Abolistionist publisher Martin Delany , who in 1865 became the first African @-@ American field officer in the U.S. Army , was educated in Chambersburg in the 1830s .
Gus Dorner Major League Baseball pitcher ( 1902 – 1909 ) .
Henry Burchard Fine ( 1858 – 1928 ) was a dean at Princeton University and mathematician .
Baseball Hall of Famer Nellie Fox was born and lived just west of town in St. Thomas Township .
Patrick Gass ( 1771 – 1870 ) , the last surviving member of the Lewis and Clark expedition , was born just outside Chambersburg ( Falling Spring ) .
Kenton Harper , Virginia newspaper editor and Confederate army general during the Civil War , born and raised in Chambersburg
The Rev. John Grier Hibben , later President of Princeton University , served as pastor of Falling Spring Presbyterian Church , 1888 – 1891 .
Stephen D. Houston , a renowned Mayanist scholar , epigrapher , and anthropologist was born in Chambersburg in 1958 .
Archbishop John Hughes of New York lived in Chambersburg between 1817 and 1819 before going on to Mount St. Mary 's University . His family is buried at the Corpus Christi Church Cemetery in Chambersburg .
Journalist and author Gwen Ifill spent a portion of her childhood in Chambersburg while her father was pastor at St. James A.M.E. Church .
Alexander McClure , editor of the Franklin Repository from 1852 – 1864
David Fullerton Robison , a U.S. Representative , who in 1859 died of National Hotel disease , was born here
Joseph Winters an African @-@ American inventor and abolitionist , moved to Chambersburg in 1830 .
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= Soldier ( Destiny 's Child song ) =
" Soldier " is a song by American recording group Destiny 's Child featuring American rappers T.I. and Lil Wayne . Columbia Records released " Soldier " as the second single from Destiny 's Child 's fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) on December 7 , 2004 . The artists co @-@ wrote the song with Sean Garrett and Rich Harrison ; the latter co @-@ produced it with Destiny 's Child members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . A Southern hip hop mid @-@ tempo song , it lyrically describes each members ' favorite type of male love interest .
" Soldier " received mostly positive reviews from music critics who praised its composition and the trio 's vocal performances , but criticized the lyrical content . The song received a nomination in the category for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards and won a Best R & B / Soul Single by a Group , Band or Duo award at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . A commercial success , " Soldier " peaked within the top five in six European countries and in Australasia further being certified gold in the countries in the latter region . In the US , it peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot Dance Club Songs further receiving a Platinum certification by the RIAA .
The black @-@ and @-@ white music video directed by Ray Kay featured cameo appearances by several rappers and singers . It was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards under the category of Best Group Video . The band performed " Soldier " on several televised appearances in 2004 and 2005 and included it on the set list of their final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin ' It ( 2005 ) . Both Beyoncé and Rowland performed the song during their solo tours after Destiny 's Child 's disbandment . The song was sampled in many songs by different artists , most notably by Nelly on his single " Grillz " ( 2005 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Soldier " was written by the artists along with Sean Garrett and Rich Harrison ; the latter co @-@ produced it with Destiny 's Child members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . The guest verses from Lil Wayne and T.I. made them the only featured artists on the album . " Soldier " was recorded by Jim Caruana at Sony Music Studios in New York City in 2004 . It was mixed by Dexter Simmons and mastered by Tom Coyne .
Garrett initially wrote " Soldier " in a taxi while going to the studio where the band worked on Destiny Fulfilled ; he sang the hook to the members afterwards and they liked it . Garrett further revealed about his collaboration with the group , " I loved how Destiny 's Child evolved and became this really incredible pop group but I wanted to introduce them to the hood from the perspective of having the world look at them in a different way ... What was great about that was they all liked guys from the streets . Each verse was a representation of the guy they were actually into . " During an interview with MTV News , Rowland said that with " Soldier " each member wanted to talk about their preference for a man during their solo verses , the place where he lives and his physical appearance . Beyoncé stated that as the song had a " Southern feel " and beat , they wanted to collaborate with Lil Wayne and T.I. who according to her added " rawness , realness and edge to the song " . During an interview in 2014 , Lil Wayne discussed his contribution in the song , " That set me off . Them little eight bars right there , that got me there boy . If you ask me why , it was Beyoncé . That shit was big . " " Soldier " was included on the group 's compilation albums # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Destiny 's Child ( 2012 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Soldier " is a mid @-@ tempo Southern hip hop song ; Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine further found elements of Crunk & B music while Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times noted electropop elements in its composition . Discussing the song musically , Kitty Empire from The Observer classified it as a " ghetto anthem @-@ in @-@ waiting that echoes the Southern bent of much contemporary hip hop " . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Soldier " was composed using common time in the key of C minor with a pulsing hip hop tempo of 75 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from the low note of G3 to the high note of F5 . The song is instrumentally complete with ticking staccato synths , fractured , syncopated keyboard instruments , organ stabs , and off @-@ kilter kick drums . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan felt that its beat was similar to materials by Dr. Dre . Dimitri Ehrlich from Vibe found major influence of Jay @-@ Z in " Soldier " further saying that " T.I. and Lil Wayne ... seem like stand @-@ ins for Hova " .
Lyrically , " Soldier " is a continuation of the previous song on Destiny Fulfilled , " Lose My Breath " . As the singers feel that their man does not fulfill them in the way they want , they tell him " I need a soldier " , further " upping their standards " . They request their man to be a " thug " , proclaiming their love for " country boys " ; their preference include a " soldier " who is " street " and " hood " . MacPherson further felt that the trio cruised the ghetto for suitable men with " Soldier " , an " ode to gangsta love " . Corey Moss of MTV felt that the song was one of the most personal moments on Destiny Fulfilled in the sense that Beyoncé 's then @-@ relatively secret relationship with rapper Jay @-@ Z was acknowledged " on record for the first time " . Moss further elaborated , " Albeit minor , her [ Beyoncé 's ] verse ( about falling for a guy from the BK , as in Jay 's Brooklyn stomping grounds ) offers a rare moment of commentary on the couple , which has thus far only been chronicled by tabloid photographers . " The song opens with T.I. rhyming lines and glorifying the profound love " between a thug and a thugette " . As the song progresses , each member of Destiny 's Child describes their own favorite type of man , later harmonizing together for the chorus . Midway through the song , Lil Wayne 's verse contains a reference to rapper B.G .. Williams is the last artist to sing her solo lines , which were described as " the sexiest " by Rashod Ollisong of The Baltimore Sun .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from the website AllMusic described " Soldier " as one of the " hard @-@ driving dance cuts " of Destiny Fulfilled further choosing it as a highlight . Similarly , Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine wrote in his review that " [ The album ] shoots its load quickly , although just as effectively : ' Lose My Breath ' and ' Soldier ' are stunning , both displaying the Beyoncé trademark of creepily submissive lyrics matched with dominatrix vocals and arrangements to superb effect . " MacPherson continued praising the song 's slow " contemptuous grind " and the singers ' vocal delivery further concluding that T.I. and Wayne " get comprehensively owned " . The New York Times writer Kelefa Sanneh described the track as part of the album 's " lovable " material and went on saying , " [ it ] takes a ludicrous premise ... and turns it into sharp , coldblooded electro @-@ pop " . Andy Battaglia writing for The A.V. Club felt that the song and " Cater 2 U " " make sassy end @-@ runs around notions of womanly subservience , but their best musical moments hide in tiny melismatic twirls instead of hooks " . The Guardian writer Caroline Sullivan described the track as " juddering " while BBC 's Nick Reynolds called it " good fun " . In a review of the song , Tom Breihan , an editor of Pitchfork Media , wrote that " Soldier " would have been a " perfectly acceptable album track " on The Writing 's on the Wall ( 1999 ) , but noted that its sound was different from the songs played on mainstream pop radio . Praising the trio for their vocal performances , he continued :
" ' Soldier ' might not carry with it the shock of the new , but it 's still a nice little single ... The women of Destiny 's Child don 't sound the slightest bit convincing singing about how they need thug boyfriends , but they wind their voices around a gorgeous hook exactly as well as they always have . T.I. and Lil Wayne stop by , not saying anything but sounding cool and tough and unflappable doing it . It 's pretty good , but don 't expect it to set your world on fire . "
Barbara Ellen of The Observer said the song was " of the exemplary standard " of the band 's previous albums , Survivor ( 2001 ) and The Writing 's on the Wall . Describing it as an " overt bid for street cred " , Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair felt that T.I and Lil Wayne " bring little to the party " with their contribution to the song . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz writing for Billboard magazine felt that the group " cemented their street and chart credibility " with the song . Another reviewer from the same magazine felt that the band 's " personal transition from teen @-@ dom to womanhood " was most evident on " Soldier " and two other songs from the album . Jenny Eliscu from Rolling Stone wrote in her review , " It 's a hot track , even if the message feels affected coming from these church girls . " For the same reason , Vibe writer Dimitri Ehrlich described it as a Broadway show tune about thug life . Gil Kaufman from MTV News described the song as a " bouncy homage to thug love that featured the signature DC mix of urban grit and slick production " . Rashod Ollisong writing for The Baltimore Sun gave a more mixed review for the song , writing " It is catchy , but the beat is trite , and the lyrical message is downright trifling " before adding that it glorifies a " warped " image of black masculinity which he heavily criticized . He further argued that the group " should put more thought into their lyrics " due to the background and image each member created throughout their career .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
" Soldier " won in the category for Best R & B / Soul Single by a Group , Band or Duo during the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration but lost to " Numb / Encore " ( 2004 ) by Jay @-@ Z and Linkin Park . At the 23rd Annual ASCAP Pop Music Awards , " Soldier " was recognized as one of the Most Performed Songs in 2005 along with the group 's other song " Lose My Breath " . The following year it was one of the Award Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at the 2006 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards .
In 2013 , Lindsey Weber from Vulture put " Soldier " at number nine on her list of the top 25 songs by Destiny 's Child . Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra also included the song in his 2013 list of the band 's best songs . The same year it was ranked at number 64 on a list complied by Andrew Noz from Complex magazine of Lil Wayne 's 100 best songs . Similarly , Emily Exton from VH1 listed " Soldier " at the 19th position of T.I. ' s 20 best songs praising his " hot intro verse " . On the occasion of Beyoncé 's 32nd birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard included " Soldier " at number 15 on the list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " .
= = Chart performance = =
After debuting on the chart for the week ending November 20 , 2004 , " Soldier " moved to number 41 on the US Billboard Hot 100 the following week . For the week ending December 10 , the single moved from number 14 to ten becoming the band 's tenth single to enter the top ten of the chart . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending February 12 , 2005 becoming the second single from the album to peak at that position . It fell from the top ten of the chart for the issue dated March 5 , 2005 after its position of number eight the previous week , thus spending a total of nine weeks in the first ten positions . Having spent a total of 23 weeks on the chart , " Soldier " was last seen at number 32 . The single was also successful on several other Billboard charts ; on the Hot Dance Club Songs it debuted at number 51 on the chart issue dated January 15 , 2004 and managed to peak at number one in its sixth week of charting for the issue dated February 26 , 2005 . " Soldier " further peaked at numbers three and four on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Mainstream Top 40 charts respectively for the chart issues dated January 1 , 2005 and February 12 , 2005 . On May 18 , 2005 the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold for selling 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . Its ringtone was further certified platinum on June 14 , 2006 for shipment of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
" Soldier " was commercially successful in countries across Europe peaking within the top ten in six countries . On the Danish Singles Chart , it peaked at number five in its first week of charting on March 4 , 2005 . Having spent a total of ten weeks on that chart , of which four were in the top ten , it fell off on May 13 . In Finland , the song debuted at number seven which further became its peak position in two weeks of charting . In Switzerland , " Soldier " debuted at number 15 on February 20 , 2004 and peaked at number ten after two weeks . It spent an additional week at that position and fell off the chart after 12 weeks . In the UK , the single debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated February 19 , 2005 . It gradually descended the chart , spending a total of seven weeks . On the Irish Singles Chart , the single debuted and peaked at number six on February 10 , 2005 . It also charted on other European charts , most notably at numbers 12 and 29 on the Spanish and French Singles Chart respectively .
In Australia , " Soldier " debuted and peaked at number three on the ARIA Singles Chart on February 20 , 2005 . It fell to numbers seven and eight respectively in the following two weeks and descended the chart for ten additional weeks before falling off on May 15 , 2005 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) awarded the single with a gold certification in 2005 for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies in that country . " Soldier " had a similar success on the New Zealand Singles Chart where it peaked at number four on February 21 , 2005 and remained at that position for the following three weeks . It further spent the following four weeks in the top ten of the chart and fell off on May 23 , 2005 . In 2005 , the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified it gold for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies in that country .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Soldier " was filmed by Norwegian director Ray Kay and was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , becoming the band 's first clip using that technique . It marked the first time the group worked with Kay . During an interview , they praised him for shooting the scenes in a fast and convenient way , further describing the experience as " wonderful " . The video features cameo appearances by seven singers and rappers : Beyoncé 's sister Solange Knowles , Lloyd , Bow Wow , Ginuwine , Ice Cube , WC and Young Jeezy .
The video opens with Destiny 's Child walking between two rows of males interwined with close @-@ up shots of each member 's face . T.I. appears rapping his part wearing a hat , sunglasses and chains . As the song progresses , the members are seen dancing along with the males in the background who also pose for the camera . During the middle of the video , the girls are seen walking with leashed dogs in their hands and Lil Wayne appears rapping his part afterwards . The camera focuses on each member during their solo part in the song as they perform a dance choreography and lip @-@ sync the lyrics . During the end of the video , as the group sings the lines " known to carry big things " , they rub the belly of Solange Knowles who was pregnant at the time of shooting . The clip ends with the girls holding the previously seen dogs in their hands . Throughout the visual , shots of three cars with different registrations are shown – a Cadillac from Georgia with the words " Da Durty " , another car from New York City with the words " BK Style " and a third car from California with the word " Crenshaw " .
The music video was released on MTV on November 8 , 2004 . It is also featured on the DualDisc editions of the albums # 1 's and Destiny Fulfilled as well as on the bonus DVD of the Destiny Fulfilled Tour edition . VH1 aired the video during the program Pop @-@ Up Video on November 11 , 2011 along with trivial commentary . In 2013 it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career . Vulture 's Lindsay Weber described the clip as " camouflage @-@ heavy " . The video was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards under the category of Best Group Video but lost to Green Day 's " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " ( 2004 ) .
= = Live performances = =
In late 2004 , the group performed " Soldier " with T.I. during MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . At BET 's 106 & Park Destiny 's Child performed " Soldier " on November 15 , 2004 . At the beginning of the performance , Michelle Williams fell onstage during the group 's entrance . Williams addressed the incident during an interview in 2014 , saying , " I had no choice but to get up and act like it didn 't happen . Because of YouTube - 10 years later , at least once a week , somebody brings it to my attention . " She added that it would be the last time she discussed the incident and acknowledged that although " it lives on forever " a lot of " great things " have happened to her since then . On November 16 , 2004 another performance of the song was during the television show Good Morning America . Destiny 's Child appeared on CBS ' The Early Show on December 8 , 2004 and sang " Soldier " . The group performed the song again in early February 2005 at the British show Top of the Pops . At the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 they sang " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " . Destiny 's Child also performed " Soldier " during the concert Rockin ' the Corps in April 2005 with the performance being featured on a DVD .
In 2005 , " Soldier " was added to the set list of Destiny 's Child 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It . The group performed it against a backdrop of the American flag dressed in leather clothes taken from Beyoncé 's clothing line House of Deréon . The live rendition contained a sample from the song " Shout It Out " from the soundtrack of the film Drumline . Denise Sheppard writing for Rolling Stone felt that the drumline @-@ affected version performed during the concert was " for the delighted , largely female crowd " . While reviewing a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News praised the group 's surprising look inspired by Mad Max noting that they proved " that you don 't need baggy jeans and a bandanna to be street " . Similarly , Barbara Ellen from The Observer felt that the look was emulating " all the Mad Max movies at once " . The song was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city for which T.I. and Wayne joined the band onstage performing their parts .
Following the group 's disbandment , both Beyoncé and Rowland included " Soldier " in the set list of their respective solo tours . The former performed it with her male background dancers during a Destiny 's Child medley at The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) along with a snippet of Soulja Boy 's " Crank That ( Soulja Boy ) " ( 2007 ) . It was subsequently included on the singer 's live DVD The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) dubbed as " Soldier Boy Crank Mix " . Rowland performed " Soldier " during her headlining concert tour Ms. Kelly Tour ( 2007 ) , on several dates during Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. Tour ( 2011 ) where she appeared as a supporting act and during the co @-@ headlining Lights Out Tour ( 2013 ) with The @-@ Dream . She also performed " Soldier " on August 26 , 2010 during a promotional concert in New York City and at the Australian Supafest festival in April 2012 backed by male dancers .
= = Usage as sample = =
In 2005 , American rapper Nelly sampled " Soldier " for his song " Grillz " ( 2005 ) featuring Paul Wall , and Ali & Gipp from the album Sweatsuit ( 2005 ) . Mike Schiller from PopMatters wrote that Jermaine Dupri 's production on the song was " uncharacteristically fantastic , finding a down ' n ' dirty groove in the unlikely source material of Destiny 's Child 's ' Soldier ' " . The following year " Only God " from JME 's instrumental mixtape Boy Better Know - Edition 4 : Tropical ( 2006 ) sampled the song . Hip hop artist DJ Drama used a sample of the song in " Grillz Gleamin ' " featuring Lil ' Scrappy , Bohagon , Diamond and Princess from his album Gangsta Grillz : The Album ( 2007 ) . " Soldier " was also sampled one more time for " Body Marked Up " ( 2009 ) by Willy Northpole , the first single from his debut album Tha Connect .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles and Kelly Rowland
Recording : Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , New York City
Additional vocals : Tom Tapley and Fabian Marasciullo
Audio mixing : Dexter Simmons
Additional Pro Tools Editing : Rommel Nino Villanueva
Audio mastering : Tom Coyne
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= SM U @-@ 40 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 40 or U @-@ XL was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 40 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in April 1917 and commissioned in August .
She had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During her service career , U @-@ 40 sank three ships and damaged two others , sending a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 40 was at Fiume at war 's end and was surrendered at Venice in March 1919 . She was granted to Italy as a war reparation and broken up the following year .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 40 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 40 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 40 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 40 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) after funds for her purchase were raised and donated to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by the Östereichischen Flottenverein . She was laid down on 8 August 1916 at the Pola Navy Yard , and launched on 21 April 1917 .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 40 underwent diving trials on 3 July 1917 , reaching a depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . One month later , on 4 August , the SM U @-@ 40 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Johann Krsnjavi . Previously in command of U @-@ 11 , Krsnjavi was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old native of Djakovo ( the present @-@ day Đakovo in Croatia ) .
U @-@ 40 departed on her first patrol on 5 August , sailing through the Brioni islands . Two days out , the submarine came under attack by two aircraft . Bombs from the two planes damaged one of U @-@ 40 's fuel tanks but the U @-@ boat was able to continue to her Mediterranean patrol area . There , east of Malta , she unsuccessfully attacked a steamer on the 15th . Four days later — a little more than two weeks after the U @-@ boat 's commissioning — Krsnjavi and U @-@ 40 achieved their first kills . Gartness , a British steamer of 2 @,@ 422 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was transporting manganese ore , lead , and arsenic from Ergasteria for Middlesbrough when torpedoed by U @-@ 40 some 140 nautical miles ( 260 km ) southeast of Malta . The ship 's master and twelve other crewmen were killed in the attack .
Ten days later , after a rendezvous with sister boat U @-@ 32 in the Ionian Sea , U @-@ 40 damaged the collier Clifftower in a torpedo attack . Clifftower , carrying a load of coal from Newcastle , suffered no casualties in the attack . After successfully passing through the Otranto Barrage on 31 August , U @-@ 40 concluded her first patrol when she docked at Cattaro on 3 September . On 15 October , U @-@ 40 set out from Cattaro on her next patrol . She spent two days , 16 to 18 October , patrolling off Durazzo . Departing there , she headed for her assigned patrol area off Port Said . On 20 October , two aircraft from Corfu forced Krsnjavi to make an emergency dive , but the U @-@ boat escaped damage . On 25 October , U @-@ 40 encountered a severe storm that damager one of her fuel tanks . Three days later , Krsnjavi ordered the boat back to port when the gyrocompass broke . The boat made Cattaro on 1 November and underwent repairs there over the next five weeks .
Departing from Cattaro on her third patrol on 10 December , Krsnjavi steered the boat to her patrol area : cruising the Mediterranean between Alexandria and Malta . The first day of the new year brought U @-@ 40 's next success . On 1 January 1918 , the 5 @,@ 134 GRT Sandon Hall , a British steamer headed from Basra to London with a cargo of linseed oil and dates , was sent to the bottom 22 nautical miles ( 41 km ) north @-@ northeast of Linosa . A torpedo attack two days later on another steamer produced no result . Having exhausted her supply of torpedoes , U @-@ 40 headed back to port . On 6 January , the U @-@ boat 's deck gun was used to destroy a floating mine . The following day the boat was fired upon by three drifters of the Otranto Barrage but safely returned to Cattaro on 8 January .
After two month at Cattaro , Krsnjavi lead U @-@ 40 out on her fourth patrol on 5 March . The U @-@ boat came under attack on consecutive days while headed into the Mediterranean . On 9 March , two destroyers forced her to crash dive , while the following day a pair of aircraft did the same . Nine days later , U @-@ 40 torpedoed the Canadian steamer Lord Ormonde , but only damaged the 3 @,@ 914 @-@ ton ship . On 20 March , U @-@ 40 sent the Greek cargo ship Antonios M. Theophilatos and her load of ammunition to the bottom . U @-@ 40 launched an unsuccessful torpedo attack on a steamer in a convoy on 23 March . U @-@ 40 ended her patrol on 2 April at Cattaro . Gibson and Prendergast report on the claim of the Italian torpedo boat Ardea that she had depth charged and sunk U @-@ 40 in the Adriatic on 26 April . As Gibson and Prendergast note , U @-@ 40 did not sink that day , discrediting the report . U @-@ 40 did depart from Cattaro for Pola at the end of May to undergo repairs for the next two months .
U @-@ 40 departed from Pola on 5 August , but developed a leak a few days out and put in at Cattaro on 10 August . The U @-@ boat returned to Pola about two weeks later and remained there until October . While at Pola , command of U @-@ 40 passed to Linienschiffsleutnant Wladimir Pfeifer on 19 September . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old native of Leskovec ( in present @-@ day Slovenia ) , was previously in command of U @-@ 17 and had , like Krsnjavi , also served a stint as commander of U @-@ 11 . On 19 October , U @-@ 40 departed Pola and eventually arrived at Fiume , where she remained through the end of the war . The U @-@ boat was taken to Venice on 23 March 1919 , where she was surrendered to the Italians as a war reparation . She was scrapped at Venice the following year . In her 15 @-@ month service career , U @-@ 40 sank three ships with a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 , and damaged two others .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
|
= Battle of Marathon =
The Battle of Marathon ( Greek : Μάχη τοῦ Μαραθῶνος , Machē tou Marathōnos ) took place in 490 BC , during the first Persian invasion of Greece . It was fought between the citizens of Athens , aided by Plataea , and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes . The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia , under King Darius I , to subjugate Greece . The Greek army decisively defeated the more numerous Persians , marking a turning point in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt , when Athens and Eretria had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule . The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis , but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses . In response to this raid , Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria . According to Herodotus , Darius asked for his bow , he placed an arrow upon the string and he discharged it upwards towards heaven , and as he shot into the air he said : " Zeus , grant me to take vengeance upon the Athenians ! " . Also he charged one of his servants , to say to him , every day before dinner , three times : " Master , remember the Athenians . "
At the time of the battle , Sparta and Athens were the two largest city states . Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC , Darius began plans to subjugate Greece . In 490 BC , he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean , to subjugate the Cyclades , and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria . Reaching Euboea in mid @-@ summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean , the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria . The Persian force then sailed for Attica , landing in the bay near the town of Marathon . The Athenians , joined by a small force from Plataea , marched to Marathon , and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon . The Athenians also sent a message asking for support to the Spartans . However , at the time the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for refusing to aid the Athenians .
The Greeks could not hope to face the superior Persian cavalry ; however , the location chosen was surrounded by marshes and mountains and so the cavalry was unable to join the main Persian army . Miltiades , the Greek general , ordered a general attack against the Persians . He reinforced his flanks , luring the Persians ' best fighters into his centre . The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians , routing them . The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships , and large numbers were slaughtered . The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece , and the Persian force retreated to Asia . Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . After Darius died , his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece , which finally began in 480 BC .
The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten ; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to begin at Marathon . The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans , as they had heavily relied on Sparta previously . This win was largely due to the Athenians , and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them . Since the following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization , which has been enduringly influential in western society , the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in European history .
The battle is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the marathon race . Although thought to be historically inaccurate , the legend of the Greek messenger Pheidippides running to Athens with news of the victory became the inspiration for this athletic event , introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics , and originally run between Marathon and Athens .
= = Background = =
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt , the earliest phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . However , it was also the result of the longer @-@ term interaction between the Greeks and Persians . In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic , but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , the Persian King Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . Even before the Ionian Revolt , Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe , subjugating Thrace , and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia . Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable . However , the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire , and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability . Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean , and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt .
The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos , a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras . In the aftermath , Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power , but before he could do so , Aristagoras abdicated , and declared Miletus a democracy . The other Ionian cities followed suit , ejecting their Persian @-@ appointed tyrants , and declaring themselves democracies . Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support , but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops .
The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances , beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC .
In 510 BC , with the aid of Cleomenes I , King of Sparta , the Athenian people had expelled Hippias , the tyrant ruler of Athens . With Hippias 's father Peisistratus , the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias 's rule . Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap , Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him . In the meantime , Cleomenes helped install a pro @-@ Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens , in opposition to Cleisthenes , the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family , who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens . Cleisthenes , however , found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the demos ( the people ) , in effect making them a new faction in the political arena . This tactic succeeded , but the Spartan King , Cleomenes I , returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes , the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens . When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government , the Athenian people , in a spontaneous and unprecedented move , expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras . Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens ( 507 BC ) , and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position . The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state , but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government , which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power . The new @-@ found freedom and self @-@ governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias , or any form of outside subjugation , by Sparta , Persia , or anyone else .
Cleomenes was not pleased with events , and marched on Athens with the Spartan army . Cleomenes 's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle , but fearing the worst , the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis , to request aid from the Persian empire . Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an ' earth and water ' , a traditional token of submission , to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced . They were , however , severely censured for this when they returned to Athens . At some later point Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens . This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens . The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action , but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant . The Athenians indignantly declined , and instead resolved to open war with Persia . Having thus become the enemy of Persia , Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt . The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example the Athenians had set no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt , especially since the cities of Ionia were originally Athenian colonies .
The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt . Whilst there , the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes , marching to Sardis and burning the lower city . This was , however , as much as the Greeks achieved , and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen , losing many men in the process . Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless , the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius 's lasting enmity , and he vowed to punish both cities . The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade ( 494 BC ) all but ended the Ionian Revolt , and by 493 BC , the last hold @-@ outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet . The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire 's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean and the Propontis , which had not been part of the Persian dominions before . The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves ; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria .
In 492 BC , after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed , Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Mardonius . Mardonius re @-@ conquered Thrace and compelled Alexander I of Macedon to make Macedon a client kingdom to Persia , before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign . However , in 490 BC , following the successes of the previous campaign , Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes , ( son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled ) and Datis , a Median admiral . Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor . The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire , to punish Naxos ( which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC ) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed . After island @-@ hopping across the Aegean , including successfully attacking Naxos , the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer . The Persians then proceeded to besiege , capture and burn Eretria . They then headed south down the coast of Attica , en route to complete the final objective of the campaign — punish Athens .
= = Prelude = =
The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica , and landed at the bay of Marathon , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Athens , on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias ( who had accompanied the expedition ) . Under the guidance of Miltiades , the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians , the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon , and prevent the Persians moving inland . At the same time , Athens 's greatest runner , Pheidippides ( or Philippides in some accounts ) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens . Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia , a sacrosanct period of peace , and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose ; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days . The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being , although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1 @,@ 000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea ; a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians , and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea .
For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate . The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected either by a grove of trees , or an abbatis of stakes ( depending on the exact reading ) . Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer , the delay worked in favor of the Athenians . There were ten Athenian strategoi ( generals ) at Marathon , elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into ; Miltiades was one of these . In addition , in overall charge , was the War @-@ Archon ( polemarch ) , Callimachus , who had been elected by the whole citizen body . Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the strategoi , each taking in turn a day to command the army . He further suggests that each strategos , on his day in command , instead deferred to Miltiades . In Herodotus 's account , Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians ( despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians ) , but strangely , chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack . This passage is undoubtedly problematic ; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived , and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship . There does , however , seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon , and the battle ; Herodotus , who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack , may have made a mistake whilst seeking to explain this delay .
As is discussed below , the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially . This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did . Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians ( and the other sources confirm this ) , but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans . There are two main theories to explain this .
The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason , and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking . This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus ' account of the battle , and an entry in the Suda dictionary . The entry χωρίς ἰππεῖς ( " without cavalry " ) is explained thus :
The cavalry left . When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat , the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left . And when Miltiades realized that , he attacked and thus won . From there comes the above @-@ mentioned quote , which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle .
There are many variations of this theory , but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry was re @-@ embarked on the ships , and was to be sent by sea to attack ( undefended ) Athens in the rear , whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon . This theory therefore utilises Herodotus ' suggestion that after Marathon , the Persian army re @-@ embarked and tried to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly ; however , according to the theory this attempt would have occurred before the battle ( and indeed have triggered the battle ) .
The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians . Although this theory has the Persians moving to the strategic offensive , this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that , seeing the Persians advancing , the Athenians took the tactical offensive , and attacked them . Obviously , it cannot be firmly established which theory ( if either ) is correct . However , both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle . It is also possible that both theories are correct : when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens , they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon , triggering the Greek counterattack .
= = = Date of the battle = = =
Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the lunisolar calendar , of which each Greek city @-@ state used a variant . Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the proleptic Julian calendar which is much used by historians as the chronological frame . Philipp August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on September 12 , 490 BC in the Julian calendar , and this is the conventionally accepted date . However , this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens . In that case the battle took place on August 12 , 490 BC .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Athenians = = =
Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army . However , Cornelius Nepos , Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9 @,@ 000 Athenians and 1 @,@ 000 Plataeans ; while Justin suggests that there were 10 @,@ 000 Athenians and 1 @,@ 000 Plataeans . These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later . Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services . Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable .
= = = Persians = = =
According to Herodotus , the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes . Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army , only saying that they were a " large infantry that was well packed " . Among ancient sources , the poet Simonides , another near @-@ contemporary , says the campaign force numbered 200 @,@ 000 ; while a later writer , the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry , of which only 100 @,@ 000 fought in the battle , while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion ; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300 @,@ 000 , as does the Suda dictionary . Plato and Lysias give 500 @,@ 000 ; and Justinus 600 @,@ 000 .
Modern historians have proposed wide ranging numbers for the infantry , from 20 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 with a consensus of perhaps 25 @,@ 000 ; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1 @,@ 000 .
However , the lower end of that range contradicts the statement by Herodotus of a " large infantry that was well packed " . The 25 @,@ 000 fighting force by no means could be neither " large " nor intimidating to the eyes of the 11 @,@ 000 Greeks especially in the scenario ( see below ) that half of the Persian force circumnavigated cape Sounion to take Athens by surprise , leaving thus on the field a force almost equal numerically with Miltiades ' army . Probably the 25 @,@ 000 is the army that remained after the split of the Persian army , raising the size of the initial landing army in 50 @,@ 000 combatants .
To this force furthermore some adjustments must be made :
a ) In the hypothesis ( less likely ) that the 600 ships of Herodotus represent the entire Persian naval force ( both the combat and the troop @-@ transporting fleets ) and each ship carried a total crew of 230 @-@ 240 ( considering the 30 additional marines that Herodotus mentions ) we have a minimum of 138 @,@ 000 to 144 @,@ 000 personnel . It is unlikely that the Persians gathered such a fleet to just ferry across the Aegean only 50 @,@ 000 combatants , especially after making an effort to pack 30 marines more to each vessel .
In order to curry supplies for 2 months and ferry their 1 @,@ 800 strong cavalry , the Persians should have had in addition 200 supply ships and 70 horse @-@ transports ( see below ) ; thus a 870 @-@ strong fleet .
On the composition of the fleet in Marathon the following examples should be also considered :
-The Persian fleet that invaded Greece 10 years later ( 480 BC ) had 1207 triremes and 3000 transports .
-The Athenian fleet on the Sicilian expedition ~ 60 years later ( 415 BC ) had 40 % transports .
-The Punic fleet that campaigned against the Sicilian Greeks ~ 80 years later ( 406 BC ) had 120 triremes and 1000 transports ( siege of Selinous , siege of Acragas ) and again 400 triremes and 600 transports in 396 BC ( siege of Syracuse ) .
b ) In all the aforementioned cases the transport fleet were at least equal in size - if not larger - than the combat fleet . In the following ( more likely ) hypothesis the transport fleet will be the 2 / 3 of the 600 @-@ strong combat fleet representing thus the 30 % of the total ( 400 transports over 1 @,@ 370 ships ) :
Here is to be noted that the ships ' oarsmen and sailors were armed each with a light shield , a short sword and a helmet . Leather armors and missile weapons were also frequent . They were serving as light infantry and skirmishers when the ships were to be captured and - in rare occasions ( i.e. Battle of Naupactus 429 BC ) - in the main battlefield .
Because ancient historians are usually referring to the combat fleet of a naval force when they don 't mention the troop @-@ transports separately ( as in this case ) a possible breakdown of the Persian fleet in Marathon could be the following :
-600 combat ships ( aphraktae or open triremes ) . Represented the main fighting vessel in naval battles . They were called " open " because they had their upper deck almost completely removed in order to lighten and gain speed and maneuverability . They were carrying usually 30 @-@ 40 marines ( as in the Ionian Greek fleets and the Persian fleet ) but in some rare cases these force could be further more reduced in just 14 marines ( Athenian triremes during the city 's heyday of naval power ) to additionally increase speed . The triremes in Marathon were packed with 30 additional marines , for the purposes of the campaign . Thus :
Crew : 170 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 60 marines .
( x600 ships : 109 @,@ 200 crew ; 36 @,@ 000 marines )
-400 troop @-@ transports ( kataphraktae or closed triremes ) . Specially modified triremes where the two lower rows of oarsmen were removed and an upper deck was added in order to house more land troops . With less oarsmen and additional weight , those triremes were slow and heavy ; thus totally useless in naval combat and in need of escort .
Crew : 70 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 160 land troops .
( x400 ships : 34 @,@ 000 crew ; 64 @,@ 000 land troops )
-70 cavalry @-@ transports ( modified kataphraktae triremes ) .
Crew : 70 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 25 horses with their riders and complete gear .
( x70 ships : 5 @,@ 950 crew ; 1 @,@ 750 cavalry )
-300 supply ships . They were normal merchant ships that were carrying supplies ( mostly grain ) during wars . A 250 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army needs 250 tons of supplies daily ( 5 ships ) .
Crew : 22 oarsmen , 10 sailors , 50 tons of supplies ( grain ) .
( x300 ships : 6 @,@ 600 oarsmen ; 3 @,@ 000 sailors ; 15 @,@ 000 tons of supplies , enough for 2 months )
TOTAL : 257 @,@ 500 - > 155 @,@ 750 oarsmen and sailors ; 100 @,@ 000 soldiers and marines ; 1 @,@ 750 cavalry ; 1 @,@ 370 ships . Thus the account of the near @-@ contemporary Simonides ( 200 @,@ 000 men ) must be closest to the truth . The Greeks however fought half of that force in Marathon , on September 490 BC ( ~ 50 @,@ 000 foot @-@ soldiers and marines ) .
NOTE : The Persian fleet campaigned during the long Greek summer ( 5 months ) . They didn 't need to have more than 60 days of supplies because they could replenish their scores of provision in various ways ( through trade , pillaging or conquest ) . The fall of Eretria a few weeks earlier , in late summer just after the collecting of the crops , should have provided plenty of supplies to the Persians . The island of Euboea ( on which Eretria stands ) was at the time the main grain supplier for Athens . Furthermore , the fear of being low on supplies by the end of the campaigning season , drove the Persians to attempt the surprise attack on Athens by circumnavigating cape Sounion with half of their army .
= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =
From a strategic point of view , the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon . In order to face the Persians in battle , the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites ; and even then they were still probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1 . Furthermore , raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders , and thus any secondary attack in the Athenian rear would cut the army off from the city ; and any direct attack on the city could not be defended against . Still further , defeat at Marathon would mean the complete defeat of Athens , since no other Athenian army existed . The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon , blocking both exits from the plain , and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered . However , these disadvantages were balanced by some advantages . The Athenians initially had no need to seek battle , since they had managed to confine the Persians to the plain of Marathon . Furthermore , time worked in their favour , as every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer . Having everything to lose by attacking , and much to gain by waiting , the Athenians remained on the defensive in the run up to the battle . Tactically , hoplites were vulnerable to attacks by cavalry , and since the Persians had substantial numbers of cavalry , this made any offensive maneuver by the Athenians even more of a risk , and thus reinforced the defensive strategy of the Athenians .
The Persian strategy , on the other hand , was probably principally determined by tactical considerations . The Persian infantry was evidently lightly armoured , and no match for hoplites in a head @-@ on confrontation ( as would be demonstrated at the later battles of Thermopylae and Plataea . ) Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon , the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head @-@ on .
Whatever event eventually triggered the battle , it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians . If the first theory is correct ( see above ) , then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage , and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack . Conversely , if the second theory is correct , then the Athenians were merely reacting to the Persians attacking them . Since the Persian force obviously contained a high proportion of missile troops , a static defensive position would have made little sense for the Athenians ; the strength of the hoplite was in the melee , and the sooner that could be brought about , the better , from the Athenian point of view . If the second theory is correct , this raises the further question of why the Persians , having hesitated for several days , then attacked . There may have been several strategic reasons for this ; perhaps they were aware ( or suspected ) that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements . Alternatively , since they may have felt the need to force some kind of victory — they could hardly remain at Marathon indefinitely .
= = Battle = =
The distance between the two armies at the point of battle had narrowed to " a distance not less than 8 stadia " or about 1 @,@ 500 meters . Miltiades ordered the two tribes that were forming the center of the Greek formation , the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides , to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight . Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre . However , this suggests a level of training that the Greeks were thought not to possess . There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC . It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made , perhaps at the last moment , so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line , and would not therefore be outflanked .
When the Athenian line was ready , according to one source , the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades : " At them " . Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines , a feat under the weight of hoplite armory generally thought to be physically impossible . More likely , they marched until they reached the limit of the archers ' effectiveness , the " beaten zone " ( roughly 200 meters ) , and then broke into a run towards their enemy . Another possibility is that they ran up to the 200 meter @-@ mark in broken ranks , and then reformed for the march into battle from there . Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way ; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops . All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians ; " ... in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal , seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run , having neither cavalry nor archers " . Indeed , based on their previous experience of the Greeks , the Persians might be excused for this ; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were " first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it , for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic " . Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army , protected for the most part by their armour , the Greek line finally collided with the enemy army . Holland provides an evocative description :
The enemy directly in their path ... realised to their horror that [ the Athenians ] , far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen , as they had first imagined , were not going to be halted ... The impact was devastating . The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes , wooden shields smashing against wooden shields , iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze ... in those first terrible seconds of collision , there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone ; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing , at most , quilted jerkins for protection , and armed , perhaps , with nothing more than bows or slings . The hoplites ' ash spears , rather than shivering ... could instead stab and stab again , and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze .
The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies on the flanks , before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre , which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre . The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships , pursued by the Greeks . Some , unaware of the local terrain , ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned . The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships , and managed to capture seven ships , though the majority were able to launch successfully . Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus , brother of the playwright Aeschylus , who was also among the fighters , charged into the sea , grabbed one Persian trireme , and started pulling it towards shore . A member of the crew saw him , cut off his hand , and Cynaegirus died .
Herodotus records that 6 @,@ 400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield , and it is unknown how many more perished in the swamps . The Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11 . Among the dead were the war archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos .
= = Conclusions = =
There are several explanations of the Greek success . Most scholars believe that the Greeks had better equipment and used superior tactics . According to Herodotus , the Greeks were better equipped ; however , they did not use bronze armour at this time , but that of leather or linen . The phalanx formation proved successful , because the hoplites had a long tradition in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , whereas the Persian soldiers were accustomed to a very different kind of conflict . At Marathon , the Athenians thinned their centre in order to make their army equal in length to the Persian army , not as a result of a tactical planning . It seems that the Persian centre tried to return , realizing that their wings had broken , and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings . Lazenby believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed :
Marathon was won because ordinary , amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows begun to fall , instead of grinding to a halt , and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled , not to take the easy way out and follow them , but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the battle , Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly . As has been discussed above , some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle . Either way , the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat , and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens . The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides . The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing , and seeing that the opportunity was lost , the Persians turned about and returned to Asia . Connected with this episode , Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids , the prominent Athenian aristocratic family , and that a " shield @-@ signal " had been given after the battle . Although many interpretations of this have been offered , it is impossible to tell whether this was true , and if so , what exactly the signal meant . On the next day , the Spartan army arrived at Marathon , having covered the 220 kilometers ( 140 mi ) in only three days . The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon , and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory .
The dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield . On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written :
Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι
χρυσοφόρων Μήδων ἐστόρεσαν δύναμιν
Fighting at the forefront of the Greeks , the Athenians at Marathon
laid low the army of the gilded Medes .
In the meanwhile , Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece . The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC , and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium . However , defeat at the Battle of Salamis would be the turning point in the campaign , and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea .
= = Significance = =
The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire , yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory . It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians , proving that the Persians were not invincible , and that resistance , rather than subjugation , was possible .
The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy , showing what might be achieved through unity and self @-@ belief ; indeed , the battle effectively marks the start of a " golden age " for Athens . This was also applicable to Greece as a whole ; " their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries , during which western culture was born " . John Stuart Mill 's famous opinion was that " the Battle of Marathon , even as an event in British history , is more important than the Battle of Hastings " . It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life ( rather than his plays ) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram :
Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει
μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας ·
ἀλκὴν δ ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι
καὶ βαθυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος
This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide ,
Euphorion 's son and fruitful Gela 's pride .
How tried his valor , Marathon may tell ,
And long @-@ haired Medes , who knew it all too well .
Militarily , a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx . This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks ; since each city @-@ state fought in the same way , the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious . Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops , and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle . The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry ( the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea ) , but used in the right circumstances , it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Legends associated with the battle = = =
The most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides / Philippides bringing news to Athens of the battle , which is described below .
Pheidippides ' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it . Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta ( or perhaps on his return journey ) . Pan asked why the Athenians did not honor him and the awed Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on . The god apparently felt that the promise would be kept , so he appeared in battle and at the crucial moment he instilled the Persians with his own brand of fear , the mindless , frenzied fear that bore his name : " panic " . After the battle , a sacred precinct was established for Pan in a grotto on the north slope of the Acropolis , and a sacrifice was annually offered .
Similarly , after the victory the festival of the Agroteras Thysia ( " sacrifice to the Agrotéra " ) was held at Agrae near Athens , in honor of Artemis Agrotera ( " Artemis the Huntress " ) . This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle , to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict . The number was so great , it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled . Xenophon notes that at his time , 90 years after the battle , goats were still offered yearly .
Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus , the mythical hero of Athens , leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians , and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians , along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes . Pausanias also tells us that :
They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress . Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement . When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle , the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus ( " he of the Plough @-@ tail " ) as a hero .
Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon . Aelian relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment . The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master 's side . He also informs us that this dog is depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile .
= = = Marathon run = = =
According to Herodotus , an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle . He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers ( 140 miles ) , arriving in Sparta the day after he left . Then , following the battle , the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers ( 25 miles ) or so back to Athens at a very high pace ( considering the quantity of armour , and the fatigue after the battle ) , in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion . They arrived back in the late afternoon , in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens , thus completing the Athenian victory .
Later , in popular imagination , these two events became confused with each other , leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events . This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle , to announce the Greek victory with the word " nenikēkamen ! " ( Attic : νενικήκαμεν ; we 've won ! ) , whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion . Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to Herodotus ; actually , the story first appears in Plutarch 's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD , who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus 's lost work , giving the runner 's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles . Lucian of Samosata ( 2nd century AD ) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides ( not Pheidippides ) . It should be noted that in some medieval codices of Herodotus the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides and in a few modern editions this name is preferred .
When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century , the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event , recalling the ancient glory of Greece . The idea of organizing a ' marathon race ' came from Michel Bréal , who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens . This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin , the founder of the modern Olympics , as well as the Greeks . This would echo the legendary version of events , with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens . So popular was this event that it quickly caught on , becoming a fixture at the Olympic games , with major cities staging their own annual events . The distance eventually became fixed at 26 miles 385 yards , or 42 @.@ 195 km , though for the first years it was variable , being around 25 miles ( 40 km ) — the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern studies = = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Fink , Dennis L. The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship : Research , Theories and Controversies since 1850 ( McFarland , 2014 ) . 240 pp. online review
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= Glenrothes =
Glenrothes ( listen ; / ɡlɛnˈrɒθᵻs / , glen @-@ ROTH @-@ iss ; Scottish Gaelic : Gleann Ràthais ) is a town situated in the heart of Fife , in east @-@ central Scotland . It is located approximately 30 miles ( 48 km ) from both Edinburgh , which lies to the south and Dundee to the north . The town had a population of 39 @,@ 277 in 2011 as recorded by the census , making it the third largest settlement in Fife and the 18th most populous settlement in Scotland . The name Glenrothes comes from its historical link with the Earl of Rothes who owned much of the land upon which the new town has been built ; " Glen " ( Scottish for valley ) was added to the name to avoid confusion with Rothes in Moray and in recognition that the town lies in a river valley . The motto of Glenrothes is " Ex terra vis " , meaning " Out of the earth , strength " , which dates back to the founding of the town .
Planned in the late 1940s as one of Scotland 's first post @-@ second world war new towns its original purpose was to house miners who were to work at a newly established coal mine , the Rothes Colliery . Following the failure of the mine the town developed as an important industrial centre in Scotland 's Silicon Glen between 1961 and 2000 with several major electronics and hi @-@ tech companies setting up facilities in the town . The Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) , a non @-@ departmental public body , was established to develop , manage and promote the new town . The GDC supported by the local authority oversaw the governance of Glenrothes until the wind @-@ up of the GDC in 1995 , after which all responsibility was transferred to Fife Council .
Glenrothes is the administrative capital of Fife containing both the Fife Council and Police Scotland Fife Division headquarters . Home to Fife 's main concentration of specialist manufacturing and engineering companies , several organisations have their global headquarters based in Glenrothes . Public services and service industries are also important to the town 's economy . Major employers include Bosch Rexroth ( hydraulics manufacturing ) , Brand Rex ( fibre optics manufacturing ) , Fife College ( education ) and Raytheon ( defence and electronics ) . Glenrothes is unique in Fife as the majority of the town 's centre is contained indoors , within Fife 's largest indoor shopping centre , the Kingdom Shopping Centre .
The town has won multiple horticultural awards in the " Beautiful Scotland " and " Britain in Bloom " contests for the quality of its parks and landscaping . It has numerous outdoor sculptures and artworks , a result of the appointment of town artists in the early development of the town . Public facilities include a regional sports and leisure centre , two golf courses , major parks , a civic centre and theatre and a college campus . The A92 trunk road provides the principal access to the town passing through Glenrothes and connecting it to the wider Scottish motorway and trunk road network . A major bus station is located in the town centre providing regional and local bus services to surrounding settlements .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Rothes comes from the association with the north @-@ east Scotland Earl of Rothes , family name Leslie . The Leslie family historically owned much of the land upon which Glenrothes has been built and their family name gave the adjacent village of Leslie its name . Glen ( from the Scottish Gaelic word ' gleann ' meaning valley ) was added to prevent confusion with Rothes in Moray and to reflect the location of the town within the Leven valley .
The different areas ( precincts ) of Glenrothes have been named after the hamlets already established ( e.g. Cadham , Woodside ) , the farms which once occupied the land ( e.g. Caskieberran , Collydean , Rimbleton ) or historical country houses in the area ( e.g. Balbirnie , Balgeddie , Leslie Parks ) .
= = = Glenrothes new town = = =
Glenrothes was designated in 1948 under the New Towns ( Scotland ) Act 1946 as Scotland 's second post @-@ war new town . The case for developing the new town was partially driven by a national energy strategy created by the British Government following the Second World War . The concept was further advanced in a report produced in 1946 by Sir Frank Mears to the Central and South @-@ East Scotland Planning Committee . This made the case for a new town in the Leslie @-@ Markinch area to support growth in the coal mining industry in Fife .
The planning , development , management and promotion of the new town was the responsibility of the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) , a quango appointed by the Secretary of State for Scotland . The corporation board consisted of eight members including a chairman and deputy chairman . The first meeting of the GDC was in Auchmuty House , provided by Tullis Russell on 20 June 1949 .
The original plan was to build a new settlement for a population of 32 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 people . The land which Glenrothes now occupies was largely agricultural and once contained a number of small rural communities and the hamlets of Cadham and Woodside which were established to house workers at local paper mills . Originally proposals for the new town would have centred it on Markinch ; however the village 's infrastructure was deemed unable to withstand the substantial growth required to realise a new town and there was considerable local opposition to the proposal . Leslie and Thornton were also considered as possible locations , again meeting local opposition , and eventually an area of 5 @,@ 320 acres ( 2 @,@ 153 ha ) between all of these villages was zoned for the new town 's development . Much of the historical Aytoun , Balfour , Balgonie and Rothes estates were included in Glenrothes ' assigned area along with the historical country houses Balbirnie House , Balgeddie House and Leslie House .
Prior to the development of Glenrothes the main industries in the area were papermaking , coal mining and farming . Tullis Russell was the largest paper manufacturer in the area and operated from its site for over 200 years . Other paper manufacturers established operations at the Fettykil and Prinlaws Mills at Leslie to the west of the town , and Dixons Mill at Markinch in the east . The location of the mills was strategic to capitalise on the natural energy provided by the River Leven .
The Rothes Colliery , the new coal mine associated with the town 's development , was built on land to the west of Thornton , an established village south of Glenrothes . The mine which was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957 was promoted as being a key driver in the economic regeneration of central Fife . However , un @-@ stemmable flooding and geological problems in the area combined with a lessening demand for coal nationally had a significant impact on the viability of the mine which resulted in its eventual closure in 1965 . Ironically , miners who had worked in older deep pits in the area had fore @-@ warned against the development of the Rothes Pit for this very reason .
The coal mine 's closure almost resulted in further development of Glenrothes being stopped . However shortly following the closure Central Government decided to change the town 's role by appointing Glenrothes as one of the economic focal points for Central Scotland as part of a National Plan for economic growth and development . The Glenrothes Development Corporation were successful in attracting a plethora of light industries and modern electronics factories to the town as a consequence . The first big overseas electronic investor was Beckmans Instruments in 1959 followed by Hughes Industries in the early 1960s . A number of other important companies followed establishing Glenrothes as a major industrial hub in Scotland 's Silicon Glen . During the middle of the 1970s , the town also became the headquarters of Fife Regional Council ; effectively the county town of Fife , taking over the role from Cupar .
Unlike the other post @-@ war Scottish new towns ; Cumbernauld , East Kilbride , Irvine or Livingston , Glenrothes was not originally to be a Glasgow overspill new town , although it did later take this role . It was however populated in the early 1950s , in part , by families moving from the declining coalfield areas of Scotland .
Major industrial estates were developed to the south of Glenrothes , largely due to the proximity to the proposed East Fife Regional Road ( A92 ) which was developed in 1989 giving dual carriageway access to the main central Scotland road network . The Silicon Glen era peaked in the 1990s with Canon developing their first UK manufacturing plant at Westwood Park in Glenrothes in 1992 . ADC Telecommunications , a major American electronics company , established a base at Bankhead in early 2000 with the promise of a substantial number of jobs . By 2004 both companies had closed their Glenrothes operations with the promised jobs growth never materialising to any substantial level . The electronics industrial sector in Glenrothes and most of central Scotland was dependent upon an inward investment strategy that led to almost 43 % of employment in foreign @-@ owned plants which were susceptible to changes in global economic markets . Around the start of the 21st century , a decline in major electronics manufacturing in Scotland impacted on the town 's economy and as a result the industrial base of the town was forced to diversify for the second time in it 's short history .
by 1995 the GDC left a lasting legacy on the town by overseeing the development of 15 @,@ 378 houses , 5 @,@ 174 @,@ 125 square feet ( 480 @,@ 692 m2 ) of industrial floorspace , 735 @,@ 476 square feet ( 68 @,@ 328 m2 ) of office floorspace and 576 @,@ 977 square feet ( 53 @,@ 603 m2 ) of shopping floorspace . Since the winding up of the GDC Glenrothes continues to serve as Fife 's principal administrative centre and serves a wider sub @-@ regional area as a major centre for services and employment .
In 2008 Canadian artist and researcher Sylvia Grace Borda chose to holiday for a week in Glenrothes to explore , as was perceived , " an area considered by many Scots as uninteresting and unworthy of documentation " . She was curious to explore the town as if she were a late @-@ 1960s photographer of common places following on from a similar study of East Kilbride new town . The outcome was the production of a series of images which the artist believes contradict how some Scots would ' see ' Glenrothes , and reinforce the observation that it often takes a visitor to see what others take for granted . Just as in real time , it is too easy to rush by the everyday . The work sought to position itself so the everyday environment can cause the viewer pause and to regard the commonplace as extraordinary .
Glenrothes gained national publicity in 2009 by winning a Carbuncle Award following an unofficial contest operated by Urban Realm and Carnyx Group which was set up to criticise the quality of built environments in Scotland . The judges of the contest awarded Glenrothes the category of the most dismal place in Scotland for its " depressed and investment starved town centre " . This generated mixed views from locals and built environment professions alike .
By contrast in 2010 the town has won awards for being the " Best Kept Large Town " and the most " Clean , sustainable and beautiful community " in Scotland in the Beautiful Scotland competition and was the winner in the " large town " category in the 2011 Royal Horticultural Society Britain in Bloom competition . The town continued its horticultural success by achieving further Gold awards in the 2013 and 2014 UK finals .
In 2011 Historic Scotland completed an assessment of the town art in Glenrothes , ultimately awarding listed building status to a number of artworks scattered throughout the town . The organisation also gave positive recognition to Glenrothes ' significant role in helping to create the idea of art being a key factor in creating a sense of place .
Glenrothes ' place and importance in the history and development of Scotland has been enshrined in the Great Tapestry of Scotland , which was unveiled in 2013 in the Scottish Parliament . The Glenrothes panel shows various pieces of the town 's public artworks , along with visual references to its important industrial heritage associated originally with coal mining and later as a major centre for " Silicon Glen " industries .
= = Governance = =
In the early years of the creation of the new town the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) with input from the local authority , then Fife County Council , oversaw the governance of the new town . In the early 1990s the then Conservative UK Government established a wind @-@ up order for all of the UK 's new town development corporations . Responsibilities for the assets , management and governance of all of the new towns were to be transferred to either private sector companies or to the local authorities or other government organisations . The GDC was finally wound up in 1995 after which responsibility for Glenrothes was largely transferred to Fife Council with some assets such as the Kingdom Shopping Centre , industrial and office units sold off to private sector companies .
Glenrothes is represented by a number of tiers of elected government . North Glenrothes Community Council and Pitteuchar , Stenton and Finglassie Community Council form the lowest tier of governance whose statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government . Glenrothes now lies within one of the 32 council areas of Scotland . Fife Council is the executive , deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance in the region and has its main headquarters based in Glenrothes . Council meetings take place in Fife House ( formerly known as Glenrothes House ) in the town centre . The west wing of the building was built by the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) as their offices in 1969 , which was later used as the headquarters of Fife Regional Council . Since the last Scottish election in 2012 , Fife Council is governed by a minority Labour Party , claiming a total of 35 seats , with the support of Conservative Party and Independent Councillors .
Glenrothes forms part of the county constituency of Glenrothes , electing one Member of Parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system . Peter Grant of the Scottish National Party is the MP for Glenrothes after being elected in the 2015 general election . For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament , Glenrothes forms part of the Mid Fife and Glenrothes constituency following the 2011 Scottish elections . This newly formed constituency replaces the former Central Fife constituency taking in the Leven , Largo and Kennoway ward and excluding the Buckhaven , Methil and Wemyss Villages ward . Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) by the first past the post system of election , and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation . Following the 2016 Scottish Elections the constituency is represented by Jenny Gilruth MSP of the Scottish National Party who replaces now retired Tricia Marwick former Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament .
= = Geography = =
Glenrothes lies in mid @-@ Fife between the agricultural " Howe of Fife " in the north and east and Fife 's industrial heartland in the south and west . The neighbouring settlements are Coaltown of Balgonie , Leslie , Markinch and Thornton . The boundaries of the town are virtually indistinguishable between its neighbouring small towns and villages forming a contiguous urban area . The villages of Kinglassie , Milton of Balgonie and Star of Markinch are located slightly further away and are physically separated from Glenrothes by farmland . Kirkcaldy , a traditional industrial centre is the next nearest large town and lies approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the south of the town . Glenrothes is also located equidistant from two of Fife 's other principal settlements , Dunfermline and St Andrews , at 19 miles ( 31 km ) and 21 miles ( 34 km ) away . Two of Scotland 's major cities , Edinburgh and Dundee , are located almost equidistantly from Glenrothes at 32 miles ( 51 km ) and 27 miles ( 43 km ) away , respectively . The smaller Scottish city of Perth is located 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the northwest .
The northern parts of the settlement lie upland on the southern fringes of the Lomond Hills Regional Park . The central parts of the town extend between the southern edge of the River Leven valley ; a substantial green space which passes east west through the town , and the Warout Ridge . Southern parts of Glenrothes are largely industrial and are situated on land which gently slopes south towards the Lochty Burn and the village of Thornton . The height above mean sea level at the town centre is 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Temperatures in Glenrothes , like the rest of Scotland , are relatively moderate given its northern latitude . Fife is a peninsula , located between the Firth of Tay in the north , the Firth of Forth in the south and the North Sea in the east . Summers are relatively cool and the warming of the water over the summer results in warm winters . Average annual temperatures in Glenrothes range from a maximum of 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to a minimum of 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) .
A linked network of semi @-@ natural landscape areas throughout the town allow for a mix of biodiversity with different flora and fauna and wildlife habitats . Areas of ancient woodland are found in Riverside Park and Balbirnie Park , both of which are also designated historic gardens and designed landscapes . Balbirnie Park is renowned for having a large collection of rhododendron species . Protected wildlife species found in the Glenrothes area include red squirrels , water voles and various types of bats . Landscape areas also act as natural drainage systems , reducing the likelihood of flooding in the built up areas of the town , with rainwater flows channelled to the River Leven , or to the Lochty Burn . Landscape planning has also ensured that Glenrothes ' road network , with particular focuses on the town 's many roundabouts , provides green networks throughout the town .
= = = Built environment and urban form = = =
Careful consideration was given to the form and infrastructure of the town , focusing on the creation of individual suburban type neighbourhoods ( precincts ) , each with their own architectural identity . Engineers , planners , builders and architects were tasked with creating not only good quality mass @-@ produced housing but green spaces , tree planting , wildlife corridors and soft and hard landscaping . This was seen as an equally important part of the process , helping to provide a sense of place and connection to the land that a New Town was felt to need in order to become a successful place where people would want to live and raise children . Separating industry as far as possible from housing areas in planned industrial estates was a key element of early plans . This was at the time seen as an important change from the " chaotic " , congested and polluted industrial towns and cities of the previous centuries where cramped unsanitary housing and dirty industries were built in close proximity to one another . The vision for Glenrothes was to provide a clean , healthy and safe environment for the town 's residents .
The settlement has been purposely planned using a series of masterplans . Development of Glenrothes started in Woodside in the east and progressed westwards . The first town masterplan was implemented as far as South Parks and Rimbleton housing precincts . Early residential precincts were based on Ebenezer Howard 's Garden City philosophy , using relatively tried and tested principles of town planning and architecture which is reflected in their housing styles and layouts . The first town masterplan sub @-@ divided the town 's designated area into self @-@ contained residential precincts with their own primary schools , local shops and community facilities .
A second town masterplan was developed in the late 1960s following Glenrothes ' change of role and was to accommodate an increased population target of 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 70 @,@ 000 . New areas of land in the north and south of the designated area were brought into production for new development . The road network was upgraded to deal with projected increases in car ownership and new housing estates were developed to the west , then to the south and finally to the north of the designated area .
The housing precincts of the 1960s and 1970s , developed under the second masterplan , departed slightly from the garden city ideals instead adopting Radburn principles ; separating as far as practical footpaths from roads . The housing precincts were designed to better accommodate increases in car ownership which increased significantly from the 1960s onwards . The townscape changed in this period with a mixture of higher densities , more contemporary architectural styles and new development layouts . Terraced housing and flats were predominantly developed with the fronts of houses designed to face onto public footpaths and open spaces . Car parking was kept either to the rear of properties or in parking bays located nearby in efforts to reduce the likelihood of road accidents occurring . Housing precincts from the 1980s onwards were largely developed by the private sector with the majority of this housing developed in low density suburban cul @-@ de @-@ sacs . Landscaping around the town included the blending of housing into the northern hillside through the use of structural planting and tree belts .
= = = Geology = = =
The Glenrothes area 's geology is predominantly made up by glacial deposits with the subsoil largely consisting of boulder clay with a band of sand and gravel in the area to the north of the River Leven . The river valley largely comprises alluvium deposits and there are also igneous intrusions of olivine dolerite throughout the area . Productive coal measures were largely recorded in the southern parts of Glenrothes , approximately south of the line of the B921 Kinglassie road . These coal measures form part of the East Fife coalfield and prior to 1962 the deposits there were to be worked by the Rothes Colliery , until it was found that there were severe issues with water penetration and subsequent flooding . Smaller limestone coal outcrops that had been historically worked were recorded around the Balbirnie and Cadham / Balfarg areas with the land that is now Gilvenbank Park found particularly to be heavily undermined .
= = Demography = =
In 1950 the population in the Glenrothes designated area was approximately 1 @,@ 000 people who were located in the hamlets of Woodside and Cadham and in the numerous farm steadings that were spread throughout the area . Population growth in the early phases of the town was described as being slow due to the dependence on the growth of work places at the Rothes Colliery . In 1960 the town population was shown to have increased to 12 @,@ 499 people rising to 28 @,@ 098 by 1969 . The town experienced its greatest levels of population growth between 1964 and 1969 with an average inward migration level of 1 @,@ 900 persons per annum . In 1981 Glenrothes ' population was estimated to have risen to 35 @,@ 000 and at the time the GDC was disbanded in 1995 it was estimated that the town 's population stood at just over 40 @,@ 000 people .
The 2001 census recorded the population of Glenrothes at 38 @,@ 679 representing 11 % of Fife 's total population . The 2011 census recorded a 1 @.@ 5 % population rise to 39 @,@ 277 . The total population in the wider Glenrothes area was estimated at 50 @,@ 701 based on 2013 mid @-@ year estimates from the National Records of Scotland . The number of households in Glenrothes in 2011 was recorded at 16 @,@ 910 ; 64 @.@ 5 % of which were owned . The age groups from 30 @-@ 44 year olds ( 20 @.@ 2 % ) and 45 @-@ 59 year olds ( 21 @.@ 3 % ) form the largest portion of the population . 16 @-@ 29 year olds made up 16 @.@ 6 % of the town 's population .
A study undertaken by Heriot @-@ Watt University in 2008 showed a local average gross weekly wage of £ 450 in the Glenrothes area , against a Fife average of £ 449 and a Scottish average of £ 468 . Wages are reflective of the type of jobs available locally , including higher than average employment in manufacturing and the public sector . The working age population of the town in 2011 was 29 @,@ 079 . The percentage of population economically active in Glenrothes was recorded at 68 @.@ 2 % in 2011 .
The number of Jobseekers Allowance ( JSA ) claimants at January 2016 in the Glenrothes area was 722 representing a 2 @.@ 2 % rate . This compares with 825 JSA claimants in January 2015 representing an annual drop of 103 claiments . Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation ( SIMD ) figures indicate that Auchmuty , Cadham , Collydean , Macedonia and Tanshall areas in Glenrothes fall within the 10 @-@ 15 % banding of deprived communities in Scotland . Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation figures in 2012 records the percentage of local population that is employment deprived at 14 @.@ 5 % against a Fife and Scottish Average of 12 @.@ 8 % . The percentage of the local population that is income deprived in 2012 was recorded at 15 @.@ 7 % against a Fife and Scottish average of 13 @.@ 4 % .
= = Economy = =
The Glenrothes area 's economy predominantly comprises manufacturing and engineering industries , health and public sector jobs and service sector jobs . The number of people employed in Glenrothes is around 24 @,@ 700 ; approximately 15 % of the 163 @,@ 000 jobs in Fife . Glenrothes is recognised for having the main concentration of specialist manufacturing and engineering companies in Fife . There are a total of 46 " Top 200 Fife Businesses " located in Glenrothes and there was a recorded 532 @,@ 100 square metres ( 5 @,@ 727 @,@ 477 sq ft ) of industrial and business floorpace within the town 's employment areas following a survey carried out in 2014 with the largest concentrations of premises in the south of the town and in around the town centre . Major employment areas in Glenrothes include : Bankhead , Eastfield , Pentland Park , Queensway , Southfield , Viewfield , Westwood Park and Whitehill .
= = = Manufacturing and engineering industries = = =
In 2011 manufacturing accounted for almost 15 % of employment in Glenrothes . A number of high tech industrial companies are located in the town largely specialised in electronics manufacturing . These are what remain of the clustering of Silicon Glen operations in the area which has gradually reduced and consolidated since the peak in the late 1990s . Remaining companies specialised in this sector include Brand Rex which specialises in the development of fibre optic cabling , Compugraphics which develops photomasks for the microelectronics sector , Raytheon which specialises in electronics for the defence industry , Regenersis which provides technology repair and test services and Semefab which produces Micro Electric Mechanical Systems ( MEMS ) . Other major companies which have established a base in Glenrothes include Bosch Rexroth ( hydraulics manufacturing ) and FiFab ( precision engineering ) . Indian beverages group Kyndal entered into a joint venture with John Fergus & Co Ltd to establish a new Scotch whisky distillery and bonded warehouse facility in Glenrothes . The new distillery , named Inchdairnie , focuses on exporting to markets in India , Africa and the Far East . It opened in May 2016 creating 15 new jobs as well as generating new exports worth a predicted £ 3 @.@ 6 million to Scotland over the next three years . It is located at Whitehill Industrial Estate adjacent to Fife Airport .
= = = Public sector = = =
A number of public service agencies and authorities are based in Glenrothes contributing to the town 's administrative centre function . Police Scotland has established its Fife Division headquarters in Glenrothes at Viewfield . HM Revenue and Customs , Kingdom Housing Association and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency ( SEPA ) also have offices in Glenrothes at Pentland Park ; a business park within the town . Fife College is also a key employer in Glenrothes with a large campus based at Stenton Road adjacent to Viewfield Industrial Estate . Fife Council is a major employer in the locality with its prominent local authority headquarters building located in Glenrothes town centre . Many of the other council departments are contained in a number of the town centre 's office blocks and a major depot and office facility is located at Bankhead .
= = = Retail and service sectors = = =
Retail jobs accounted for approximately 11 % of the total number of jobs in the local economy in 2011 . The majority of shopping , retail services and administrative facilities in Glenrothes are concentrated in the town centre ( central business district ) . The Kingdom Centre provides the main shopping element of the town centre containing approximately 120 shop units and is anchored by a Dunnes department store . Community and commercial leisure facilities within the shopping centre include the Rothes Halls complex ; the town 's theatre , library , civic and exhibition centre . A cinema , restaurant , pub and bingo hall complex are located adjacent to the shopping centre at Carrick Gate / Church Street . Ten @-@ pin bowling facilities will also be available in the town centre with an announcement to refurbish and reopen the former Fraser bowling alley facility at Albany Gate .
The town centre has expanded beyond its original boundaries into the adjacent Queensway employment area . A number of commercial operators including the town 's major supermarkets and a large bingohall complex are located in Queensway . The town 's largest retail employers are Asda and Morrisons , which both trade from large stores at Queensway . A retail park has also been constructed at the Saltire Centre , approximately half of a mile ( 1 km ) to the southwest of the town centre .
Other types of service industries also add to the town 's economic mix , with large single employers being in the ' accommodation and food services ' sector which accounted for around 4 % of the town 's total jobs . Balbirnie House Hotel and Balgeddie House Hotel are the largest hotel operators in the immediate area . The Golden Acorn Hotel and pub is located at the eastern end of the town centre on North Street . Finance and professional employed represent 15 @.@ 6 % of the total number of jobs in the town .
= = = Regeneration and future development = = =
A Glenrothes town centre action plan has been developed to create a vision for the wider town centre area . This was informed by a summit that was held in March 2013 which was attended by representatives of the local business community , voluntary groups and other individuals with an interest in the future of Glenrothes Town Centre . In May 2013 , it was agreed at Glenrothes Area Committee to approve the Glenrothes Town Centre Action Plan . A range of projects are being delivered to assist in the regeneration of the town centre . New development is being proposed at sites on North Street and at the eastern entrance of the Kingdom Shopping Centre .
Glenrothes is to be home to the UK 's First 100 % Green Data Centre which is to be built at Queensway Business Park . This has been hailed as an extremely significant economic development for the area and a strategically important part of Scotland 's IT infrastructure as a whole . The £ 40 million development will create over 300 construction jobs during the build process and up to 50 full time posts created on completion , including technical and operational staff . The facility will be the first of its kind in the UK drawing its energy from a renewable source with power coming directly from the RWE biomass plant in the town . Queensway Data Centre will accommodate up to 1500 high performance computer racks offering the highest levels of resilience and data security . The facility will be built to a BREEAM outstanding standard with a power usage effectiveness rating of less than 1 @.@ 15 .
In Mid @-@ 2015 Tullis Russell Papermakers , a stalwart to the local area economy for around 200 years , went into administration . The Scottish Government and Fife Council established a Fife Taskforce , involving key partners , to support economic growth and employment creation , with particular focus on Glenrothes and Central Fife , to help mitigate the effects of job losses and put in place appropriate support for a sustainable future for the area . Around £ 6 million has been set aside to support the Fife Taskforce ’ s Action Plan which will include projects such as the Queensway Green Technology Park . This supports plans for the regeneration of Queensway Industrial Estate to develop a modern business and technology park which can utilise the proximity to RWE ’ s Biomass Power Generation facility and to the Green Data Centre . A Glenrothes Enterprise Hub is another project to be established which will create a dedicated “ one @-@ stop shop ” approach to develop an entrepreneurial culture and improve overall performance of new enterprises in the local economy .
= = Culture and community = =
In 1968 Glenrothes was the first town in the UK to appoint a town artist . This is now recognised as playing a significant role , both in a Scottish and in an international context , in helping to create the idea of art being a key factor in creating a sense of place . Two town artists , David Harding ( 1968 – 78 ) and Malcolm Robertson ( 1978 – 91 ) , were employed in the lifetime of the GDC . Both artists , supported by a number of assistants , created a large variety of artworks and sculptures that are scattered throughout the town . Other artists have also contributed to the creation of the town 's artworks . The first sculpture erected in Glenrothes was " Ex Terra " , created by Benno Schotz . " The Good Samaritan " sculpture in Riverside Park was produced by Edinburgh @-@ based sculptor , Ronald Rae , who was commissioned by the GDC to produce a piece of art work in celebration of the town 's 40th anniversary in 1988 .
The town has won numerous awards locally and nationally for the quality of its landscaping ; something that is promoted by the " Take a Pride in Glenrothes " ( TAPIG ) group . The Glenrothes Development Corporation devoted around one third of land in Glenrothes to the provision of open space . As a consequence the town has numerous parks , the largest being Balbirnie Park , Carleton Park , Gilvenbank Park , Riverside Park , and Warout Park . The Lomond Hills Regional Park borders and enters the town to the north and east .
The Rothes Halls complex is the town 's main theatre , exhibition , conference and civic centre venue . The town 's central library and a cafe also form part of the complex . When the new town of Glenrothes began construction , a number of small venues served the community for entertainment purposes . However , despite frequent requests from the community , no plan for a larger @-@ scale theatre or community hall made it past the planning stages . By the 1970s , calls from the community and District Council for an entertainment venue increased . In 1972 , a working party was formed to investigate potential sites and designs for such a building ; designs for a town centre complex were agreed upon , but financial constraints meant they were not followed through . In 1983 , proposals were put forward for what would become Rothes Halls . Again , financial constraints delayed construction , but in 1993 the building was finally constructed , offering state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facilities and some of the biggest , most flexible theatre spaces available in Fife . The Rothes Halls was officially opened by actor and director Richard Wilson on 30 November 1993 . Since then , Rothes Halls has played host to a vast range of local , national and international shows ; popular music and entertainment acts , and amateur societies have all performed there .
The Glenrothes & Area Heritage Centre established a permanent base in November 2013 following a series of successful temporary exhibitions held previously in the town centre . The heritage centre is run by local volunteers and operates from a shop unit in the Kingdom Shopping Centre . It focuses on the history of the Glenrothes area from a period between the early 19th century to the late 20th century .
Glenrothes Hospital is a community hospital located in the Forresters Lodge area to the northwest of the town centre . Opened in October 1981 the hospital has over 80 nursing staff and over 60 beds , as well as around 20 day hospital beds . Glenrothes Hospital provides a wide range of services including ; speech and language therapy , occupational therapy , physiotherapy , dietetics , district nurses , health visitors , podiatry , hospital pharmacy and x @-@ ray services . There is , however , no accident and emergency service within this hospital .
A war memorial was constructed in Glenrothes in 2007 following the deaths of two local Black Watch soldiers in Iraq . Prior to this Glenrothes was in the unusual position of not being able to host its own Remembrance Sunday commemorations . Unlike traditional memorials , the Glenrothes war memorial consists of two interlinking rings of standing stones .
There are a number of social clubs and organisations operating within Glenrothes which contribute to the cultural and community offerings of the town . These include an art club , various youth clubs , a floral art club , amateur theatre groups , a choral society and a variety of sports clubs . Glenrothes hosts an annual gala which is held at Warout Park and has a variety of family activities including a dog show , highland dancing and a travelling funfair with stalls . Summer and winter festivals were held in Riverside Park in 2012 . The summer festival included sporting events along with arts and crafts , food stalls and fairground shows . The winter festival coincided with bonfire night celebrations and included the town 's annual fireworks display which was previously held at Warout Park . Markinch and Thornton each host an annual Highland Games and the other surrounding villages host their own annual gala days and festivals .
The town has a large variety of established sports facilities including two 18 @-@ hole golf courses ( Glenrothes and Balbirnie ) , a football stadium at Warout and a major sports complex , the Michael Woods Sports and Leisure Centre . The new centre was named after the late SNP Councillor Michael Woods in a controversial decision taken by the Glenrothes Area Committee in 2012 . The sports centre was recognised for its architectural quality in the 2014 Scottish Property Awards , coming second place in the Architectural Excellence Award for Public Buildings .
The local football club is the Glenrothes F.C. , a junior side who play at Warout Park . Glenrothes also has a rugby club based at Carleton Park and a cricket club who play at Riverside Park . The Road Running Festival in Glenrothes is the largest annual sporting event in the town with over 1500 people of all ages and levels of fitness taking part and has been held annually since 1983 . The town is also an established destination in hosting the BDO British International Championships for darts which are held annually at the town 's CISWO club .
Glenrothes has a twin @-@ town link with Böblingen , a city in Baden @-@ Württemberg in Germany since 1971 . As early as 1962 a local councillor had suggested that the town might " twin " with a town on the Continent . Some years later a friendship grew up between teachers at Glenrothes High School and the ' Gymnasium ' in Böblingen which eventually led to the twinning of the towns . Since then there have been a number of exchanges on official , club and personal levels .
Famous people associated with the town include the actor Dougray Scott who grew up in Glenrothes and attended Auchmuty High School . Douglas Mason , known as one of the engineers of the " Thatcher revolution " and the " father of the poll tax " set up home in Glenrothes in the 1960s and spent most of his adult life living there . Henry McLeish , the former First Minister of Scotland lived in Glenrothes , having been brought up in nearby Kennoway . Glenrothes town centre is home to the building involved in the notorious Officegate scandal , which ultimately led to McLeish 's resignation as First Minister in 2001 .
= = Landmarks = =
The most prominent landmarks in Glenrothes are the River Leven Bridge , the Tullis Russell factory chimneys , Raeburn Heights ; a residential tower block and Fife House ; an office block , both of which sit at the western corners of the town centre . The River Leven Bridge , which spans Riverside Park and carries the town 's Western Distributor Road , is a cable @-@ stayed bridge that was completed in 1995 . The bridge was designed by Dundee @-@ based Nicoll Russell Studios , Architects and was commissioned by the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) as a landmark creating a gateway into Riverside Park that could be seen from further afield . The bridge was constructed by Balfour Beatty Construction ( Scotland ) and it was the first reinforced @-@ concrete cable @-@ stayed structure ever built in the UK .
A number of Glenrothes ' artworks and sculptures act as landmarks at major gateways into the town , such as the " Giant Irises " at Leslie Roundabout , and the Glenrothes " Gateway Totum " at Bankhead Roundabout . Former town artist Malcolm Robertson produced the " Giant Irises " sculpture as Glenrothes ' contribution to the Glasgow Garden Festival . The sculpture was the winner of the John Brown Clydebank award for the " Most Original and Amusing Artifact " and following the festival , it was re @-@ erected at Leslie Roundabout . A number of other sculptures were relocated in 2011 to more visually prominent locations around the town creating new landmarks . Four pieces of Glenrothes artworks have been awarded listed status by Historic Scotland . " Ex Terra " has been listed at Category B and the " The Birds " , " The Henge " and " Work " ( or Industry , Past and Present ) at Category C. Historic Scotland has also produced a website , a video and an information brochure dedicated to the Glenrothes town art .
Glenrothes is home to the remains of ancient stone circles which can be seen at Balbirnie and Balfarg in the northeast of the town . The Balfarg henge was constructed around 3,000BC and contains the remnants of a stone circle which has been partly reconstructed . The henge was excavated between 1977 and 1978 prior to the development of a new housing estate . The Balbirnie henge which is only located approximately 500m away from Balfarg was excavated between 1970 and 1971 . In order to allow widening of the A92 the stones were moved a short distance to a new location at North Lodge and reconstructed as nearly as possible in the original way . The stone circle has been carbon dated as being from the bronze age . It is thought that the Balbrinie stone circle and the Balfarg circle once formed part of a larger ceremonial complex .
There are a number of former stately homes located in Glenrothes . Balbirnie House , the category @-@ A listed Georgian former home of the Balfour family , was bought along with its grounds in 1969 by the GDC from the Balfour family to be developed as Balbirnie Park and golf course . The house was later occupied and restored by the GDC in 1981 , to stop the property falling into disrepair . This led to potential interest and the house was converted into a four @-@ star hotel in 1989 . The B @-@ listed former stable block of the house was converted into a craft centre . Balgeddie House , a C @-@ Listed former Edwardian residence of Sir Robert Spencer Nairn located in the northwest of the town , has also been converted into a high quality hotel . Leslie House , the category @-@ A listed 17th century former home of the Leslie family , became a care home for the elderly in 1945 ; owned by the Church of Scotland . The building was in the process of being renovated , when the interior and roof of the house were destroyed by a fire in February 2009 . This has put the redevelopment on hold . Much of the former grounds of Leslie House have been used to create Riverside Park . Collydean precinct hosts a ruin of a 17th @-@ century house called Pitcairn House which was built for and first occupied by Archibald Pitcairne famous Scottish physician .
The town is also home to a number of churches which act as important landmarks as a result of their unique architectural styles and sometimes their locations at key road junctions . The three earliest churches are now listed buildings . These are St. Margaret 's Church in Woodside ( category C listed ) , St. Paul 's RC Church in Auchmuty ( category A listed ) , and St. Columba 's Church on Church Street ( category A listed ) in the town centre . St. Paul 's RC was designed by architects Gillespie , Kidd and Coia . In 1993 it was listed as one of sixty key monuments of post @-@ war architecture by the international conservation organisation DoCoMoMo . The church sits at a junction between two main distributor roads . St Columba 's Church , designed by architects Wheeler & Sproson , underwent significant restoration in 2009 . Internally the church contains a large mural created by Alberto Morrocco titled ' The Way of the Cross ' , which was completed in 1962 . Externally the church with its distinctive triangular iron bell tower and Mondrian inspired stain glass windows acts as a landmark at the south @-@ western gateway to the town centre .
One other local landmark of worthy mention is Balgonie Castle , located east of Glenrothes on the south bank of the River Leven near Milton of Balgonie and Coaltown of Balgonie . The castle keep dates from the 14th century , and the remaining structures were added piecemeal until the 18th century . The keep has been recently restored , although other parts of the castle are roofless ruins . The castle was awarded category A listing in 1972 by Historic Scotland .
= = Education = =
Early precincts in the town were served by their own primary schools which were to be provided on the basis of one school for every 1 @,@ 000 houses . The first primary school to be opened in Glenrothes was Carleton Primary School , built in 1953 in Woodside . In total thirteen primary schools were developed in the town , twelve of which are non @-@ denominational and one which serves catholic pupils . In February 2014 Fife Council 's Executive Committee voted to close one of Glenrothes ' primary schools at Tanshall . This was done as part of a wider school estate review which sought to reduce costs . The closure has faced considerable local opposition and the proposals were called @-@ in by the Scottish Government , but it was subsequently announced that the closure of the school would go ahead as planned .
There are three secondary schools in Glenrothes , the earliest of which is Auchmuty High School , opened in 1957 . Secondary Schools were to be provided on the basis of one school for every 4 @,@ 000 houses . Glenwood High School was built in 1962 to serve the western precincts . Prior to 1966 older pupils had to attend schools in neighbouring towns to continue " Higher " examinations as Auchmuty and Glenwood only provided for pupils at junior secondary level . Glenrothes High School was built in 1966 to accommodate pupils at a higher level . However changes in the education system nationally meant that both Auchmuty and Glenwood were raised to full high school status in the 1970s . Auchmuty High School serves the east and southern parts of Glenrothes as well as the villages of Markinch , Coaltown of Balgonie and Thornton . As part of the £ 126 million Building Fife 's Future Project a replacement for Auchmuty was completed and opened to pupils in 2013 . Glenrothes High School serves the central and northern areas in the town . Glenwood High School serves the western parts of Glenrothes and the villages of Leslie and Kinglassie . Catholic pupils in Glenrothes attend St Andrew 's High School in neighbouring Kirkcaldy .
Further education in the town is provided at Fife College ; created in August 2013 from the merger between the former Adam Smith College and Carnegie College which was based in Dunfermline . Construction of a Glenrothes college campus began in the early 1970s , originally specialising in paper manufacturing , mechanical engineering and electrical engineering courses . A second institute known as FIPRE ( Fife Institute of Physical and Recreational Education ) was built adjacent catering for sport and physical education as well as providing a sports centre for the town . The Glenrothes campus of the college is located at Stenton Road in Viewfield . A smaller campus also exists within the Southfield Industrial Estate . The Stenton Road Campus was significantly extended in 2010 with the development of the " Future Skills Centre " . This centre includes new departments in engineering , construction , renewables and science to cater for emerging industries specialising in renewable energy and low carbon technologies as well as provide training for major engineering projects .
= = Transport = =
Glenrothes has a planned road network with original masterplans establishing the principle that " through traffic " be bypassed around the housing precincts by a network of " Freeway " and " Highway " distributor roads . These would connect each precinct to the purposely designed town centre and to the industrial estates . Another element that was adopted was the use of roundabouts at junctions instead of traffic lights which would allow traffic to flow freely .
The town has direct dual @-@ carriageway access to the M90 via the A92 Trunk Road . The A92 passes north / south through the town and connects Glenrothes with Dundee in the north and Dunfermline in the southwest where it merges with the M90 . This gives Glenrothes a continuous dual @-@ carriageway link to Edinburgh and the major central Scotland road networks , whilst much of the route north to Dundee remains a single @-@ carriageway . Local campaigners have for a number of years sought the upgrade of the A92 north of Glenrothes . The A911 road passes east / west through the town and connects it with Levenmouth in the east and Milnathort and the M90 in the west . The B921 Kinglassie Road , described in early masterplans as the Southern Freeway , links Glenrothes to the former mining communities of Cardenden and Kinglassie , and to Westfield . The route is a dual carriageway between Bankhead Roundabout and as far west as Fife Airport . Early masterplans show that this route was originally intended to be upgraded to provide dualled connections to the A92 Chapel junction in Kirkcaldy , however this has never been implemented .
The town has a major bus station in the town centre providing frequent links to the cities of Dundee , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Perth as well as to surrounding towns and villages . Two railway stations on the edge of the main town serve the Glenrothes area - Glenrothes with Thornton railway station and Markinch railway station . Glenrothes is home to an airfield , Fife Airport ( ICAO code EGPJ ) , which is used for general aviation with private light aircraft . Edinburgh Airport is the nearest international airport to Glenrothes , Dundee Airport operates daily flights to London , Birmingham and Belfast .
A purposely designed pedestrian and cycle system was also created using a network of ring and radial routes throughout the town . This includes a near three mile continuous linear cycle path , called Boblingen Way , which extends across the length of Glenrothes , from Leslie in the west , to Woodside in the east . Glenrothes is connected to the National Cycle Network via Route 766 which runs north from Kirkcaldy to north of Glenrothes , linking to the wider network via Route 76 and Route 1 .
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= Liberum veto =
The liberum veto ( Latin for " the free veto " ) was a parliamentary device in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm ( legislature ) to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting Sisto activitatem ! ( Latin : " I stop the activity ! " ) or Nie pozwalam ! ( Polish : " I do not allow ! " ) . The rule was in place from the mid @-@ 17th to the late 18th century in the Sejm 's parliamentary deliberations . It was based on the premise that since all Polish noblemen were equal , every measure that came before the Sejm had to be passed unanimously . The principle of liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth , strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power , going against the European @-@ wide trend of having a strong executive ( absolute monarchy ) .
Many historians hold that the principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system — particularly in the 18th century , when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings — and the Commonwealth 's eventual destruction in the partitions of Poland and foreign occupation , dominance and manipulation of Poland for the next 200 years or so . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy . " In the period of 1573 – 1763 , about 150 sejms were held , out of which about a third failed to pass any legislation , mostly due to liberum veto . The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from this apparent paralysis .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
This rule evolved from the principle of unanimous consent , which derived from the traditions of decision @-@ making in the Kingdom of Poland , and developed under the federative character of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Each deputy to a Sejm was elected at a sejmik ( the local sejm for a region ) and represented the entire region . He thus assumed responsibility to his sejmik for all decisions taken at the Sejm . Since all noblemen were considered equal , a decision taken by a majority against the will of a minority ( even if only a single sejmik ) was considered a violation of the principle of political equality .
At first , the dissenting deputies were often convinced or cowed back to withdraw their objections . Also , in its early manifestation , the rule was used to strike down only individual laws , not to dissolve the chamber and throw out all measures passed . For example , as historian Władysław Czapliński describes in the Sejm of 1611 context , some resolutions were struck down , but others passed . From the mid @-@ 17th century onward , however , an objection to any item of Sejm legislation from a deputy or senator automatically caused other , earlier adopted legislation to be rejected . This was because all legislation adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole .
It is commonly , and erroneously , believed that a Sejm was first disrupted by means of liberum veto by a Trakai deputy , Władysław Siciński , in 1652 . In reality , he only vetoed the continuation of the Sejm 's deliberations beyond the statutory time limit . He had , however , set up a dangerous precedent . Over the proceedings of the next few sejms , the veto was still occasionally overruled , but the acceptance of it was gradually extended . It was fewer than 20 years later , in 1669 , in Kraków , that the entire Sejm was prematurely disrupted on the strength of the liberum veto before it had finished its deliberations . This was done by the Kiev deputy , Adam Olizar . The practice spiraled out of control , and in 1688 the Sejm was dissolved before the proceedings had begun or the Marshal of the Sejm was elected .
= = = Zenith = = =
During the reign of John III Sobieski ( 1674 – 1696 ) , half of Sejm proceedings were scuttled by the veto . The practice also spread from the national Sejm to local sejmik proceedings . In the first half of the 18th century , it became increasingly common for Sejm sessions to be broken up by liberum veto , as the Commonwealth 's neighbours – chiefly Russia and Prussia — found this a useful tool to frustrate attempts at reforming and strengthening the Commonwealth . By bribing deputies to exercise their vetoes , Poland 's neighbours could derail any measures not to their liking . The Commonwealth deteriorated from a European power into a state of anarchy . Only a few Sejms were able to meet during the reign of the House of Saxony in Poland ( 1696 – 1763 ) , the last one in 1736 . Only eight out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II ( 1697 – 1733 ) passed legislation . For a period of 30 years around the reign of Augustus III , only one session was able to pass legislation ( 1734 – 1763 ) . The government was near collapse , giving rise to the term " Polish anarchy " , and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates .
Disruption of the Commonwealth governance caused by the liberum veto was highly significant . In the period of 1573 – 1763 , about 150 Sejms where held , of which 53 failed to pass any legislation . Historian Jacek Jędruch notes that out of the 53 disrupted Sejms , 32 were disrupted due to liberum veto .
= = = Final years = = =
The 18th century saw an institution known as a " confederated sejm " evolve . It was a parliament session that operated under the rules of a confederation . Its primary purpose was to avoid disruption by the liberum veto , unlike the national Sejm , which was paralyzed by the veto during this period . On some occasions , a confederated sejm was formed of the whole membership of the national Sejm , so that the liberum veto would not operate there .
The second half of the 18th century , marking the age of the Enlightenment in Poland , also witnessed an increased trend aiming at the reform of the inefficient governance of the Commonwealth . Reforms of 1764 – 1766 improved the proceedings of the Sejm . They introduced majority voting for non @-@ crucial items , including most economic and tax matters , and outlawed binding instructions from sejmiks . The road to reform was not easy , as conservatives , supported by foreign powers , opposed most of the changes , attempting to defend liberum veto and other elements perpetuating the inefficient governance , most notably through the Cardinal Laws of 1768 .
The liberum veto was finally abolished by the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by a confederated sejm , which permanently established the principle of majority rule . The achievements of that constitution , however – which historian Norman Davies called " the first constitution of its kind in Europe " — were undone by another confederated sejm , meeting at Grodno in 1793 . That Sejm , under duress from Russia and Prussia , ratified the Second Partition of Poland , anticipating the final disappearance of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian state two years later .
= = Significance = =
Harvard political scientist Grzegorz Ekiert , assessing the history of the liberum veto in the Kingdom of Poland , 1569 @-@ 1795 , concludes :
The principle of the liberum veto preserved the feudal features of Poland 's political system , weakened the role of the monarchy , led to anarchy in political life , and contributed to the economic and political decline of the Polish state . Such a situation made the country vulnerable to foreign invasions and ultimately led to its collapse .
Political scientist Dalibor Roháč noted that the " principle of liberum veto played an important role in [ the ] emergence of the unique Polish form of constitutionalism " and acted as a significant constraint on the powers of the monarch by making the " rule of law , religious tolerance and limited constitutional government ... the norm in Poland in times when the rest of Europe was being devastated by religious hatred and despotism . " It was seen as one of the key principles of the Commonwealth political system and culture , the Golden Liberty .
At the same time , historians hold that the principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system and Commonwealth 's eventual downfall . Deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers , or simply content to believe they were living in some kind of " Golden Age " , for over a century paralysed the Commonwealth 's government , stemming any attempts at reform . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy . " Wagner echoed him thus : " Certainly , there was no other institution of old Poland which has been more sharply criticized in more recent times than this one . " .
= = Modern parallels and popular culture = =
A 2004 Polish collectible card game , Veto , set in the background of a royal election during an election sejm , is named after this procedure .
Until the early 1990s , IBM had a decision @-@ making process called " non @-@ concur " in which any department head could veto a company @-@ wide strategy if it didn 't fit in with his department 's outlook . This effectively turned IBM into several independent fiefdoms . " Non @-@ concur " was eliminated by CEO Louis Gerstner who was brought in to revive the declining company .
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= The Boat Race 1865 =
The 22nd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 8 April 1865 . Oxford won by four lengths in a time of 21 minutes 24 seconds . The race , described as " one of the most sensational races in this history " thus far , was umpired by Joseph William Chitty . It was the first time that a crew had won the Boat Race having been behind at Hammersmith Bridge .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1864 race by nine lengths , with Oxford leading overall with eleven victories to Cambridge 's ten .
Cambridge were coached by their non @-@ rowing president J. G. Chambers ( who had rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races ) , while Oxford 's coach was G. Morrison ( who had rowed for Oxford three times as well as being a non @-@ rowing president in 1862 ) . Both university boats were constructed by J. & S. Salter of Oxford using cedar wood . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 @.@ 25 lb ( 74 @.@ 8 kg ) , 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their Light Blue opposition . Cambridge saw the return of five former Blues , including the cox Francis Archer and number four Robert Kinglake , both of whom had represented the university twice before . Three of Oxford 's crew had rowed in the previous year 's race .
= = Race = =
Both crews had initially returned to the boathouses upon the instruction of their boat club president 's who had demanded the steamers stay behind the start . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Following an indifferent start from both crews , Cambridge took the lead , and were a length ahead by Bishop 's Creek . To avoid the steamers pressing from behind , the Light Blue cox Archer steered his boat to the middle to the river , while his counterpart , Charles Tottenham , manoeuvred too close to the bank , resulting in a two @-@ length lead for Cambridge by Craven Cottage . By the Crab Tree pub , the lead was three lengths . Despite dominating the race , by the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford had reduced the lead to three @-@ quarters of a length , and at The Doves pub , the lead was down to half a length .
Soon after the Oxford boat overlapped their opponents yet Cambridge pushed away again before Chiswick Eyot where the Dark Blues once began to overlap the Light Blues ' stern . Cambridge 's stroke Lawes reacted and pushed to keep the lead , but by Chiswick Church the crews were level . Oxford 's better line in the river saw them draw away rapidly from Cambridge , whereupon the Light Blues were regarded as " falling to pieces " . Oxford 's lead at Barnes Bridge was around three lengths , and by the time they passed the finishing line they had won by four lengths in a time of 21 minutes 24 seconds , securing the Dark Blue 's fifth consecutive win and taking the overall record to 12 – 10 in their favour . Drinkwater suggested that , of the 22 races conducted thus far , it was " one of the most sensational races in this history " , while Burnell described it as a " splendid race " .
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= Mount Vesuvius =
Mount Vesuvius ( pronunciation : / vᵻˈsuːviəs / ; Italian : Monte Vesuvio [ ˈmonte veˈzuːvjo ] , Latin : Mons Vesuvius [ mõːs wɛˈsʊwɪ.ʊs ] ; also Vesevus or Vesaevus in Roman sources ) is a stratovolcano in the Gulf of Naples , Italy , about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore . It is one of several volcanoes which form the Campanian volcanic arc . Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure .
Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii , Herculaneum , and several other settlements . That eruption ejected a cloud of stones , ash , and fumes to a height of 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) , spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1 @.@ 5 million tons per second , ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima bombing . At least 1 @,@ 000 people died in the eruption . The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus .
Vesuvius has erupted many times since and is the only volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years . Today , it is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because of the population of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people living nearby and its tendency towards explosive ( Plinian ) eruptions . It is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world .
= = Mythology = =
Vesuvius has a long historic and literary tradition . It was considered a divinity of the Genius type at the time of the eruption of 79 AD : it appears under the inscribed name Vesuvius as a serpent in the decorative frescos of many lararia , or household shrines , surviving from Pompeii . An inscription from Capua to IOVI VESVVIO indicates that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter ; that is , Jupiter Vesuvius .
The historian Diodorus Siculus relates a tradition that Hercules , in the performance of his labors , passed through the country of nearby Cumae on his way to Sicily and found there a place called " the Phlegraean Plain " ( phlegraion pedion , " plain of fire " ) , " from a hill which anciently vomited out fire ... now called Vesuvius . " It was inhabited by bandits , " the sons of the Earth , " who were giants . With the assistance of the gods he pacified the region and went on . The facts behind the tradition , if any , remain unknown , as does whether Herculaneum was named after it . An epigram by the poet Martial in 88 AD suggests that both Venus , patroness of Pompeii , and Hercules were worshipped in the region devastated by the eruption of 79 . Mount Vesuvius was regarded by the Romans as being devoted to the hero and demigod Hercules .
= = Origin of the name = =
Vesuvius was a name of the volcano in frequent use by the authors of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire . Its collateral forms were Vesaevus , Vesevus , Vesbius and Vesvius . Writers in ancient Greek used Οὐεσούιον or Οὐεσούιος . Many scholars since then have offered an etymology . As peoples of varying ethnicity and language occupied Campania in the Roman Iron Age , the etymology depends to a large degree on the presumption of what language was spoken there at the time . Naples was settled by Greeks , as the name Nea @-@ polis , " New City " , testifies . The Oscans , a native Italic people , lived in the countryside . The Latins also competed for the occupation of Campania . Etruscan settlements were in the vicinity . Other peoples of unknown provenance are said to have been there at some time by various ancient authors .
Some theories about its origin are :
From Greek οὔ |
= " not " prefixed to a root from or related to the Greek word σβέννυμι =
" I quench " , in the sense of " unquenchable " .
From Greek ἕω
= " I hurl " and βίη " violence " , " hurling violence " , * vesbia , taking advantage of the collateral form .
From an Indo @-@ European root , * eus- < * ewes- < * ( a ) wes- , " shine " sense " the one who lightens " , through Latin or Oscan .
From an Indo @-@ European root * wes =
" hearth " ( compare e.g. Vesta )
= = Physical appearance = =
Vesuvius is a distinctive " humpbacked " mountain , consisting of a large cone ( Gran Cono ) partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure called Monte Somma . The Gran Cono was produced during the eruption of AD 79 . For this reason , the volcano is also called Somma @-@ Vesuvius or Somma @-@ Vesuvio .
The caldera started forming during an eruption around 17 @,@ 000 ( or 18 @,@ 300 ) years ago and was enlarged by later paroxysmal eruptions ending in the one of AD 79 . This structure has given its name to the term " somma volcano " , which describes any volcano with a summit caldera surrounding a newer cone .
The height of the main cone has been constantly changed by eruptions but is 1 @,@ 281 m ( 4 @,@ 203 ft ) at present . Monte Somma is 1 @,@ 149 m ( 3 @,@ 770 ft ) high , separated from the main cone by the valley of Atrio di Cavallo , which is some 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) long . The slopes of the mountain are scarred by lava flows but are heavily vegetated , with scrub and forest at higher altitudes and vineyards lower down . Vesuvius is still regarded as an active volcano , although its current activity produces little more than steam from vents at the bottom of the crater . Vesuvius is a stratovolcano at the convergent boundary where the African Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate . Layers of lava , scoria , volcanic ash , and pumice make up the mountain . Their mineralogy is variable , but generally silica @-@ undersaturated and rich in potassium , with phonolite produced in the more explosive eruptions .
= = Formation = =
Vesuvius was formed as a result of the collision of two tectonic plates , the African and the Eurasian . The former was subducted beneath the latter , deeper into the earth . As the water @-@ saturated sediments of the oceanic African plate were pushed to hotter depths in the earth , the water boiled off and caused the melting point of the upper mantle to drop enough to create partial melting of the rocks . Because magma is less dense than the solid rock around it , it was pushed upward . Finding a weak place at the Earth 's surface it broke through , producing the volcano .
The volcano is one of several which form the Campanian volcanic arc . Others include Campi Flegrei , a large caldera a few kilometres to the north west , Mount Epomeo , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) to the west on the island of Ischia , and several undersea volcanoes to the south . The arc forms the southern end of a larger chain of volcanoes produced by the subduction process described above , which extends northwest along the length of Italy as far as Monte Amiata in Southern Tuscany . Vesuvius is the only one to have erupted within recent history , although some of the others have erupted within the last few hundred years . Many are either extinct or have not erupted for tens of thousands of years .
= = Eruptions = =
Mount Vesuvius has erupted many times . The famous eruption in 79 AD was preceded by numerous others in prehistory , including at least three significantly larger ones , the best known being the Avellino eruption around 1800 BC which engulfed several Bronze Age settlements . Since 79 AD , the volcano has also erupted repeatedly , in 172 , 203 , 222 , possibly 303 , 379 , 472 , 512 , 536 , 685 , 787 , around 860 , around 900 , 968 , 991 , 999 , 1006 , 1037 , 1049 , around 1073 , 1139 , 1150 , and there may have been eruptions in 1270 , 1347 , and 1500 . The volcano erupted again in 1631 , six times in the 18th century , eight times in the 19th century ( notably in 1872 ) , and in 1906 , 1929 , and 1944 . There has been no eruption since 1944 , and none of the post @-@ 79 eruptions were as large or destructive as the Pompeian one .
The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed Plinian after Pliny the Younger , a Roman writer who published a detailed description of the 79 AD eruption , including his uncle 's death . On occasion , eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash ; in 472 and 1631 , Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople ( Istanbul ) , over 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) away . A few times since 1944 , landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust , raising false alarms of an eruption .
= = = Before AD 79 = = =
Scientific knowledge of the geologic history of Vesuvius comes from core samples taken from a 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) plus bore hole on the flanks of the volcano , extending into Mesozoic rock . Cores were dated by potassium – argon and argon – argon dating . The mountain started forming 25 @,@ 000 years ago . Although the area has been subject to volcanic activity for at least 400 @,@ 000 years , the lowest layer of eruption material from the Somma mountain lies on top of the 40 @,@ 000 ‑ year ‑ old Campanian Ignimbrite produced by the Campi Flegrei complex , and was the product of the Codola Plinian eruption 25 @,@ 000 years ago .
It was then built up by a series of lava flows , with some smaller explosive eruptions interspersed between them . However , the style of eruption changed around 19 @,@ 000 years ago to a sequence of large explosive plinian eruptions , of which the 79 AD one was the most recent . The eruptions are named after the tephra deposits produced by them , which in turn are named after the location where the deposits were first identified :
The Basal Pumice ( Pomici di Base ) eruption , 18 @,@ 300 years ago , VEI 6 , saw the original formation of the Somma caldera . The eruption was followed by a period of much less violent , lava producing eruptions .
The Green Pumice ( Pomici Verdoline ) eruption , 16 @,@ 000 years ago , VEI 5 .
The Mercato eruption ( Pomici di Mercato ) – also known as Pomici Gemelle or Pomici Ottaviano – 8000 years ago , VEI 6 , followed a smaller explosive eruption around 11 @,@ 000 years ago ( called the Lagno Amendolare eruption ) .
The Avellino eruption ( Pomici di Avellino ) , 3800 years ago , VEI 5 , followed two smaller explosive eruptions around 5 @,@ 000 years ago . The Avellino eruption vent was apparently 2 km west of the current crater , and the eruption destroyed several Bronze Age settlements of the Apennine culture . Several carbon dates on wood and bone offer a range of possible dates of about 500 years in the mid @-@ 2nd millennium BC . In May 2001 , near Nola , Italian archaeologists using the technique of filling every cavity with plaster or substitute compound recovered some remarkably well @-@ preserved forms of perishable objects , such as fence rails , a bucket and especially in the vicinity thousands of human footprints pointing into the Apennines to the north . The settlement had huts , pots , and goats . The residents had hastily abandoned the village , leaving it to be buried under pumice and ash in much the same way that Pompeii was later preserved . Pyroclastic surge deposits were distributed to the northwest of the vent , travelling as far as 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from it , and lie up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep in the area now occupied by Naples .
The volcano then entered a stage of more frequent , but less violent , eruptions until the most recent Plinian eruption , which destroyed Pompeii .
The last of these may have been in 217 BC . There were earthquakes in Italy during that year and the sun was reported as being dimmed by a haze or dry fog . Plutarch wrote of the sky being on fire near Naples and Silius Italicus mentioned in his epic poem Punica that Vesuvius had thundered and produced flames worthy of Mount Etna in that year , although both authors were writing around 250 years later . Greenland ice core samples of around that period show relatively high acidity , which is assumed to have been caused by atmospheric hydrogen sulfide .
The mountain was then quiet ( for 295 years , if the 217 BC date for the last previous eruption is true ) and was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards , except at the top which was craggy . The mountain may have had only one summit at that time , judging by a wall painting , " Bacchus and Vesuvius " , found in a Pompeiian house , the House of the Centenary ( Casa del Centenario ) .
Several surviving works written over the 200 years preceding the 79 AD eruption describe the mountain as having had a volcanic nature , although Pliny the Elder did not depict the mountain in this way in his Naturalis Historia :
The Greek historian Strabo ( ca 63 BC – AD 24 ) described the mountain in Book V , Chapter 4 of his Geographica as having a predominantly flat , barren summit covered with sooty , ash @-@ coloured rocks and suggested that it might once have had " craters of fire " . He also perceptively suggested that the fertility of the surrounding slopes may be due to volcanic activity , as at Mount Etna .
In Book II of De architectura , the architect Vitruvius ( ca 80 – 70 BC - ? ) reported that fires had once existed abundantly below the mountain and that it had spouted fire onto the surrounding fields . He went on to describe Pompeiian pumice as having been burnt from another species of stone .
Diodorus Siculus ( ca 90 BC – ca 30 BC ) , another Greek writer , wrote in Book IV of his Bibliotheca Historica that the Campanian plain was called fiery ( Phlegrean ) because of the mountain , Vesuvius , which had spouted flame like Etna and showed signs of the fire that had burnt in ancient history .
= = = Eruption of AD 79 = = =
In the year of 79 AD , Mount Vesuvius erupted in one of the most catastrophic and famous eruptions of all time . Historians have learned about the eruption from the eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger , a Roman administrator and poet .
Mount Vesuvius spawned a deadly cloud of stones , ash and fumes to a height of 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) , spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1 @.@ 5 Mt / s , ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima bombing . The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by pyroclastic flows and the ruins buried under dozens of feet of tephra .
= = = = Precursors and foreshocks = = = =
The 79 AD eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake seventeen years beforehand on February 5 , AD 62 , which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples , and particularly to Pompeii . Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted . The deaths of 600 sheep from " tainted air " in the vicinity of Pompeii indicates that the earthquake of 62 may have been related to new activity by Vesuvius
The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region ; the writer Pliny the Younger even wrote that they " were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania " . Small earthquakes started taking place on 20 August 79 becoming more frequent over the next four days , but the warnings were not recognised .
= = = = Scientific analysis of the eruption = = = =
Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features . The eruption lasted two days . The morning of the first day was perceived as normal by the only eyewitness to leave a surviving document , Pliny the Younger . In the middle of the day an explosion threw up a high @-@ altitude column from which ash began to fall , blanketing the area . Rescues and escapes occurred during this time . At some time in the night or early the next day pyroclastic flows in the close vicinity of the volcano began . Lights were seen on the mountain interpreted as fires . People as far away as Misenum fled for their lives . The flows were rapid @-@ moving , dense and very hot , knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path , incinerating or suffocating all population remaining there and altering the landscape , including the coastline . These were accompanied by additional light tremors and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples . By evening of the second day the eruption was over , leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly .
The latest scientific studies of the ash produced by Vesuvius reveals a multi @-@ phase eruption . The initial major explosion produced a column of ash and pumice ranging between 15 and 30 kilometres ( 49 @,@ 000 and 98 @,@ 000 ft ) high , which rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum upwind . The chief energy supporting the column came from the escape of steam superheated by the magma , created from ground water seeping over time into the deep faults of the region .
Subsequently the cloud collapsed as the gases expanded and lost their capability to support their solid contents , releasing it as a pyroclastic surge , which reached Herculaneum but not Pompeii . Additional explosions reinstituted the column . The eruption alternated between Plinian and Peléan six times . Surges 3 and 4 are believed by the authors to have destroyed Pompeii . Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross @-@ bedding formations , which are not produced by fallout .
Another study used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of roof @-@ tile and plaster fragments collected around Pompeii to estimate equilibrium temperature of the pyroclastic flow . The magnetic study revealed that on the first day of the eruption a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) fell for several hours . It heated the roof tiles up to 140 ° C ( 284 ° F ) . This period would have been the last opportunity to escape .
The collapse of the Plinian columns on the second day caused pyroclastic density currents ( PDCs ) that devastated Herculaneum and Pompeii . The depositional temperature of these pyroclastic surges ranged up to 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped , as the city was surrounded by gases of incinerating temperatures . The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs . These were as low as 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) .
= = = = The Two Plinys = = = =
The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus . Pliny the Younger describes , amongst other things , the last days in the life of his uncle , Pliny the Elder . Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano , approximately 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) , the elder Pliny launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend . His nephew declined to join the party . One of the nephew 's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle 's experiences . In a second letter the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle .
The two men saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the mountain . This cloud and a request by messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate . His nephew attempted to resume a normal life , but that night a tremor awoke him and his mother , prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard . Further tremors near dawn caused the population to abandon the village and caused wave action in the Bay of Naples .
The early light was obscured by a black cloud through which shone flashes , which Pliny likens to sheet lightning , but more extensive . The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia ( Capri ) across the bay . Fearing for their lives , the population began to call to each other and move back from the coast along the road . A rain of ash fell , causing Pliny to shake it off periodically to avoid being buried . Later that same day the ash stopped falling and the sun shone weakly through the cloud , encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder .
Pliny 's uncle Pliny the Elder was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum , and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel . As the ship was preparing to leave the area , a messenger came from his friend Rectina ( wife of Tascius ) living on the coast near the foot of the volcano explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue . Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast . He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina 's party .
He set off across the bay but in the shallows on the other side encountered thick showers of hot cinders , lumps of pumice and pieces of rock . Advised by the helmsman to turn back he stated " Fortune favors the brave " and ordered him to continue on to Stabiae ( about 4 @.@ 5 km from Pompeii ) .
Pliny the Elder and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain . After staying overnight , the party was driven from the building by an accumulation of material , presumably , tephra , which threatened to block all egress . They woke Pliny , who had been napping and emitting loud snoring . They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall . They approached the beach again but the wind prevented the ships from leaving . Pliny sat down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not rise even with assistance when his friends departed . Though Pliny the Elder died , his friends ultimately escaped by land .
In the first letter to Tacitus , Pliny the Younger suggested that his uncle 's death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous , sulphurous gas that wafted over the group . However , Stabiae was 16 km from the vent ( roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated ) and his companions were apparently unaffected by the fumes , and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause , such as a stroke or heart attack . His body was found with no apparent injuries on the next day , after dispersal of the plume .
= = = = Casualties from the eruption = = = =
Along with Pliny the Elder , the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa ( a son of the Herodian Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix ) and his wife .
By 2003 , around 1 @,@ 044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii , with the scattered bones of another 100 . The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum ( 300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980 ) . What percentage these numbers are of the total dead or the percentage of the dead to the total number at risk remain completely unknown .
Thirty @-@ eight percent of the 1 @,@ 044 were found in the ash fall deposits , the majority inside buildings . These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses , with the smaller number of victims found outside of buildings probably being killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano . The remaining 62 % of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits , and thus were probably killed by them – probably from a combination of suffocation through ash inhalation and blast and debris thrown around . In contrast to the victims found at Herculaneum , examination of cloth , frescoes and skeletons show that it is unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause . Herculaneum , which was much closer to the crater , was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction , but was buried under 23 metres ( 75 ft ) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges . It is likely that most , or all , of the known victims in this town were killed by the surges .
People caught on the former seashore by the first surge died of thermal shock . No boats have been found , indicating they may have been used for the earlier escape of some of the population . The rest were concentrated in arched chambers at a density of as high as 3 persons per square metre . As only 85 metres ( 279 ft ) of the coast have been excavated , the casualties waiting to be excavated may well be as high as the thousands .
= = = Later eruptions from the 3rd to the 19th century = = =
Since the eruption of 79 AD , Vesuvius has erupted around three dozen times . It erupted again in 203 , during the lifetime of the historian Cassius Dio . In 472 , it ejected such a volume of ash that ashfalls were reported as far away as Constantinople . The eruptions of 512 were so severe that those inhabiting the slopes of Vesuvius were granted exemption from taxes by Theodoric the Great , the Gothic king of Italy . Further eruptions were recorded in 787 , 968 , 991 , 999 , 1007 and 1036 with the first recorded lava flows . The volcano became quiescent at the end of the 13th century and in the following years it again became covered with gardens and vineyards as of old . Even the inside of the crater was filled with shrubbery .
Vesuvius entered a new phase in December 1631 , when a major eruption buried many villages under lava flows , killing around 3 @,@ 000 people . Torrents of boiling water were also ejected , adding to the devastation . Activity thereafter became almost continuous , with relatively severe eruptions occurring in 1660 , 1682 , 1694 , 1698 , 1707 , 1737 , 1760 , 1767 , 1779 , 1794 , 1822 , 1834 , 1839 , 1850 , 1855 , 1861 , 1868 , 1872 , 1906 , 1926 , 1929 , and 1944 .
= = = Eruptions in the 20th century = = =
The eruption of April 7 , 1906 , killed more than 100 people and ejected the most lava ever recorded from a Vesuvian eruption . Italian authorities were preparing to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics when Mount Vesuvius erupted , devastating the city of Naples . Funds were diverted to the reconstruction of Naples , requiring a new location for the Olympics to be found .
The last major eruption was in March 1944 . It destroyed the villages of San Sebastiano al Vesuvio , Massa di Somma , Ottaviano , and part of San Giorgio a Cremano . From March 18 to 23 , 1944 , lava flows appeared within the rim . There were outflows . Small explosions then occurred until the major explosion took place on March 18 , 1944 .
At the time of the eruption , the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) 340th Bombardment Group was based at Pompeii Airfield near Terzigno , Italy , just a few kilometres from the eastern base of the mountain . The tephra and hot ash damaged the fabric control surfaces , the engines , the Plexiglas windscreens and the gun turrets of the 340th 's B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers . Estimates ranged from 78 to 88 aircraft destroyed .
The eruption could be seen from Naples . Different perspectives and the damage caused to the local villages were recorded by USAAF photographers and other personnel based nearer to the volcano .
= = = The future = = =
Large plinian eruptions which emit lava in quantities of about 1 cubic kilometre ( 0 @.@ 24 cu mi ) , the most recent of which overwhelmed Pompeii , have happened after periods of inactivity of a few thousand years . Subplinian eruptions producing about 0 @.@ 1 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 024 cu mi ) , such as those of 472 and 1631 , have been more frequent with a few hundred years between them . Following the 1631 eruption until 1944 every few years saw a comparatively small eruption which emitted 0 @.@ 001 – 0 @.@ 01 km ³ of magma . It seems that for Vesuvius the amount of magma expelled in an eruption increases very roughly linearly with the interval since the previous one , and at a rate of around 0 @.@ 001 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 00024 cu mi ) for each year . This gives an approximate figure of 0 @.@ 06 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 014 cu mi ) for an eruption after 60 years of inactivity .
Magma sitting in an underground chamber for many years will start to see higher melting point constituents such as olivine crystallising out . The effect is to increase the concentration of dissolved gases ( mostly steam and carbon dioxide ) in the remaining liquid magma , making the subsequent eruption more violent . As gas @-@ rich magma approaches the surface during an eruption , the huge drop in pressure caused by the reduction in weight of the overlying rock ( which drops to zero at the surface ) causes the gases to come out of solution , the volume of gas increasing explosively from nothing to perhaps many times that of the accompanying magma . Additionally , the removal of the higher melting point material will raise the concentration of felsic components such as silicates potentially making the magma more viscous , adding to the explosive nature of the eruption .
The government emergency plan for an eruption therefore assumes that the worst case will be an eruption of similar size and type to the 1631 VEI 4 one . In this scenario the slopes of the mountain , extending out to about 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from the vent , may be exposed to pyroclastic flows sweeping down them , whilst much of the surrounding area could suffer from tephra falls . Because of prevailing winds , towns to the south and east of the volcano are most at risk from this , and it is assumed that tephra accumulation exceeding 100 kg / m ² – at which point people are at risk from collapsing roofs – may extend out as far as Avellino to the east or Salerno to the south east . Towards Naples , to the north west , this tephra fall hazard is assumed to extend barely past the slopes of the volcano . The specific areas actually affected by the ash cloud will depend upon the particular circumstances surrounding the eruption .
The plan assumes between two weeks and 20 days ' notice of an eruption and foresees the emergency evacuation of 600 @,@ 000 people , almost entirely comprising all those living in the zona rossa ( " red zone " ) , i.e. at greatest risk from pyroclastic flows . The evacuation , by trains , ferries , cars , and buses is planned to take about seven days , and the evacuees will mostly be sent to other parts of the country rather than to safe areas in the local Campania region , and may have to stay away for several months . However , the dilemma that would face those implementing the plan is when to start this massive evacuation , since if it is left too late then thousands could be killed , while if it is started too early then the precursors of the eruption may turn out to have been a false alarm . In 1984 , 40 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the Campi Flegrei area , another volcanic complex near Naples , but no eruption occurred .
Ongoing efforts are being made by the government at various levels ( especially of Campania ) to reduce the population living in the red zone , by demolishing illegally constructed buildings , establishing a national park around the whole volcano to prevent the future construction of buildings and by offering sufficient financial incentives to people for moving away . One of the underlying goals is to reduce the time needed to evacuate the area , over the next 20 or 30 years , to two or three days .
The volcano is closely monitored by the Osservatorio Vesuvio in Naples with extensive networks of seismic and gravimetric stations , a combination of a GPS @-@ based geodetic array and satellite @-@ based synthetic aperture radar to measure ground movement , and by local surveys and chemical analyses of gases emitted from fumaroles . All of this is intended to track magma rising underneath the volcano . No magma has been detected within 10 km of the surface , and so the volcano is classified by the Observatory as at a Basic or Green Level .
= = Vesuvius today = =
The area around Vesuvius was officially declared a national park on June 5 , 1995 . The summit of Vesuvius is open to visitors and there is a small network of paths around the mountain that are maintained by the park authorities on weekends .
There is access by road to within 200 metres ( 660 ft ) of the summit ( measured vertically ) , but thereafter access is on foot only . There is a spiral walkway around the mountain from the road to the crater .
= = Funiculì , Funiculà = =
The first funicular cable car on Mount Vesuvius opened in 1880 . It was later destroyed by the 1944 eruption . " Funiculì , Funiculà " , a famous Neapolitan song with lyrics by journalist Peppino Turco set to music by composer Luigi Denza , commemorates its opening .
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= Grey 's Anatomy ( season 6 ) =
The sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on September 24 , 2009 , and concluded on May 20 , 2010 . The season was produced by ABC Studios , in association with ShondaLand Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company ; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes . Actors Ellen Pompeo , Sandra Oh , Katherine Heigl , and Justin Chambers reprised their roles as surgical residents Meredith Grey , Cristina Yang , Izzie Stevens , and Alex Karev , respectively . Heigl was released from her contract in the middle of the season , while T.R. Knight did not appear as George O 'Malley , because Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five . Main cast members Patrick Dempsey , Chandra Wilson , James Pickens , Jr . , Sara Ramirez , Eric Dane , Chyler Leigh , and Kevin McKidd also returned , while previous recurring star Jessica Capshaw was promoted to a series regular , and Kim Raver was given star billing after the commencement of the season .
The season follows the story of surgical interns , residents and their competent mentors , as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen . It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , located in Seattle , Washington . A major storyline of the season is the characters adapting to change , as their beloved co @-@ worker Stevens departed following the breakdown of her marriage , O 'Malley died in the season premiere — following his being dragged by a bus , and new cardiothoracic surgeon Teddy Altman is given employment at the hospital . Further storylines include Shepherd being promoted to chief of surgery , Seattle Grace Hospital merging with the neighboring Mercy West — introducing several new doctors , and several physicians lives being placed into danger — when a grieving deceased patient 's husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital , seeking revenge for his wife 's death .
The series ended its sixth season with 13 @.@ 26 million viewers , ranking # 17 in terms of ratings , the lowest the series had ever ranked up to then . The season received mixed critical feedback , with the season 's premiere and finale given heavier critical acclaim , in contrast to the middle . The season was one of the least acclaimed in terms of awards and nominations , being the show 's only season not to warrant a Primetime Emmy nomination . Despite the negative aspects of ratings and awards , the season managed to receive a spot on Movieline 's top ten list . Buena Vista released the season onto a DVD box @-@ set , being made available to regions 1 and 2 .
= = Cast = =
The sixth season had thirteen roles receiving star billing , with twelve of them returning from the previous season , one of whom previously in a recurring guest capacity . The regulars portray the surgeons from the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital as new rivalries and romantic relationships begin to develop after the hospital 's merger with Mercy West . Meredith Grey , a surgical resident and the protagonist of the series , is portrayed by Ellen Pompeo . Fellow residents Cristina Yang , Izzie Stevens and Alex Karev are portrayed by Sandra Oh , Katherine Heigl and Justin Chambers , respectively . Attending general surgeon Miranda Bailey was portrayed by Chandra Wilson whose main storylines throughout the season focus on her divorce and the development of new romantic relationships . Seattle Grace Hospital 's Chief of Surgery and general surgeon Richard Webber was portrayed by James Pickens , Jr . , who returns to alcoholism after being sober for twenty years .
Sara Ramirez acted as bisexual orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres , Eric Dane played womanizer plastic surgeon Mark Sloan , Kevin McKidd continued his portrayal of trauma surgeon Owen Hunt , while Patrick Dempsey acted as chief of neurosurgery Derek Shepherd . Meredith 's half @-@ sister and second @-@ year surgical resident Lexie Grey was portrayed by Chyler Leigh . After having previously appeared in a multi @-@ episode arc in a guest star capacity in the show 's fifth season , Jessica Capshaw began receiving star billing in the season 's premiere episode in the role of attending pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins , love interest to Callie Torres . The ninth episode of the season marked the introduction of the new chief of cardiothoracic surgery Teddy Altman , portrayed by Kim Raver , whose mysterious romantic past with Owen Hunt develops into one of the season 's main stories . Starting with the nineteenth episode of the season , Raver began receiving star billing .
The sixth season introduces several new recurring characters who start to develop progressive and expansive storylines throughout the season . Mercy West surgical residents Reed Adamson , Charles Percy , April Kepner and Jackson Avery were portrayed by Nora Zehetner , Robert Baker , Sarah Drew and Jesse Williams , respectively . Jason George portrayed Miranda Bailey 's love interest , anesthesiologist Ben Warren . Thatcher Grey ( Jeff Perry ) and Sloan Riley ( Leven Rambin ) have been part of the season 's main story arcs , while numerous episodic characters have made guest appearances : Sara Gilbert as Kim Allen , Demi Lovato as Haley , Marion Ross as Betty , Mandy Moore as Mary Portman , Ryan Devlin as Bill Portman , Nick Purcell as Doug , Michael O 'Neill as Gary Clark , Danielle Panabaker as Kelsey , Adrienne Barbeau as Jodie Crawley , Héctor Elizondo as Mr. Torres , Amy Madigan as Dr. Wyatt , and Missi Pyle as Jasmine . Former series regular Kate Walsh returned to the series as a special guest star , portraying neonatal surgeon and obstetrician @-@ gynecologist Addison Montgomery .
= = Production = =
The season was produced by Touchstone Television ABC Studios , The Mark Gordon Company , Shondaland and was distributed by Buena Vista International , Inc .. The executive producers were creator Shonda Rhimes , Betsy Beers , Mark Gordon , Krista Vernoff , Rob Corn , Mark Wilding , Joan Rater and James D. Parriott . The regular directors were Shonda Rhimes , Krista Vernoff , Stacy McKee , William Harper , Debora Cahn , Allan Heinberg and Peter Nowalk . At the conclusion of season five , T.R. Knight was released from his contract , following a disagreement with Rhimes . When asked to make a ' flashback ' appearance in season six , Knight declined . Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic , seeing Stevens depart and return twice . Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season , Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early , and made her final appearance on January 21 , 2010 . Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family , and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again . The season 's two @-@ hour opener showed the doctors of Seattle Grace Hospital , grieving the loss of their deceased friend , O 'Malley . The special 's writer , Vernoff , commented : " It ’ s heartbreaking . I fell in love with George , like many of you did , in season one . "
The ninth episode of the season , " New History " , saw the arrival of Altman , which ended up forming a love triangle between her , Hunt , and Yang . Raver commented on this : " She was in Iraq with Owen . She 's a cardiac surgeon . She 's really good at what she does . There 'll be some interesting stuff between Teddy , Cristina , and Owen . " The episode 's writer , Heinberg , offered his insight :
" Teddy 's arrival at Seattle Grace unleashes all manner of complications for Owen , Cristina , and herself . Cristina ’ s immediately suspicious that Owen and Teddy were more than friends during their time together in Iraq . Teddy confesses to Owen that she apparently misread their mutual history , and walks away from him , mortified . And Owen ’ s left haunted by Teddy ’ s confession , now forced to re @-@ examine his own history -- and his feelings for both Teddy and Cristina .
" I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked " saw the departure of Stevens , following the breakdown of her marriage with Karev . Series ' writer Joan Rater commented on this : " Izzie getting the clean scan back gives Alex the freedom to leave . Because he never would have left her when she was sick , he 's a good guy . And I 'm not saying that Alex ever consciously thought , I can ’ t leave her while she 's sick , but now that she 's not , now that she seems like she ’ s going to get better , it just comes to him . He deserves more . He 's a good guy and he deserves more . But loving Izzie showed him that he can be good , is good . So it was a little gift . And when he tells Izzie he 's done , he 's not bitter or angry , he 's just done . " The writing of the two @-@ part season six finale , caused struggle to Rhimes . She elaborated on this :
= = Reception = =
Grey 's Anatomy 's sixth season opened up to 17 @.@ 04 million viewers with a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Although the rating was a 1 % decrease from season five 's opener , it managed to rank first for its time @-@ slot and the entire night , in terms of both ratings and viewership , and served as the season 's most viewed episode . " Sympathy for the Parents " was the season 's least viewed episode , and up to that point , the series ' as well , garnering only 9 @.@ 87 million viewers . The season 's finale garnered 16 @.@ 13 million viewers , and received a 6 @.@ 2 / 18 rating , ranking first for its time @-@ slot and the entire night , in terms of both ratings and viewership . Although the finale was a success for the night , it was a 1 % decrease from season five 's finale , but served as the season 's second most viewed episode . Overall , the season ranked at # 17 for the year , and had an average of 13 @.@ 26 million viewers , a 5 % decrease from the previous season 's ranking .
The season received mixed reviews among television critics . Speaking of the premiere , Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a " very dark " season , adding : " The talk between George 's mom and one of the surgeons [ Torres ] proved to be one of the more heart @-@ breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough . " In contrast , Kelly West of TV Blend was critical of the premiere , writing : " I don ’ t think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey ’ s is headed in a new direction , nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons . That said , this is Grey ’ s Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama , sex , love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving . If that ’ s what you ’ re looking for , I think you ’ ll enjoy the season premiere just fine . " Capshaw 's performance this season was praised , with The TV Addict calling her " immensely likeable " . Although " Sympathy for the Parents " was the least viewed episode , TV Fanatic called the episode " touching " , praising Chambers ' performance . TV Fanatic 's reaction to the season was fairly mixed , with Steve Marsi saying that Grey 's Anatomy was facing an identity crisis after viewing " Give Peace a Chance " . He said that : " Still popular but lacking its past magic , it 's trying to decide what to become . All we can say is that if it becomes what we saw 12 hours ago , we are all for it . Last week saw the doctors plunging into ER @-@ style chaos with 12 different doctors giving 12 different accounts of one case . Last night , we saw something else equally unusual . " He praised Patrick Dempsey 's performance , saying : " Again , it was a single case that took up the entire hour , but instead of 12 doctors ' version of events , the focus was largely on just one , and the best one : Dr. Derek Shepherd . Patrick Dempsey 's McDreamy character may be eye candy , but he 's got substance . Last night 's episode proved that in spades , and was one of the series ' best in some time . "
The season 's finale Death And All His Friends was highly praised . Marsi gave the episode five stars , and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series , adding : " The writing and acting were absolutely stellar , and may lead to many Emmy nominations , but even more impressively , despite a killing spree , it remained distinctly Grey 's . Some of the back @-@ and @-@ forths between the characters were truly memorable , and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we don 't even know where to begin now . Seriously , the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything , a feeling we haven 't had from Grey 's in years and rarely achieved by any program . " John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode , adding : " [ It was ] two of the best hours of television all year . It was certainly the best Grey 's Anatomy has ever been , which is saying a lot since I 'd written the show off for the past few years . No show does a big traumatic event like Grey 's Anatomy , and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours . It was emotional , expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale . " Entertainment Weekly wrote , " At any rate , now you can at least see where it all began . And while you ’ re still pondering how Grey ’ s can still be so damn good sometimes , "
The season was one of the least acclaimed of the series , in terms of awards and nominations . Despite not being nominated for a Primetime Emmy , the show received two Creative Arts Emmy Awards : Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup For A Series , Miniseries , Movie Or A Special for " How Insensitive " and Outstanding Makeup For A Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) for " Suicide is Painless " . The season also received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series at the GLAAD Media Awards . Wilson was awarded the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series for her directing in " Give Peace a Chance " . The season also ranked at # 10 on Movieline 's top ten list .
= = Episodes = =
The number in the " No. in series " column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the " No. in season " column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . The sixth season 's episodes are altogether 1032 minutes in length .
= = Ratings = =
= = = Live + SD ratings = = =
= = DVD Release = =
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= 1899 Carrabelle hurricane =
The 1899 Carrabelle hurricane caused significant damage in the Dominican Republic and the Florida Panhandle . The second tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the 1899 Atlantic hurricane season , the storm was first observed south of the Dominican Republic on July 28 , 1899 . Shortly thereafter , it made landfall in Azua Province , Dominican Republic with an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 29 , the system weakened to a tropical storm , shortly before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean . It then moved west @-@ northwestward and remained at the same intensity for the next 24 hours . The storm made landfall near Islamorada , Florida on July 30 . It then brushed Southwest Florida before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico . The storm began to re @-@ intensify on July 31 and became a hurricane later that day . Early on August 1 , it peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , several hours before making landfall near Apalachicola , Florida at the same intensity . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated over Alabama on August 2 .
In the Dominican Republic , three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas . In Florida , damage in the city of Carrabelle was extensive , where only nine houses remained . Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1899 USD ) . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed ; damage from these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked ; large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . The towns of Curtis Mill and McIntyre were completely destroyed , while the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . Overall , seven deaths were confirmed in Florida and losses in the state reached at least $ 1 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
A " violent hurricane " was first observed near the south coast of Hispaniola at 1200 UTC on July 27 . Within the next six hours , the storm made landfall in Azua Province , Dominican Republic with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) – equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 28 , it weakened to tropical storm while moving northwestward across northern Haiti . A few hours later , the storm emerged into the Atlantic near Port @-@ de @-@ Paix . The system maintained intensity for over 24 hours as it moved northwestward and parallel to the north coast of Cuba . At 1000 UTC on July 30 , the storm made landfall in Islamorada , Florida on Upper Matecumbe Key with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It weakened slightly and then moved just offshore or struck the mainland portion of Monroe County , Florida . Early on July 31 , the storm began to re @-@ strengthen while entering the eastern Gulf of Mexico .
HURDAT – the North Atlantic hurricane database – indicated that the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on July 31 . Further deepening occurred , with the storm becoming a Category 2 hurricane early on August 1 . Later that day , the hurricane made landfall between Carrabelle and Eastpoint , Florida with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Reports at landfall indicate that the storm was small , spanning a diameter of only 40 miles ( 64 km ) . At 1800 UTC on August 1 – about an hour after it moved inland – a weather station measured the storm 's minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Early on August 2 , it weakened to a tropical storm and then a tropical depression several hours later . Shortly thereafter , it dissipating over southern Alabama .
= = Impact = =
News reports indicate that a " violent " hurricane struck the Dominican Republic on July 28 . Three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country , while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas .
Due to " somewhat threatening " weather conditions on July 30 and July 31 , advisories were issued to stations across Florida , warning of the potential for strong winds . As a result , 40 vessels , coasting schooners , and spongers remained at port in Cedar Key . According to the displayman at Cedar Key , " they [ the ships and sailors ] would have sailed and some would have been lost " had they not received warnings .
At the time of the storm , it was described as " the most disastrous cyclone that ever visited this section of Florida " . Losses from the storm in Florida reached at least $ 1 million . The city of Carrabelle was devastated as only nine houses in the city remained . According to the mayor , about 200 families were left homeless . The New York Times stated that , " Carrabelle is literally wiped from the map . " Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 . One fatality occurred in Carrabelle when a house collapsed on a woman ; numerous other people in the area sustained injuries . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed , including 14 barques , 40 small boats , and 3 pilot boats . Losses for these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . At the Chattahoochee , then known as River Junction , a mass meeting of citizens was held on August 4 to collect money for the victims of the storm in Carrabelle .
Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . A 30 mile ( 48 km ) portion of the Carrabelle , Tallahassee and Georgia Railroad was washed away . A passenger train was blown over 100 yards from the track , injuring many passengers . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked . The local summer resort of Lanark Inn was blown into the Gulf of Mexico . Large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . At McIntyre , virtually the entire town was destroyed , except for only two mill boilers . The city of Curtis Mill was completely destroyed . Additionally , the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . A total of fifteen ships either destroyed or beached at Dog Island , including the Benjamin C. Cromwell and James A. Garfield . At least 15 people were reported missing . Six drowning deaths were confirmed in association with this storm .
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= Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) =
Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is the debut studio album by the American hip hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan , released November 9 , 1993 , on Loud Records and distributed through RCA Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during 1992 to 1993 at Firehouse Studio in New York City , and it was mastered at The Hit Factory . The album 's title originates from the martial arts film The 36th Chamber of Shaolin ( 1978 ) . The group 's de facto leader RZA , also known as Prince Rakeem , produced the album entirely , utilizing heavy , eerie beats and a sound largely based on martial @-@ arts movie clips and soul music samples .
The distinctive sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) created a blueprint for hardcore hip hop during the 1990s and helped return New York City hip hop to national prominence . Its sound also became greatly influential in modern hip hop production , while the group members ' explicit , humorous , and free @-@ associative lyrics have served as a template for many subsequent hip hop records . Serving as a landmark record in the era of hip hop known as the East Coast Renaissance , its influence helped lead the way for several other East Coast hip hop artists , including Nas , The Notorious B.I.G. , Mobb Deep , and Jay @-@ Z.
Despite its raw , underground sound , the album had surprising chart success , peaking at number 41 on the US Billboard 200 chart . By 1995 , it was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and has sold over two million copies in the United States . Initially receiving positive reviews from most music critics , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is widely regarded as one of the most significant albums of the 1990s , as well as one of the greatest hip hop albums ever .
= = Background and recording = =
In the late 1980s , cousins Robert Diggs , Gary Grice , and Russell Jones formed a group named Force of the Imperial Master , also known as the All in Together Now Crew . Each member recorded under an alias : Grice as The Genius , Diggs as Prince Rakeem or The Scientist , and Jones as The Specialist . The group never signed to a major label , but caught the attention of the New York rap scene and was recognized by rapper Biz Markie . By 1991 , The Genius and Prince Rakeem were signed to separate record labels . The Genius released Words from the Genius ( 1991 ) on Cold Chillin ' Records and Prince Rakeem released Ooh I Love You Rakeem ( 1991 ) on Tommy Boy Records . Both were soon dropped by their labels . Embittered but unbowed , they took on new monikers ( The Genius became GZA while Prince Rakeem became RZA ) and refocused their efforts . RZA discussed the matter in their release The Wu @-@ Tang Manual ( 2005 ) , stating " [ Tommy Boy ] made the decision to sign House of Pain over us . When they dropped me , I was thinking , ' Damn , they chose a bunch of whiteboy shit over me . ' "
RZA began collaborating with Dennis Coles , latter known as Ghostface Killah , another rapper from the Stapleton Projects apartment complex in Staten Island . The duo decided to create a hip hop group whose ethos would be a blend of " Eastern philosophy picked up from kung fu movies , watered @-@ down Nation of Islam preaching picked up on the New York streets , and comic books . "
Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) was recorded at Firehouse Studio in New York City from 1992 to 1993 . The album was produced , mixed , arranged , and programmed by RZA , and was mastered at The Hit Factory in New York City by Chris Gehringer . Because of an extremely limited budget , the group was only able to record in a small , inexpensive studio ; with up to eight of the nine Wu @-@ Tang members in the studio at once , the quarters were frequently crowded . To decide who appeared on each song , RZA forced the Wu @-@ Tang rappers to battle with each other . This competition led to the track " Meth Vs . Chef " , a battle between Method Man and Raekwon over the rights to rap over RZA 's beat ; this track was left off the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album but surfaced on Method Man 's debut , Tical ( 1994 ) .
= = Title significance = =
The true meaning of the album 's title is not well known or understood . According to a Five Percent philosophy , known as the Supreme Mathematics , the number 9 means " to bring into existence , " and this meant everything to the group 's debut album . The group was made of 9 members , each of whom had 4 chambers of the heart , which are 2 atria , and 2 ventricles . All of this is the root for " 36 Chambers " , being that 9 x 4
= 36 .
In reference to the 1978 kung fu film The 36th Chamber of Shaolin that the group enjoyed watching , the Clan considered themselves as lyrical masters of the 36 chambers , and arrived onto the rap scene while appearing to be ahead , and more advanced over others , with " knowledge of 36 chambers of hip hop music when everyone else in hip hop was striving to attain the knowledge of 35 lessons . " Also , while the human body has 108 pressure points ( 1 + 0 + 8 =
9 ) , only the Wu @-@ Tang martial artists learned and understood that 36 of those pressure points are deadly ( 9 + 36 |
= 45 ) ( 4 + 5 =
9 ) The lyrics and rhymes of the 9 members are to be considered as 36 deadly lyrical techniques for pressure points . All of this is the basis for the album title , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) , being that 9 members x 4 chambers = 36 . However , this is just a theory ; the true significance of the title is not definitively known .
= = Music and lyrics = =
= = = Production = = =
Group leader RZA produced Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) by creating sonic collages from classic soul samples and clips from martial arts movies such as Shaolin and Wu Tang ( 1981 ) . He complemented the rappers ' performances with " lean , menacing beats that evoked their gritty , urban surroundings more effectively than their words , " according to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic . The use of soul samples and various esoteric clips , and the technique by which RZA employed them in his beats , was unique and largely unprecedented in hip hop . The gritty sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is due , at least in part , to the use of cheap equipment to produce the album .
Many critics argue that the minimalist means of production plays directly into the appealing " street " quality that makes the album a classic , including Ben Yew , who stated , " Because [ RZA ] didn 't have the best mixing or recording equipment , the album is wrought with a ' dirty ' quality — the drums have more bass and are more hard @-@ hitting than they are crisp and clean ; the samples have an eerie , almost haunting type of echo ; and the vocals , because each member 's voice is already aggressive and gritty , perfectly match the production . " Although Ol ' Dirty Bastard is given co @-@ production credit on " Da Mystery of Chessboxin ' " and Method Man is co @-@ credited for " Wu @-@ Tang Clan Ain 't Nuthing ta F ' Wit , " critics and admirers universally credit RZA with developing a " dusty yet digital production style [ that ] helped legitimize the use of more diverse sample sources to the hardcore New York rap massive , breaking away from James Brown based beats and embracing a style that turned the Underdog theme into the menacing coda for a group of underground terrorists . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
Enter the Wu Tang ushered in a new standard for hip hop at a time when hip hop music was dominated by the jazz @-@ influenced styles of A Tribe Called Quest , the Afrocentric viewpoints of Public Enemy , and the rising popularity of West Coast gangsta rap . The album 's explicit , humorous and free @-@ associative lyrics have been credited for serving as a template for many subsequent hip hop records . Rolling Stone described the album as possessing an aesthetic that was " low on hype and production values [ and ] high on the idea that indigence is a central part of blackness . " While the lyrical content on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang generally varies from rapper to rapper , the basic themes are the same — urban life , martial arts movies , comic book references , and marijuana — and the setting is invariably the harsh environment of New York City . The lyrics have a universally dark tone and seem at times to be simply aggressive cries . AllMusic contributor Steve Huey praises the lyricists for their originality and caustic humor , stating " Some were outsized , theatrical personalities , others were cerebral storytellers and lyrical technicians , but each had his own distinctive style ... Every track on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is packed with fresh , inventive rhymes , which are filled with martial arts metaphors , pop culture references ( everything from Voltron to Lucky Charms cereal commercials to Barbra Streisand 's " The Way We Were " ) , bizarre threats of violence , and a truly twisted sense of humor . "
With the exception of " Method Man " and GZA 's " Clan in da Front " , every song features multiple rappers contributing verses of varying lengths . The verses are essentially battle rhymes , mixed with humor and outsized tales of urban violence and drug use . There is some debate about whether the lyrics on 36 Chambers are properly classified as gangsta rap or something else entirely . In a Stylus Magazine review , writer Gavin Mueller evokes the bleakness of the Wu @-@ Tang world view :
[ T ] he lyrics reach back to New York 's own Rakim : dense battle rhymes potent with metaphors . Each Wu MC links his rhymes to crime and violence , allowing his preoccupations to surface subtly and indirectly , rather than spouting off overt gangsta @-@ isms designed to shock ... The hood imagery of the lyrics is utterly pervasive and uncompromising , immersing the listener in a foreign land smack in the middle of New York . There is no celebration here , and little hope .
All nine original Wu @-@ Tang Clan members contribute vocals on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang . Masta Killa only appears on one track , contributing the last verse of " Da Mystery of Chessboxin , ' " but all the other rappers appear on at least two songs . Method Man and Raekwon are the most prolific of the group , featured on eight tracks . Though the performers have widely differing techniques , the chemistry between them is a key ingredient of the album 's success . Pitchfork Media asserts that " Half the charm is in the cast 's idiosyncrasies : ODB 's hovering sing @-@ song , Raekwon 's fake stutter , Ghostface 's verbal tics , Method Man 's hazy , dusted voice . "
= = Singles = =
" Protect Ya Neck " and " Tearz " were the first tracks recorded by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . " Protect Ya Neck " is a free @-@ associative and braggadocious battle rap featuring eight of the nine Wu @-@ Tang members , and " Tearz " tells stories of a little kid getting shot ( RZA 's little brother ) , and another one who contracts HIV after having unprotected sex . They were independently released as the " Protect Ya Neck " / " After Laughter Comes Tears " single , which RZA financed by demanding $ 100 ( USD ) from each rapper who wanted a verse on the A @-@ side . The single was re @-@ released in a much larger pressing , with " Method Man " as the B @-@ side .
" Method Man " reached number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 17 on the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart . " Method Man " gained significant airplay partly for its catchy refrain , which copies the refrain of Hall & Oates ' " Method of Modern Love " ( " The M @-@ E @-@ T @-@ H @-@ O @-@ D ... Man " ) .
" C.R.E.A.M. " , featuring Raekwon and Inspectah Deck , was the second single from the album and the first new A @-@ side to be released after the group signed with Loud / RCA . Its lyrics deal with the struggle of poverty and the desire to earn money by any means . It was the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's most successful single , reaching number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 8 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart . The single topped the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart . " Can It Be All So Simple " , featuring Ghostface Killah and Raekwon , was the album 's third single . The single failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number 24 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart in 1994 . A remix of the song was included on Raekwon 's debut solo album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) .
The group made music videos for the three A @-@ sides and for " Method Man " , " Da Mystery of Chessboxin ' " , and " Wu @-@ Tang Clan Ain 't Nuthing ta Fuck Wit " . As the group 's profile increased , the quality of their videos improved ; though the " Protect Ya Neck " video resembled a home movie , later videos were directed by rising hip hop music video director Hype Williams . The videos received almost no airplay on MTV , but were extremely popular on video @-@ by @-@ request channels such as The Box . Touré wrote in his 1993 Rolling Stone review that " in Brooklyn , N.Y. , right now and extending back a few months , the reigning fave is the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , who are to the channel what Guns N ' Roses are to MTV . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial reaction = = =
Upon its release , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) received rave reviews from most music critics . In an article for The Source , The Ghetto Communicator wrote " This record is harsh , but so is the world that we live in . For B @-@ boys n 'girls who come from the core of the hard , this is the hip @-@ hop album you 've been waiting for " . Rolling Stone 's review was decidedly ambivalent , praising the album 's sound , but noting that " Wu @-@ Tang ... are more ciphers than masterful creations . In refusing to commodify themselves , they leave blank the ultimate canvas — the self . " Entertainment Weekly was more enthusiastic , giving the album an A , and writing that " With its rumble jumble of drumbeats , peppered with occasional piano plunking , Enter has a raw , pass @-@ the @-@ mike flavor we haven 't heard since rap was pop 's best @-@ kept secret . " Robert Christgau found the Wu @-@ Tang Clan " grander " and " goofier " than their West Coast contemporaries and concluded , " Expect the masterwork this album 's reputation suggests and you 'll probably be disappointed--it will speak directly only to indigenous hip hoppers . Expect a glorious human mess , as opposed to the ominous platinum product of their opposite numbers , and you 'll realize the dope game isn 't everyone 's dead @-@ end street " .
Music journalist Touré declared of the album , that " This is hip @-@ hop you won 't find creeping up the Billboard charts but you will hear booming out of Jeep stereos in all the right neighborhoods . " However , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang had surprising chart success , despite its raw , underground sound . It peaked at number 41 on the Billboard 200 chart and reached number eight on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip Hop Albums chart . The album continued to sell steadily and was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 15 , 1995 .
= = = Retrospect = = =
Since its release , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has risen in stature to become one of the most highly regarded albums in hip hop . The album was originally given a rating of 4 @.@ 5 mics out of 5 in The Source magazine in 1994 ; however , it was given a classic 5 mic rating in a later issue of the magazine . Similar to The Source , XXL magazine gave the album a classic rating of " XXL " in its retrospective 2007 issue . In the book Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) has a critical rating of 8 / 10 from Spin . In 2003 , Rolling Stone named the album among the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , asserting that " East @-@ coast hip @-@ hop made a return in 1993 . " The magazine later listed it as one of the " Essential Albums of the 90s " and " 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time . " The Source cited Enter the Wu @-@ Tang as one of the " 100 Best Rap Albums " , while also naming " Protect Ya Neck / Method Man " and " C.R.E.A.M. " among the " 100 Best Rap Singles " . MTV declared it among " The Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Albums of All Time " , while Blender named the album among the " 500 CDs You Must Own " . Oliver Wang , author of Classic Material : The Hip @-@ Hop Album Guide described it " as timeless an album as hip @-@ hop has ever seen . "
Publications based outside of the United States have acclaimed 36 Chambers as well ; Australia 's Juice magazine placed it at number 40 on its list of " 100 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s " , and Les Inrockuptibles ranked it number 59 on a list of " The 100 Best Albums 1986 – 1996 " . In naming Enter the Wu @-@ Tang one of the 50 best albums of the 1990s , Pitchfork Media staff member Rollie Pemberton summed up the album 's critical recognition by writing :
This is the sound of accidental fame . Something as unique and unusual as this record isn 't supposed to find itself at the height of commercial viability ; it 's supposed to smolder underground , hidden from the view of mainstream America , who surely would not be ready for such a challenge . But America was ready , in part because this one challenged convention , not listeners . Sure , its sloppy drum programming , bizarre song structures , and unpolished sound quality disturbed commercial rap purists , but the talent was so inherent and obvious , and the charisma so undeniable , that it propelled the Wu @-@ Tang Clan to the height of the rap game , and today stands not just as the hip @-@ hop classic that introduced the concept of obscure thematic characters ( each member 's name references old kung @-@ fu movies ) , but also bridged the gap between traditional old @-@ school sensibilities and the technical lyricism of today .
In 2010 , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = East Coast hip hop = = =
Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is one of the most influential albums in hip hop history . Adam Heimlich of the New York Press considers the album a touchstone of hardcore hip @-@ hop , a gritty , stripped @-@ down , dark and violent subgenre of hip hop and the signature sound of New York City 's rap scene during the mid @-@ 1990s . He writes that , " the Wu @-@ Tang Clan ... all but invented 90s New York rap , back when the notion of an East Coast gangsta still meant Schoolly D or Kool G. Rap .... [ They ] designed the manner and style in which New York artists would address what Snoop and Dre had made rap 's hottest topics : drugs and violence . " As the album helped return New York City hip hop to national prominence , a new generation of New York rappers , many of them inspired by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's example , released a flurry of classic albums that later became known as the East Coast Renaissance . Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has been recognized by critics as a landmark album in the movement . AllMusic indicates that the success of the album paved the way for Nas , The Notorious B.I.G. Mobb Deep and Jay @-@ Z.
At the time of the album 's release , mainstream hip hop was dominated by West Coast hip hop . Enter the Wu Tang ( along with the critically acclaimed Illmatic and the commercial success of Ready to Die ) was able to shift the emphasis away from the melodious , synthesizer @-@ driven G @-@ funk and restore interest into the East Coast hip hop scene . According to one columnist , " When Enter the Wu @-@ Tang : The 36 Chambers first graced the pages of rap lore in 1993 , Dr. Dre 's funk @-@ filled , West Coast gangster rap dominated the business . Though this initial dominance was difficult to overcome , Wu @-@ Tang still managed to carve out a piece of rap history . "
= = = Hip hop production = = =
RZA 's production on Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album had a profound and significant influence on subsequent hip hop producers . The distinctive sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has been credited for creating a blueprint for hardcore hip hop in the mid @-@ 1990s . Blackfilm.com asserts that Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's production formula " transformed the sound of underground rap into mainstream formula , and virtually changed the face of contemporary music as popsters once knew it . " Many successful rap producers have admitted to the influence of RZA 's beats on their own production efforts . 9th Wonder , a producer and former member of Little Brother , is one of many whose vocal sampling styles are inspired by RZA . The album 's reliance on soul music samples was novel at the time , but 21st century producers such as The Alchemist , Kanye West and Just Blaze now rely on this technique . According to Allmusic , the production on two Mobb Deep albums , The Infamous and Hell on Earth ( 1996 ) , are " indebted " to RZA 's early production with Wu @-@ Tang Clan .
= = = Subsequent Wu @-@ Tang work = = =
Following Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's success , the individual members of the group negotiated and signed solo contracts with a variety of different labels : Method Man signed with Def Jam , Ol ' Dirty Bastard with Elektra , GZA with Geffen Records , and Ghostface Killah with Epic Records . This expansion across the music industry was an element of RZA 's stated plan for industry @-@ wide domination , wherein " All Wu releases are deemed to be 50 percent partnerships with Wu @-@ Tang Productions and each Wu member with solo deal must contribute 20 percent of their earnings back to Wu @-@ Tang Productions , a fund for all Wu members . "
On Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's effect on the group and the music industry , the Milwaukee Journal 's Aaron Justin @-@ Szopinski wrote " The Wu showed us that a hip @-@ hop group can control its own destiny in the tangled web of the industry . It owns publishing rights , controls its samples and has 90 % influence over its career . And that control , that outlook for the future , is what makes it the best . " Wu @-@ Tang Clan have produced four subsequent group albums since Enter the Wu @-@ Tang , including Wu @-@ Tang Forever ( 1997 ) , which is certified as a quadruple platinum record . None of the subsequent Wu @-@ Tang Clan albums have garnered the critical accolades that their debut was accorded .
In 2013 , the group reunited , at the behest of RZA , for an album and tour celebrating the 20th anniversary of the album 's release . The album was titled A Better Tomorrow and the tour included dates throughout the United States , Europe and Russia . All original members of the group who performed on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang participated in both the tour and reunion album , excepting Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who died in 2004 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = CD = = =
Tracks 1 – 5 are on the Shaolin Sword side of the album and tracks 6 – 12 are on the Wu @-@ Tang Sword side .
An asterisk ( * ) indicates international version bonus track
= = = Vinyl / cassette = = =
The vinyl and cassette track order is slightly different to that of the CD :
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is taken from AcclaimedMusic.net , except for lists with additional sources .
( * ) designates lists that are unordered .
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= Barn owl =
The barn owl ( Tyto alba ) is the most widely distributed species of owl , and one of the most widespread of all birds . It is also referred to as the common barn owl , to distinguish it from other species in its family , Tytonidae , which forms one of the two main lineages of living owls , the other being the typical owls ( Strigidae ) . The barn owl is found almost everywhere in the world except polar and desert regions , Asia north of the Himalayas , most of Indonesia , and some Pacific islands .
Phylogenetic evidence shows that there are at least three major lineages of barn owl , one in Eurasia and Africa , one in Australasia and one in the Americas , and some highly divergent taxa on islands . Some authorities further split the group , recognising up to five species , and further research needs to be done to clarify the position . There is a considerable variation between the sizes and colour of the approximately 28 subspecies but most are between 33 and 39 cm ( 13 and 15 in ) in length with wingspans ranging from 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) . The plumage on head and back is a mottled shade of grey or brown , the underparts vary from white to brown and are sometimes speckled with dark markings . The face is characteristically heart @-@ shaped and is white in most subspecies . This owl does not hoot , but utters an eerie , drawn @-@ out shriek .
The barn owl is nocturnal over most of its range , but in Britain and some Pacific islands , it also hunts by day . Barn owls specialise in hunting animals on the ground and nearly all of their food consists of small mammals which they locate by sound , their hearing being very acute . They mate for life unless one of the pair gets killed , when a new pair bond may be formed . Breeding takes place at varying times of year according to locality , with a clutch , averaging about four eggs , being laid in a nest in a hollow tree , old building or fissure in a cliff . The female does all the incubation , and she and the young chicks are reliant on the male for food . When large numbers of small prey are readily available , barn owl populations can expand rapidly , and globally the bird is considered to be of least conservation concern . Some subspecies with restricted ranges are more threatened .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The barn owl was one of several species of bird first described in 1769 by the Tyrolean physician and naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his Anni Historico @-@ Naturales . He gave it the scientific name Strix alba . As more species of owl were described , the genus name Strix came to be used solely for the wood owls in the typical owl family Strigidae , and the barn owl became Tyto alba in the barn owl family Tytonidae . The name literally means " white owl " , from the onomatopoeic Ancient Greek tyto ( τυτώ ) for an owl – compare English " hooter " – and Latin alba , " white " . The bird is known by many common names which refer to its appearance , call , habitat , or its eerie , silent flight : white owl , silver owl , demon owl , ghost owl , death owl , night owl , rat owl , church owl , cave owl , stone owl , monkey @-@ faced owl , hissing owl , hobgoblin or hobby owl , dobby owl , white @-@ breasted owl , golden owl , scritch owl , screech owl , straw owl , barnyard owl , and delicate owl . " Golden owl " might also refer to the related golden masked owl ( T. aurantia ) . " Hissing owl " and , particularly in the UK and in India , " screech owl " , refers to the piercing calls of these birds . The latter name is also applied to a different group of birds , the screech @-@ owls in the genus Megascops .
The ashy @-@ faced owl ( T. glaucops ) was for some time included in T. alba , and by some authors its populations from the Lesser Antilles still are . Based on DNA evidence , König , Weick & Becking ( 2009 ) recognised the American Barn Owl ( T. furcata ) and the Curaçao Barn Owl ( T. bargei ) as separate species . They also proposed that T. a. delicatula should be split off as a separate species , to be known as the eastern barn owl , which would include the subspecies T. d. sumbaensis , T. d. meeki , T. d. crassirostris and T. d. interposita . However , the International Ornithological Committee has doubts about this and states that the split of Tyto delicatula from T. alba " may need to be revisited " . Some island subspecies are occasionally treated as distinct species , a move which should await further research into barn owl phylogeography . According to Bruce in the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn @-@ owls to Hummingbirds , " a review of the whole group [ is ] long overdue " . Molecular analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows a separation of the species into two clades , an Old World alba and a New World furcata , but this study did not include T. a. delicatula which the authors seem to have accepted as a separate species . A high amount of genetic variation was also found between the Indonesian T. a. stertens and other members of the alba clade .
The barn owl has a wider distribution than any other species of owl . Many subspecies have been proposed over the years but several are generally considered to be intergrades between more distinct populations . Twenty to thirty are usually recognised , varying mainly in body proportions , size and colour . Island forms are mostly smaller than mainland ones , and those inhabiting forests have darker plumage and shorter wings than those occurring in open grasslands . Barn owls range in colour from the almost beige @-@ and @-@ white nominate subspecies , erlangeri and niveicauda , to the nearly black @-@ and @-@ brown contempta .
In the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn @-@ owls to Hummingbirds , the following subspecies are listed :
= = Description = =
The barn owl is a medium @-@ sized , pale @-@ coloured owl with long wings and a short , squarish tail . There is considerable size variation across the subspecies with a typical specimen measuring about 33 to 39 cm ( 13 to 15 in ) in overall length , with a wingspan of some 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) . Adult body mass is also variable with male owls from the Galapagos weighing 260 g ( 9 @.@ 2 oz ) while male Pacific barn owls average 555 g ( 19 @.@ 6 oz ) . In general , owls living on small islands are smaller and lighter , perhaps because they have a higher dependence on insect prey and need to be more manoeuvrable . The shape of the tail is a means of distinguishing the barn owl from typical owls when seen in the air . Other distinguishing features are the undulating flight pattern and the dangling , feathered legs . The pale face with its heart shape and black eyes give the flying bird a distinctive appearance , like a flat mask with oversized , oblique black eyeslits , the ridge of feathers above the beak somewhat resembling a nose .
The bird 's head and upper body typically vary between pale brown and some shade of grey ( especially on the forehead and back ) in most subspecies . Some are purer , richer brown instead , and all have fine black @-@ and @-@ white speckles except on the remiges and rectrices ( main wing feathers ) , which are light brown with darker bands . The heart @-@ shaped face is usually bright white , but in some subspecies it is brown . The underparts , including the tarsometatarsal ( lower leg ) feathers , vary from white to reddish buff among the subspecies , and are either mostly unpatterned or bear a varying number of tiny blackish @-@ brown speckles . It has been found that at least in the continental European populations , females with more spotting are healthier than plainer birds . This does not hold true for European males by contrast , where the spotting varies according to subspecies . The beak varies from pale horn to dark buff , corresponding to the general plumage hue , and the iris is blackish brown . The talons , like the beak , vary in colour , ranging from pink to dark pinkish @-@ grey and the talons are black .
On average within any one population , males tend to have fewer spots on the underside and are paler in colour than females . The latter are also larger with a strong female T. alba of a large subspecies weighing over 550 g ( 19 @.@ 4 oz ) , while males are typically about 10 % lighter . Nestlings are covered in white down , but the heart @-@ shaped facial disk becomes visible soon after hatching .
Contrary to popular belief , the barn owl does not hoot ( such calls are made by typical owls , like the tawny owl or other members of the genus Strix ) . It instead produces the characteristic shree scream , ear @-@ shattering at close range , an eerie , long @-@ drawn @-@ out shriek . Males in courtship give a shrill twitter . Both young and old can hiss like a snake to scare away intruders . Other sounds produced include a purring chirrup denoting pleasure , and a " kee @-@ yak " , which resembles one of the vocalisations of the tawny owl . When captured or cornered , the barn owl throws itself on its back and flails with sharp @-@ taloned feet , making for an effective defence . In such situations it may emit rasping sounds or clicking snaps , produced probably by the beak but possibly by the tongue .
= = Distribution = =
The barn owl is the most widespread landbird species in the world , occurring in every continent except Antarctica . Its range includes all of Europe ( except Fennoscandia and Malta ) , most of Africa apart from the Sahara , the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia , Australia , many Pacific Islands , and North , Central and South America . In general it is considered to be sedentary , and indeed many individuals , having taken up residence in a particular location , remain there even when better foraging areas nearby become vacant . In the British Isles , the young seem largely to disperse along river corridors and the distance travelled from their natal site averages about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) .
In continental Europe the distance travelled is greater , commonly somewhere between 50 and 100 kilometres ( 31 and 62 mi ) but exceptionally 1 @,@ 500 km ( 932 mi ) , with ringed birds from the Netherlands ending up in Spain and in Ukraine . In the United States , dispersal is typically over distances of 80 and 320 km ( 50 and 199 mi ) , with the most travelled individuals ending up some 1 @,@ 760 km ( 1 @,@ 094 mi ) from the point of origin . Movements in the African continent include 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) from Senegambia to Sierra Leone and up to 579 km ( 360 mi ) within South Africa . In Australia there is some migration as the birds move towards the northern coast in the dry season and southward in the wet , and also nomadic movements in association with rodent plagues . Occasionally , some of these birds turn up on Norfolk Island , Lord Howe Island or New Zealand , showing that crossing the ocean is not beyond their capabilities . In 2008 , barn owls were recorded for the first time breeding in New Zealand . The barn owl has been successfully introduced into the Hawaiian island of Kauai in an attempt to control rodents , however it has been found to also feed on native birds .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Like most owls , the barn owl is nocturnal , relying on its acute sense of hearing when hunting in complete darkness . It often becomes active shortly before dusk and can sometimes be seen during the day when relocating from one roosting site to another . In Britain , on various Pacific Islands and perhaps elsewhere , it sometimes hunts by day . This practice may depend on whether the owl is mobbed by other birds if it emerges in daylight . However , in Britain , some birds continue to hunt by day even when mobbed by such birds as magpies , rooks and black @-@ headed gulls , such diurnal activity possibly occurring when the previous night has been wet making hunting difficult . By contrast , in southern Europe and the tropics , the birds seem to be almost exclusively nocturnal , with the few birds that hunt by day being severely mobbed .
Barn owls are not particularly territorial but have a home range inside which they forage . For males in Scotland this has a radius of about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) from the nest site and an average size of about 300 hectares . Female home ranges largely coincide with that of their mates . Outside the breeding season , males and females usually roost separately , each one having about three favoured sites in which to conceal themselves by day , and which are also visited for short periods during the night . Roosting sites include holes in trees , fissures in cliffs , disused buildings , chimneys and haysheds and are often small in comparison to nesting sites . As the breeding season approaches , the birds move back to the vicinity of the chosen nest to roost .
The barn owl is a bird of open country such as farmland or grassland with some interspersed woodland , usually at altitudes below 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) but occasionally as high as 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in the tropics . This owl prefers to hunt along the edges of woods or in rough grass strips adjoining pasture . It has an effortless wavering flight as it quarters the ground , alert to the sounds made by potential prey . Like most owls , the barn owl flies silently ; tiny serrations on the leading edges of its flight feathers and a hairlike fringe to the trailing edges help to break up the flow of air over the wings , thereby reducing turbulence and the noise that accompanies it . Hairlike extensions to the barbules of its feathers , which give the plumage a soft feel , also minimise noise produced during wingbeats . The behaviour and ecological preferences may differ slightly even among neighbouring subspecies , as shown in the case of the European T. a. guttata and T. a. alba that probably evolved , respectively , in allopatric glacial refugia in southeastern Europe , and in Iberia or southern France .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
The diet of the barn owl has been much studied ; the items consumed can be ascertained from identifying the prey fragments in the pellets of indigestible matter that the bird regurgitates . Studies of diet have been made in most parts of the bird 's range , and in moist temperate areas over 90 % of the prey tends to be small mammals , whereas in hot , dry , unproductive areas , the proportion is lower , and a great variety of other creatures are eaten depending on local abundance . Most prey is terrestrial but bats and birds are also taken , as well as lizards , amphibians and insects . Even when they are plentiful and other prey scarce , earthworms do not seem to be consumed .
In North America and most of Europe , voles predominate in the diet and shrews are the second most common food choice . Mice and rats form the main foodstuffs in the Mediterranean region , the tropics , sub @-@ tropics and Australia . Barn owls are usually more specialist feeders in productive areas and generalists in drier areas . On the Cape Verde Islands , geckos are the mainstay of the diet , supplemented by birds such as plovers , godwits , turnstones , weavers and pratincoles , and on a rocky islet off the coast of California , a clutch of four young were being reared on a diet of Leach 's storm petrel ( Oceanodroma leucorhoa ) . In Ireland , the accidental introduction of the bank vole in the 1950s led to a major shift in the barn owl 's diet : where their ranges overlap , the vole is now by far the largest prey item . Locally superabundant rodent species in the weight class of several grams per individual usually make up the single largest proportion of prey . In the United States , rodents and other small mammals usually make up ninety @-@ five percent of the diet and worldwide , over ninety percent of the prey caught .
The barn owl hunts by flying slowly , quartering the ground and hovering over spots that may conceal prey . It may also use branches , fence posts or other lookouts to scan its surroundings , and this is the main means of prey location in the oil palm plantations of Malaysia . The bird has long , broad wings , enabling it to manoeuvre and turn abruptly . Its legs and toes are long and slender which improves its ability to forage among dense foliage or beneath the snow and gives it a wide spread of talons when attacking prey . Studies have shown that an individual barn owl may eat one or more voles ( or their equivalent ) per night , equivalent to about twenty @-@ three percent of the bird 's bodyweight . Excess food is often cached at roosting sites and can be used when food is scarce .
Small prey is usually torn into chunks and eaten completely including bones and fur , while prey larger than about 100 g ( 4 oz ) , such as baby rabbits , Cryptomys blesmols , or Otomys vlei rats , is usually dismembered and the inedible parts discarded . Contrary to what is sometimes assumed , the barn owl does not eat domestic animals on any sort of regular basis . Regionally , non @-@ rodent foods are used as per availability . On bird @-@ rich islands , a barn owl might include some fifteen to twenty percent of birds in its diet , while in grassland it will gorge itself on swarming termites , or on Orthoptera such as Copiphorinae katydids , Jerusalem crickets ( Stenopelmatidae ) or true crickets ( Gryllidae ) . Bats and even frogs , lizards and snakes may make a minor but significant contribution to the diet ; small Soricomorpha like Suncus shrews may be a secondary prey of major importance .
The barn owl has acute hearing , with ears placed asymmetrically . This improves detection of sound position and distance and the bird does not require sight to hunt . The facial disc plays a part in this process , as is shown by the fact that with the ruff feathers removed , the bird can still locate the source in azimuth but fails to do so in elevation . Hunting nocturnally or crepuscularly , this bird can target its prey and dive to the ground , penetrating its talons through snow , grass or brush to seize small creatures with deadly accuracy . Compared to other owls of similar size , the barn owl has a much higher metabolic rate , requiring relatively more food . Weight for weight , barn owls consume more rodents — often regarded as pests by humans — than possibly any other creature . This makes the barn owl one of the most economically valuable wildlife animals for agriculture . Farmers often find these owls more effective than poison in keeping down rodent pests , and they can encourage barn owl habitation by providing nest sites .
= = = Breeding = = =
Barn owls living in tropical regions can breed at any time of year , but some seasonality in nesting is still evident . Where there are distinct wet and dry seasons , egg @-@ laying usually takes place during the dry season , with increased rodent prey becoming available to the birds as the vegetation dies off . In arid regions , such as parts of Australia , breeding may be irregular and may happen in wet periods , triggered by temporary increases in the populations of small mammals . In temperate climates , nesting seasons become more distinct and there are some seasons of the year when no egg @-@ laying takes place . In Europe and North America , most nesting takes place between March and June when temperatures are increasing . The actual dates of egg @-@ laying vary by year and by location , being correlated with the amount of prey @-@ rich foraging habitat around the nest site and often with the phase of the rodent abundance cycle . An increase in rodent populations will usually stimulate the local barn owls to begin nesting ; thus , even in the cooler parts of its range , two broods are often raised in a good year .
Females are ready to breed at ten to eleven months of age although males sometimes wait till the following year . Barn owls are usually monogamous , sticking to one partner for life unless one of the pair dies . During the non @-@ breeding season they may roost separately , but as the breeding season approaches they return to their established nesting site , showing considerable site fidelity . In colder climates , in harsh weather and where winter food supplies may be scarce , they may roost in farm buildings and in barns between hay bales , but they then run the risk that their selected nesting hole may be taken over by some other , earlier @-@ nesting species . Single males may establish feeding territories , patrolling the hunting areas , occasionally stopping to hover , and perching on lofty eminences where they screech to attract a mate . Where a female has lost her mate but maintained her breeding site , she usually seems to manage to attract a new spouse .
Once a pair @-@ bond has been formed , the male will make short flights at dusk around the nesting and roosting sites and then longer circuits to establish a home range . When he is later joined by the female , there is much chasing , turning and twisting in flight , and frequent screeches , the male 's being high @-@ pitched and tremulous and the female 's lower and harsher . At later stages of courtship , the male emerges at dusk , climbs high into the sky and then swoops back to the vicinity of the female at speed . He then sets off to forage . The female meanwhile sits in an eminent position and preens , returning to the nest a minute or two before the male arrives with food for her . Such feeding behaviour of the female by the male is common , helps build the pair @-@ bond and increases the female 's fitness before egg @-@ laying commences .
Barn owls are cavity nesters . They choose holes in trees , fissures in cliff faces , the large nests of other birds such as the hamerkop ( Scopus umbretta ) and , particularly in Europe and North America , old buildings such as farm sheds and church towers . Buildings are preferred to trees in wetter climates in the British Isles and provide better protection for fledglings from inclement weather . Trees tend to be in open habitats rather than in the middle of woodland and nest holes tend to be higher in North America than in Europe because of possible predation by raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) . No nesting material is used as such but , as the female sits incubating the eggs , she draws in the dry furry material of which her regurgitated pellets are composed , so that by the time the chicks are hatched , they are surrounded by a carpet of shredded pellets . Oftentimes other birds such as jackdaws ( Corvus monedula ) nest in the same hollow tree or building and seem to live harmoniously with the owls .
Before commencing laying , the female spends much time near the nest and is entirely provisioned by the male . Meanwhile , the male roosts nearby and may cache any prey that is surplus to their requirements . When the female has reached peak weight , the male provides a ritual presentation of food and copulation occurs at the nest . The female lays eggs on alternate days and the clutch size averages about five eggs ( range two to nine ) . The eggs are chalky white , somewhat elliptical and about the size of bantam 's eggs , and incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid . While she is sitting on the nest , the male is constantly bringing more provisions and they may pile up beside the female . The incubation period is about thirty days , hatching takes place over a prolonged period and the youngest chick may be several weeks younger than its oldest sibling . In years with plentiful supplies of food , there may be a hatching success rate of about 75 % . The male continues to copulate with the female when he brings food which makes the newly hatched chicks vulnerable to injury .
The chicks are at first covered with greyish @-@ white down and develop rapidly . Within a week they can hold their heads up and shuffle around in the nest . The female tears up the food brought by the male and distributes it to the chicks . Initially these make a " chittering " sound but this soon changes into a food @-@ demanding " snore " . By two weeks old they are already half their adult weight and look naked as the amount of down is insufficient to cover their growing bodies . By three weeks old , quills are starting to push through the skin and the chicks stand , making snoring noises with wings raised and tail stumps waggling , begging for food items which are now given whole . The male is the main provider of food until all the chicks are at least four weeks old at which time the female begins to leave the nest and starts to roost elsewhere . By the sixth week the chicks are as big as the adults but have slimmed down somewhat by the ninth week when they are fully fledged and start leaving the nest briefly themselves . They are still dependent on the parent birds until about thirteen weeks and receive training from the female in finding , and eventually catching , prey .
= = = Moulting = = =
Feathers become abraded over time and all birds need to replace them at intervals . Barn owls are particularly dependent on their ability to fly quietly and manoeuvre efficiently , and in temperate areas their prolonged moult lasts through three phases over a period of two years . The female starts to moult while incubating the eggs and brooding the chicks , a time when the male feeds her so she does not need to fly much . The first primary feather to be shed is the central one , number 6 , and it has regrown completely by the time the female resumes hunting . Feathers 4 , 5 , 7 and 8 are dropped at a similar time the following year and feathers 1 , 2 , 3 , 9 and 10 in the bird 's third year of adulthood . The secondary and tail feathers are lost and replaced over a similar timescale , again starting while incubation is taking place . In the case of the tail , the two outermost tail feathers are first shed followed by the two central ones , the other tail feathers being moulted the following year .
In temperate areas , the male owl moults rather later in the year than the female , at a time when there is an abundance of food , the female has recommenced hunting and the demands of the chicks are lessening . Unmated males without family responsibilities often start losing feathers earlier in the year . The moult follows a similar prolonged pattern to that of the female and the first sign that the male is moulting is often when a tail feather has been dropped at the roost . A consequence of moulting is the loss of thermal insulation . This is of little importance in the tropics and barn owls here usually moult a complete complement of flight feathers annually . The hot @-@ climate moult may still take place over a long period but is usually concentrated at a particular time of year outside the breeding season .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Predators of the barn owl include large American opossums ( Didelphis ) , the common raccoon , and similar carnivorous mammals , as well as eagles , larger hawks and other owls . Among the latter , the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) in the Americas and the Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( B. bubo ) are noted predators of barn owls ( though there is little evidence for predation on wild birds by great horned owls ) . In Europe , the chief diurnal predators are the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and the common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) . The goshawk and the eagle owl are on the increase because of the greater protection these birds now receive .
When disturbed at its roosting site , an angry barn owl lowers its head and sways it from side to side , or the head may be lowered and stretched forward and the wings drooped while the bird emits hisses and makes snapping noises with its beak . A defensive attitude involves lying flat on the ground or crouching with wings spread out .
Barn owls are hosts to a wide range of parasites . Fleas are present at nesting sites and externally the birds are attacked by feather lice and feather mites which chew the barbules of the feathers and which are transferred from bird to bird by direct contact . Blood @-@ sucking flies such as Ornithomyia avicularia are often present , moving about among the plumage . Internal parasites include the fluke Strigea strigis , the tape worm Paruternia candelabraria , several species of parasitic round worm and spiny @-@ headed worms in the genus Centrorhynchus . These gut parasites are acquired when the birds feed on infected prey which provide intermediate hosts for the parasites . There is some indication that female birds with more and larger spots have a greater resistance to external parasites . This is correlated with smaller bursae of Fabricius , glands associated with antibody production , and a lower fecundity of the blood @-@ sucking fly Carnus hemapterus that attacks nestlings .
= = = Lifespan = = =
Unusually for such a medium @-@ sized carnivorous animal , the barn owl exhibits r @-@ selection , producing large number of offspring with a high growth rate , many of which have a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood . While wild barn owls are thus decidedly short @-@ lived , the actual longevity of the species is much higher – captive individuals may reach twenty years of age or more . But occasionally , a wild bird reaches an advanced age . The American record age for a wild barn owl is eleven and a half years , while a Dutch bird was noted to have reached an age of seventeen years , ten months . Another captive barn owl , in England , lived to be over twenty @-@ five years old . Taking into account such extremely long @-@ lived individuals , the average lifespan of the barn owl is about four years , and statistically two @-@ thirds to three @-@ quarters of all adults survive from one year to the next . However , the mortality is not evenly distributed throughout the bird 's life , and only one young in three manages to live to its first breeding attempt .
The most significant cause of death in temperate areas is likely to be starvation , particularly over the autumn and winter period when first year birds are still perfecting their hunting skills . In northern and upland areas , there is some correlation between mortality in older birds and adverse weather , deep @-@ lying snow and prolonged low temperatures . Collision with road vehicles is another cause of mortality , and may result when birds forage on mown verges . Some of these birds are in poor condition and may have been less able to evade oncoming vehicles than fit individuals would have been . Historically , many deaths were caused by the use of pesticides , and this may still be the case in some parts of the world . Collisions with power @-@ lines kill some birds and shooting accounts for others , especially in Mediterranean regions .
= = Status and conservation = =
Barn owls are relatively common throughout most of their range and not considered globally threatened . However , locally severe declines from organochlorine ( e.g. , DDT ) poisoning in the mid @-@ 20th century and rodenticides in the late 20th century have affected some populations , particularly in Europe and North America . Intensification of agricultural practices often means that the rough grassland that provides the best foraging habitat is lost . While barn owls are prolific breeders and able to recover from short @-@ term population decreases , they are not as common in some areas as they used to be . A 1995 – 1997 survey put their British population at between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 breeding pairs , out of an average of about 150 @,@ 000 pairs in the whole of Europe . In the USA , barn owls are listed as endangered species in seven Midwestern states , and in the European Community they are considered a Species of European Concern .
In some areas , it may be an insufficiency of suitable nesting sites that is the factor limiting barn owl numbers . The provision of nest boxes under the eaves of buildings and in other locations can be very successful in increasing the local population . In Malaysia , large areas of rainforest were felled to make way for oil palm plantations and with few tree cavities for breeding , the barn owl population , with its ability to control rodent pests , diminished . The provision of two hundred nest boxes in a trial saw almost one hundred percent occupancy and as the programme expanded , the plantations supported one of the densest barn owl populations in the world . Similarly , providing nesting boxes has increased the number of barn owls in rice @-@ growing areas of Malaysia where the rodents do much damage to the crop . However , although barn owl numbers have increased in both these instances , it is unclear as to how effective this biological control of the rats is as compared to the trapping and baiting that occurred previously .
Common names such as " demon owl " , " death owl " , or " ghost owl " show that traditionally , rural populations in many places considered barn owls to be birds of evil omen . Consequently , they were often persecuted by farmers who were unaware of the benefit these birds bring . The Canary barn owl is particularly at risk , and as late as 1975 , hunting by fearful locals was limiting the population on Fuerteventura where only a few dozen pairs remain . On Lanzarote a somewhat larger number of these birds still seem to exist , but altogether this particular subspecies is precariously rare : Probably less than three hundred and perhaps fewer than two hundred individuals still remain . Similarly , the birds on the western Canary Islands which are usually assigned to the nominate subspecies have declined much , and here wanton destruction seems still to be significant . On Tenerife they seem relatively numerous but on the other islands , the situation looks about as bleak as on Fuerteventura . Due to their assignment to the nominate subspecies , which is common in mainland Spain , the western Canary Islands population is not classified as threatened .
In the United Kingdom , the " Barn Owl Nest Box Scheme " is promoted by the World Owl Trust and has many participants in local areas such as Somerset , where a webcam has been set up inside a nest box in which seven young were reared in 2014 . Another barn owl nest box live @-@ streaming webcam located in California , United States has proved popular online . In May 2012 , it was revealed that farmers in Israel and Jordan had , over a period of ten years , replaced pesticides with barn owls in a joint conservation venture called " Project Barn Owl " .
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= Loch Arkaig treasure =
The treasure of Loch Arkaig , sometimes known as the Jacobite gold , was a large amount of specie provided by Spain to finance the Jacobite rising in Scotland in 1745 , and rumoured still to be hidden at Loch Arkaig in Lochaber .
= = Background = =
In 1745 , Prince Charles Edward Stuart ( Bonnie Prince Charlie ) arrived in Scotland from France and claimed the thrones of Scotland , England and Ireland , in the name of his father James Stuart ( the Old Pretender ) . Although Charles asserted that his venture was supported by Louis XV of France , and that the arrival of French forces in Scotland was imminent , in truth France had little intention to intervene on the Stuarts ' behalf . However , some limited financial support was supplied by both Spain and the Pope .
Spain pledged some 400 @,@ 000 livres ( or Louis d 'Or ) per month for the Jacobite cause . However , getting this money to the rebel army was the difficulty . The first instalment ( sent via Charles ' brother Henry who was resident in France ) was dispatched in 1745 . The French sloop Hazard ( renamed the Prince Charles ) successfully landed its monies on the west coast of Scotland . Unfortunately for the Jacobites , the riches were soon captured by Clan Mackay , who were loyal to King George II , in the Skirmish of Tongue .
= = Treasure arrives = =
In April 1746 , the ships Mars and Bellona arrived in Scotland with 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 livres ( another Spanish instalment , plus a large French supplement ) . However , on learning of the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April , the ships left , unloading only the Spanish money at Loch nan Uamh , Arisaig on 30 April ( the same place from where the prince had disembarked the year before , and would later embark for France ) . Thus , seven caskets of Spanish gold arrived in Scotland . As the Jacobite cause was by then lost , with the army scattered and the prince and his lieutenants in hiding , the money was to be used to assist the Jacobite clansmen ( then being subjected to the brutalities of the government forces of the Duke of Cumberland ) and to facilitate the escape of leading Jacobites to the continent .
Six caskets ( one having been stolen by McDonald of Barrisdale 's men ) were brought to Loch Arkaig ( just north of Fort William ) and hidden . Their secret was entrusted to Murray of Broughton , one of the Jacobite fugitives . Murray began the distribution to clan chiefs , but when he was apprehended by the government ( and later turned state 's evidence ) the treasure was entrusted first to Lochiel , the chief of Clan Cameron , and then to Macpherson of Cluny , head of Clan Macpherson . Cluny was hiding in a cave at Ben Alder , which came to be known as " the cage " , and when Charles briefly joined him there , Cluny had control of the money , which was still hidden at Arkaig .
= = Treasure hunt = =
Charles finally escaped Scotland in the French frigate L 'Heureux and arrived back in France in September 1746 . However , the fate of the money is not as clear . Cluny is believed to have retained control of it , and during his long years as a fugitive was at the centre of various futile plots to finance another uprising . Indeed , he remained in hiding in his Highland " cage " for the next eight years . Meanwhile , a cash @-@ strapped Charles was constantly looking for his money and at least some of it came to him later , paying for the minting of a campaign medal in the 1750s . However , it is said that all of the gold was never recovered . Charles , years later , accused Cluny of embezzlement . Whatever the case , the gold became a source of discord and grievance among the surviving Jacobites .
In 1753 , Archibald Cameron — Lochiel 's brother , who was acting as secretary to the Old Pretender — was sent back to Scotland to locate the treasure . However , whilst staying secretly at Brenachyle by Loch Katrine , he was betrayed ( apparently by the notorious " Pickle " , a Hanoverian spy ) and arrested . He was charged under the Act of Attainder for his part in the 1745 uprising and sentenced to death , being drawn and then hanged on 7 June 1753 , at Tyburn ( the last Jacobite to be executed ) .
The trail then goes cold . However , the Stuarts ' papers ( now in the possession of Queen Elizabeth II ) record a host of claims , counter @-@ claims and accusations among the Highland chiefs and Jacobites in exile , as to the fate of the monies . The historian Andrew Lang ( who was one of the first people to research the papers since Walter Scott secured them for the crown ) recorded , in his book Pickle the Spy ( 1897 ) , the sordid tale , and the involvement of both the prince and his father in trying to locate the monies . The Stuart papers also include an account from around 1750 , drawn up in Rome by Archibald Cameron , which indicates that Cluny had not or could not account for all of it .
According to Clan Cameron records , some French gold coins were found buried in nearby woods in the 1850s .
= = In fiction = =
The " Arkaig treasure " is featured in Nigel Tranter 's historical fiction novel Gold for Prince Charlie .
The missing treasure features in Neil Munro 's novel Children of the Tempest , a love story set in the Outer Hebrides in the late 18th century . Published originally in 1903 , rev.ed 2002 .
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= History of Indiana =
The history of human activity in Indiana , a US state in the Midwest , began with migratory tribes of Native Americans who inhabited Indiana as early as 8000 BC . Tribes succeeded one another in dominance for several thousand years and reached their peak of development during the period of Mississippian culture . The region entered recorded history in the 1670s when the first Europeans came to Indiana and claimed the territory for the Kingdom of France . After France ruled for 100 years ( with little settlement in this area ) , it was defeated by Great Britain in the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) and ceded its territory east of the Mississippi . Britain held the land for more than twenty years , until after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War . At that time , Britain ceded the entire trans @-@ Allegheny region , including what is now Indiana , to the new United States .
The United States government divided the trans @-@ Allegheny region into several new territories . The largest of these was the Northwest Territory , which was progressively divided into several smaller territories by the United States Congress . In 1800 , the Indiana Territory was the first new territory established from a portion of the Northwest Territory . The territory grew in population and development until it was admitted to the Union in 1816 as the nineteenth state , Indiana . Following statehood , the newly established state government laid out on an ambitious plan to transform Indiana from a segment of the frontier into a developed , well populated , and thriving state . The state 's founders initiated a program that led to the construction of roads , canals , railroads , and state @-@ funded public schools . Despite the noble aims of the project , profligate spending ruined the state 's credit . By 1841 the state was near bankruptcy and forced to liquidate most of its public works . By its new constitution of 1851 , it restricted rights of free blacks and excluded them from the suffrage . During the 1850s , the state 's population grew to exceed one million . The ambitious program of its founders was realized as Indiana became the fourth @-@ largest state in terms of population , as measured by the 1860 census .
Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the Union during the American Civil War . Indiana was the first western state to mobilize for the war , and its soldiers participated in almost every engagement during the war . Following the Civil War , Indiana remained politically important as it became a critical swing state in U.S. Presidential elections . It helped decide control of the presidency for three decades . During the Indiana Gas Boom of the late 19th century , industry began to develop rapidly in the state . The state 's Golden Age of Literature began in the same time period , increasing its cultural influence . By the early 20th century , Indiana developed into a strong manufacturing state and attracted numerous immigrants and internal migrants to its industries . It experienced setbacks during the Great Depression of the 1930s . Construction of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway , expansion of the auto industry , urban development , and two wars contributed to the state 's industrial growth . During the second half of the 20th century , Indiana became a leader in the pharmaceutical industry due to the innovations of companies such as Eli Lilly .
= = Early civilizations = =
Following the end of the last glacial period , Indiana 's topography was dominated by spruce and pine forests and was home to mastodon , caribou , and saber @-@ toothed cats . While Northern Indiana had been covered by glaciers , Southern Indiana remained unaltered by the ice 's advance , leaving plants and animals that could sustain human communities . Indiana 's earliest known inhabitants were Paleo @-@ Indians . Evidence exists that humans were in Indiana as early as the Archaic stage ( 8000 – 6000 BC ) . Hunting camps of the nomadic Clovis culture have been found in Indiana . Carbon dating of artifacts found in the Wyandotte Caves of Southern Indiana shows humans mined flint there as early 2000 BC . These nomads ate quantities of freshwater mussels from local streams , as shown by their shell mounds found throughout southern Indiana .
The Early Woodland period in Indiana came between 1000 BC and 200 AD and produced the Adena culture . It domesticated wild squash and made pottery , which were large cultural advances over the Clovis culture . The natives built burial mounds ; one of this type has been dated as the oldest earthwork in Anderson 's Mounds State Park .
Natives in the Middle Woodland period developed the Hopewell culture and may have been in Indiana as early as 200 BC . The Hopewells were the first culture to create permanent settlements in Indiana . About 1 AD , the Hopewells mastered agriculture and grew crops of sunflowers and squash . Around 200 AD , the Hopewells began to construct mounds used for ceremonies and burials . The Hopewells in Indiana were connected by trade to other native tribes as far away as Central America . For unknown reasons , the Hopewell culture went into decline around 400 and completely disappeared by 500 .
The Late Woodland era is generally considered to have begun about 600 AD and lasted until the arrival of Europeans in Indiana . It was a period of rapid cultural change . One of the new developments — which has yet to be explained — was the introduction of masonry , shown by the construction of large , stone forts , many of which overlook the Ohio River . Romantic legend used to attribute the forts to Welsh Indians who supposedly arrived centuries before Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean . Archaeologists and other scholars have found no evidence for that theory and believe that the cultural development was engendered by the Mississippian culture .
= = = Mississippians = = =
Evidence suggests that after the collapse of the Hopewell , Indiana had a low population until the rise of the Fort Ancient and Mississippian culture around 900 AD . The Ohio River Valley was densely populated by the Mississippians from about 1100 to 1450 AD . Their settlements , like those of the Hopewell , were known for their ceremonial earthwork mounds . Some of these remain visible at locations near the Ohio River . The Mississippian mounds were constructed on a grander scale than the mounds built by the Hopewell . The agrarian Mississippian culture was the first to grow maize in the region . The people also developed the bow and arrow and copper working during this time period .
Mississippian society was complex , dense , and highly developed ; the largest Mississippian city of Cahokia ( in Illinois ) contained as many as 30 @,@ 000 inhabitants . They had a class society with certain groups specializing as artisans . The elite held related political and religious positions . Their cities were typically sited near rivers . Representing their cosmology , the central developments were dominated by a large central mound , several smaller mounds , and a large open plaza . Wooden palisades were built later around the complex , apparently for defensive purposes . The remains of a major settlement known as Angel Mounds lie east of present @-@ day Evansville . Mississippian houses were generally square @-@ shaped with plastered walls and thatched roofs . For reasons that remain unclear , the Mississippians disappeared in the middle of the 15th century , about 200 years before the Europeans first entered what would become modern Indiana . Mississippian culture marked the high point of native development in Indiana .
It was during this period that American Bison began a periodic east – west trek through Indiana , crossing the Falls of the Ohio and the Wabash River near modern @-@ day Vincennes . These herds became important to civilizations in southern Indiana and created a well @-@ established Buffalo Trace , later used by European @-@ American pioneers moving west .
Before 1600 , a major war broke out in eastern North America among Native Americans ; it was later called the Beaver Wars . Five American Indian Iroquois tribes confederated to battle against their neighbors . The Iroquois were opposed by a confederation of primarily Algonquian tribes including the Shawnee , Miami , Wea , Pottawatomie , and the Illinois . These tribes were significantly less advanced than the Mississippian culture that had preceded them . The tribes were semi @-@ nomadic , used stone tools rather than copper , and did not create the large @-@ scale construction and farming works of their Mississippian predecessors . The war continued with sporadic fighting for at least a century as the Iroquois sought to dominate the expanding fur trade with the Europeans . They achieved this goal for several decades . During the war , the Iroquois drove the tribes from the Ohio Valley to the south and west . They kept control of the area for hunting grounds .
As a result of the war , several tribes , including the Shawnee , migrated into Indiana , where they attempted to resettle in land belonging to the Miami . The Iroquois gained the military advantage after they were supplied with firearms by the Europeans . With their superior weapons , the Iroquois subjugated at least thirty tribes and nearly destroyed several others in northern Indiana .
= = = European contact = = =
When the first Europeans entered Indiana during the 1670s , the region was in the final years of the Beaver Wars . The French attempted to trade with the Algonquian tribes in Indiana , selling them firearms in exchange for furs . This incurred the wrath of the Iroquois , who destroyed a French outpost in Indiana in retaliation . Appalled by the Iroquois , the French continued to supply the western tribes with firearms and openly allied with the Algonquian tribes . A major battle — and a turning point in the conflict — occurred near modern South Bend when the Miami and their allies repulsed a large Iroquois force in an ambush . With the firearms they received from the French , the odds were evened . The war finally ended in 1701 with the Great Peace of Montreal . Both Indian confederacies were left exhausted , having suffered heavy casualties . Much of Ohio , Michigan and Indiana was left depopulated as many tribes fled west to escape the fighting .
The Miami and Pottawatomie nations returned to Indiana following the war . Other tribes , such as the Algonquian Lenape , were pushed westward into the Midwest from the East Coast by encroachment of European colonists . Around 1770 the Miami invited the Lenape to settle on the White River . The Shawnee arrived in present @-@ day Indiana after the three other nations . These four nations were later to be participants in the Sixty Years ' War , a struggle between native nations and European settlers for control of the Great Lakes region . Hostilities with the tribes began early . The Piankeshaw killed five French fur traders in 1752 near the Vermilion River . But the tribes also traded successfully with the French for decades .
= = Colonial period = =
French fur traders from Canada were the first Europeans to enter Indiana , beginning in the 1670s . The quickest route connecting the New France districts of Canada and Louisiana ran along Indiana 's Wabash River . The Terre Haute highlands were once considered the border between the two French districts . This made Indiana a vital part of French lines of communication and trade routes . The French established Vincennes as a permanent settlement in Indiana during European rule , but the population of the area remained primarily Native American . As French influence grew in the region , Great Britain , competing with France for control of North America , came to believe that control of Indiana was important to halt French expansion on the continent .
= = = France = = =
The first European outpost within modern Indiana was Tassinong , a French trading post established in 1673 near the Kankakee River . French explorer René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle came to the area in 1679 , claiming it for King Louis the XIV of France . La Salle came to explore a portage between the St. Joseph and Kankakee rivers , and Father Ribourde , who traveled with La Salle , marked trees along the way . The marks survived to be photographed in the 19th century . In 1681 , La Salle negotiated a common defense treaty between the Illinois and Miami nations against the Iroquois .
Further exploration of Indiana led to the French establishing an important trade route between Canada and Louisiana via the Maumee and Wabash rivers . The French built a series of forts and outposts in Indiana as a hedge against the westward expansion of the British colonies from the east coast of North America and to encourage trade with the native tribes . The tribes were able to procure metal tools , cooking utensils , and other manufactured items in exchange for animal pelts . The French built Fort Miamis in the Miami town of Kekionga ( modern Fort Wayne , Indiana ) . France assigned Jean Baptiste Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes , as the first agent to the Miami at Kekionga .
In 1717 , François @-@ Marie Picoté de Belestre established the post of Ouiatenon ( modern Lafayette , Indiana ) to discourage the Wea from coming under British influence . In 1732 , François @-@ Marie Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes , established a similar post near the Piankeshaw in the town that still bears his name . Although the forts were garrisoned by men from New France , Fort Vincennes was the only outpost to maintain a permanent European presence until the modern day . Jesuit priests accompanied many of the French soldiers into Indiana in an attempt to convert the natives to Christianity . The Jesuits conducted missionary activities , lived among the natives and learned their languages , and accompanied them on hunts and migrations . Gabriel Marest , one of the first missionaries in Indiana , taught among the Kaskaskia as early as 1712 . The missionaries came to have great influence among the natives and played an important role in keeping the native tribes allied with the French .
During the French and Indian War , the North American front of the Seven Years ' War in Europe , the British directly challenged France for control of the region . Although no pitched battles occurred in Indiana , the native tribes of the region supported the French . At the beginning of the war , the tribes sent large groups of warriors to support the French in resisting the British advance and to raid British colonies . Using Fort Pitt as a forward base , British commander Robert Rogers overcame the native resistance and drove deep into the frontier to capture Fort Detroit . The rangers moved south from Detroit and captured many of the key French outposts in Indiana , including Fort Miamis and Fort Vincennes . As the war progressed , the French lost control of Canada after the fall of Montreal . No longer able to effectively fight the British in interior North America , they lost Indiana to British forces . By 1761 the French were entirely forced out of Indiana . Following the French expulsion , the native tribes , led by Chief Pontiac , confederated in an attempt to rebel against the British without French assistance . While Pontiac was besieging British @-@ held Fort Detroit , other tribes in Indiana rose up against the British . They were forced to surrender Fort Miamis and Fort Ouiatenon . In 1763 , while Pontiac was fighting the British , the French signed the Treaty of Paris and ceded control of Indiana to the British .
= = = Great Britain = = =
When the British gained control of Indiana , the entire region was in the middle of Pontiac 's Rebellion . During the next year , British officials negotiated with the various tribes , splitting them from their alliance with Pontiac . Eventually , Pontiac lost most of his allies , forcing him to make peace with the British on July 25 , 1766 . As a concession to Pontiac , Great Britain issued a proclamation that the territory west of the Appalachian Mountains was to be reserved for Native Americans . Despite the treaty , Pontiac was still considered a threat to British interests , but after he was murdered on April 20 , 1769 , the region saw several years of peace .
After Britain established peace with the natives , many of the former French trading posts and forts in the region were abandoned . Fort Miamis was maintained for several years because it was considered to be " of great importance " , but even it was eventually abandoned . The Jesuit priests were expelled , and no provisional government was established ; the British hoped the French in the area would leave . Many did leave , but the British gradually became more accommodating to the French who remained and continued the fur trade with the Native American nations .
In 1768 , a treaty was negotiated between several of the British colonies and the Iroquois . The Iroquois sold their territorial claims to the colonies as part of the treaty . The company created to hold that claim was named the Indiana Land Company , the first recorded use of the word Indiana . The claim was disputed by the colony of Virginia , which did not participate in the treaty because it already laid claim to the land through its royal charter . In 1773 , the territory of Indiana was brought under the administration of Province of Quebec to appease its French population . The Quebec Act was listed as one of the Intolerable Acts the Thirteen Colonies cited as a reason for the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . The thirteen colonies thought themselves entitled to the territory for their support of Great Britain during the French and Indian War , and were incensed that it was given to the enemy the colonies had been fighting .
Although the United States gained official possession of the region following the conclusion of the American Revolution , British influence on its Native American allies in the region remained strong , especially near Fort Detroit . This influence caused the Northwest Indian War , which began when British @-@ influenced native tribes refused to recognize American authority and were backed in their resistance by British merchants in the area . American military victories in the region and the ratification of the Jay Treaty , which called for British withdrawal from the region 's forts , caused a formal evacuation , but the British were not fully expelled from the area until the conclusion of the War of 1812 .
= = = United States = = =
After the outbreak of the American Revolution , George Rogers Clark was sent from Virginia to enforce its claim to much of the land in the Great Lakes region . In July 1778 , Clark and about 175 men crossed the Ohio River and took control of Kaskaskia , Vincennes , and several other villages in British Indiana . The occupation was accomplished without firing a shot because Clark carried letters from the French ambassador stating that France supported the Americans . These letters made most of the French and Native American inhabitants of the area unwilling to support the British .
The fort at Vincennes , renamed Fort Sackville by the British , had been abandoned years earlier and no garrison was present when the Americans occupied it . Captain Leonard Helm became the first American commandant at Vincennes . To counter Clark 's advance , the British under Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton reoccupied Vincennes with a small force . In February 1779 , Clark arrived at Vincennes in a surprise winter expedition and retook the town , capturing Hamilton in the process . This expedition secured most of southern Indiana for the United States .
In 1780 , emulating Clark 's success at Vincennes , French officer Augustin de La Balme organized a militia force of French residents to capture Fort Detroit . While marching to Detroit , the force stopped to sack Kekionga . The delay proved fatal when the expedition met the warriors of the Miami tribe under Miami Chief Little Turtle along the Eel River , and the entire force was killed or captured . Clark organized another assault on Fort Detroit in 1781 , but it was aborted when Chief Joseph Brant captured a significant part of Clark 's army at a battle known as Lochry 's Defeat , near present @-@ day Aurora , Indiana .
Other minor skirmishes occurred in Indiana , including the battle at Petit Fort in 1780 . In 1783 , when the war came to an end , Britain ceded the entire trans @-@ Allegheny region to the United States — including Indiana — in the peace treaty negotiated in Paris .
Clark 's militia was under the authority of the state of Virginia , and although a continental flag was flown over Fort Sackville , the area was governed as Virginia territory until the state gave it to the United States federal government in 1784 . Clark was awarded large tracts of land in southern Indiana for his service in the war and modern Clark County is named in his honor .
= = Indiana Territory = =
In 1785 , the Northwest Indian War began . In an attempt to end the native rebellion , the Miami town of Kekionga was attacked unsuccessfully by General Josiah Harmar and Northwest Territory Governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair 's Defeat is the worst defeat of the U.S. Army by Native Americans in history , leaving almost the entire army dead or captured . The defeat led to the appointment of General " Mad Anthony " Wayne who organized the Legion of the United States and defeated a Native American force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . In 1795 , the Treaty of Greenville was signed and a small part of eastern Indiana was opened for settlement . Fort Miami at Kekionga was occupied by the United States , who rebuilt it as Fort Wayne . After the treaty , the powerful Miami nation considered themselves allies with the United States . The war ended hostilities with the Native Americans , leaving them victorious in 31 of the 37 recorded incidents involving white settlers during the 18th century .
The Northwest Territory was formed by the Congress of the Confederation on July 13 , 1787 , and included all land between the Appalachian Mountains , the Mississippi River , the Great Lakes and the Ohio River . This single territory became the states of Ohio , Michigan , Indiana , Illinois , Wisconsin , and part of eastern Minnesota . The act established an administration to oversee the territory and had the land surveyed in accordance with The Land Ordinance of 1785 . At the time the territory was created , there were only two American settlements in what would become Indiana : Vincennes and Clark 's Grant . The population of the northwest included fewer than 5 @,@ 000 Europeans . The Native American population was estimated to be near 20 @,@ 000 , but may have been as high as 75 @,@ 000 .
On July 4 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was established out of Northwest Territory in preparation for Ohio 's statehood . The Indiana Land Company , which still held claim to Indiana , had been dissolved by a United States Supreme Court decision in 1798 . The name Indiana meant " Land of the Indians " , and referred to the fact that most of the area north of the Ohio River was still inhabited by Native Americans . ( Kentucky , South of the Ohio River , had been a traditional hunting ground for tribes that resided north of the river , and early American settlers in Kentucky referred to the North bank as the land of the Indians . ) Although the company 's claim was extinguished , Congress used their name for the new territory . The Indiana Territory contained present day Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin and part of Minnesota . Those areas were separated out in 1805 and 1809 . The first Governor of the Territory was William Henry Harrison , who served from 1800 until 1813 . Harrison County was named in honor of Harrison , who later become the ninth President of The United States . He was succeeded by Thomas Posey who served from 1813 until 1816 .
The first capital was established in Vincennes where it remained for thirteen years . After the territory was reorganized in 1809 , the legislature made plans to move the capital to Corydon to be more centralized with the population . Corydon was established in 1808 on land donated by William Henry Harrison . The new capitol building was finished in 1813 and the government quickly relocated following the outbreak of war on the frontier .
As the population of the territory grew , so did the people 's exercising of their freedoms . In 1809 , the territory was granted permission to fully elect its own legislature for the first time . Before that , Governor Harrison appointed the legislature . Although Article 6 of the Northwest Ordinance had prohibited slavery , it had existed in the region since French rule . In addition , settlers from the Upper South occupied areas along the Ohio River , bringing slaves with them . They wanted to have it be legal in the territory , but others from the northern states opposed the expansion of slavery into this region . The anti @-@ slavery party won a strong majority in the first election . Governor Harrison was at odds with the new legislature , which proceeded to overturn the indenturing and pro @-@ slavery laws he had enacted . Slavery remained the defining issue in the state for the decades to follow . In these early decades , although the legislature did not encourage free blacks to settle here , it extended suffrage to them .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The first major event in the territory was the resumption of hostilities with the Indians . Unhappy with their treatment since the peace of 1795 , the native tribes , led by the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa , formed a coalition against the Americans . Tecumseh 's War started in 1811 when General William Henry Harrison led his army to rebuff aggressive movements of Tecumseh 's confederation . The war continued until the Battle of Tippecanoe which firmly ended the Native American uprising and allowed the Americans to take full control of all of Indiana . The Battle earned Harrison national fame , and the nickname " Old Tippecanoe " .
The war between Tecumseh and Harrison merged with the War of 1812 when the remnants of the Indian Confederation allied with the British in Canada . The Siege of Fort Harrison is considered to be the United States ' first land victory during the war . Other battles that occurred in the modern state of Indiana include the Siege of Fort Wayne , the Pigeon Roost Massacre and the Battle of the Mississinewa . The Treaty of Ghent , signed in 1814 , ended the war and relieved American settlers from their fears of the nearby British and their Indian allies . This marked the end of hostilities with the Native Americans in Indiana . Of the 58 recorded incidents between Native Americans and the United States in Indiana during the 19th century , 43 were Indian victories .
= = Statehood = =
In 1812 , Jonathan Jennings defeated Harrison 's chosen candidate and became the territory 's representative to Congress . Jennings immediately introduced legislation to grant Indiana statehood , even though the population of the entire territory was under 25 @,@ 000 , but no action was taken on the legislation because of the outbreak of the War of 1812 .
Posey had created a rift in the politics of the territory by supporting slavery , much to the chagrin of opponents like Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and others who dominated the Territorial Legislature and who sought to use the bid for statehood to permanently end slavery in the territory .
= = = Founding = = =
In early 1816 , the Territory approved a census and Pennington was named to be the census enumerator . The population of the territory was found to be 63 @,@ 897 , above the cutoff required for statehood . A constitutional convention met on June 10 , 1816 , in Corydon . Because of the heat of the season , the delegation moved outdoors on many days and wrote the constitution beneath the shade of a giant elm tree . The state 's first constitution was completed on June 29 , and elections were held in August to fill the offices of the new state government . In November Congress approved statehood .
Jennings and his supporters had control of the convention and Jennings was elected its president . Other notable delegates at the convention included Dennis Pennington , Davis Floyd , and William Hendricks . Pennington and Jennings were at the forefront of the effort to prevent slavery from entering Indiana and sought to create a constitutional ban on it . Pennington was quoted as saying " Let us be on our guard when our convention men are chosen that they be men opposed to slavery " . They succeeded in their goal and a ban was placed in the new constitution . But , persons already held in bondage stayed in that status for some time . That same year Indiana statehood was approved by Congress . While settlers did not want slavery , they also wanted to exclude free blacks , and established barriers to their immigration to the state .
Jonathan Jennings , whose motto was " No slavery in Indiana " , was elected governor of the state , defeating Thomas Posey 5 @,@ 211 to 3 @,@ 934 votes . Jennings served two terms as governor and then went on to represent the state in congress for another 18 years . Upon election , Jennings declared Indiana a free state . The abolitionists won a key victory in the 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case of Polly v. Lasselle ; slavery was finally extinct by 1830 .
As the northern tribal lands gradually opened to white settlement , Indiana 's population rapidly increased and the center of population shifted continually northward . Indianapolis was selected to be the site of the new state capital in 1820 because of its central position within the state . The city founders assumed the White River would serve as a major transportation artery ; however , the waterway was too sandy for navigation . In 1825 , Indianapolis replaced Corydon as the seat of government . The government became established in the Marion County Courthouse as the second state capital building .
= = = Early development = = =
The National Road reached Indianapolis in 1829 , connecting Indiana to the Eastern United States . It was also about this time that citizens of Indiana became known as Hoosiers and the state took on the motto " Crossroads of America " . In 1832 , construction began on the Wabash and Erie Canal , a project connecting the waterways of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River . Railroads soon made the canal system obsolete . These developments in transportation served to economically connect Indiana to the Northern East Coast , rather than relying solely on the natural waterways which connected Indiana to the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast states .
In 1831 , construction on the third state capitol building began . This building , designed by the firm of Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis , had a design inspired by the Greek Parthenon and opened in 1841 . It was the first statehouse that was built and used exclusively by the state government .
The state suffered from financial difficulties during its first three decades . Jonathan Jennings attempted to begin a period of internal improvements . Among his projects , the Indiana Canal Company was reestablished to build a canal around the Falls of the Ohio . The Panic of 1819 caused the state 's only two banks to fold . This hurt Indiana 's credit , halted the projects , and hampered the start of new projects until the 1830s , after the repair of the state 's finances during the terms of William Hendricks and Noah Noble . Beginning in 1831 , large scale plans for statewide improvements were set into motion . Overspending on the internal improvements led to a large deficit that had to be funded by state bonds through the newly created Bank of Indiana and sale of over nine million acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km ² ) of public land . By 1841 the debt had become unmanageable . Having borrowed over $ 13 million , the equivalent to the state 's first fifteen years of tax revenue , the government could not even pay interest on the debt . The state narrowly avoided bankruptcy by negotiating the liquidation of the public works , transferring them to the state 's creditors in exchange for a 50 % reduction in the state 's debt . The internal improvements began under Jennings paid off as the state began to experience rapid population growth that slowly remedied the state 's funding problems . The improvements led to a fourfold increase in land value , and an even larger increase in farm produce .
During the 1840s , Indiana completed the removal of the Native American tribes . The majority of the Potawatomi voluntarily relocated to Kansas in 1838 . Those who did not leave were forced to travel to Kansas in what came to be called the Potawatomi Trail of Death , leaving only the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians in the Indiana area . The majority of the Miami tribe left in 1846 , although many members of the tribe were permitted to remain in the state on lands they held privately under the terms of the 1818 Treaty of St. Mary 's . The other tribes were also convinced to leave the state voluntarily through the payment of subsidies and land grants further west . The Shawnee migrated westward to settle in Missouri , and the Lenape migrated into Canada . The other minor tribes in the state , including the Wea , moved westward , mostly to Kansas .
By the 1850s , Indiana had undergone major changes : what was once a frontier with sparse population had become a developing state with several cities . In 1816 , Indiana 's population was around 65 @,@ 000 , and in less than 50 years , it had increased to more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
Because of the rapidly changing state , the constitution of 1816 began to be criticized . Opponents claimed the constitution had too many appointed positions , the terms established were inadequate , and some of the clauses were too easily manipulated by the political parties that did not exist when then constitution was written . The first constitution had not been put to a vote by the general public , and following the great population growth in the state , it was seen as inadequate . A constitutional convention was called in January 1851 to create a new one . The new constitution was approved by the convention on February 10 , 1851 , and submitted for a vote to the electorate that year . It was approved and has since been the official constitution .
= = = Religion = = =
Frontier Indiana was prime ground missionary for the Second Great Awakening , with a never @-@ ending parade of camp meetings and revivals . Baptist church records show an intense interest in private moral behavior at the weekly meetings , including drinking and proper child @-@ rearing practices . The most contentious issue was antimission controversy , in which the more traditional elements denounced missionary societies as unbiblical .
Eastern Presbyterian and Congregational denominations funded an aggressive missionary program , 1826 – 55 , through the American Home Missionary Society ( AHMS ) . It sought to bring sinners to Christ and also to modernize society promoted middle class values , mutual trust among the members , and tried to minimize violence and drinking . The frontierspeople were the reformees and they displayed their annoyance at the new morality being imposed on society . The political crisis came in 1854 @-@ 55 over a pietistic campaign to enact " dry " prohibition of liquor sales . They were strongly opposed by the " wets , " especially non @-@ churched , the Catholics , Episcopalians , the antimissionary elements , and the German recent arrivals . Prohibition failed in 1855 and the moralistic pietistic Protestants switched to a new , equally moralistic cause , the anti @-@ slavery crusade led by the new Republican Party .
= = Education = =
For a list of institutions , see Category : Universities and colleges in Indiana .
The earliest institutions of education in Indiana were missions , established by French Jesuit priests to convert local Native American nations . The Jefferson Academy was founded in 1801 as a public university for the Indiana Territory , and was reincorporated as Vincennes University in 1806 , the first in the state .
The 1816 constitution required that Indiana 's state legislature create a " general system of education , ascending in a regular gradation , from township schools to a state university , wherein tuition shall be gratis , and equally open to all " . It took several years for the legislature to fulfill its promise , partly because of a debate about whether a new public university should be founded to replace the territorial university . The 1820s saw the start of free public township schools . During the administration of William Hendricks , a plot of ground was set aside in each township for the construction of a schoolhouse .
The state government chartered Indiana University in Bloomington in 1820 as the State Seminary . Construction began in 1822 , the first professor was hired in 1823 , and classes were offered in 1824 .
Other state colleges were established for specialized needs . They included Indiana State University , established in Terre Haute in 1865 as the state normal school for training teachers . Purdue University was founded in 1869 as the state 's land @-@ grant university , a school of science and agriculture . Ball State University was founded as a normal school in the early 20th century and given to the state in 1918 .
Public colleges lagged behind the private religious colleges in both size and educational standards until the 1890s . Asbury College ( now Depauw University ) was Methodist . Wabash College was Presbyterian ; they led the Protestant schools . The University of Notre Dame , founded by Rev Edward Sorin in 1842 , proclaims itself as a prominent Catholic college . Indiana lagged the rest of the Midwest with the lowest literacy and education rates into the early 20th century .
= = Transportation = =
In the early 19th century , most transportation of goods in Indiana was done by river . Most of the state 's estuaries drained into the Wabash River or the Ohio River , ultimately meeting up with the Mississippi River , where goods were transported to and sold in St. Louis or New Orleans .
The first road in the region was the Buffalo Trace , an old bison trail that ran from the Falls of the Ohio to Vincennes . After the capitol was relocated to Corydon , several local roads were created to connect the new capitol to the Ohio River at Mauckport and to New Albany . The first major road in the state was the National Road , a project funded by the federal government . The road entered Indiana in 1829 , connecting Richmond , Indianapolis , and Terre Haute with the eastern states and eventually Illinois and Missouri in the west . The state adopted the advanced methods used to build the national road on a statewide basis and began to build a new road network that was usable year @-@ round . The North @-@ South Michigan Road was built in the 1830s , connecting Michigan and Kentucky and passing through Indianapolis in the middle . These two new roads were roughly perpendicular within the state and served as the foundation for a road system to encompass all of Indiana .
In 1832 , the state began construction on the Wabash and Erie Canal . The canal was started at Lake Erie , passed through Fort Wayne , and connected to the Wabash River . This new canal made water transport possible from New Orleans to Lake Erie on an internal route rather than sailing around the whole of the Eastern United States and entering through Canada . Other canal projects were started , but all were abandoned before completion due to the state 's foundering credit after the devaluation of the bonds .
The first railroad in Indiana was built in Shelbyville in the late 1830s . The first major line was completed in 1847 , connecting Madison with Indianapolis . By the 1850s , the railroad began to become popular in Indiana . The railroad brought major changes to Indiana and enhanced the state 's economic growth . Although Indiana 's natural waterways connected it to the South via cities such as St. Louis and New Orleans , the new rail lines ran East @-@ West , and connected Indiana with the economies of the northern states . As late as mid @-@ 1859 , no rail line yet bridged the Ohio or Mississippi rivers . Because of an increased demand on the state 's resources and the embargo against the Confederacy , the rail system was mostly completed by the end of the American Civil War .
= = Suffrage and racial discrimination = =
Indiana put further restrictions on blacks , prohibiting them from testifying in court in a case against a white man . The new constitution of 1851 expanded suffrage for white males , but excluded blacks from suffrage . While the state did not have legal segregation , it excluded black children from public schools as a matter of custom .
= = = Temperance movement = = =
Temperance became a part of the evangelical Protestant initiative during Indiana 's pioneer era and early statehood . Many Hoosiers freely indulged in drinking locally distilled whiskey on a daily basis , with binges on election days and holidays , and during community celebrations Reformers announced that the devil was at work and must be repudiated . A state temperance society formed in 1829 and local temperance societies soon organized in Indianapolis , Fort Wayne , and Logansport . By the 1830s pietistic ( evangelical ) Protestants and community leaders had joined forces to curb consumption of alcohol . In 1847 the Indiana General Assembly passed a local option bill that allowed a vote on whether to prohibit alcohol sales in a township . The liquor issue pitted wets and drys in stable uncompromising coalitions that formed a main theme of Hoosier politics into the 1930s .
By the 1850s Indiana 's Republican party , whose adherents tended to favor the temperance movement , began challenging the state 's Democrats , who supported personal freedom and a limited federal government , for political power . Early temperance legislation in Indiana earned only limited and temporary success . In 1853 Republicans persuaded the state legislature to pass a local option law that would allow township voters to declare their township dry , but it was later deemed unconstitutional . In 1855 a statewide prohibition law was passed , but it met the same fate as the local option . In the decades to come Protestant churches , especially the Methodists , Baptists , Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , Quakers , and women 's groups would continue to support temperance efforts and gave strong support to the mostly dry Republican Party . The Catholics , Episcopalians and Lutherans stood opposed and gave strong support to the wet Democratic Party .
= = Civil War = =
Indiana , a free state and the boyhood home of Abraham Lincoln , remained a member of the Union during the American Civil War . Indiana regiments were involved in all the major engagements of the war and almost all the engagements in the western theater . Hoosiers were present in the first and last battles of the war . During the war , Indiana provided 126 infantry regiments , 26 batteries of artillery , and 13 regiments of cavalry to the cause of the Union .
In the initial call to arms issued in 1861 , Indiana was assigned a quota of 7 @,@ 500 men — a tenth of the amount called — to join the Union Army in putting down the rebellion . So many volunteered in the first call that thousands had to be turned away . Before the war ended , Indiana contributed 208 @,@ 367 men to fight and serve in the war . Casualties were over 35 % among these men : 24 @,@ 416 lost their lives in the conflict and over 50 @,@ 000 more were wounded .
At the outbreak of the war , Indiana was run by a Democratic and southern sympathetic majority in the state legislature . It was by the actions of Governor Oliver Morton , who illegally borrowed millions of dollars to finance the army , that Indiana could contribute so greatly to the war effort . Morton suppressed the state legislature with the help of the Republican minority to prevent it from assembling during 1861 and 1862 . This prevented any chance the Democrats might have had to interfere with the war effort or to attempt to secede from the Union .
= = = Raids = = =
Two raids on Indiana soil during the war caused a brief panic in Indianapolis and southern Indiana . The Newburgh Raid on July 18 , 1862 , occurred when Confederate officer Adam Johnson briefly captured Newburgh by convincing the Union troops garrisoning the town that he had cannon on the surrounding hills , when in fact they were merely camouflaged stovepipes . The raid convinced the federal government that it was necessary to supply Indiana with a permanent force of regular Union Army soldiers to counter future raids .
The most significant Civil War battle fought in Indiana was a small skirmish during Morgan 's Raid . On the morning of July 9 , 1863 , Morgan attempted to cross the Ohio River into Indiana with his force of 2 @,@ 400 Confederate cavalry . After his crossing was briefly contested , he marched north to Corydon where he fought the Indiana Legion in the short Battle of Corydon . Morgan took command of the heights south of Corydon and shot two shells from his batteries into the town , which promptly surrendered . The battle left 15 dead and 40 wounded . Morgan 's main body of troopers briefly raided New Salisbury , Crandall , Palmyra , and Salem . Fear gripped the capitol , and the militia began to form there to contest Morgan 's advance . After Salem , however , Morgan turned east , raiding and skirmishing along this path and leaving Indiana through West Harrison on July 13 into Ohio , where he was captured .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The Civil War had a major effect on the development of Indiana . Before the war , the population was generally in the south of the state , where many had entered via the Ohio River , which provided a cheap and convenient means to export products and agriculture to New Orleans to be sold . The war closed the Mississippi River to traffic for nearly four years , forcing Indiana to find other means to export its produce . This led to a population shift to the north where the state came to rely more on the Great Lakes and the railroad for exports .
Before the war , New Albany was the largest city in the state , mainly because of its river contacts and extensive trade with the South . Over half of Hoosiers with over $ 100 @,@ 000 lived in New Albany . During the war , the trade with the South came to a halt , and many residents considered those of New Albany as too friendly to the South . The city never regained its stature . It was stilled as a city of 40 @,@ 000 with its early @-@ Victorian Mansion @-@ Row buildings remaining from the boom period .
= = Post @-@ Civil War era = =
= = = Economic growth = = =
Ohio River ports had been stifled by an embargo on the Confederate South and never fully recovered their economic prominence , leading the south into an economic decline . By contrast , northern Indiana experienced an economic boom when natural gas was discovered in the 1880s , which directly contributed to the rapid growth of cities such as Gas City , Hartford City , and Muncie where a glass industry developed to utilize the cheap fuel . The Indiana gas field was then the largest known in the world . The boom lasted until the early 20th century , when the gas supplies ran low . This began northern Indiana 's industrialization .
The development of heavy industry attracted thousands of European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , as well as internal migrants , both black and white , from the rural and small town South . These developments dramatically altered the demographics of the state . Indiana industrial cities were among the destinations of the Great Migration . After World War II , industrial restructuring and the shifts in heavy industry resulted in Indiana 's becoming part of the Rust Belt .
In 1876 , chemist Eli Lilly , a Union colonel during the Civil War , founded Eli Lilly and Company , a pharmaceutical company . His initial innovation of gelatin @-@ coating for pills led to a rapid growth of the company that eventually developed as Indiana 's largest corporation , and one of the largest corporations in the world . Over the years , the corporation developed many widely used drugs , including insulin , and it became the first company to mass @-@ produce penicillin . The company 's many advances made Indiana the leading state in the production and development of medicines .
Charles Conn returned to Elkhart after the Civil War and established C.G. Conn Ltd . , a manufacturer of musical instruments . The company 's innovation in band instruments made Elkhart an important center of the music world , and it became a base of Elkhart 's economy for decades . Nearby South Bend experienced continued growth following the Civil War , and became a large manufacturing city centered around the Oliver Farm Equipment Company , the nation 's leading plow producer . Gary was founded in 1906 by the United States Steel Corporation as the home for its new plant .
The administration of Governor James D. Williams proposed the construction of the fourth state capitol building in 1878 . The third state capitol building was razed and the new one was constructed on the same site . Two million dollars was appropriated for construction and the new building was completed in 1888 . The building was still in use in 2008 .
The Panic of 1893 had a severely negative effect on the Hoosier economy when many factories closed and several railroads declared bankruptcy . The Pullman Strike of 1894 hurt the Chicago area and coal miners in southern Indiana participated in a national strike . Hard times were not limited to industry ; farmers also felt a financial pinch from falling prices . The economy began to recover when World War I broke out in Europe , creating a higher demand for American goods . Despite economic setbacks , advances in industrial technology continued throughout the last years of the 19th and into the 20th century . On July 4 , 1894 , Elwood Haynes successfully road tested his first automobile , and opened the Haynes @-@ Apperson auto company in 1896 . In 1895 , William Johnson invented a process for casting aluminum .
= = = Political battleground = = =
During the postwar era , Indiana became a critical swing state that often helped decide which party controlled the presidency . Elections were very close , and became the center of frenzied attention with many parades , speeches and rallies as election day approached ; voter turnout ranging over 90 % to near 100 % in such elections as 1888 and 1896 . In remote areas , both sides paid their supporters to vote , and occasionally paid supporters of the opposition not to vote . Despite allegations , historians have found very little fraud in national elections .
To win the electoral vote , both national parties looked for Indiana candidates for the national tickets ; a Hoosier was included in all but one presidential election between 1880 and 1924 .
In 1888 , Indiana Senator Benjamin Harrison , grandson of territorial Governor William Henry Harrison , was elected President after an intense battle that attracted more than 300 @,@ 000 partisans to Indianapolis to hear him speak from his famous front porch . Fort Benjamin Harrison was named in his honor . Five Hoosiers were elected as Vice @-@ President . The most recent was Dan Quayle , elected in 1988 .
= = = High culture = = =
The last decades of the 19th century began what is known as the " golden age of Indiana literature " , a period that lasted until the 1920s . Edward Eggleston wrote The Hoosier Schoolmaster ( 1871 ) , the first best seller to originate in the state . Many other followed , including Maurice Thompson 's Hoosier Mosaics ( 1875 ) , and Lew Wallace 's Ben @-@ Hur ( 1880 ) . Indiana developed a reputation as the " American heartland " following several widely read novels beginning with Booth Tarkington 's The Gentleman from Indiana ( 1899 ) , Meredith Nicholson 's The Hoosiers ( 1900 ) , and Thompson 's second famous novel , Alice of Old Vincennes ( 1900 ) . James Whitcomb Riley , known as the " Hoosier Poet " and the most popular poet of his age , wrote hundreds of poems celebrating Hoosier themes , including Little Orphant Annie . A unique art culture also began developing in the late 19th century , beginning the Hoosier School of landscape painting and the Richmond Group of impressionist painters . The painters were known for their use of vivid colors and artists including T. C. Steele , whose work was influenced by the colorful hills of southern Indiana . Prominent musicians and composers from Indiana also reached national acclaim during the time , including Paul Dresser whose most popular song , " On the Banks of the Wabash , Far Away " , was later adopted as the official state song .
= = = Prohibition and woman suffrage = = =
By the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , prohibition and woman suffrage had become the major reform issues in the state . Although supporters and their opponents closely linked the two movements , temperance received a broader hearing than the efforts toward equal suffrage . While the congregations of Protestant churches in Indiana supported temperance , few provided a forum for discussions on women 's voting rights .
The drive for woman suffrage began in the 1870s , and was sponsored by the leaders of the prohibition movement , especially the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) . The Indiana chapter of the WCTU was formed in 1874 with Zerelda G. Wallace as its first president . The Indiana branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association was re @-@ established in 1869 . In 1878 May Wright Sewall founded the Indianapolis Equal Suffrage Society , and fought for world peace before the nation plunged into World War I. Several Indiana women also became temperance leaders and took an active role in the movement .
The first major effort to give women the right to vote in all non @-@ federal elections attempted to amend the state constitution . It passed by both houses of the state legislature in 1881 ; however , the bill failed to pass in the next legislative session in 1883 as state law required . Temperance efforts fared little better . In 1881 the Indiana chapter of the WCTU , along with organizations participating in the Indiana Grand Council of Temperance , successfully lobbied the Indiana General Assembly to pass an amendment to the state constitution to prohibit the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in the state , but the Indiana Liquor League and a Democratic majority in the state legislature killed the bill in the legislative session in 1883 . Following these legislative defeats woman suffrage and prohibition became sensitive issues in local politics as the Democrats rallied the opposition . In German strongholds such as Fort Wayne , opposition to prohibition and woman suffrage was strong until World War I. As one historian notes , " within German workingclass family traditions , women in particular were sharply defined in terms of family responsibilities . Suffrage and women 's rights ran counter to deep social and religious traditions that placed women in a subservient relationship to men . " Renewed interest in woman suffrage did not occur until the end of the century , while prohibition crusaders continued to press for legislative action .
To gain political power in favor of prohibition legislation , a state Prohibition Party was formed in 1884 ; however , it was never able to effectively mobilize a significant force of voters within the state . Many temperance advocates continued to work within the more established political parties . One legislative success occurred in 1895 , when the state legislature passed the Nicholson law , a local option law authored by S. E. Nicholson , a Quaker minister who served in the state legislature and was a leader of the national Anti @-@ Saloon League . The League became a political powerhouse , mobilizing pietistic Protestant voters ( that is , members of the major denominations except Lutherans and Episcopalians ) to support dry legislation . The Nicholson law allowed voters in a city or township to file a remonstrance that would prevent an individual saloon owner from acquiring a liquor license . Additional legislative efforts to extend the Nicholson law and achieve statewide prohibition in Indiana would not occur until the early twentieth century .
In May , 1906 , in Kokomo , a meeting was called to try to revive the defunct Indiana suffragist movement . An Indiana Auxiliary of the National American Woman Suffrage Association was formed and officers were elected . The officers included : Sarah Davis , President ; Laura Schofield , first vice @-@ president ; Anna Dunn Noland , second vice @-@ president ; Mrs. E. M. Wood , secretary ; Marion Harvie Barnard , treasurer ; and Jane Pond and Judge Samuel Artman , auditors .
= = = High profile crime = = =
Hoosiers were fascinated with crime and criminals . Some historians have argued that the popularity of bandits and their exploits in robbing banks and getting away with murder derived from working class resentment against the excesses of the Gilded Age . A group of brothers from Seymour , who had served in the Civil War , formed the Reno Gang , the first outlaw gang in the United States . The Reno Gang , named for the brothers , terrorized Indiana and the region for several years . They were responsible for the first train robbery in the United States which occurred near Seymour in 1866 . Their actions inspired a host of other outlaw gangs who copied their work , beginning several decades of high @-@ profile train robberies . Pursued by detectives from the Pinkerton Detective Agency , most of the gang was captured in 1868 and lynched by vigilantes . Other notorious Hoosiers also flourished in the post @-@ war years , including Belle Gunness , an infamous " black widow " serial killer . She killed more than twenty people , most of them men , between 1881 and her own murder in 1908 .
In response to the Reno Gang and other criminals , several white cap groups began operating in the state , primarily in the southern counties . They began carrying out lynchings against suspected criminals , leading the state to attempt to crack down on their practices . By the turn of the 20th century , they had become so notorious that anti @-@ lynching laws were passed and in one incident the governor called out the militia to protect a prisoner . When the white caps showed up to lynch him , the militia opened fire , killing one and wounding eleven . Vigilante activity decreased following the incident , and remained low until the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s .
Crime stories grabbed the headlines in the 1920s and 1930s . After Prohibition took effect in 1920 until its demise in 1933 , it opened up a financial bonanza for criminal activity , especially underground bootlegging and the smuggling of liquor into Chicago , Gary , South Bend , Fort Wayne , Indianapolis , Evansville and other thirsty cities . Enforcement was haphazard ; the Anti @-@ Saloon League was more of a lobbying agency and never rallied community support for enforcement . The KKK called for punishment of bootleggers and set up the " Horse Thief Detective Association " ( HTDA ) to make extra @-@ legal raids on speakeasies and gambling joints . It seldom cooperated with law enforcement or the state or federal courts . Instead gave enforcement a bad name . Arthur Gillom , a Republican elected state attorney general over Klan opposition in 1924 , did not tolerate its extra @-@ legal operations . Instead , " He stressed the dangers of citizens relinquishing their constitutional rights and personal freedoms , and emphasized the importance of representative government ( at all levels ) , states ' rights , and the concept of separation of church and state . " When Rev. Shumaker proposed that " personal liberty had to be sacrificed in order to save people , " Gilliom replied that surrendering power and individual freedoms was a slippery slope to centralized government and tyranny .
John Dillinger , a native of Indianapolis , began his streak of bank robberies in Indiana and the Midwest during the 1920s . He was in prison 1924 to 1933 . After a return to crime , Dillinger was returned to prison the same year , but escaped with the help of his gang . His gang was responsible for multiple murders and the theft of over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Dillinger was killed by the FBI in a shootout in Chicago in 1934 .
= = Twentieth century = =
= = = Economic modernization = = =
Although industry was rapidly expanding throughout the northern part of the state , Indiana remained largely rural at the turn of the 20th century with a growing population of 2 @.@ 5 million . Like much of the rest of the American Midwest , Indiana 's exports and job providers remained largely agricultural until after World War I. Indiana 's developing industry , backed by inexpensive natural gas from the large Trenton Gas Field , an educated population , low taxes , easy access to transportation , and business @-@ friendly government , led Indiana to grow into one of the leading manufacturing states by the mid @-@ 1920s .
The state 's central location gave it an dense network of railroads . The line most identified with the state was the Monon Line . It provided passenger service for students en route to Purdue , Indiana U. and numerous small colleges , painted its cars in school colors , and was especially popular on football weekends . The Monon was merged into larger lines in 1971 , closed its passenger service , and lost its identity . Entrepreneurs built an elaborate " interurban " network of light rails to connect rural areas to shopping opportunities in the cities . They began operation in 1892 , and by 1908 there were 2 @,@ 300 miles of track in 62 counties . The automobile made the lines unprofitable unless the destinaction was Chicago . By 2001 the " South Shore " was the last one ; it still operating from South Bend to Chicago .
In 1907 , Indiana became the first state to adopt eugenics legislation , that allowed the involuntary sterilization of dangerous male criminals and the mentally defectives . It was never put in effect and in 1921 Indiana became the first state to rule such legislation unconstitutional when the Supreme Court of Indiana acted . A revised eugenics law was passed in 1927 , and it remained in effect until 1974 .
The Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex was built in 1909 , inaugurating a new era in history . Most Indiana cities within 200 miles of Detroit became part of the giant automobile industry after 1910 . The Indianapolis speedway was a venue for auto companies to show off their products . The Indianapolis 500 quickly became the standard in auto racing as European and American companies competed to build the fastest automobile and win at the track . Industrial and technological industries thrived during this era , George Kingston developed an early carburetor in 1902 ; in 1912 , Elwood Haynes received a patent for stainless steel .
= = = Statewide prohibition = = =
In the first two decades of the twentieth century the Indiana Anti @-@ Saloon League ( IASL ) , formed in 1898 as a state auxiliary of the national Anti @-@ Saloon League , and the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union successfully organized pressure on Indiana politicians , especially members of the Republican party , to support the dry cause . The IASL , although not the first organization to take up the dry crusade in Indiana , became a key force behind efforts at attaining passage of statewide prohibition in early 1917 , and rallied state support for ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1919 . The IASL 's success , under the leadership of Edward S. Shumaker , an ordained Methodist minister , made it a model for the League 's other state organizations . Shumaker made clear to politicians he did not care whether they drank , but insisted they vote for dry laws or face defeated in the next election by dry voters .
In 1905 passage of the Moore amendment expanded the state 's Nicholson local option law to apply to all liquor license applicants within a local township or city ward . The next step was to seek countywide prohibition . The IASL appealed to the general public , holding large rallies in Indianapolis and elsewhere , to support a county option law that would provide a more restrictive ban on alcohol . In September 1908 Indiana governor J. Frank Hanly , a Methodist , Republican , and teetotaler , called for a special legislative session to establish a county option that would allow county voters to prohibit alcohol sales throughout their county . The state legislature passed the bill with only a narrow margin . By November 1909 seventy of Indiana 's ninety @-@ two counties were dry . In 1911 a Democratic legislative majority replaced the county option with the Proctor law , a less @-@ geographically restrictive local option , and the number of dry counties was reduced to twenty @-@ six . Despite the setback prohibition advocates continued to lobby legislators for support . In December 1917 several temperance organizations formed the Indiana Dry Federation to fight the politically powerful liquor interests , with the IASL joining the group a short time later . The Federation and the League vigorously campaigned for statewide prohibition , which the Indiana General Assembly adopted in February 1917 . Subsequent legal challenges delayed implementation of statewide prohibition until 1918 , when a court ruled in June that Indiana 's prohibition law was constitutionally valid .
On January 14 , 1919 , Indiana became the twenty @-@ fifth state to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment , which mandated nationwide prohibition . Three days later Nebraska became the thirty @-@ sixth state to ratify the amendment , providing the two @-@ thirds majority of states required to amend the U.S. Constitution . With the beginning of nationwide Prohibition on January 17 , 1920 , after formal ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment the previous day , efforts turned to enforcement of the new law . Protestant support for Prohibition remained intense in Indiana in the 1920s . Shumaker and the IASL lead a statewide grassroots campaign that successfully passed a new prohibition law for the state . Sponsored by Indiana representative Frank Wright and known as the Wright bone @-@ dry law , it was enacted in 1925 . The Wright law was part of a national trend toward stricter prohibition legislation and imposed severe penalties for alcohol possession .
The Great Depression and the election of Democratic party candidates in 1932 ended widespread national support for Prohibition . Franklin D. Roosevelt , who included repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment as a major issue of his presidential campaign in 1932 , made good on his promise to American voters . On December 5 , 1933 , the Twenty @-@ first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and ended nationwide Prohibition . However , Indiana 's legislature continued to regulate alcohol within the state through allocation of state liquor licenses and prohibition of sales on Sunday .
= = = Women 's activism = = =
Middle @-@ class Indiana women learned organizational skills through the suffrage and temperance movements . By the 1890s they were applying their new skills to the needs of their home communities , by organizing women 's clubs , the combined literary activity with social activism focused on such needs as public health , sanitation , and good schools . The women increasingly learn to focus their energies on obtainable objectives through specialized local organizations . In Lafayette , for example , the suffragists concentrated in the Lafayette Franchise League , while those oriented toward social concerns worked through the Lafayette Charity Organization Society ( LCOS ) , the Free Kindergarten and Industrial School Association ( FKISA ) , and the Martha Home .
Middle class black women activists were organized through their Baptist and Methodist churches , and under the leadership of Hallie Quinn Brown formed a statewide umbrella group , the Indiana Association of Colored Women 's Clubs . They sponsored 56 clubs in 46 cities in the state , with 2000 members by 1933 , and a budget of over $ 20 @,@ 000 . Most members were public school teachers or hairdressers , as well as women active and local business in the black community , and in government positions . They affiliated with the National Federation of Afro @-@ American Women , headed by Mrs. Booker T. Washington , and became part of her husband 's powerful network of black activists . One of the most prominent member in Indiana was Madame C. J. Walker of Indianapolis , who owned a nationally successful business selling beauty and hair products for black women . Club meetings focused on home @-@ making classes , research and statistics regarding the status of blacks in Indiana and nationwide , suffrage , and anti @-@ lynching activism . The local clubs operated rescue missions , nursery schools , and educational programs .
= = = Floods = = =
Between March 23 and March 27 , 1913 , Indiana and more than a dozen other states experienced major flooding during the Great Flood of 1913 ; it was Indiana 's worst flood disaster up to that time . The weather system that created the unprecedented flooding arrived in Indiana on Sunday , March 23 , with a major tornado at Terre Haute . In four days , rainfall topped nine inches in southern Indiana , more than half of it falling within a twenty @-@ four @-@ hour period on March 25 . Heavy rains , runoff , and rising rivers resulted in extensive flooding in northeast , central , and southern Indiana . Indiana 's flood @-@ related deaths were estimated at 100 to 200 , with flood damage estimated at $ 25 million ( in 1913 dollars ) . State and local communities handled their own disaster response and relief . The American Red Cross , still a small organization at that time , established a temporary headquarters in Indianapolis and served the six hardest @-@ hit Indiana counties . Indiana governor Samuel M. Ralston appealed to Indiana cities and other states for relief assistance and appointed a trustee to receive relief funds and arrange for distribution of supplies . Independent organizations , such as the Rotary Club of Indianapolis and others , helped with local relief efforts .
= = = World War I = = =
Hoosiers were divided about entering World War I. Before Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and tried to enlist Mexico as a military ally in 1917 , most Hoosiers wanted the U.S. to be neutral in the war . Support for Britain came from professions and businessmen . Opposition came from churchmen , women , farmers and Irish Catholics and German @-@ American elements . They called for neutrality and strongly opposed going to war to rescue the British Empire . Influential Hoosiers who opposed involvement in the war included Democratic Senator John W. Kern , and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall . Supporters of military preparedness included James Whitcomb Riley and George Ade . Most of the opposition dissipated when the United States officially declared war against Germany in April 1917 , but some teachers lost their jobs on suspicion of disloyalty , and public schools could no longer teach in German . Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs , from Terre Haute , went to federal prison for encouraging young men to evade the draft .
The Indiana National Guard was federalized during WWI ; many units were sent to Europe . A separate organization , the Liberty Guard , had been formed in 1910 , primarily for social purposes : members marched in parades and at patriotic events . Governor Samuel Ralston had to call out the Liberty Guard in November 1913 to put down a growing workers strike in Indianapolis . By 1920 , the state decided to formalize this group , renaming it the Indiana Civil Defense Force and supplying it with equipment and training . In 1941 , the unit was named the Indiana Guard Reserve ; it effectively became a state militia . During World War II , it was again federalized and members were called up by the federal government .
Indiana provided 130 @,@ 670 troops during the war ; a majority of them were drafted . Over 3 @,@ 000 men died , many from influenza and pneumonia . To honor the Hoosier veterans of the war , the state began construction of the Indiana World War Memorial .
= = = Twenties and the Great Depression = = =
The war @-@ time economy provided a boom to Indiana 's industry and agriculture , which led to more urbanization throughout the 1920s . By 1925 , more workers were employed in industry than in agriculture in Indiana . Indiana 's greatest industries were steel production , iron , automobiles , and railroad cars .
Scandal erupted across the state in 1925 when it was discovered that over half the seats in the General Assembly were controlled by the Indiana Ku Klux Klan , including members of three political parties . The Klan pushed an anti @-@ Catholic legislative agenda , including a ban on parochial education . During the 1925 General Assembly session , Grand Dragon D. C. Stephenson boasted , " I am the law in Indiana . " Stephenson was convicted for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer that year and sentenced to life in prison . After Governor Edward L. Jackson , whom Stephenson helped elect , refused to pardon him , Stephenson began to name many of his co @-@ conspirators . This led the state 's making a string of arrests and indictments against political leaders , including the governor , mayor of Indianapolis , the attorney general , and many others . The crackdown effectively rendered the Klan powerless .
During the 1930s , Indiana , like the rest of the nation , was affected by the Great Depression . The economic downturn had a wide @-@ ranging negative impact on Indiana . Urbanization declined . Governor Paul V. McNutt 's administration struggled to build from scratch a state @-@ funded welfare system to help the overwhelmed private charities . During his administration , spending and taxes were cut drastically in response to the Depression . The state government was completely reorganized . McNutt also enacted the state 's first income tax . On several occasions , he declared martial law to put an end to worker strikes .
During the Great Depression , unemployment exceeded 25 % statewide . Southern Indiana was hard hit , and unemployment topped 50 % during the worst years . The federal Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) began operations in Indiana in July 1935 . By October of that year , the agency had put 74 @,@ 708 Hoosiers to work . In 1940 , there were still 64 @,@ 700 people working for agency . The majority of these workers were employed to improve the state 's infrastructure : roads , bridges , flood control projects , and water treatment plants . Some helped index collections of libraries , and artists were employed to create murals for post offices and libraries . Nearly every community had a project to work on .
During the 1930s , many local businesses collapsed , several railroads went bankrupt , and numerous small rural banks folded . Manufacturing came to an abrupt halt or was severely cut back due the dwindling demand for products . The Depression continued to negatively affect Indiana until the buildup for World War II . The effects continued to be felt for many years thereafter .
= = = World War II = = =
The economy began to recover in 1933 , but unemployment remained high among youth and older workers until 1940 , when the federal government built up supplies and armaments going into World War II .
Indiana participated in the mobilization of the nation 's economy and resources . Domestically , the state produced munitions in an army plant near Sellersburg . The P @-@ 47 fighter @-@ plane was manufactured in Evansville at Republic Aviation . The steel produced in northern Indiana was used in tanks , battleships , and submarines . Other war @-@ related materials were produced throughout the state . Indiana 's military bases were activated , with areas such as Camp Atterbury reaching historical peaks in activity .
The population was highly supportive of the war efforts . The political left supported the war ( unlike World War I , which Socialists opposed . ) The churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914 . The Church of God , based in Anderson , had a strong pacifist element , reaching a high point in the late 1930s . The Church regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked . Anti @-@ Communist sentiment has since kept strong pacifism from developing in the Church of God . Likewise the Quakers , with a strong base near Richmond , generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90 % served , although there were some conscientious objectors . The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism , but the federal government was much less hostile than before . The churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation . Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs . Although the young women pacifists were not liable to the draft , they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism ; many worked in mental hospitals .
The state sent nearly 400 @,@ 000 Hoosiers who enlisted or were drafted . More than 11 @,@ 783 Hoosiers died in the conflict and another 17 @,@ 000 were wounded . Hoosiers served in all the major theaters of the war . Their sacrifice was honored by additions to the World War Memorial in Indianapolis , which was not finished until 1965 .
Tens of thousands of women volunteered for war service , through agencies such as the Red Cross . Representative was Elizabeth Richardson of Mishawaka . She served coffee and doughnuts to combat soldiers in England and France from a Red Cross clubmobile . She died in a plane crash in 1945 in France .
= = 21st century = =
Central Indiana was struck by a major flood in 2008 , leading to widespread damage and the evacuations of hundreds of thousands of residents . It was the costliest disaster in the history of the state , with early damage estimates topping $ 1 billion .
In 2012 , Indiana 's exports totaled US $ 34 @.@ 4 billion , a record high for the state . The rate of export growth in 2012 was faster in Indiana than it was for the Nation .
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= Mongol siege of Kaifeng =
In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng from 1232 to 1233 , the Mongol Empire captured Kaifeng , the capital of the Jurchen Jin dynasty . The Mongols and Jurchens had been at war for nearly two decades , beginning in 1211 after the Jurchens refused the Mongol offer to submit as a vassal . Ögedei Khan sent two armies to besiege Kaifeng , one led by himself , and the other by his brother Tolui . Command of the forces , once they converged into a single army , was given to Subutai who led the siege . The Mongols arrived at the walls of Kaifeng on April 8 , 1232 .
The siege deprived the city of resources , and its residents were beset with famine and disease . Jurchen soldiers defended the city with fire lances and bombs of gunpowder , killing many Mongols and severely injuring others . The Jurchens tried to arrange a peace treaty , but the assassination of a Mongol diplomat foiled their efforts . Emperor Aizong , the Jurchen emperor , fled the city for the town of Caizhou . The city was placed under the command of General Cui Li , who executed the emperor 's loyalists and promptly surrendered to the Mongols . The Mongols captured Kaifeng on February 26 , 1233 , and looted the city . The dynasty fell two years later after the suicide of Aizong and the capture of Caizhou in 1234 .
= = Background = =
Genghis Khan was declared Khaghan in 1206 . The Mongols had united under his leadership , and defeated the rival tribes of the steppes . In the same period , China was divided into three separate states . In the north , the Jurchen Jin dynasty controlled Manchuria and all of China north of the Huai River . The Tangut Western Xia ruled parts of the western China , while the Song Dynasty reigned over the south . The Mongols subjugated Western Xia in 1210 . In that same year , the Mongols renounced their vassalage to the Jin . Hostilities between the Jin and Mongols had been building up . The Mongols coveted the prosperity of Jurchen territory . They may have also harbored a grudge against the Jin for assassinating Ambaghai , one of Genghis ' predecessors , and for the Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's rude behavior to Genghis when Wanyan Yongji was still a Jurchen prince .
The Mongols learned that a famine had struck the Jin , and invaded in 1211 . Two armies were dispatched by the Mongols into Jurchen territory , with one under the command of Genghis . The Jin built up its armies and reinforced its cities in preparation for the Mongol incursion . The Mongol strategy was based on capturing small settlements and ignoring the fortifications of major cities . They looted the land and retreated in 1212 . The Mongols returned the next year and besieged Zhongdu , the capital of the Jin , in 1213 . The Mongols were not able to penetrate the walls of the city in the Battle of Zhongdu , but intimidated the Jin emperor into paying tribute . They withdrew in 1214 . Later in the year , fearing another siege , the Jin moved their capital from Zhongdu to Kaifeng . The Mongols besieged Zhongdu once more in 1215 once they learned that the Jin court had fled from the city . The city fell on May 31 , and by 1216 , large swaths of Jin territory were under Mongol control .
Meanwhile , the Jin had been afflicted by multiple revolts . In Manchuria , the Khitans , under the leadership of Yelü Liuge , declared their independence from the Jin and allied with the Mongols . Yelü was enthroned a puppet ruler subordinate to the Mongols in 1213 , and given the title emperor of the Liao Dynasty . The Jurchen expedition sent against him commanded by Puxian Wannu was not successful . Wannu , realizing the Jin dynasty was on the verge of collapse , rebelled and declared himself king of Dazhen in 1215 . Further south , rebellions had broken out in Shandong beginning with Yang Anguo 's revolt in 1214 . The rebels were known as Red Coats , from the color of the uniforms they wore starting in 1215 . After the fall of Zhongdu in 1215 , the Mongols downsized their war effort against the Jin , and shifted their resources in preparation for the invasion of Central Asia . The Jurchens tried to make up for their territorial losses to the Mongols by invading the Song in 1217 . The invasion was fruitless , so the Jin wanted to negotiate for peace , but the Song rebuffed the offers . By 1218 , Jurchen diplomats were prohibited from traveling to the Song . The Mongol war against the Jurchens had subsided , but not stopped , and went on through the early 1220s under the command of the general Muqali . Muqali died from sickness in 1223 , and the Mongol campaigns against the Jin wound down . The Jin settled for peace with the Song , but the Song continued to assist the Red Coats insurgency against the Jin . Genghis Khan fell ill and died in 1227 . Ögedei was his successor , and he renewed the war against the Jin in 1230 .
= = Siege of Kaifeng = =
Two Mongol armies were dispatched in 1230 to capture the Jin capital of Kaifeng , then named Bian . The plans were to have one army approach the city from the north , while the second attacked from the south . Ögedei Khan headed the army based in Shanxi and his brother Tolui commanded the army stationed in Shaanxi . An illness incapacitated Ögedei and Tolui , and they relinquished their roles in the campaign . Ögedei later regained his health , but Tolui died the next year . Subutai led the combined Mongol forces once the two armies converged in late 1231 and early 1232 . The Mongols reached the Yellow River on January 28 , 1232 , and began amassing around Kaifeng on February 6 . They besieged the city on April 8 .
The Jurchens tried to end the siege by negotiating a peace treaty . There was some progress towards an agreement in the summer of 1232 , but the assassination of the Mongol diplomat Tang Qing and his entourage by the Jurchens made further talks impossible . The Jin grew desperate . They had enlisted most of the available men in the empire to either defend Kaifeng or fight against the Mongols on the front lines . While the negotiations were ongoing , a plague was devastating the population of the city . Starvation was rampant . The supplies stored in Kaifeng were running out , even with what had been forcibly seized from people . The city 's political disintegration created unfounded fears that there was an internal threat . Several residents of the city were executed on the suspicion that they were traitors .
The defense of the city did not collapse immediately . The Jin held out for months before the city fell . The Jurchen emperor was afforded the opportunity to escape in late 1232 , and departed with a retinue of court officials . He left the governance of the city to the General Cui Li and moved to the city of Guide in Henan on February 26 , 1233 , then Caizhou on August 3 . The retreat of the emperor was ruinous to the morale of the soldiers defending the city . In the wake of the emperor 's departure , Cui ordered the execution of those loyal to the emperor who had remained in the city . He realized that prolonging the siege was suicidal , and offered to surrender to the Mongols . Cui opened the gates of Kaifeng and the Mongols were let into the city . He was later killed outside of battle in a personal dispute , for insulting the wife of someone under his command .
The Mongols looted the city when it fell , but atypical to most sieges in the time period , they permitted trade . The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies . Male members of the royal family residing in the city were captured and executed .
= = Military technology = =
Historian Herbert Franke observed in his assessment of the battle that the siege is significant for historians of military technology . Many of the details of the siege are known to historians , based on a comprehensive account of the battle compiled by a Jin official living in the besieged city . The Jurchens fired explosives , propelled by trebuchets , at the opposing army . A contemporaneous record of the battle recounts the process by which the bombs were launched . First , a soldier ignited the fuse . The rope of the trebuchet was pulled , launching the bomb into the air . The bomb produced a large explosion the moment it landed , inflicting damage that could penetrate armor . The explosion sometimes sparked a fire on the grass of the battlefield , which could burn a soldier to death , even if he survived the initial blast . The bombs were more primitive than modern explosives , and occasionally they would fail to detonate or detonated too early . Mongol soldiers counteracted the bombs by digging trenches leading up to the city , which they covered with shielding made of cowhide , to protect from the explosives fired overhead . The Jurchen official reports , in a translation provided by historian Stephen Turnbull :
Therefore the Mongol soldiers made cowhide shields to cover their approach trenches and men beneath the walls , and dug as it were niches , each large enough to contain a man , hoping that in this way the troops above would not be able to do anything about it . But someone suggested the technique of lowering the thunder crash bombs on iron chains . When these reached the trenches where the Mongols were making their dugouts , the bombs were set off , with the result that the cowhide and the attacking soldiers were all blown to bits , and not even a trace being left behind .
The infantry of the Jin were armed with fire lances . The fire lance was a spear , with a tube of gunpowder attached to it . The mixture contained , besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur , charcoal , and saltpeter , ground porcelain and iron filings . The flame that shot from the lance reached a distance of three meters . The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jurchen soldiers in battle . Once the gunpowder was consumed , the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear , or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder .
The bombs and fire lances of the Jin were the only two weapons of the Jurchens that the Mongols were wary of facing . The Jurchen deployment of gunpowder was extensive , but it is not certain if the Mongols had acquired gunpowder from the Jurchens before this point . Herbert Franke maintains that gunpowder was in the arsenal of both combatants , but Turnbull believes that only the Jurchens made use of it . The Mongols loaded their catapults with large stones or bombs of gunpowder , which were fired at the Jin fortifications . The barrage inflicted casualties in the city and had a psychological impact on the soldiers operating the Jurchen trebuchets .
= = Historical significance = =
The siege of Kaifeng crippled the Jin dynasty , but did not destroy it . The penultimate emperor of the dynasty , Emperor Aizong , had evaded capture , but was left destitute after the siege . He sent his diplomats to entreat the neighboring Song Dynasty for help . They warned that the Mongols would invade the Song once the Jin fell , and requested supplies from the Song . The Song refused the offer . The Song , who had fought multiple wars against the Jin , resented the Jurchens for their conquest of northern China decades earlier . Instead of aiding the Jin , the Song allied with the Mongols . They cooperated militarily and captured the last of the cities still controlled by the Jin . In December 1233 , the Mongols besieged Caizhou , where Aizong had fled to from Kaifeng . The emperor was unable to escape the town under siege , and resorted to suicide . On February 9 , 1234 , the Mongols broke through the defenses of Caizhou . Emperor Mo , Emperor Aizong 's intended successor , resided in the same town and was killed in battle soon after . His reign lasted less than two days , from February 9 to his death in February 10 . The Jin dynasty ended with the fall of Caizhou .
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= Rymdkapsel =
Rymdkapsel is a 2013 minimalist real @-@ time strategy video game by indie developer Grapefrukt , the studio of Martin Jonasson . Players build a space station using tetromino pieces while managing resources and minions , defending against attacks , and extending the base towards four monoliths at the edges of the level . The game was built over a year and a half and was inspired by the base @-@ building aspects of the Command & Conquer series . It was Jonasson 's first full game as an indie developer . Rymdkapsel was released on May 7 , 2013 for PlayStation Mobile , and was later ported to iOS , Android , Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux . Reviewers gave the game generally favorable reviews , where they appreciated its simplicity and challenge , but not its brevity and slow start .
= = Gameplay = =
Players build a space station on a flat plane using tetromino @-@ shaped floors that represent rooms . Rectangular workers generate the resources to build more spaces by working in these rooms . The workers occasionally must defend the base against attackers , who come in waves of increasing difficulty . The player can have the workers research four TMA @-@ 1 @-@ style monoliths for additional shield , speed , and generator upgrades . Rooms are used for special purposes : mineral mining ( extractors ) , growing food ( gardens ) , cooking it ( kitchens ) , making workers ( quarters ) , and creating power ( reactors ) . The goal is to flourish and protect the station 's inhabitants , but there are three concrete objectives : research all four monoliths , survive 28 waves , and research all monoliths in under 45 minutes . The game ends if all workers are killed . There is a tutorial , but no story . The player is not specifically told about the endgame goals .
= = Development = =
In 2012 , Grapefrukt developer Martin Jonasson began to make a space station game that considered what he found enjoyable and least stressful about real @-@ time strategy games . The game coalesced as he revised and removed features over the course of its year and a half of development . Rymdkapsel was written in Haxe , a programming language similar to ActionScript 3 that let Jonasson use the same code base for iOS , Android , and PC releases . He had used the language for years and had been making games for 20 years , primarily with Adobe Flash . Jonasson left his web development job in 2010 to " go indie " , and Rymdkapsel was his " first full @-@ time game " . The game 's name translates as " space capsule " in the Swedish language , which Jonasson liked as a title for its uniqueness and foreign overtones , though he acknowledged that the name was difficult for English speakers and made the game hard to find in the App Store .
He began the game after the 2012 Game Developers Conference as a weeklong diversion from another project , and slowly iterated into a full version . Jonasson started to prototype a game about a space station with a hull breach that releases the station 's occupants into outer space . Within a day , he built a feature where players could build the station using tetromino blocks . He liked this direction better than the hull breach , and abandoned the latter idea by the end of prototyping . He built the room construction mechanics within a day , and to make the construction more challenging , later added three different resources to be spent towards room construction . When the resources did not " look as interesting " as he wanted , he added minions to defend the station . The minions — shown as small white boxes — have retained their original design . It is an example of the minimalist design theme that pervades the work . Jonasson has said that he kept the artificial intelligence " a bit stupid on purpose " ( doing things such as stealing food intended for other minions ) because he found their actions " a bit adorable " . He otherwise removed the features he felt were not vital to the game . Jonasson then added " conflict " to the game by putting the minions in danger of being removed .
Jonasson 's game design was inspired by real @-@ time strategy game Command & Conquer , where he enjoyed managing his home base but not attacking the enemy . He designed the game to last 45 minutes , which he felt to be a proper length , whereupon the difficulty ramps up to require station defense over base construction . He felt that it was reasonable to reach all four monoliths within that time to be ready for the endgame sequence , and that the limit made players expand outwards rather than keeping the station small and easy to defend . The sole map is hand @-@ balanced , which made him reluctant to fulfill player requests to randomize it . He also considered adding a " zen " mode , which would pressure the player less . The music was composed by Niklas Ström .
The game was released on May 7 , 2013 for PlayStation Vita and PlayStation Mobile . It was later included as a prize for completing " quests " in a Sony E3 2013 promotion . It is available on Android via the PlayStation Mobile app . The iOS and Android releases were released on July 25 , 2013 . Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux versions were released on January 30 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Critics compared Rymdkapsel 's gameplay to Tetris and SimCity . Of its visual style , The New York Times published that the game makes others in the real @-@ time strategy genre " feel needlessly garnished " . Reviewers generally appreciated the game 's simplicity and challenge , but not its brevity and slow start . IGN 's Steve Watts thought that the game made too many " design concessions " to its minimalism , though he considered the style " gorgeous " , and felt that he was never fully in control of his base . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell said that the game 's minimalism extended to its core gameplay , where the player should strive to " play the game less and less " . Joseph Leray of TouchArcade described the game 's balance and pacing as " impeccable " . He gave Rymdkapsel a perfect score and wrote that it felt as if it were custom @-@ made for iOS . Bryan Vore of Game Informer criticized the game 's lack of features and thought that it " fizzled out with no fanfare " as a " creative " idea but without sufficient " polish " . The Verge 's Trent Wolbe called the soundtrack " a minimalist achievement " . Jonasson announced that the game had sold 200 @,@ 000 copies as of December 2 , 2013 , due in large part to its inclusion in a Humble Bundle sale .
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= Beefsteak ( banquet ) =
A beefsteak is a type of banquet in which sliced beef tenderloin is served to diners as all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat finger food . The dining style originated in 19th @-@ century New York City as a type of working @-@ class celebration but went into a decline in the mid @-@ 20th century . Resurrected by caterers in New Jersey , the beefsteak banquet style is now popular in that state 's Bergen and Passaic counties , and is enjoying a revival in New York City , where the style originated , due to the reemergence of a biannual beefsteak in Brooklyn .
= = Origins = =
Beefsteak banquets originated among the working class of New York City in the mid @-@ 1800s as celebratory meals or " testimonials " . The meal would generally be set up by an organization wishing to laud or raise money for politicians , newly promoted friends , or celebrities . Tammany Hall regularly threw beefsteaks as political fundraisers , often enough that it was a large portion of beefsteak business in New York and " when Tammany Hall [ got ] a setback , beefsteaks [ got ] a setback " . Sophie Tucker and Bill Robinson had beefsteaks thrown for them in the 1930s .
Early beefsteaks were held in a relaxed , men @-@ only atmosphere , with diners sitting on crates and eating with their fingers off of rough , improvised tables in saloons , rental halls , or residential basements . Food and drink were the focus of the evening , and entertainment often consisted simply of those present telling stories and singing amongst themselves . Brass bands were sometimes hired .
= = = Early organization = = =
Though the centerpiece of beefsteak culture was indisputably the frenzied consumption of beef and beer , with diners eating with their fingers and drinking with abandon , serving styles varied . 1930s @-@ era beefsteaks could be grouped into two styles , referred to by Joseph Mitchell in a 1939 The New Yorker article as " East Side " and " West Side " and roughly corresponding to the geographic separation of New York City into the same @-@ named areas . Each group claimed to Mitchell to have originated beefsteak banquets and to have the most authentic serving and eating styles .
" East Side " beefsteaks were largely patronized by the working @-@ class and immigrants , and the center of the East Side beefsteak world was at First Avenue and Nineteenth Street in Manhattan . East Side beefsteaks were heavily meat @-@ centered , with courses consisting of items like sliced beef short loin , beef kidneys , and ground beef trimmings ( referred to as " hamburgers " ) . One East Side beefsteak was reported to have consisted of " 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) of steak , 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) of lamb chops , 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) of hamburger and 1 @,@ 300 pounds ( 590 kg ) of kidneys wrapped with bacon . "
" West Side " beefsteaks , on the other hand , were often thrown at " gentlemen @-@ only " establishments centered on Eleventh Avenue and 23rd Street . West Side beefsteaks tended more toward expansive menus , with courses including crab meat , lamb chops , and baked potatoes to go along with the beef loin . Diners at West Side beefsteaks were allowed to use disposable forks for some courses , but were expected to eat the beef course with their fingers .
= = = Dining style = = =
Both schools of thought in New York agreed that eating with one 's fingers and not being afraid to get messy were integral to the culture of the beefsteak . No matter which type of beefsteak a diner attended , the main course was beef loin dipped in butter @-@ based sauce and served thinly sliced on rounds of bread ( day @-@ old bread , at East Side beefsteaks ; fresh toast , at West Side ) . Napkins were considered unnecessary ; diners generally wore aprons with which they could wipe the grease off their hands . Food was dispatched from the kitchen laid out on trays and waiters continued bringing out trays until diners could literally eat no more ( In his New Yorker article , Joseph Mitchell quotes one man as saying , " I 'm so full I 'm about to pop . Push those kidneys a little nearer , if you don 't mind . " ) . Beer flowed freely during banquets in pre @-@ prohibition years .
= = Evolution = =
With the passing of the 18th and 19th amendments to the U.S. Constitution , in 1919 and 1920 , respectively , the traditional men @-@ only , beer @-@ soaked format of the beefsteak began to change . Politicians began including newly enfranchised women voters in their beefsteak banquets after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment , and with the attendance of women came corresponding social niceties . Cocktails , popularized by illicit drinkers during Prohibition , replaced pitchers of beer , and " fruit cups [ , ] and fancy salads " were soon added to beefsteak menus . Orchestras were hired in place of old @-@ fashioned brass bands and storytellers , and the long @-@ forbidden knives and forks began to appear on beefsteak tables . By the 1930s , according to Joseph Mitchell , beefsteaks were no longer the manly , messy affairs they had once been ; they were now closer to formal meals in which beef and bread happened to feature heavily . The cheerful gluttony of the past was tempered by female sensibilities ; " women , " Mitchell reported , " do not esteem a glutton , and at a contemporary beefsteak it is unusual for a man to do away with more than six pounds of meat and thirty glasses of beer . "
In 1938 , " Hap " Nightingale , a butcher in Clifton , New Jersey , began catering parties in his area according to the old @-@ time beefsteak formula . He offered a set , all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat menu of French fries and sliced beef tenderloin on bread . His business thrived locally , and the company has since been passed down through ensuing generations of Nightingales , all of whom continued to adhere to the tried @-@ and @-@ true formula .
= = Current practice = =
The modern beefsteak banquet hews fairly closely to the early @-@ 1900s model , although the expansive selections found at an old @-@ fashioned " West Side " beefsteak have been tapered down to beef , fried potatoes , and tossed salad . Butter is sometimes replaced by margarine , and a pasta course makes an occasional appearance , but attendees at beefsteaks still expect to be fed mostly abundant quantities of beef tenderloin . Modern beefsteak attendees often follow an unspoken protocol to leave their bread slices uneaten . Piling them up in front of one 's plate instead of consuming them " saves valuable stomach capacity for more beef while simultaneously serving as an informal scorekeeping system " .
= = Modern distribution = =
Beefsteak banquets have largely vanished from New York City , where they originated , but remain widespread in Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey . The institution is now almost entirely limited to these areas , save for a popular biannual beefsteak held in Brooklyn ; while residents of Bergen and Passaic counties consider them an ingrained part of regional culture and regularly stage beefsteak fundraisers ( caterers interviewed in a New York Times article stated that they " put on about 1 @,@ 000 of them in the region [ in 2007 ] " ) , across the county line in Essex County , for example , they remain nearly unheard of .
Regis High School ( a Jesuit school on the Upper East Side ) hosts an annual alumni affair ( Jug Night ) featuring traditional East Side beefsteak fare .
Political fundraiser beefsteak banquets are no longer common in New Jersey ; beefsteaks now usually raise money for fire departments , policemen 's benevolent associations , and other charitable organizations . Nostalgia for beefsteaks among foodies continues , and gourmet beefsteaks are sometimes staged by New York @-@ area restaurants .
Since 2009 , two Wesleyan University graduates , Andrew Dermont and Derek Silverman , have thrown a biannual " beefsteak for beefsteak 's sake " in Brooklyn , to revive the tradition of the beefsteak banquet in its place of origin , New York City .
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= Fermium =
Fermium is a synthetic element with symbol Fm and atomic number 100 . It is a member of the actinide series . It is the heaviest element that can be formed by neutron bombardment of lighter elements , and hence the last element that can be prepared in macroscopic quantities , although pure fermium metal has not yet been prepared . A total of 19 isotopes are known , with 257Fm being the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days .
It was discovered in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952 , and named after Enrico Fermi , one of the pioneers of nuclear physics . Its chemistry is typical for the late actinides , with a preponderance of the + 3 oxidation state but also an accessible + 2 oxidation state . Owing to the small amounts of produced fermium and all of its isotopes having relatively short half @-@ lives , there are currently no uses for it outside of basic scientific research .
= = Discovery = =
Fermium was first discovered in the fallout from the ' Ivy Mike ' nuclear test ( 1 November 1952 ) , the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb . Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium , 244
94Pu : this could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium @-@ 238 nucleus followed by two β − decays . At the time , the absorption of neutrons by a heavy nucleus was thought to be a rare process , but the identification of 244
94Pu raised the possibility that still more neutrons could have been absorbed by the uranium nuclei , leading to new elements .
Element 99 ( einsteinium ) was quickly discovered on filter papers which had been flown through the cloud from the explosion ( the same sampling technique that had been used to discover 244
94Pu ) . It was then identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co @-@ workers at the University of California at Berkeley . They discovered the isotope 253Es ( half @-@ life 20 @.@ 5 days ) that was made by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium @-@ 238 nuclei – which then underwent seven successive beta decays :
<formula>
Some 238U atoms , however , could capture another amount of neutrons ( most likely , 16 or 17 ) .
The discovery of fermium ( Z |
= 100 ) required more material , as the yield was expected to be at least an order of magnitude lower than that of element 99 , and so contaminated coral from the Enewetak atoll ( where the test had taken place ) was shipped to the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California , for processing and analysis . About two months after the test , a new component was isolated emitting high @-@ energy α @-@ particles ( 7 @.@ 1 MeV ) with a half @-@ life of about a day . With such a short half @-@ life , it could only arise from the β − decay of an isotope of einsteinium , and so had to be an isotope of the new element 100 : it was quickly identified as 255Fm ( t =
20 @.@ 07 ( 7 ) hours ) .
The discovery of the new elements , and the new data on neutron capture , was initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions . Nevertheless , the Berkeley team were able to prepare elements 99 and 100 by civilian means , through the neutron bombardment of plutonium @-@ 239 , and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements . The ' Ivy Mike ' studies were declassified and published in 1955 .
The Berkeley team had been worried that another group might discover lighter isotopes of element 100 through ion bombardment techniques before they could publish their classified research , and this proved to be the case . A group at the Nobel Institute for Physics in Stockholm independently discovered the element , producing an isotope later confirmed to be 250Fm ( t1 / 2 = 30 minutes ) by bombarding a 238
92U target with oxygen @-@ 16 ions , and published their work in May 1954 . Nevertheless , the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized , and with it the prerogative to name the new element in honour of the recently deceased Enrico Fermi , the developer of the first artificial self @-@ sustained nuclear reactor .
= = Isotopes = =
There are 19 isotopes of fermium listed in NUBASE 2003 , with atomic weights of 242 to 260 , of which 257Fm is the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days . 253Fm has a half @-@ life of 3 days , while 251Fm of 5 @.@ 3 h , 252Fm of 25 @.@ 4 h , 254Fm of 3 @.@ 2 h , 255Fm of 20 @.@ 1 h , and 256Fm of 2 @.@ 6 hours . All the remaining ones have half @-@ lives ranging from 30 minutes to less than a millisecond . The neutron @-@ capture product of fermium @-@ 257 , 258Fm , undergoes spontaneous fission with a half @-@ life of just 370 ( 14 ) microseconds ; 259Fm and 260Fm are also unstable with respect to spontaneous fission ( t1 / 2 = 1 @.@ 5 ( 3 ) s and 4 ms respectively ) . This means that neutron capture cannot be used to create nuclides with a mass number greater than 257 , unless carried out in a nuclear explosion . As 257Fm is an α @-@ emitter , decaying to 253Cf , and no fermium isotopes undergo beta minus decay ( which would produce isotopes of the next element , mendelevium ) , fermium is also the last element that can be prepared by a neutron @-@ capture process .
= = Production = =
Fermium is produced by the bombardment of lighter actinides with neutrons in a nuclear reactor . Fermium @-@ 257 is the heaviest isotope that is obtained via neutron capture , and can only be produced in nanogram quantities . The major source is the 85 MW High Flux Isotope Reactor ( HFIR ) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee , USA , which is dedicated to the production of transcurium ( Z > 96 ) elements . In a " typical processing campaign " at Oak Ridge , tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium , milligram quantities of berkelium and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium . However , nanogram and microgram quantities of fermium can be prepared for specific experiments . The quantities of fermium produced in 20 – 200 kiloton thermonuclear explosions is believed to be of the order of milligrams , although it is mixed in with a huge quantity of debris ; 40 picograms of 257Fm was recovered from 10 kilograms of debris from the ' Hutch ' test ( 16 July 1969 ) .
After production , the fermium must be separated from other actinides and from lanthanoid fission products . This is usually achieved by ion exchange chromatography , with the standard process using a cation exchanger such as Dowex 50 or TEVA eluted with a solution of ammonium α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate . Smaller cations form more stable complexes with the α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate anion , and so are preferentially eluted from the column . A rapid fractional crystallization method has also been described .
Although the most stable isotope of fermium is 257Fm , with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days , most studies are conducted on 255Fm ( t1 / 2 |
= 20 @.@ 07 ( 7 ) hours ) as this isotope can be easily isolated as required as the decay product of 255Es ( t1 / 2 =
39 @.@ 8 ( 12 ) days ) .
= = Synthesis in nuclear explosions = =
The analysis of the debris at the 10 @-@ megaton Ivy Mike nuclear test was a part of long @-@ term project , one of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high @-@ power nuclear explosions . The motivation for these experiments was as follows : synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture . The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux , and nuclear explosions are the most powerful neutron sources , providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons / cm2 within a microsecond , i.e. about 1029 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . In comparison , the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 × 1015 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris , as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the U.S. The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis , as soon as possible , from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests . Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium , those were not found after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll .
The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site , as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes . Apart from traditional uranium charges , combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried , as well as a mixed plutonium @-@ neptunium charge . They were less successful in terms of yield that was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy @-@ element charges . Isolation of the products was found to be rather problematic , as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing rocks under the great depth of 300 – 600 meters , and drilling to such depth in order to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes .
Among the nine underground tests , which were carried between 1962 and 1969 and codenamed Anacostia ( 5 @.@ 2 kilotons , 1962 ) , Kennebec ( < 5 kilotons , 1963 ) , Par ( 38 , kilotons , 1964 ) , Barbel ( < 20 kilotons , 1964 ) , Tweed ( < 20 kilotons , 1965 ) , Cyclamen ( 13 kilotons , 1966 ) , Kankakee ( 20 @-@ 200 kilotons , 1966 ) , Vulcan ( 25 kilotons , 1966 ) and Hutch ( 20 @-@ 200 kilotons , 1969 ) , the last one was most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements . In the dependence on the atomic mass number , the yield showed a saw @-@ tooth behavior with the lower values for odd isotopes , due to their higher fission rates . The major practical problem of the entire proposal was however collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast . Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 × 10 − 14 of the total amount and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude . Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 10 − 7 of the total charge . The amount of transuranium elements in this 500 @-@ kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0 @.@ 4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test . This observation demonstrated the highly nonlinear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock . In order to accelerate sample collection after explosion , shafts were drilled at the site not after but before the test , so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter , through the shafts , to collecting volumes near the surface . This method was tried in the Anacostia and Kennebec tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material , but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling ; whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short @-@ lived isotopes , it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides .
Although no new elements ( apart from einsteinium and fermium ) could be detected in the nuclear test debris , and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low , these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories . So 6 × 109 atoms of 257Fm could be recovered after the Hutch detonation . They were then used in the studies of thermal @-@ neutron induced fission of 257Fm and in discovery of a new fermium isotope 258Fm . Also , the rare 250Cm isotope was synthesized in large quantities , which is very difficult to produce in nuclear reactors from its progenitor 249Cm – the half @-@ life of 249Cm ( 64 minutes ) is much too short for months @-@ long reactor irradiations , but is very " long " on the explosion timescale .
= = Natural occurrence = =
Because of the short half @-@ life of all isotopes of fermium , any primordial fermium , that is fermium that could be present on the Earth during its formation , has decayed by now . Synthesis of fermium from naturally occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth crust requires multiple neutron capture , which is an extremely unlikely event . Therefore , most fermium is produced on Earth in scientific laboratories , high @-@ power nuclear reactors , or in nuclear weapons tests , and is present only within a few months from the time of the synthesis . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium did occur naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .
= = Chemistry = =
The chemistry of fermium has only been studied in solution using tracer techniques , and no solid compounds have been prepared . Under normal conditions , fermium exists in solution as the Fm3 + ion , which has a hydration number of 16 @.@ 9 and an acid dissociation constant of 1 @.@ 6 × 10 − 4 ( pKa = 3 @.@ 8 ) . Fm3 + forms complexes with a wide variety of organic ligands with hard donor atoms such as oxygen , and these complexes are usually more stable than those of the preceding actinides . It also forms anionic complexes with ligands such as chloride or nitrate and , again , these complexes appear to be more stable than those formed by einsteinium or californium . It is believed that the bonding in the complexes of the later actinides is mostly ionic in character : the Fm3 + ion is expected to be smaller than the preceding An3 + ions because of the higher effective nuclear charge of fermium , and hence fermium would be expected to form shorter and stronger metal – ligand bonds .
Fermium ( III ) can be fairly easily reduced to fermium ( II ) , for example with samarium ( II ) chloride , with which fermium coprecipitates . The electrode potential has been estimated to be similar to that of the ytterbium ( III ) / ( II ) couple , or about − 1 @.@ 15 V with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode , a value which agrees with theoretical calculations . The Fm2 + / Fm0 couple has an electrode potential of − 2 @.@ 37 ( 10 ) V based on polarographic measurements .
= = Toxicity = =
Although few people come in contact with fermium , the International Commission on Radiological Protection has set annual exposure limits for the two most stable isotopes . For fermium @-@ 253 , the ingestion limit was set at 107 becquerels ( 1 Bq is equivalent to one decay per second ) , and the inhalation limit at 105 Bq ; for fermium @-@ 257 , at 105 Bq and 4000 Bq respectively .
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= Hurricane Bob =
Hurricane Bob was one of the costliest hurricanes in New England history . The second named storm and first hurricane of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season , Bob developed from an area of low pressure near The Bahamas on August 16 . The depression steadily intensified , and became Tropical Storm Bob late on August 16 . Bob curved north @-@ northwestward as a tropical storm , but re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northeast after becoming a hurricane on August 17 . As such , it brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 18 and August 19 , and subsequently intensified into a major hurricane ( Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . After peaking in intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , Bob weakened slightly as it approached the coast of New England .
Bob made landfall twice in Rhode Island as a Category 2 hurricane on August 19 , first on Block Island and then in Newport . Upon doing so , it became the only hurricane to make landfall in the contiguous United States during the 1991 season . Moving further inland , Bob rapidly weakened , and deteriorated to a tropical storm while emerging into the Gulf of Maine . Shortly thereafter , Bob made landfall in Maine as a strong tropical storm early on August 20 . Bob entered the Canadian province of New Brunswick a few hours later , where it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . By August 21 , the remnants of Bob crossed Newfoundland and re @-@ emerged into the open Atlantic Ocean . The remnants traveled a long distance across the northern Atlantic Ocean , and finally dissipated west of Portugal on August 29 .
Bob left extensive damage throughout New England in its wake , totaling approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD , $ 2 @.@ 61 billion 2016 USD ) . This made it the second costliest United States hurricane at the time ; as of 2013 , it ranked thirty @-@ second in the category . In addition , seventeen fatalities were reported in association with Bob . The loss of life and most of the damage occurred as a result of high winds and rough seas . There were six confirmed tornadoes during its passage . Bob is the most recent hurricane to hit the New England states directly as a hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Bob originated from the remnants of a frontal trough to the southeast of Bermuda on August 12 . The system tracked towards the southwest and later west towards the Bahamas . By August 15th , satellite analysis of the system found a weak low pressure area a couple hundred miles east of the Bahamas . Operationally , the system was not declared a tropical depression until 0600 UTC on August 16 after a reconnaissance mission into the storm found a closed circulation and flight level winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . After post @-@ storm analysis , it was determined that the low had developed into a depression around 0000 UTC . Several hours after being designated , the system began to develop convective banding features . Roughly 18 hours after being declared a depression , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded it to a tropical storm , giving it the name Bob . At this time , Bob was situated roughly 140 mi ( 225 km ) northeast of Nassau , Bahamas . The storm tracked slowly towards the northwest in response to the deep layer mean flow it was embedded within .
A deepening trough over the eastern United States was forecast to turn the storm toward the north on August 16 . This turn took place earlier than forecasters anticipated . The storm slowly intensified as convection was displaced from the center of circulation ; however , upper @-@ level outflow was well @-@ defined and intensification of the storm was expected as it tracked over the Gulf Stream . Later that day , Bob began to consolidate and a reconnaissance plane recorded hurricane @-@ force winds at 1719 UTC , following this reading , the NHC upgraded the storm to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Shortly after , the hurricane began to turn towards the north @-@ northeast in response to a subtropical ridge over the Atlantic and the trough over the southeastern United States .
By August 18 , the NHC noted that the hurricane was asymmetrical , having uneven distribution of the wind radii . Later that day , deep convection continued to form and an eye later appeared on satellite imagery . Early the next day , the eye became increasingly defined as the center of Bob passed roughly 35 mi ( 55 km ) from the North Carolina coastline . By 0600 UTC , Hurricane Hunters recorded flight level winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , corresponding to surface winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . At this time , the barometric pressure of the storm also decreased to 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) , the lowest pressure recorded during the storm . After attaining this intensity , the hurricane tracked quickly northeast at 25 mph ( 35 km / h ) , steered by the trough over the southeast United States , an upper @-@ level cutoff low over the Great Lakes Region and the subtropical ridge over the Atlantic .
The track of Bob by August 19 was similar to that of Hurricane Carol in 1954 , another major hurricane that impacted New England . Significantly cooler sea surface temperatures in the path of the hurricane resulted in weakening , leading to the eye becoming cloud @-@ filled . Later on August 19 , the western portion of the eyewall brushed the eastern tip of Long Island . Around 1800 UTC , the center of Bob made landfall near Newport , Rhode Island with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . The storm quickly weakened as it tracked through Rhode Island and Massachusetts before entering the Gulf of Maine . Around 0130 UTC on August 20 , the now weakened Tropical Storm Bob made another landfall near Rockport , Maine with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
Later that day , Bob had crossed through Maine and part of New Brunswick , Canada and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Around 1800 UTC , the former hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Early the next day , the storm passed over northern Newfoundland before re @-@ entering the Atlantic Ocean . Rapidly tracking eastward , the storm briefly weakened to the equivalent of a tropical depression on August 22 . After restrengthening to tropical storm @-@ force winds , the remnants of Bob turned towards the southeast and slowed . Once more , the extratropical system weakened to the equivalent of a tropical depression ; however , it did not re @-@ intensify . The storm slowly tracked towards the east before dissipating off the coast of Portugal on August 29 .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Watches and warnings = = =
Several hours after the declaration of Tropical Storm Bob on August 16 , the Government of the Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the northwestern Bahamas , between the islands of Andros and Eleuthera . After the storm turned northward , this warning was discontinued as tropical storm @-@ force winds were no longer expected to affect the islands . Shortly before Bob was upgraded to a hurricane on August 17 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas of North Carolina between Little River Inlet northward to Virginia Beach , Virginia . Roughly four hours after this watch , it was upgraded to a hurricane warning . A new hurricane watch was issued late on August 17 , encompassing areas between Virginia Beach northward to Cape Henlopen , Delaware . This watch was also upgraded to a warning on August 18 as Bob paralleled the Mid @-@ Atlantic coastline . During the afternoon hours , a tropical storm warning was declared for areas in the lower Chesapeake Bay area , including Norfolk , Virginia .
A new , extensive hurricane warning was issued late on August 18 as forecasts showed Bob moving directly over southern New England . The warning covered areas between Cape Henlopen , Delaware to Plymouth , Massachusetts , including Long Island and Long Island Sound . Early on August 19 , all watches and warnings south of Cape Lookout , North Carolina were discontinued and the hurricane warning was extended northward to encompass areas south of Eastport , Maine . The Canadian Hurricane Centre began issuing warnings for Atlantic Canada later that day . Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were placed under wind and heavy rain warnings . By the morning of August 20 , all watches and warnings in the United States were discontinued ; however , a brief tropical storm warning was declared for coastal Maine between Rockland and Eastport before the remnants of Bob moved through eastern Canada . The advisories for Atlantic Canada were later discontinued after the system moved out of the region .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states and the Carolinas = = =
Following the issuance of a hurricane warning in North Carolina on August 17 , mandatory evacuation orders were declared for the outermost islands in the state . Local police assisted significant traffic as an estimated 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 people left the region . At the height of the evacuations , delays in some places exceeded three hours . Despite the large number of evacuees , an additional 50 @,@ 000 people were estimated to have stayed home and wait out the storm . Several bridges in the area were shut down prior to Bob 's arrival as hurricane @-@ force winds were likely to create life @-@ threatening conditions on them . The National Park Service in the state also shut down campgrounds across the Outer Banks . An evacuation shelter was also opened in Carteret County .
In Virginia , 125 planes were relocated from Langley Air Force Base to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton , Ohio . Roughly 400 people evacuated from coastal areas in Maryland , and stores in Ocean City reported a substantial increase in sales related to storm preparation . Further north in New Jersey , casinos prepared sandbags to protect the structures and tape to cover windows .
In Suffolk County , New York , emergency officials were unsure of whether or not to issue evacuation orders for residents along coastal areas . This contemplation led to " mixed messages " on the ability of the government being sent to the public . By the evening of August 19 , the evacuation order was not issued ; however , the county was placed under a state of emergency and disaster centers were opened . The American Red Cross opened four shelters on Long Island that housed 800 people during the storm .
= = = New England and Canada = = =
Prior to Bob 's arrival in New England , officials in Connecticut and Rhode Island declared a state of emergency in anticipation of significant damage . All state workers in the area were told to go home early and prepare for the storm . The Connecticut Legislature canceled a session on the state 's budget and Governor Lowell P. Weicker , Jr. activated the emergency operations center . Submarines stationed in Groton left port and waited out the storm under water . Airplane and train service was disrupted throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England in relation to Bob . The American Red Cross opened 23 shelters in 16 communities in Connecticut . In neighboring Rhode Island , the agency set up 40 shelters , and there were an additional 25 shelters unaffiliated with the agency . About 3 @,@ 500 people statewide evacuated , including 2 @,@ 000 on Block Island . Several people injured themselves while preparing for the storm .
In Massachusetts , thousands of residents evacuated Cape Cod , leading to an 11 mi ( 18 km ) backup on the Sagamore Bridge . There were nine shelters set up in the region , which became overcrowded with evacuees . There were about 50 @,@ 000 people who left their homes statewide , of which 6 @,@ 500 went to shelters . On Martha 's Vineyard , electronic stores reported their best business sales in years , with supplies of D @-@ batteries being cleaned off the shelves . Many residents purchased these as well as battery @-@ powered radios and flashlights . President George H. W. Bush , staying at his home in Kennebunkport , Maine , evacuated to Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire . To avoid possible risks by using helicopter , he drove by motorcade to the base . During this time , portions of Interstate 95 were closed to allow him direct access to the Air Force base ; however , this created many miles of backup as thousands of residents moved inland . Eight shelters were opened in New Hampshire , and about 5 @,@ 200 people – mostly tourists – evacuated the coastline . There were 49 shelters opened in neighboring Maine , and about 8 @,@ 600 people evacuated along the coastline in York County .
In the Bay of Fundy , fishermen were urged to return to port in fears of large swells from Hurricane Bob .
= = Impact = =
Throughout the east coast of the United States , Hurricane Bob produced moderate rainfall and substantial damage . Damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD ) . That included about $ 700 million through cleanup costs , uninsured losses , and food claims . That made it , at the time , the second costliest United States hurricane , although the total was due to the storm passing through a densely populated region . As of 2010 , Hurricane Bob ranked as the 22nd costliest tropical cyclone in the United States mainland . Across its track , the hurricane left 2 @.@ 1 million people without power . There were six confirmed tornadoes , along with thirteen unconfirmed tornadoes .
= = = Carolinas and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
As the center of the Hurricane Bob passed several hundred miles east of South Carolina with only slight effects on the state . However , the storm produced large swells that caught a swimmer in Myrtle Beach in strong undertow ; this swimmer drowned to death .
A crew of three sailed from Little River ( Horry County , South Carolina ) en route to Rhode Island . The hurricane destroyed the mast , leaving the crew stranded over the open ocean in shark @-@ infested waters . After 12 days , the United States Coast Guard rescued the three .
On 18 August 1991 , Hurricane Bob brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina , bringing strong winds and heavy rains . Although a maximum of 5 @.@ 30 inches ( 135 mm ) of rain fell at the National Weather Service office building at Cape Hatteras , little heavy rain fell inland of the Outer Banks . One person was killed in the state in relation to Bob , and damage from the storm was estimated at $ 8 million ( 1991 USD ) . The community of Duck , North Carolina , received the highest recorded onshore sustained winds in the state , 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) , whereas the highest gusts reached 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at Cape Hatteras . Diamond Shoal Light recorded a sustained wind of 85 @.@ 0 knots ( 157 @.@ 4 km / h ; 97 @.@ 8 mph ) with a gust of 106 @.@ 7 knots ( 197 @.@ 6 km / h ; 122 @.@ 8 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 962 @.@ 1 millibars ( 962 @.@ 1 hPa ) on the evening of 18 / 19 August 1991 . Cape Hatteras also recorded a storm surge of 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 40 m ) .
Flooding was reported throughout the Outer Banks in relation to the heavy rains and storm surge of the storm . The storm required the shutdown of North Carolina Highway 12 , the only highway connecting the area to the mainland , isolating those who decided to stay behind . Many residents lost power as numerous power lines fell from strong winds . Six brief tornadoes , ranging between F0 and F1 on the Fujita scale , struck the state within squall lines in the outer rainbands of Hurricane Bob. were recorded . Four tornadoes in Dare County , North Carolina , caused $ 256 @,@ 000 in damage . Near Cape Hatteras , wind severely damaged one structure , which lost its roof and some siding .
As the hurricane passed east of Virginia , it produced minimal rainfall and wind gusts of up to 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) . No one reported damage beyond some minor beach erosion in Sandbridge , Virginia Beach , Virginia .
In Ocean City , Maryland , a brief period of heavy rainfall caused street flooding . High waves caused minimal beach erosion and overwash along the coastline .
High tides to 5 @.@ 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) occurred along the Delaware coastline .
Farther north , the storm caused widespread beach erosion along the Jersey Shore , while heavy rains caused street flooding .
The heaviest rains outside New England fell in Bridgehampton , New York , where 7 @.@ 18 inches ( 182 mm ) fell during the passage of the storm . Two reported tornadoes struck Long Island . High winds destroyed apple , corn , and peach fields along Long Island . After a dry summer , the sudden deluge wrecked potato crops , resulting in $ 20 million in crop damage ; , about one @-@ sixth of the agricultural output of the region . High winds caused power outages for 477 @,@ 765 Long Island Lighting Company customers for a period of nearly five days . Most power outages occurred in the East End . One person died in a car accident while a traffic light was offline , and another person died when a falling tree struck a train conductor . The high waves destroyed fish nets offshore and caused beach erosion and the widespread destruction of boats along the coast . Statewide damage totaled over $ 75 million .
= = = New England = = =
Before Bob made landfall in New England , it passed directly over Block Island , Rhode Island . Stations on the island recorded gusts to 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) near the upper end of their range , indicating that the winds were likely stronger . On the mainland , winds peaked at 90 mph ( 144 km / h ) in Narragansett . In the state , the storm surge — the rise of water above the normal tide — was 6 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) in the capital city of Providence , while the peak storm tide — the rise of water including the normal high tide — was 16 @.@ 5 ft ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) at the mouth of the Sakonnet River . At the latter location , the estimate was based on high @-@ water marks , which included wave effects . The high waves resulted in extensive beach erosion along the state 's coastline , which washed out several roads in Coventry . There was flooding reported along the Pocasset River . Rainfall in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 13 in ( 181 mm ) in North Foster . In Rhode Island , where the hurricane made landfall , Bob caused about 200 @,@ 000 power outages ; about 60 % of residents in the state and southeastern Massachusetts were left without power . During the storm , treatment plants spilled over 100 million tons of sewage due to overflow into Narragansett Bay . Damage totaled over $ 115 million .
While moving over Rhode Island , the strong winds of Bob extended westward into Connecticut , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) near Groton ; there , a gust of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) was reported . High winds downed trees in every county in the state , although wind damage was heaviest in the southeastern portion near the coast . Overall there were about 315 @,@ 000 people left without power in Connecticut . A man in Sterling died after being struck by a falling tree limb . The highest storm surge was 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in New London . Coastal flooding was limited to New London County , although coastal damage was minimal . One woman died while on a capsized sailboat . In Norwich , a rainfall total of 6 @.@ 22 in ( 158 mm ) was reported , which was the statewide peak . Flooding was minor , limited to streams and small rivers . Total damage in the state was estimated around $ 49 million , including $ 4 @.@ 5 million in crop damage . There was one death due to a fire that occurred during the storm 's passage , and there were five other deaths across the state .
The most significant area affected by Bob was Massachusetts , where over $ 1 billion in damage occurred . A C @-@ MAN station in Buzzards Bay recorded winds every hour and observed peak sustained winds of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) , along with gusts to 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) . Sustained winds in the state peaked at 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) in Provincetown , and there was an unofficial report of a gust of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in Brewster . The highest rainfall total in the state was 7 @.@ 06 in ( 179 mm ) in Westfield . Storm surges in the state were most significant along Buzzards Bay , peaking at 5 @.@ 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in New Bedford and Woods Hole . High waves eroded the beach around Chatham Light , leaving behind a 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) cliff . Other locations , including southward @-@ facing shores along Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket , lost 50 ft ( 15 m ) of beach from erosion . Boat damage was significant in the region . The hurricane left over 500 @,@ 000 people without power , including all of Cape Cod . Damage was heaviest from Buzzards Bay eastward to Cape Cod , and at least 61 houses were destroyed . Damage was also extensive to apple and peach orchards across these areas , and agricultural damage was estimated around $ 10 million . The state also suffered $ 69 million in damage to public property .
Although it remained offshore of the state , Bob produced strong winds in New Hampshire , with gusts reaching 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Pease Air National Guard Base . Mount Washington experienced 7 @.@ 46 in ( 189 mm ) of precipitation during the storm 's passage . Both the Lovell and Contoocook rivers experienced flooding due to the storm , and widespread flooding occurred in urban areas in the south and central portions of the state . There were two deaths in the state , one from an automobile accident and the other due to a capsized boat . High winds downed widespread trees and power lines , causing 30 @,@ 000 people to lose power statewide . Damage was estimated around $ 2 million . In neighboring Vermont , the highest rainfall report was 4 @.@ 27 in ( 108 mm ) in Vernon .
Although moving across Maine as a tropical storm , Bob still maintained strong winds , producing gusts to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Portland . A station in Wiscasset reported a gust of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) before it was blown away , and another station recorded a gust of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) . A total of 169 @,@ 200 customers lost power during the hurricane , some of whom remaining without electricity for a week . There was a tornado reported in St. Albans , which downed multiple trees , damaged a few houses , and moved a boathouse three blocks away ; its status as a tornado was not confirmed . As it passed the region , the storm produced a 2 @.@ 77 ft ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) storm tide . The heaviest rainfall nationwide from the hurricane fell at the Portland International Jetport , where 8 @.@ 24 in ( 209 mm ) fell during its passage . This contributed to August 1991 being the wettest month on record in Portland . At the time , its 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 7 @.@ 83 in ( 199 mm ) was the highest on record , although it was surpassed in October 1996 by an extratropical system fueled by Hurricane Lili . The rains from Bob led to a record flow rate along the Presumpscot River , although that record was also surpassed by the 1996 system . River flooding washed out five bridges and roads across southwestern Maine . One man died due to being swept away by floodwaters , and another died in the ocean while on a life raft . A total of 700 houses were affected by the storm , including one that was destroyed and three that sustained major damage . Damage in the area around Portland totaled over $ 25 @.@ 7 million , and there were three deaths .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
After causing severe damage in the United States , the remnants of Hurricane Bob moved into Atlantic Canada . The highest rainfall amount in the country was 4 @.@ 37 in ( 111 mm ) in northern New Brunswick . St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador recorded a record 1 inch ( 26 mm ) of rainfall during the storm 's passage . Gusty winds were observed across the region , and winds reached 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) in Digby , Nova Scotia . In Nova Scotia , two 17 @-@ year @-@ old girls were washed out to sea near Cape Forchu after being caught in rough swells produced by the storm . Rescue officials quickly began searching operations ; however , it was later confirmed that the two had drowned . In Fredericton , New Brunswick , tropical storm @-@ force winds downed trees and power lines , resulting in scattered power outages . Lightning associated with strong storms also reportedly struck some trees in the area . A two @-@ story home in Pointe @-@ Verte collapsed due to high winds . In Petit @-@ Rocher , five fishing boats sank after being overwhelmed by large swells at port . Firefighters in the area were surveying the town all night on August 20 , checking for downed power lines and trees . Power outages were also reported on Prince Edward Island . The storm left about $ 1 million in damage ( 1991 CAD ) on Grand Manan Island in the Bay of Fundy .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm 's passage , the Long Island Lighting Company used 165 workers to restore the power outages on Long Island . In Connecticut , state officials deployed about 200 trucks to remove debris on roads . The Massachusetts National Guard was activated to assist in relief efforts . In Rhode Island , a man was killed while repairing damage caused by Bob . Beaches in the state re @-@ opened by five days after the storm . The hurricane mixed the waters in Long Island Sound and prevented the algae bloom that happened in previous summers . In the days after Bob , the Commonwealth Electric Company brought electricians from outside the company and put their own workers on 16 ‑ hour shifts to restore power across Massachusetts . Most Massachusetts residents , excluding those living on Cape Cod , had their power restored within five days . The hurricane struck toward the end of the summer , which significantly impacted the tourism season already in the midst of a recession . The New England coast was affected by a powerful nor 'easter known as the Perfect Storm about two months after the hurricane struck the region . Some locations experienced worse damage from the October storm than from Bob .
Due to the high damage from Hurricane Bob , president George H.W. Bush declared the following states as disaster ( in order ) : Rhode Island , Massachusetts , Maine , Connecticut , New Hampshire , and New York . Damage in Maine was insufficient to qualify for individual family assistance . Instead , the declaration allocated federal funding to reimburse cities for debris removal , repairing damaged public buildings , and other municipal expenses for each of the states . Despite the declaration , the federal government did not immediately provide aid to the affected region . This was partially due to President Bush considering the storm a " disaster but not an emergency " , which therefore required cuts from other budgets to offset the relief aid . This was in opposition to the Democratic @-@ controlled Congress , who requested an expedited process . Because of its impact , the name Bob was retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1992 , and will never be used again for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with " Bill " in the 1997 season .
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= Banjo @-@ Tooie =
Banjo @-@ Tooie is a platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 . It was first released on 19 November 2000 in North America and on 12 April 2001 in Europe , and later re @-@ released as an Xbox Live Arcade game for the Xbox 360 on 29 April 2009 . It is the second instalment in the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series and serves as a sequel to the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie . The story of the game follows series protagonists Banjo and Kazooie as they attempt to stop the plans of antagonist Gruntilda and her two sisters from vapourising the inhabitants of the game 's world .
Development of the game started in June 1998 , directly after the release of its predecessor . Several new features were cut from the game due to time constraints and limitations of the Nintendo 64 hardware . Banjo @-@ Tooie features levels that are significantly larger than those of its predecessor and requires the player to complete various challenges such as solving puzzles , collecting items , and defeating bosses . It also includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete in several minigames . Upon release , the game sold more than three million copies and received critical acclaim from video game critics . The game is also included in the Rare Replay video game compilation , released for the Xbox One in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to its predecessor Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Banjo @-@ Tooie features three @-@ dimensional worlds containing items to be collected . Among the items are golden jigsaw pieces , called Jiggies , that are used to complete jigsaw puzzles that unlock the levels . Instead of exploring the hub world in search of incomplete puzzle boards as in Banjo @-@ Kazooie , a singular board is used within a temple where Master Jiggywiggy resides . Whenever the player has obtained the number of Jiggies required , a timed puzzle @-@ completion challenge can be played , after which Jiggywiggy grants access to each world . Each puzzle challenge requires more Jiggies than the last .
Musical notes return in Banjo @-@ Tooie , but are now used to learn new moves from Bottles ' brother , the drill sergeant Jamjars , who assumes Bottles ' role from the first game . All of Banjo and Kazooie 's moves from the first game are immediately accessible in Banjo @-@ Tooie , and the player can acquire several new moves such as first @-@ person aiming , new egg types , and the ability to play as Banjo and Kazooie separately , with each gaining moves they can only use while on their own . Mumbo Jumbo also returns , this time as a playable character who can venture out into each world and use specific magic spells to help Banjo and Kazooie proceed . Taking over Mumbo 's previous role of transforming the duo into different forms is Humba Wumba , a Native American woman who acts as Mumbo 's rival .
Another feature introduced in Banjo @-@ Tooie is the direct connections between its worlds . In Banjo @-@ Kazooie the titular duo would be transported to each level via special doors in Gruntilda 's lair , but in Banjo @-@ Tooie the levels are physically connected at multiple points and are effectively extensions of the Isle o ' Hags hub world . In addition , the train Chuffy can be used to migrate minor characters between worlds which contain stations . The game also includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can play each of the game 's single @-@ player minigames in customisable competitions .
= = Plot = =
Two years following Gruntilda 's first defeat by Banjo and Kazooie , the two are playing poker with their friends Mumbo Jumbo and Bottles in Banjo 's house . Meanwhile , Gruntilda 's sisters Mingella and Blobbelda arrive in a large digging machine , the Hag 1 , and destroy the boulder trapping Gruntilda with a magical spell . Unfortunately Gruntilda 's time spent underground has rotted her flesh away and reduced her to a skeleton . Seeking revenge , Gruntilda destroys Banjo 's house before fleeing with her sisters . Banjo , Kazooie , and Mumbo escape the house , but Bottles , who stays behind believing it is all a joke , gets caught in the blast and is killed . The three remaining friends swear to track Gruntilda down and put an end to her plans .
Following the witches ' trail , Banjo and Kazooie arrive at Jinjo Village on the Isle o ' Hags , where King Jingaling , king of all the Jinjos , explains that his subjects were frightened away by the Hag 1 and scattered throughout the island . He gives the two their first Jiggy as a token of gratitude to help find them . Meanwhile , Gruntilda 's sisters introduce her to a cannon called the " Big @-@ O @-@ Blaster " ( B.O.B. ) that can suck the life force from any given target . They test B.O.B. on King Jingaling , who consequently is turned into a zombie . Gruntilda plans to charge B.O.B. long enough to blast the entire island and use the stolen life force to restore her body . The witch 's most loyal minion , Klungo , is sent out to hinder Banjo and Kazooie in their progress by fighting them , but after taking many beatings from Gruntilda as punishment for losing to them , Klungo eventually abandons her and sides with Banjo and Kazooie .
Finally reaching Gruntilda 's fortress at Cauldron Keep , Banjo and Kazooie confront the witch and her sisters in a trivia quiz show named the Tower of Tragedy Quiz in which losing competitors will be flattened under one @-@ tonne weights . Mingella and Blobbelda lose to Banjo and Kazooie , getting crushed , but Gruntilda escapes . Banjo and Kazooie then reverse the effects of B.O.B. , resurrecting both King Jingaling and Bottles , who celebrate at Bottles ' house along with Klungo . Banjo and Kazooie enter the top of the fortress and defeat Gruntilda , destroying most of her body and the Hag 1 along with her . The two return to Bottles ' house with their remaining friends ( Jamjars , Mumbo , and Wumba ) to find that everyone else has celebrated without them , much to their disappointment . They instead head to Cauldron Keep and play a game of hacky @-@ sack with Gruntilda 's head , who vows to have her revenge .
= = Development = =
Banjo @-@ Tooie was developed by Rare and designed by Gregg Mayles , who previously worked on Banjo @-@ Kazooie . Development of the game started in June 1998 . Some features that were originally cut during the development of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , such as some of its worlds and a multiplayer game mode , were instead integrated into Banjo @-@ Tooie . An additional world set in a castle was planned , but due to time constraints , it was scrapped during development and assets from it were used in constructing Cauldron Keep . The game features roughly 150 total characters , including enemies and non @-@ playable characters .
Originally , Rare planned to include an additional mode , called Bottles ' Revenge , where a second player could play as an undead version of Bottles and take control of enemy characters to hinder Banjo in his quest , with the players swapping roles if the enemy character managed to defeat Banjo . The idea was ultimately scrapped because the developers ran out of time to debug it , despite admitting that " it did work rather well " . However , it would later serve as the inspiration behind the " Counter Operative " multiplayer mode in Perfect Dark . Bosses were originally to be able to be controllable by the second player as well , but the only boss that the developers had working when they dropped the mode was the third boss , ' Old King Coal ' . The developers also planned to implement a feature , called " Stop ' N ' Swop " , that would have allowed data to be transferred from Banjo @-@ Kazooie to Banjo @-@ Tooie so that players could unlock additional bonuses in Banjo @-@ Tooie . However , due to hardware limitations of the Nintendo 64 system , the feature was ultimately dropped . It is , however , included in the Xbox Live re @-@ release . Despite this , Rare decided to include at least some of the additional bonuses within the game .
The music was composed by Grant Kirkhope , who previously worked as the main composer for Perfect Dark , Donkey Kong 64 , and Banjo @-@ Kazooie . As Banjo @-@ Tooie was a larger game than its predecessor , Kirkhope had twice the memory space in the game 's cartridge for sound effects and music . Kirkhope initially had to pause his work on Banjo @-@ Tooie to work on other projects first , but ultimately the music score for the game was completed on time . Like the original , the themes heard in the game were designed to be interactive , which dynamically change to reflect the player 's location . Due to the game having larger memory space Kirkhope was able to combine two MIDI files to channel different fades of music when the player moves to different locations . The developers initially aimed for a fourth quarter 1999 release , but the game was ultimately delayed . Banjo @-@ Tooie was presented at the 2000 Electronic Entertainment Expo and released on 20 November 2000 . The game supports the Nintendo 64 Rumble Pak .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Banjo @-@ Tooie was critically acclaimed and sold more than three million copies worldwide . Johnny Liu of Game Revolution considered Banjo @-@ Tooie to be a worthy successor to Banjo @-@ Kazooie and highlighted the scale of its worlds . Also commenting on the scale , GamePro remarked that the game is so large that players might lose their way and forget what they are supposed to do . Similarly , Jes Bickham of GamesRadar described Banjo @-@ Tooie as a game that requires a massive time @-@ investment on the player 's part , saying that " Keeping track of what you can do next , or where you can re @-@ visit to get something new , requires either a photographic memory or copious note @-@ taking " .
In a very positive review , Nintendo Power referred to Banjo @-@ Tooie as " the perfect cross between Donkey Kong 64 and Banjo @-@ Kazooie " , noting that it features less backtracking between levels that " [ Donkey Kong 64 ] over @-@ ambitiously played to the hilt " . The publication also stated that " If there 's one disappointment , it 's the halfhearted resolve of the Ice Key mystery introduced two years ago in Banjo @-@ Kazooie . " Shane Satterfield , writing for GameSpot , praised the game 's level design and progression , stating that the constant collecting of Jiggies " keeps the controller glued to your hand and your eyes in a fixed gaze " .
The graphics of the game were declared to be some of the best on the Nintendo 64 due to their rich textures , long drawing distance , and real @-@ time shadow generation , but were also criticised for their inconsistent frame rate during certain points in the game . Despite this , Satterfield noted that the action level of the game was normally low enough that it " does not significantly distract from the experience " . Liu of Game Revolution said that the graphics were " beautiful " , but admitted that the game did not meet the same level of awe as its predecessor . Despite the praise , Mark Green of N64 Magazine felt that although Banjo @-@ Tooie delivers " a decent complement of clever puzzles and enjoyable run @-@ and @-@ jump moments , it does not " feel as fresh or as exciting " as previous Rare platformers . The game earned the GameSpot 's Best Platform Game accolade for 2000 .
= = Re @-@ releases = =
An Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie , developed by 4J Studios , was released for the Xbox 360 on 29 April 2009 . This version features a smoother frame rate and high @-@ definition graphics , and supports the " Stop ' N ' Swop " connectivity with the Xbox Live Arcade version of its predecessor , allowing players to unlock the bonuses included in the original Nintendo 64 version as well as new content related to the Xbox 360 . The Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie received mixed to favourable reviews from video game critics , featuring an aggregate score of 73 out of 100 at Metacritic . In 2015 , the Xbox Live Arcade version of the game was included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One .
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= Hit ' Em Up =
" Hit ' Em Up " is a diss song by rap artist Tupac Shakur ( 2Pac ) , featuring his group the Outlawz . It is the B @-@ side to the single " How Do U Want It " , released on June 4 , 1996 , from the album All Eyez on Me . The song ’ s lyrics contain vicious insults to several East Coast rappers , chief among them , Shakur 's former friend turned rival , The Notorious B.I.G. , also known as Biggie Smalls . The song was recorded in Los Angeles , California at Can Am Studios in May 1996 . Reporter Chuck Philips , who interviewed Shakur at Can Am , described the song as " a caustic anti @-@ East Coast jihad in which the rapper threatens to eliminate Biggie , Sean Combs ( Puffy ) , and a slew of Bad Boy artists and other New York acts . " The song was produced by long @-@ time collaborator Johnny " J " and samples the bassline from " Don 't Look Any Further " by Dennis Edwards and interpolates " Get Money " by Biggie Smalls group Junior M.A.F.I.A. , which used the Dennis Edwards sample as well . The video , itself described as infamous , includes impersonations of Biggie , Puffy and Lil ' Kim .
" Hit ' Em Up " had a large role in exacerbating the East Coast – West Coast hip hop rivalry . Following its release , the East Coast rappers insulted in the song responded through tracks of their own . The controversy surrounding the song is due in part to Shakur ’ s murder only three months after its release .
The song is widely considered by the American hip hop community as one of the greatest " diss tracks " ever recorded due to its explicit lyrical content and the seriousness of violent intent by Shakur and his colleagues towards their competitors .
= = Origins = =
" Hit ' Em Up " was written and recorded in Can Am Studios in Los Angeles , California in May 1996 . For the song , Shakur recruited the members of the former group Dramacydal whom he had worked with previously , and was eager to work with again . Together , the rappers ( along with other associates ) formed the original lineup of the Outlawz . The first and third verses are performed by Shakur , while the second verse is performed by Hussein Fatal , the fourth by Yaki Kadafi and the fifth by E.D.I. Mean .
The ferocity of Shakur 's raging vocals , as said by long @-@ time collaborator and producer of " Hit ' Em Up " Johnny " J " , was entirely authentic . He explained that Shakur was initially fueled by his anger against Biggie and Bad Boy Records for the belief that they had a role in the November 30 , 1994 ambush and attack on Shakur . He claimed that Biggie and his crew knew of his shooting and wanted him dead . Shakur used this fury , which Johnny " J " described as " superhuman " , to attack Biggie and other East Coast rappers . Johnny " J " also stated that he had never seen Shakur so angry and that the words he rapped were in no way an act , describing the recording process as the most " hard @-@ core he had ever done . " Although he was very happy with the work he had put into it and the resulting song , Johnny " J " went on to say that he had no desire to work on anything of that magnitude again .
Shakur was also enraged by Biggie 's release of " Who Shot Ya ? " provocatively only months after the shooting incident , and although it did not mention Shakur 's name , he believed it was directed towards him , but it was not . Shakur admitted to releasing " Hit ' Em Up " as a response to " Who Shot Ya ? " In a Vibe interview , the rapper called out Sean “ Puffy ” Combs and Biggie Smalls and accused both of them for setting him up , or obtaining knowledge of the attack , and not cautioning him . He also singled out business men James Rosemond ( " Jimmy Henchman " ) , and Jacques Agnant ( " Haitian Jack " ) of orchestrating the assault . Shakur announced the names of his ostensible conspirators to Kevin Powell , a journalist for Vibe ; however , to mask their true identities , Vibe referred to Henchman as “ Booker , ” and Jack as “ Nigel ” in the published interview . Persons familiar with the interview say they used different names after the magazine received threats from Henchman . A former Vibe editor denied receiving threats , but neglected to explain why the magazine substituted aliases for Henchman and Haitian Jack .
Henchman promised Shakur $ 7 @,@ 000 to duo with Lil Shawn , a rapper whom the business man represented at that time . In a 2008 article by Philips , Henchman was implicated in organizing the assault , and in 2012 by his long @-@ time friend Dexter Isaac , who confessed to attacking Shakur on Henchman 's orders . He was confirmed as a source for Philip 's earlier story and in Henchman 's own confession according to prosecutors at his 2012 trial .
= = Composition = =
The lyrics in " Hit ' Em Up " were aimed primarily at Biggie and Puffy . Shakur viciously insults Biggie throughout , the first line by Shakur is " That 's why I fucked your bitch , you fat motherfucker " , and threatens retaliation in " Hit ' Em Up " , saying " Now you 're about to feel the wrath of a menace . " He also used the song as a platform to express his belief that Biggie was guilty of stealing his style of rapping , and was merely imitating his lifestyle . This notion is addressed in the verse in " Now it 's all about Versace , you copied my style . " He also touches topically on their early friendship with the line " Biggie , remember when I used to let you sleep on the couch ? " and their subsequent fallout . Towards the end of the song Tupac disses Mobb Deep , saying " Don 't one of you niggas got sickle cell or something ? You fucking with me , nigga you fuck around and get a seizure or a heart attack " , referring to Prodigy , a member of Mobb Deep , suffering from sickle cell disease . Mobb Deep responded by releasing Drop a Gem on ' Em , which was released shortly after Tupac 's death , however recorded before . " Hit ' Em Up " features much profanity and was issued a Parental Advisory label , using the word " fuck " and " motherfucker " over 35 times in the song .
The bassline in " Hit ' Em Up " is taken from the 1984 Dennis Edwards song " Don 't Look Any Further " . The chorus of " Hit ' Em Up " is a play on the chorus of Junior M.A.F.I.A 's " Player 's Anthem . " The phrase " take money " is repeated throughout the song , which is a play on Junior M.A.F.I.A 's recent release " Get Money " , which is also the beat used in " Hit ' Em Up " . Faith Evans , who at the time was Biggie 's estranged wife , was reportedly seen with Shakur after a public breakup with Biggie . Journalist Chuck Philips spotted Faith Evans at Can Am when he interviewed Shakur a year earlier in 1995 . People at the studio told the reporter that Faith Evans also contributed — that the R & B chanteuse recorded one or more “ Take Money ” background vocals that would appear on “ Hit Em Up . ” In his October 1995 interview of the rapper , Philips remembered in 2012 , " I was so unaware of the bi @-@ coastal rap war that I suspected nothing when Faith Evans appeared with Shakur at Can Am . The estranged wife of Biggie was recording background vocals for " Wonder Why They Call U Bitch " , a song which was at the time yet to be released . According to Shakur she had given him gifts of clothing , which he offered as proof of a relationship in an interview . Using this against Biggie in " Hit ' Em Up " , Shakur continued to fuel the rumors of a sexual relationship with Evans in the song 's line " You claim to be a player , but I fucked your wife . " Claims of an affair with Evans appear three times in the song .
Shakur also attacked many other people associated with Bad Boy Records and with Biggie , such as Lil ' Kim and Junior M.A.F.I.A. He exclaimed that their lifestyle and what they rapped about were fraudulent , and that they were not from the streets . He believed that they were only perpetuating the drama and did not understand the situation they were getting into . Bronx rapper Chino XL was also insulted for vulgar comments he made about Shakur on his song " Riiiot ! " . In the original recording , Shakur also insulted Jay Z at the ending segment , but removed it after being convinced by Outlawz members that Carter had nothing to do with the conflict between Death Row and Bad Boy . After Jay Z 's debut album ( which featured Biggie on " Brooklyn 's Finest " ) was subsequently released after " Hit ' Em up " , Shakur included Jay Z amongst the many other East Coast rappers to be insulted in his next studio album .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Hit ' Em Up " was filmed in a warehouse off Slauson Avenue near Fox Hills Mall in Los Angeles in May 1996 . It was filmed by the production company Look Hear Productions . Shakur raps in a white room with The Outlawz , as well as in purple @-@ caged room and a black room with bullet holes in the background . TV monitors in the background show clips of Shakur , Puffy , and Biggie Smalls , and even clips from the video " Made Niggaz . " The video featured actors who were recalled from their prior roles in the music video for " 2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted " to impersonate some of those who were attacked in " Hit ' Em Up . " This included Biggie , whose stand @-@ in stares dully into the camera and sports a Kangol and jacket , similar to one Biggie would wear . During the moments where Shakur raps about his claimed affair with Evans , the Biggie impersonator crouches near the camera while Shakur yells in his face . Puffy is also impersonated , appearing with a high @-@ top fade and leaning towards the camera , lowering and raising his sunglasses .
During the shooting of the video , Shakur was engaged in an argument with someone , who was heard telling him " You 'll get shot . " His armed bodyguard assured him that he had nothing to worry about . He also broke up a fight involving his friend Muta during the filming , and fired a production assistant on set . The assistant was answering Shakur 's pager and returning his personal calls without his consent . Many callers were confused or angry that a female assistant was answering Shakur 's calls . The assistant had mistakenly lost the pager , and with Shakur already growing wary of her , fired her for that reason .
Like the song , the video for " Hit ' Em Up " has also been called " infamous " . The pro @-@ West Coast track 's music video featured the members crushing buildings in Manhattan , which was already done in another pro @-@ West Coast music video for " New York , New York " by Tha Dogg Pound earlier . The music video for " Hit ' Em Up " can be found on Tupac : Live at the House of Blues DVD .
= = Release and reception = =
Upon finishing the recording of the song , Shakur felt very positively about the track , saying the " song is going to be playing in every club . Deejays are calling from everywhere , wanting to get a piece of this . " " Hit ' Em Up " appeared first as a B @-@ side , on the single " How Do U Want It " , by Shakur featuring The Outlawz . On June 4 , 1996 under the label Death Row Records , " Hit ' Em Up " was released on compact disc , 12 @-@ inch , and a 45 RPM . The original cover for the single had Puffy 's head on a snake 's body , and Biggie 's head on a pig 's . It also appeared posthumously on several compilations , including the 2004 release of Shakur 's last recorded live performance , Live at the House of Blues . " Hit ' Em Up " was also remixed on Nu @-@ Mixx Klazzics . Upon its release , " Hit ' Em Up " received frequent radio airplay , which was attributed to the public interest in the ongoing feud and radio stations ' desire to garner high ratings . However , some radio stations , such as the Los Angeles @-@ based KPWR , refused to play it . The follow @-@ up to " Hit ' Em Up " was the song " Bomb First ( My Second Reply ) " .
" Hit ' Em Up " has been called " controversial , " " infamous , " " disturbing , " and " brutal . " Shakur 's insults against virtually the entire East Coast scene of rappers were said to be ferocious . The song , along with " Dear Mama , " has been viewed as one of Shakur 's songs that resonated with and was spoken of the most by young people . Some felt that " Hit ' Em Up " showcased Shakur ranting and raving like a fool , and J.R. Reynolds of Billboard called it horrendous , noting that Shakur revealed his true colors upon recording the song . He also went on to say that although sympathetic to the shooting , " Hit ' Em Up " had " fan [ ned ] the flames of hatred ... and affect [ ed ] an entire black culture 's psyche " ; he called the song " repugnant and unacceptable . " Among associates of Shakur , it was called a " bad @-@ luck song . " Los Angeles radio director Bruce St. James called the song " the be @-@ all , end @-@ all , curse @-@ word , dirty @-@ lyric , violent song of all time " [ sic ] . Game 's manager has called it the best diss record . Documentary filmmaker Carl Weston believed that " most people in Biggie 's shoes would have wanted to at least hurt Tupac " in a Spin magazine interview .
Among musicians , the song drew criticism from singer Dionne Warwick , and disapproval from fellow rappers Kool Moe Dee and Chuck D , as written in their book There 's a God on the Mic : The True 50 Greatest MCs . They felt that although Shakur was one of the most substantive rappers of that period , he had gone too far with " Hit ' Em Up , " causing some of Shakur 's fans to turn on him , according to the two rappers .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Shakur and the Death Row crew attended a boxing match in Las Vegas , where he was murdered in 1996 . In retrospect of the events which ensued only a few months afterward , the song has been viewed as the turning point in the feud between Shakur and Biggie , where things were said and sung which could never be taken back during the remainder of Shakur 's life . This has led to it being dubbed as the beginning of the war between the East Coast and the West Coast , and the centerpiece in what became the most venomous battle in rap history .
In 2002 , Chuck Philips reported that the Crips ' Orlando Anderson pulled the trigger that killed Shakur and Biggie helped pay for the gun . Although Biggie 's family produced computerized receipts to show that Biggie was in the studio at the time of the murder , The New York Times called the evidence " inconclusive " noting :
The pages purport to be three computer printouts from Daddy 's House , indicating that Wallace was in the studio recording a song called Nasty Boy on the afternoon Shakur was shot . They indicate that Wallace wrote half the session , was In and out / sat around and laid down a ref , shorthand for a reference vocal , the equivalent of a first take . But nothing indicates when the documents were created . And Louis Alfred , the recording engineer listed on the sheets , said in an interview that he remembered recording the song with Wallace in a late @-@ night session , not during the day . He could not recall the date of the session but said it was likely not the night Shakur was shot . " We would have heard about it , " Mr. Alfred said . "
Philips ' article was based on police affidavits and court documents as well as interviews with investigators , witnesses to the crime and members of the Southside Crips who had never before discussed the killing outside the gang . As Assistant Managing Editor of the LA Times Mark Duvoisin wrote : " Philips ' story has withstood all challenges to its accuracy , ... [ and ] remains the definitive account of the Shakur slaying . "
" Hit ' Em Up " has been studied by and with academics , and it has been used as a part of a series of lessons for building the means to communicate with younger people . Its main role in these lessons is to define anger in rap music . Biggie was shot and killed six months after Shakur 's death .
= = Response = =
= = = From Biggie = = =
After hearing " Hit ' Em Up " Biggie continued proclaiming his innocence in the shooting incident . He also remarked that the song " Who Shot Ya ? " was written before Shakur was shot and thus , was not about him . Regarding the lyrics aimed at his wife Faith , Biggie expressed an inability to find merit in what Shakur had claimed . He believed that Shakur intended to attack him through Faith , although he remained unsure of whether an encounter between them had occurred . Ultimately , he thought that if something had occurred it was none of his business , and that Shakur should not have publicly disclosed this information in a song . Biggie responded to this matter in a similar fashion to " Hit ' Em Up " , rapping in a joint release by himself and Jay @-@ Z in the song " Brooklyn 's Finest " , where he says " If Faye have twins , she 'd probably have two Pacs . Get it ? Tupac 's ? " Shortly after the release of " Hit ' Em Up " , Evans went on the radio and denied that she had been with Shakur .
= = = From other artists = = =
Puffy had trouble understanding the sheer rage Shakur had expressed for Biggie in " Hit ' Em Up " . He also responded by reinforcing his and Biggie 's innocence regarding the shooting and went on to say that prior to the incident they " were friends " , and that they " would have never done nothing to hurt him . " In an interview with Vibe Magazine concerning Shakur 's allegations of Biggie and Puffy having prior knowledge of the ambush , Puffy stated :
He ain 't mad at the niggas that shot him ; he knows where they 're at . He knows who shot him . If you ask him , he knows , and everybody in the street knows , and he 's not stepping to them , because he knows that he 's not gonna get away with that shit . To me , that 's some real sucker shit . Be mad at everybody , man ; don 't be using niggas as scapegoats . We know that he 's a nice guy from New York . All shit aside , Tupac is a nice , good @-@ hearted guy .
Lil ' Kim responded on the original version of her song " Big Momma Thang " , which was aimed at Biggie 's wife , Faith Evans , and Shakur . Junior M.A.F.I.A. recorded a music video for the song " Get Money " , which has been regarded as a diss to Shakur . Biggie denies these claims , stating : " It 's just a video ; ain 't nobody got no time to make no diss on nobody . " Lil ' Cease said after the release that Biggie still had love for Shakur , and even respected him . The attack on Mobb Deep came as a response for their involvement on the song " L.A L.A " by Capone @-@ N @-@ Noreaga , which was a retaliation to Snoop Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound 's song " New York , New York " music video in which members of Tha Dogg Pound and Death Row are seen knocking down buildings in New York City . Mobb Deep responded to Shakur with the track " Drop a Gem on ' em " . It was first released as a promotional single , and later appeared on their album Hell on Earth . Lyrically , it did not specifically name Shakur , but it did allude to the shooting incident . It has also been noted for erroneously stating the cost of the assets Shakur had taken from him during the shooting incident . Bronx rapper King Sun also responded to Shakur with " New York Love ( All Eyez On Sun ) " .
= = Appearances = =
" Hit ' Em Up " was originally featured as a B @-@ side on Shakur 's single " How Do U Want It " . In 1998 , it was released on Shakur 's first compilation album , Greatest Hits . A remix of the song was featured on Nu @-@ Mixx Klazzics ( 2003 ) , where the intro lyrics from the originally explicit version and the main lyrics from the edited radio version . A live version of the song was included on the 2005 release of Tupac : Live at the House of Blues . " Hit ' Em Up " was first released on Death Row Greatest Hits , and was again released as a live recording on the 2004 album 2Pac Live .
In the second half of Eminem 's song " Quitter " , the rapper attempts to remake " Hit ' Em Up " and in itself is a diss track aimed towards Everlast . Eminem has support from D12 on his version like the Outlawz supported Shakur on the original . Khia used the song 's beat and part of the hook in her song " Hit ' Em Up " , which is a diss to female rappers Trina and Jacki @-@ O. " What I Think About You " by Bow Wow uses a reinterpolation of " Hit ' Em Up " and is a diss song to fellow rapper Soulja Boy Tell ' em .
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= Maryland Route 413 =
Maryland Route 413 ( also known as MD 413 or Route 413 ) is a 14 @.@ 61 @-@ mile ( 23 @.@ 51 km ) state highway in Somerset County in the U.S. state of Maryland . The route runs from a dead end at Crisfield 's city dock , which is located on the Tangier Sound , northeast to U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Westover . It is the main highway leading into Crisfield , and is known as Crisfield Highway for much of its length . The highway travels through mostly rural areas of farms and woods as well as the communities of Hopewell , Marion Station , and Kingston . It is a two @-@ lane undivided road for most of its length ; a portion of the road in Crisfield is a four @-@ lane road that follows a one @-@ way pair . MD 413 is part of two scenic routes : Blue Crab Scenic Byway and the Beach to Bay Indian Trail , both are Maryland Scenic Byways .
The Crisfield – Westover Road was one of the original state roads marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission . The highway was paved in the 1910s and designated MD 413 in 1927 . MD 413 was relocated starting in the late 1930s to a new alignment parallel to the Eastern Shore Railroad line that made Crisfield the " Seafood Capital of the World . " The relocation began in Crisfield and was completed to Westover in 1950 . The old alignment of MD 413 was designated MD 667 . The state highway was expanded to a divided highway in the mid @-@ 1950s in Crisfield . The railroad track was abandoned in 1976 and later removed , but traces of the railroad remain along MD 413 's modern alignment .
= = Route description = =
MD 413 begins at the city dock on the waterfront in Crisfield at the intersection with Dock Street , heading to the northeast . It begins on a four @-@ lane boulevard with a median , and is known as West Main Street , fronting local businesses in the downtown area . After Seventh Street , Main Street leaves MD 413 , and the boulevard 's two carriageways become known as Richardson Avenue northbound and Maryland Avenue southbound . At this point the road begins to front mostly homes on Maryland Avenue , while on Richardson Avenue it runs past and homes and businesses , such as gas stations and restaurants . On a gentle curve , Chesapeake Avenue intersects the northbound carriageway , providing access to the southern beginning of MD 667 .
Before leaving the city , the route intersects MD 460 , also known as Hall Highway , immediately accessible only from the southbound carriageway . MD 460 provides a direct link to McCready Memorial Hospital . Access to that route from northbound MD 413 is given by Wynfall Avenue , which the road intersects farther south . Very soon after , it intersects MD 358 ( Jacksonville Road ) , which heads north , and Somerset Avenue , which heads south . Past the MD 358 intersection , the road narrows to two travel lanes with the median becoming a left turn lane as many businesses and side streets front the road . The route becomes the Crisfield Highway , which it is known as for the remainder of its journey . After intersecting Silver Lane , the left turn lane closes , and MD 413 becomes a rural , two @-@ lane highway with full shoulders , exiting Crisfield 's corporate limits just north of the Sherwin – Williams ( former Rubberset ) entrance and continuing past the old site of Carvel Hall Cutlery .
Upon leaving Crisfield , MD 413 passes through a mix of woodland and farmland . In Hopewell , MD 667 intersects the highway , and after clearing some modest wooded development up to and slightly beyond the Holland Crossing Road intersection , the route enters heavy woodland . It passes a man @-@ made pond before intersecting MD 667 again . Both routes parallel each other on the way into the community of Marion Station , straddling the old railroad bed . Both routes are intersected by Davis Road and Tulls Corner Road / Charles Cannon Road , after which MD 667 turns almost due east , with MD 413 heading through a small neighborhood outside the center of Marion .
Past Marion , the route resumes northeast through woods and farms with some residences along the route . Approaching Kingston , MD 413 intersects Lovers Lane . After this , a long curve to the north @-@ northeast begins , which ends just south of Kingston Lane and the center of Kingston . Beyond Kingston , the route crosses the Big Annemessex River and travels past a tree farm . After passing through a forest , two side roads lead to the Somerset County Health Department and the Somerset Intermediate School , with the pavement 's striping reconfigured to accommodate left turns at the two close intersections .
As the road nears Westover , it passes by the Great Hope Golf Course and shortly after intersects MD 361 ( Fairmount Road ) . Here , the road meets Old Westover @-@ Marion Road , a former routing of the highway . Passing through the development of Westover , MD 413 intersects MD 673 ( Sam Barnes Road ) , a short connector route to US 13 southbound to Pocomoke City . From US 13 northbound , MD 673 serves as the connection to MD 413 southbound . Past MD 673 , the highway passes through farmland . MD 413 heads through some woods and crosses the Back Creek of the Manokin River before coming to end at an intersection with US 13 .
MD 413 is part of the Blue Crab Scenic Byway , which consists of various roads in the lower Eastern Shore of Maryland . It is also part of the Beach to Bay Indian Trail , a Maryland Scenic Byway that connects Ocean City on the Atlantic Ocean to Smith Island in the Chesapeake Bay and is noted by signs along the route .
= = History = =
Crisfield grew to prominence as the " Seafood Capital of the World " and became the second largest city in Maryland by 1904 thanks to an extension of the Eastern Shore Railroad to the city in 1866 instigated by the city 's namesake , John W. Crisfield . The city 's importance led to the Crisfield – Westover Road being designated one of the original state roads nominated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state road was paved from the eastern city limits of Crisfield ( the present western terminus of MD 667 ) to Hopewell and from Westover to Kingston in 1913 . The segment between Kingston and Marion was completed in 1915 . The state road was completed when the final section was completed between Hopewell and Marion by 1920 . MD 413 received its number in the original assignment of state route numbers in 1927 . Within the city of Crisfield , Maryland Avenue was constructed between Main Street and Somerset Avenue , Chesapeake Avenue was brought into the state highway system within the city limits , and Main Street was improved and brought into the state highway system between the city pier and Maryland Avenue around 1935 .
Starting in the mid @-@ 1930s , MD 413 was relocated to an alignment paralleling the Crisfield Secondary Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad . The first portion of MD 413 was relocated in 1935 in conjunction with the relocation of US 13 between Princess Anne and Westover . MD 413 was moved from Sam Barnes Road and Sign Post Road to its present alignment between US 13 and Old Westover – Marion Road in Westover . The first section of the present straight highway between Crisfield and Westover was constructed in 1938 and 1939 from the eastern city limits of Crisfield ( near the intersection with MD 358 ) to Hopewell . The bypassed portion of MD 413 and subsequent bypassed segments were designated MD 667 . The section of the new alignment between Hopewell and Marion was completed in 1942 . The Marion – Westover portion of the realignment was completed in 1950 .
MD 413 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway between the city pier and the eastern city limits of Crisfield in 1956 . Between the city pier and Maryland Avenue , the divided highway replaced the path of the railroad ; the railroad 's terminus was moved to a new pier to the north . North of the Main Street portion of the divided highway , the railroad track separated the two directions of MD 413 : Maryland Avenue formed the northbound lanes while Richardson Avenue was brought into the state highway system to comprise the southbound lanes . The two directions of MD 413 were divided by an operating railroad track until the Crisfield Secondary Branch was abandoned with the formation of Conrail in 1976 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Somerset County .
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= Miniopterus aelleni =
Miniopterus aelleni is a bat in the genus Miniopterus that occurs on Anjouan in the Comoros and in northern and western Madagascar .
It is a small brown bat ; its forearm length is 35 to 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The long tragus ( a projection in the outer ear ) has a broad base and a blunt or rounded tip . The uropatagium ( tail membrane ) is sparsely haired . The palate is flat , and there are distinct diastemata ( gaps ) between the upper canines and premolars .
Populations of this species have historically been included in Miniopterus manavi , but evidence published in 2008 and 2009 indicates that M. manavi is a complex of five separate species , including the newly described M. aelleni . M. aelleni has been found in forests and caves in karstic areas . Its distribution overlaps that of M. griveaudi , also formerly included in M. manavi .
= = Taxonomy = =
In a 1995 contribution to Faune de Madagascar on Malagasy bats , Randolph Peterson and colleagues listed four species of Miniopterus on Madagascar and the nearby Comoros , including the small Miniopterus manavi with a broad distribution on both Madagascar and the Comoros . However , during the first decade of the 21st century , molecular studies have revealed that Miniopterus , a widespread genus in the Old World , is much more species @-@ rich than previously thought . A 2008 study comparing sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and D @-@ loop markers found two distinct , unrelated groups within the supposed M. manavi from the Comoros ; both groups were also found on Madagascar . The next year , Steven Goodman and colleagues revisited the group with more extensive sampling on Madagascar . They separated three species within the former " M. manavi " : M. manavi itself in the Central Highlands , M. griveaudi ( previously a subspecies of M. manavi ) on Anjouan , Grande Comore , and northern and western Madagascar , and the newly described Miniopterus aelleni on Anjouan and northern and western Madagascar . The specific name aelleni honors Prof. Villy Aellen of the Natural History Museum of Geneva , who has done much research on African bats . Within M. aelleni , Goodman and colleagues found some differentiation ( 3 @.@ 4 % sequence divergence in cytochrome b sequences ) between individuals from Montagne d 'Ambre in northern Madagascar and those from Anjouan and Ankarana , near Montagne d 'Ambre ; the cytochrome b divergence between M. aelleni and other Malagasy Miniopterus is 7 to 10 % .
Later in 2009 , Goodman and colleagues described two more species of M. manavi @-@ like Malagasy Miniopterus : M. brachytragos from northern Madagascar and M. mahafaliensis from the southwest . On the basis of cytochrome b sequences , they found that M. aelleni was most closely related to a clade of M. brachytragos , M. manavi , and another recently described Malagasy species , M. petersoni . The five recognized species of M. manavi @-@ like bats are not each other 's closest relatives , but apparently acquired their similarities through convergent evolution . At some places ( for example , Namoroka ) four cryptic species of M. manavi @-@ like bats , including M. aelleni , occur together .
= = Description = =
Miniopterus aelleni is a small , brown Miniopterus species . The head may be slightly lighter in color than the body . Some hairs on the underparts have buff tips . Miniopterus griveaudi is similar in color , but M. manavi is darker and M. brachytragos and M. mahafaliensis are lighter . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is long and has a broad base with a crest at the side , and ends in a blunt to slightly rounded tip . In M. manavi and M. griveaudi , in contrast , the base is narrower , in M. mahafaliensis , the sides of the tragus are parallel , and M. brachytragus has a short , blunt tragus sparsely covered with hair . The wing membrane is also brown , but the uropatagium is lighter . The wing membrane and uropatagium are attached to the upper leg at the same level , above the ankle . The uropatagium is sparsely covered with thin , but clearly visible hairs . In contrast , M. manavi , M. mahafaliensis , and M. brachytragos have densely covered uropatagia and that of M. griveaudi is almost naked . Individuals from Anjouan have significantly shorter hindfeet than those from Madagascar , but otherwise the two populations cannot be distinguished on the basis of external characteristics .
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is short and line @-@ shaped , but longer than in other manavi @-@ like species . The central groove in the nasal depression is relatively narrow . The frontal bones are rounded and bear a well @-@ developed sagittal crest . Further back on the braincase , the lambdoid crest is also prominent . The middle part of the palate is flat , as in M. manavi but unlike in M. brachytragos , M. griveaudi , and M. mahafaliensis , which have a curved palate . At the palate 's back margin is a long , thin posterior palatal spine . Miniopterus aelleni has 36 teeth in the dental formula 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 ( two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in both upper toothrows and three incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars in the lower toothrows ) . As is characteristic of Miniopterus , the first upper premolar ( P2 ; P1 and P3 are missing ) is smaller and more simplified than the second ( P4 ) . There are clear diastemata ( gaps ) between the upper canine ( C1 ) and P2 and between P2 and P4 , which are weaker or absent in M. griveaudi and M. manavi . Behind C1 , the toothrows are about parallel , not divergent as in M. manavi . The third upper molar ( M3 ) is more compressed than in M. manavi and M. griveaudi . In some measurements of the skull and teeth , Anjouan specimens are larger than those from Madagascar .
The animal has a karyotype of 46 chromosomes , with a total of 50 major arms on the autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) . The karyotype is conserved among species of Miniopterus ; the number of chromosomes and arms is identical in M. aelleni , the Malagasy M. griveaudi and M. gleni , and even the Asian M. fuliginosus .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Miniopterus aelleni is known to live from 4 to 225 m ( 13 to 738 ft ) above sea level in northern and western Madagascar , at 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) on Montagne d 'Ambre , northern Madagascar , and from 220 to 690 m ( 720 to 2 @,@ 260 ft ) on Anjouan in the nearby Comoros . On Madagascar , it has been recorded in forest and caves in karst areas ; its distribution broadly overlaps that of M. griveaudi and the two have been found in the same roost sites on several occasions . On Anjouan , M. aelleni is less common than M. griveaudi ; there , it is known from four specimens only , all collected in 2006 . These come from two nearby sites : a rocky area near a river and a disturbed forest . These animals , collected in late November , were in reproductive condition , with two females pregnant and a third lactating . M. griveaudi were reproductively active at the same time , suggesting that the reproductive seasons of the two do not differ significantly . Although some ecological and behavioral data has been published on Miniopterus manavi , the recognition of several cryptic species within this group , more than one of which may occur in any given locality , renders the association of these data with any of the individual species uncertain ; however , species of Miniopterus generally feed on insects . Because M. aelleni is widespread and occurs in many protected areas on Madagascar , Goodman and colleagues inferred that its conservation status is secure .
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= Not Your Kind of People =
Not Your Kind of People is the fifth studio album by American @-@ Scottish alternative rock band Garbage . It was released on May 11 , 2012 through the band 's own record label , Stunvolume . The album marks the return of the band after a seven @-@ year " hiatus " that started with previous album Bleed Like Me . Guitarist Duke Erikson said at the launch of the record that " working with Garbage again was very instinctual . Like getting on a bicycle ... with three other people . " The band emphasized that they did not want to reinvent themselves , but embrace their sonic identity , reflecting their classic sound whilst updating it for 2012 . Although Shirley Manson 's morose dispositions have a presence on the record , many of the songs share a more optimistic outlook on life , influenced by some of Manson 's personal experiences during their hiatus .
Recorded mostly at various recording studios in California , Not Your Kind of People was produced by Garbage , and was engineered and mixed by Billy Bush . The album contains bass guitar parts recorded by Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen while Finnish actress Irina Björklund performs the musical saw on one track . Both daughters of band @-@ members Steve Marker and Butch Vig laid down vocals on the album 's title track . Photos for the album package were shot by Autumn de Wilde at the Paramour Mansion in Silver Lake , Los Angeles .
Not Your Kind of People was preceded by the release of " Blood for Poppies " as the lead single internationally , while in the United Kingdom , " Battle in Me " was marketed as the album 's lead single . The album also spawned three more singles , " Automatic Systematic Habit " , " Big Bright World " , and " Control " . Not Your Kind of People received a generally positive reception from critics . It debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 , at number 10 on the UK albums chart , peaked at number three on Billboard 's Independent Albums chart and topped the Alternative Albums chart .
= = Background = =
Garbage decided to take a hiatus in 2005 , following the troubled production of their fourth studio album Bleed Like Me and cutting short the album 's promotional tour . Aside from a reunion in 2007 to compose new tracks for the compilation Absolute Garbage , the band members found themselves involved in various projects , with Butch Vig producing Green Day , Foo Fighters , and Muse , while singer Shirley Manson recorded an unreleased solo album and made her professional acting debut as a series regular on Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles .
In 2009 , Vig and Manson met at the funeral of Pablo Castelaz , the six @-@ year @-@ old son of Dangerbird Records founder Jeff Castelaz , and had a conversation where , according to Vig , " we felt like we had some unfinished business , and we realized how precious life is and how important music has been in our lives . " Manson suggested calling guitarists Duke Erikson and Steve Marker to get together and write some songs . One week later , the group informally convened in Los Angeles , where they laughed , drank , and reminisced of the old days , leaving behind the tensions among them and general weariness that was partly responsible for their 2005 breakup ; they set up their equipment and " started fucking around . " " We were all pleased to notice on the first day there just didn 't seem to be any personal tensions , " Vig recalled . " Enough time had passed that any sort of weirdness or tension that had risen between us all had dissipated . So it was easy . There was no one telling us what to do . We weren 't signed to a label . We were between managers . So we made this on our own terms . " In that session , the group wrote the song " Battle In Me " .
In mid @-@ 2010 , the entire group were in Los Angeles for a birthday , where Manson suggested they book a studio and spend time writing . Along with Garbage 's long time engineer and Manson 's husband Billy Bush , the band , as Bush described , " hung out for a couple weeks , drank some wine and played a bunch of music ” . Three or four song ideas came together during this time . " But we didn 't go right into making @-@ a @-@ record mode " , Erikson recalled . " It took a bit of time for us to realize that we were going to make an album . " Erikson described reconvening as a piecemeal process , saying that it informally began with the first phone conversations among them since their hiatus , as they discussed playing together again . After convening , and composing and performing song ideas together through multiple sessions , they then decided to move forward with the band and embark on a full @-@ length album . The project took off in February 2011 , when Manson called Vig proposing to reunite the band and try making a new record . Manson convoked the group out of an eagerness " to make loud music again " . " I 'm a loud person " , she proclaimed ; " I love noise and aggression . I crave contact . I needed to make that connection again . I think we all did . To get something back up when there was absolutely no momentum took a Herculean effort on everybody 's part . It 's like pulling yourself out of mud . Even to stand back up and say ' we 're going to take another swing at this ' was a scary feeling , and I 'm proud of us for trying . It 's much easier to stay at home . ”
The band members stated that following the troublesome final years signed to Geffen Records , being an independent act again helped improve their mood and approach , with Vig remarking , " There were no expectations ; no one even knew we were recording . So it was all under the radar and pretty casual and we all felt inspired after having that amount of time off ... when we started writing songs , they came fast and furious . We probably wrote 24 , 25 songs over the course of a couple of months . Marker commented that " the business stuff ends up taking over some of that fun . We got really bogged down in people 's expectations of what we were supposed to be doing , being on bigger record labels and stuff . With all that behind us , it was suddenly exciting again and it felt a lot like it did when we first formed , which was really just sort of a fun idea that we had . " Manson added , " People at record companies live in fear of being wrong . Music cannot thrive in that environment . It is an unruly art form . You can 't keep treating it like sausage meat . You have to let it morph and move and breathe . "
Manson stated that eliminating the corporate pressure and indifference , as well as the band having a relaxed approach to the making of the record was pivotal for a healthy regroup , writing and recording process . " We didn 't put any pressure on ourselves to finish an album ... We just took our time and got together in two @-@ week blocks of time - any longer than that I 'm sure we would have started getting on each others ' nerves . So we did two weeks and then we 'd take some time off and then when everybody felt ready we 'd get back in [ the studio ] again . As a result , I think everybody really enjoyed our time together and really plugged in " , she remarked . Never much enjoying being in a studio , Manson relished the record @-@ making process this time around .
= = Recording = =
Unlike the previous albums , which were done at Vig 's Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin , Not Your Kind of People was mostly recorded in Los Angeles , where both Vig and Manson live . Smart was only used for some of Erikson 's parts , as he was the only bandmember still in Wisconsin . The working process was also different ; while the previous records had the band gathering for an entire year at Smart Studios , the band would instead work two weeks per month in Los Angeles , with Erikson and Marker flying in from Wisconsin and Colorado , respectively , then spend another two weeks in their home studios while e @-@ mailing ideas back and forth to develop songs . Manson would also visit Vig 's GrungeIsDead studio to experiment with vocals . Then they would get back together in the studio , which according to Marker " would be fun again because we hadn 't seen these people for a couple of weeks . "
The first recordings were done in two weeks of jam sessions at The Pass in Studio City . The band then moved to Bush 's studio Red Razor Sounds at Atwater Village , where the engineer did a rough mix of the tracks . Vig declared that the album 's mood emerged from the combination of the " trashy and lo @-@ tech " studio which he compared to a small clubhouse with the band 's ProTools and samplers . The band had a looser approach to recording and mixing compared to the " nano @-@ editing " of Version 2 @.@ 0 .
The band worked on estimatedly " 25 or 26 songs " during the album sessions ; While a few were still " bits and pieces " , Vig stated they might finish them as further bonus tracks , B @-@ sides , or as part of an EP at a later point . Erikson said that the bonus tracks of the deluxe edition are songs that were not ready in time to join the regular track list . He also said that while most songs were new compositions , some were old ideas , such as the " 10 years old or something " track " Show Me " . Throughout the recording sessions for the album , the band mentioned several song titles via Facebook and Twitter ; these included : " Alone " , " Animal " , " Choose Your Weapon " , " Time Will Destroy Everything " and " T.R.O.U.B.L.E. " . Manson confirmed on Twitter that " Animal " became " The One " , a song from the deluxe version , while " Time Will Destroy Everything " was released as the b @-@ side to the band 's 2014 Record Store Day single , " Girls Talk " .
= = Composition and style = =
According to Vig , Not Your Kind of People evokes ambient vibes of Garbage 's first two albums , Garbage and Version 2 @.@ 0 : " There 's lots of elements of things we 've always loved : noisy guitars , big electronic beats , atmospheric film moments " , adding that the band " wanted to make a record sound like something that we want to hear when we 're driving the car . " While the record was reminiscent " vibe @-@ wise " of the band 's early work , the production aimed for a rawer sound , instead of cleaning up the sound through computers , to " capture a performance " and " sound kind of trashy and for the songs to blow out a little bit . " Vig said , " we tried to leave a lot of the performance raw on this album . A lot of the songs , we sort of throw paint at the wall and some of it sticks and some of it drips off . " He explained that the group avoided reinventing themselves : " We wanted to just embrace exactly who we are and what we like to do and just sort of update it sonically for 2012 . For better or worse , when we approach a song , it 's going to end up sounding like Garbage . I think we have a strong sonic identity , and I think that 's an asset these days . " Manson similarly noted that what mattered most was the record sounding authentic to who they are as a band . Manson considered that while the record recalled the band 's classic sound " it fits in with radio programming right now " ; She said that they are interested in also reaching a new generation and , regarding their distinct sound , " We don 't sound like anyone else on the radio . Much to our surprise there hasn 't been another band like ours since we came off the road . "
Like the band 's earlier releases , the album features a variety of guitar configurations as well as electronic synths . Erikson said that initially they gather with the standard guitar @-@ bass @-@ drum and keyboard gear , and as they pass around different ideas and implement them the songs take form in any which way a session takes them . " Once we started on the album proper , it became a Garbage record , which is any number of approaches to writing a recording . There were no rules , certainly " , he explained . A song like " Automatic Systematic Habit " features more electronics than guitars , and " Big Bright World " , a guitar @-@ heavy song , involves configurations that make some of the guitars sound like synths . Guitar parts are normally divvied between guitarists Marker and Erikson . Erikson said it comes down to " Whoever comes up with what at any given time . There 's no job description as far as lead guitar / rhythm guitar . It 's just whoever has an idea as a articular [ sic ] moment . It 's usually about 50 / 50 " . Erikson and Marker used a variety of guitars and pedals , old , new , and defective .
Vig recalled that the title " Not Your Kind of People " came to him when he was stuck in a traffic jam in Los Angeles ; he texted Manson the idea for a title and she loved it . Manson wrote all the lyrics that night , and the next day the four of them gathered with acoustic guitars and wrote the music to the song in about half an hour . Manson explained that the album title Not Your Kind of People was " a call to arms in a way to anyone who feels like we do about the world " , saying that " it can be great to be outsider . " She felt that this applied to them as the band " never fit into a music scene " and that " in my life I 've never been an insider . " Manson also described the title as " a two @-@ fingered salute to people who reject or criticize us " , stating the band was " only really interested in people who share our outlook " as she considered that their fans were " the people who connect with what you 're saying and how you say it . "
Most of the lyrics were written by Manson as she included and filtered some of her bandmates ' ideas on songwriting . " It was a very do @-@ it @-@ yourself , homemade thing when it comes down to it " , Erikson explained ; " We all pitch in . Shirley had just as many comments on the guitar parts or the sound of the guitars as anybody else , and likewise , if we don 't like a lyric , we say it right away . " Many songs have a more optimistic view in life , inspired by Manson overcoming a desire to quit music after the death of her mother and realizing how important her work is to her . Darker themes still appear as Manson described herself as " enthusiastic and passionate , but I do see death marching toward me . " " Blood for Poppies " came " from a lot of things " , Manson said ; " It 's really an analogy for a story I read about Afghanistan and the opium wars over there ... it 's from a few stories , one about a platoon of soldiers in Afghanistan and the other about the opium wars . I use that as a backdrop for a story about maintaining sanity in an out @-@ of @-@ control place . " " [ It 's about ] remaining sane , when faced with insanity " , she added . " I Hate Love " criticized " the commercialized idea of love and what pain that puts us through " along with " knowing that there will be no more torture in your life than really , truly loving somebody who doesn 't love you back . " Manson also incorporated some self @-@ confidence and knowledge of her personality achieved during acting classes , in which she accepted that " was never going to be the cheerleader or the beautiful , conventional girl who fits in everywhere . "
" Big Bright World " contains a lyrical sample from the poem " Do not go gentle into that good night " by Dylan Thomas . Both daughters of Steve Marker and Butch Vig laid down vocals on the album 's title track . Finnish actress Irina Björklund performs the musical saw on " Sugar " . " Beloved Freak " includes a sample of Klaus Nomi , as the group felt the artist fit Manson 's lyrics about " people being an outsider , feeling like a freak , and not fitting in and trying to come to terms with that it 's okay to feel like you 're an outsider . "
KROQ @-@ FM and MTV Buzzworthy described the sound of the album as electronic rock ; The Huffington Post noted " the band has maintained their signature dark , driving , trip @-@ hoppy sound " , while Jason Heller of The A.V. Club wrote that " the group 's shoegaze influences are more in vogue now than they were 15 years ago . "
= = Release and promotion = =
A post on Garbage 's Facebook page on January 23 , 2012 announced that the band launched their own record label , Stunvolume , to self @-@ release their new studio album , distributed in the United States by Fontana . Overseas distribution deals were made with Cooperative Music , Liberator Music , Sony Music Japan and Universal Canada . On March 7 , 2012 , Garbage confirmed the album track listing via YouTube . Four further tracks recorded for the deluxe edition were confirmed later in a press release issued through the band 's own label . In the United Kingdom , 250 copies of the deluxe edition were signed by Garbage and issued as part of the Record Store Day campaign . The album had a worldwide release date of May 14 , 2012 . At the launch of the record , guitarist Duke Erikson said that " working with Garbage again was very instinctual . Like getting on a bicycle ... with three other people " ; Erikson added , " We haven 't felt this good about a Garbage record since the last one . " Los Angeles @-@ based studio SMOG Design handled the album 's artwork and creative campaign , featuring band photographs by Autumn de Wilde . According to Duke Erikson , for the cover " there was some art that we wanted to do but we didn 't want to spend what the artist wanted us to " , so instead of " a very colorful and complex cover " they opted to go the other way and be simplistic , with only a lowercase " g " .
= = = Singles = = =
" Blood for Poppies " was confirmed as the lead single to launch the album . The song was made available for free digital download from the group 's website after it leaked online early . A digital single was confirmed for release in Australia ; while a limited edition 7 " single , backed with an exclusive remix by Butch Vig , was distributed to independent record stores across North America to mark Record Store Day on April 21 , 2012 . " Battle In Me " was confirmed as the lead @-@ single exclusively for the United Kingdom . A limited edition 7 " vinyl was issued on April 21 to mark Record Store Day , while a proper commercial release followed on May 7 , 2012 . To promote the album , " Automatic Systematic Habit " was released as a free download through iTunes in the US on May 8 , 2012 . " Big Bright World " was released as the album 's second single in Australia on June 1 , 2012 . On July 8 , Manson announced that " Control " was the band 's next US single .
= = = Songs in other media = = =
In the same year of release , " Blood for Poppies " appeared in an episode of True Blood titled " Whatever I Am , You Made Me " , while " Control " was used in the 2012 video game The Amazing Spider @-@ Man and featured in the launch trailer of the game . The song also appeared in the season 4 episode of The Vampire Diaries " Bring It On " . " Sugar " appeared in an episode of The Following , and the title track " Not Your Kind of People " was later featured in its entirety in the trailer and soundtrack for Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain .
= = World tour = =
In late 2011 , Garbage announced their return to touring upon the release of Not Your Kind of People , marking the band 's first live performances since 2007 , and their first tour since 2005 . " Thinking about going back on the road is both thrilling and terrifying in equal measure , " Manson stated , " ... but we 've always enjoyed a little pain mixed in with our pleasure . " Manson considered that self @-@ reflection helped change the way the group approached touring , and , as a result , " we 're playing the best shows of our career . " Eric Avery , who performed with the band during their Bleed Like Me tour , rejoined them as the tour bassist . The band played concerts throughout North and South America , Europe , Oceania and Asia .
= = Critical reception = =
Not Your Kind of People received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , it received a weighted average score of 63 based on 28 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . In his review for The Guardian , Dave Simpson gave the album four out of five stars , stating that it " returns to the blueprint of their first two , best albums " while lessening the electronics and augmenting the crunchy guitars , with a contemporary production . He praised the title track , deeming it a " surprise " and a " beautiful , otherworldly cross between a John Barry Bond theme and a David Bowie outsider anthem . " Cameron Adams of The Courier @-@ Mail wrote that " musically , they still find that sweet spot between Motown and Nirvana , via the Pretenders and Prodigy " , and considered it " refreshing " that the band is " still pushing pop music to its darkest limits . "
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that unlike their previous two albums , " there is no grappling with new sounds and styles , only an embrace of the thick aural onslaught of " Stupid Girl " and " Vow " . He complimented Manson 's " keenly aware lyrics " and said that their hooks are efficiently delivered while " no flab in either the composition or production " is evident . He summarized the album " as a simultaneous testament and revival of their strengths " , but " what once was futuristic now sounds nostalgic . " Tim Grierson wrote in The About Group that out of the many ' 90s bands that reunited in the last few years , " none have done it with as much gusto as Garbage " as they " return with their sexy , edgy vibe intact " and Manson " sounds as ferocious and bruised as ever . "
The Bangkok Post noted that the band " stick [ s ] firmly to their ' 90s alt @-@ rock guns . " Their " fuzzy @-@ guitar / catchy @-@ hook formula continues to dominate the album " and amidst the fuzz and electronics , " the title @-@ track , Sugar and Beloved Freak do offer moments of ( relatively ) quiet bliss " — songs that " refreshingly showcase the essence of Manson 's voice " . It is proposed however that , apart from older , devoted 90 's fans , the album probably won 't connect with contemporary audiences . In his review for Time , Adam Kivel likewise stated that the album is most likely to resonate with fans of 90 's alternative fusion , characterizing it as " an anomaly " in the current musical climate and not likely to gain significant radio @-@ play . Lindsay Zoladz of Pitchfork Media summarized the album as " a statement from a band that 's stuck , combatively , to its guns . The times have changed but Garbage haven 't , and now , for better and for worse , they 've at last become alternative to everything . "
NME writer Rick Martin , despite hearing " flashes of their previous class " proving " they haven 't completely lost their confrontational electro @-@ rock streak " , considered too much of it " pedestrian , anodyne and utterly unremarkable " , and wondered " why they ever ditched the near @-@ perfect mid- ' 90s FM rock of " Stupid Girl " . " BBC Music writer Tom Hocknell felt that the band 's relocation to L.A. made " no discernible difference to the band 's sound " but that " despite occasional lapses into overproduced mess , the surprise here is their enthusiasm . " Similarly , Jamie Carson of Clash disapproved of the production , calling it " pompousness " and " annoying " , and Mark Davison of No Ripcord remarked that " for all the interesting noises that the band have come up with ... the production really doesn 't do them any favours , cramming them into a fairly narrow space and stripping them almost entirely of any sense of atmosphere " , concluding that the album is nonetheless " enjoyable , and will probably go down better than their last two releases . "
Not Your Kind of People was listed at number 44 on Rolling Stone 's list of the top 50 albums of 2012 .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Not Your Kind of People was released exclusively through iTunes during its first week , and debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 with 19 @,@ 000 digital copies sold in its first week . In its second week , the album rose to number 13 with sales of over 22 @,@ 000 copies . As of June 2016 , the album has sold 98 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In the United Kingdom , it became the band 's fifth top @-@ 10 studio album when it entered the UK Albums Chart at number 10 with first @-@ week sales of 8 @,@ 310 copies . The album also debuted at number 33 on the Japanese Oricon chart , selling 1 @,@ 983 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Garbage .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the deluxe edition of Not Your Kind of People .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Playtex =
Playtex is an American brand name for undergarments , baby products , gloves , feminine products and sunscreen . It was founded in 1947 , when International Latex Corporation ( ILC ) created a division named Playtex to produce and sell latex products . Playtex was the first to advertise undergarments on national television in 1955 and the first to show a woman wearing only a bra from the waist @-@ up in a commercial in 1977 .
Playtex @-@ branded tampons were introduced in the 1960s and became the primary competition to incumbent Tampax . Playtex invented the plastic tampon applicator in 1973 . It was one of the tampon manufacturers that were sued for aggressively advertising over @-@ absorbent tampons , which led to toxic shock syndrome .
Playtex was acquired by Esmark in 1975 , and then by Beatrice Foods in 1985 . A year later it was acquired for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion and its cosmetics brands were sold to Revlon . In 1988 , Playtex split into two companies , Playtex Apparel Inc. and Playtex Products LLC . Playtex Apparel was sold to Sara Lee in 1991 , and to HanesBrands in 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Abram Nathaniel Spanel founded Playtex 's predecessor , the International Latex Corporation ( ILC ) , in 1932 to produce latex products , like bathing caps , swimwear and baby pants . ILC moved to Dover , Delaware , in 1939 , making it the first large , non @-@ agricultural business in the city .
ILC did not produce apparel for adults until the introduction of the Living Girdle in 1940 , after patenting a method of manufacturing latex girdles that would not tear at the seams if they had a small tear or hole . The Living Girdle was advertised with images of mobility and comfort , such as women playing tennis or leaping while wearing it , though the solid rubber girdle was actually very uncomfortable .
During World War II , the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the Japanese invasion of Malaysia cut off Allied manufacturers from their largest sources of latex . As supplies ran out and demand for consumer products fell , ILC halted production ; sales would not resume until 1946 . The company almost went out of business during the war , so it created an industrial division to find government and military applications for latex . Playtex was founded in 1947 as one of four divisions ILC re @-@ organized into . Its name was a portmanteau of " play " and " latex " , reflecting its focus on latex products . Playtex 's marketing in the post @-@ war era was influential in creating the shift from custom @-@ tailored undergarments to manufactured sizes . For example , the company introduced large floor displays with fitting charts , so women could find the right size without a custom fitting .
In 1954 , ILC was sold to Stanley Warner Corporation for $ 15 million ( $ 132 million in modern dollars ) . The following year , it was the first to advertise under @-@ garments on network television . In 1962 , the industrial division of Playtex was awarded a contract to develop space suits for the Apollo mission to the moon . Two years prior to the 1969 moon landing that used its latex suits , Playtex 's industrial division was spun off , eventually becoming ILC Dover .
Playtex created a consumer products subsidiary , Playtex Products Inc . , in 1960 , which produced baby products , tampons and other consumer goods . It introduced and patented the first plastic tampon applicator in 1973 . By 1975 , the five largest tampon manufacturers began competing with multimillion @-@ dollar advertising budgets and Playtex became the primary competitor to market @-@ leader Tampax . Playtex introduced a scented tampon that was advertised with the slogan , " When you 're wearing a tampon you don 't worry about odor . But should you ? " It added a warning label saying that some women may experience irritation from the chemicals after complaints were raised by Planned Parenthood . Tampon manufacturers , including Playtex , were sued for aggressively advertising and competing over absorbency , when some studies found that excessive absorbency leads to toxic shock syndrome . In 1985 , a judge offered to reduce an $ 11 million verdict against Playtex , if they admitted their super @-@ plus tampons were killing women and recalled them .
= = = Joel Smilow era = = =
Joel Smilow became chief executive officer ( CEO ) of Playtex in 1969 and was associated with the company through five owners . The company was acquired by Esmark in 1975 for $ 210 million ( $ 924 million in modern dollars ) .
By the early 1980s , Playtex controlled 25 percent of the market for bras , giving it the largest market @-@ share in the industry . In 1982 Playtex acquired the skin and hair products brand , Jhirmack Enterprises Inc . , for $ 28 @.@ 3 million . ( $ 69 @.@ 4 million in modern dollars ) . Three years later Esmark sold Playtex to Beatrice Foods . Four years later an investor group led by Smilow bought Playtex for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 7 billion in modern dollars ) . To help fund the acquisition , the company 's cosmetics brands , Max Factor , Almay and Halston , were sold to Revlon for $ 345 million . ( $ 690 million in modern dollars ) .
The following year , the National Association of Broadcasters ( NAB ) relaxed rules regarding partial nudity on television , which previously forced undergarment manufacturers to use mannequins in their commercials , despite bathing suits and equally revealing swimwear being allowed . Playtex was the first to advertise with a live model wearing only a bra from the waist up . This attracted criticisms from members of the American Family Association and the Eagle Forum . The New York Times called the ads , " totally inoffensive " and CBS 's spokesman said they were " well done , tasteful and not exploitative . "
Ownership of the remaining apparel and consumer products divisions were split among the company 's leadership ( 28 percent ) , BCI Holdings ( 20 percent ) , Drexel Burnham ( 19 percent ) and institutional investors ( 33 percent ) . The following year the company attempted to sell the Family Products division to Johnson and Johnson but the deal fell through .
In 1988 Playtex split into two companies , Playtex Apparel and Playtex Family Products , in a series of financial transactions totaling $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . The transactions allowed Smilow to buy out other Playtex shareholders and put ownership of the brand into two separate investment groups that were owned by Smilow and other Playtex executives . In 1990 Playtex Products acquired cosmetics brand Maybelline for $ 300 million . ( $ 543 million in modern dollars ) . The next year Smilow sold Playtex Apparel to the Sara Lee Corporation , transferring the Bali , Hanes , and Cross Your Heart brands for $ 571 million , ( $ 992 million in modern dollars ) but keeping the Playtex Family Products Corporation .
In November of that year , Sara Lee also bought a 25 percent stake in Playtex Family Products for $ 62 @.@ 5 million . ( $ 109 million in modern dollars ) . Playtex Products Inc. went public in 1994 . In 1995 , another 40 percent of Playtex Products Inc. was sold to Haas Wheat & Harrison Investment Partners for $ 180 million ( $ 280 million in modern dollars ) .
= = = Recent history = = =
Playtex Products continued to erode Tampax 's ' market share throughout the late 20th century . The two companies had divided the market almost evenly by the late 1990s . Both makers increased profits primarily by reducing the tampon count per box , and prepared to enter emerging markets , particularly in Asia , where many women still used homemade pads . In 1997 Procter & Gamble ( P & G ) , makers of Always sanitary napkins and pantiliners , bought Tambrands for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion , its largest acquisition up to that point , returning to the tampon sector almost two decades after pulling Rely from the market over Toxic Shock Syndrome concerns .
Due to its strong advantage among younger women , and baby boomers reaching menopause , Playtex continued to gain market share on Tampax . After extensive market research , Tampax reversed that trend with the 2002 introduction of Pearl , with an applicator designed to be as visually appealing as it was functional , and making the brand once again appealing to teens .
Playtex responded by litigating . In one suit , it alleged patent infringement over Pearl 's applicator design . It also alleged that advertising claiming Tampax Pearl had better leakage protection and comfort than Gentle Glide was false . Playtex won a verdict prohibiting Tampax from making claims of superiority , until the decision was reversed in 2007 , when Tampax made improvements in materials and manufacturing .
In 2006 , Sara Lee spun off its clothing sector into HanesBrands Inc . , which now runs the Playtex apparel business . The next year Playtex Products acquired the Hawaiian Tropic sunscreen company for $ 83 million . Later that year Playtex Products was acquired by Energizer Holdings for $ 1 @.@ 16 billion . Playtex Products was sued in 2008 , when a mother accused the company of not adequately disclosing their baby bottles contained bisphenol A. After Canada considered banning the chemical , the company took it out of their bottles the following year . In 2008 , Playtex Products was acquired by Energizer Holdings .
In 2013 , the Playtex intimate apparel brand launched a $ 10 million integrated marketing campaign called " Be Uniquely You . " This 360 rebranding included new bra styles and packaging and a strong presence in social media and national TV ads . The new campaign was created by KraftWorks NYC , their primary advertising agency since 2002 .
= = Organization = =
The Playtex trademark is owned by Playtex Marketing Corp. in the United States and Canada . They license the trademark to HBI Branded Apparel Enterprise ( a subsidiary of Hanesbrands ) for Playtex @-@ branded apparel and Playtex Products Inc ( a subsidiary of Energizer Holdings ) for baby products , gloves and feminine products . Hanesbrands and Energizer Holdings each own a fifty percent interest in Playtex Marketing Corp. Hanesbrands also owns the rights to the brand name for use with apparel internationally , except in Europe and South Africa , where DBA Apparel ( itself acquired by Hanes in 2014 ) sells Playtex @-@ branded apparel products . Playtex Products LLC is managed under the Personal Care Division of Energizer Holdings .
= = Products = =
According to Energizer Holdings ' 2012 annual report , Playtex Products LLC is the largest producer of household gloves , hand wipes and sunscreen , as well as the second largest producer of tampons in the US . The best @-@ selling Playtex tampon is the Gentle Glide brand , which was first introduced in 1973 . It also manufactures the Playtex Sport tampon , which targets young athletes . Both brands are sold in regular , super and super @-@ plus absorbency . Playtex had a 29 percent share of a $ 550 million market for tampons in 1994 and a 30 percent share of a $ 780 million market by 2000 .
Historically baby products were a small portion of Playtex Products ' revenues , but by 2000 they made up 38 percent of the company 's revenues . As of that year it had a 60 percent share of the market for " sippy cups " and an 84 percent share of the market for disposable baby @-@ bottle liners . Other baby products include Chubs Baby Wipes , Baby Magic toiletries ( until 2007 ) , and Diaper Genie . Playtex Products also manufactures the Banana Boat and Hawaiian Tropic sunscreen brands , household gloves , diaper pails , cleansing cloths and the Ortho @-@ Pro and Binky pacifiers .
Playtex @-@ branded apparel products sold by Hanesbrands include bras , panties and shapewear . According to Hanesbrands , Playtex is the fourth largest brand by revenue in its portfolio . The brand has the strongest loyalty among customers who prioritize fit . As of 2002 , Playtex was the second most popular brand of bras . In addition to panties and shapewear , Playtex bra brands include :
Cross Your Heart
Eighteen @-@ hour bra
Playtex Secrets
Full support
Everyday basics
The company has been producing and marketing the Cross Your Heart bra since 1954 under the slogan that it " lifts and separates , " a phrase that is now well known in popular culture . The Eighteen Hour bra has been marketed on the premise of comfort since the 1970s .
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= Solo ( Boyd novel ) =
Solo is a James Bond continuation novel written by William Boyd . It was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 26 September 2013 in hardback , e @-@ book and audio editions , and in the US by HarperCollins on 8 October 2013 .
The plot centres on Bond 's mission to the civil war in the fictional country of Zanzarim — a thinly veiled version of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War — where he meets the local MI6 contact , Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant , and a Rhodesian mercenary , Kobus Breed . After being shot by Ogilvy @-@ Grant , Bond tracks both people to Washington on a revenge mission , finally establishing that Breed is drug trafficking heroin into the US .
Boyd closely based his version of the Bond character on Fleming 's , and eschewed any of the film versions . The novel is set in 1969 — six years after Fleming 's last work was set — and Bond is 45 years old . Boyd was raised in Nigeria and used his experiences during the civil war to provide the location for the novel . He has been a Bond fan since his youth and , in preparation for writing the novel he read all the Bond stories in chronological order . It took 18 months to write the novel , with some friction between Boyd and the Fleming estate over the portrayal of Bond .
Solo received mixed reviews , with a number of critics pointing to the convoluted and unstirring plot . Other critics saw the book as being equal with , or superior to , Fleming 's stronger novels . The book sold well , appearing in the top ten @-@ selling book lists in the UK .
= = Plot = =
After celebrating his 45th birthday alone at The Dorchester , Bond is sent to Zanzarim to bring a speedy end to the civil war in the country which has seen the delta region of the country split to form the Democratic Republic of Dahum . Before leaving for Africa , Bond visits Gabriel Adeka — the rebel leader 's brother — who runs AfriKIN , a London @-@ based charity who send aid to Dahumni children ; Gabriel tells Bond that he is not in contact with his brother Solomon , as the pair have fallen out .
On his arrival in Zanzarim , Bond is aided by a local agent who introduces herself as Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant . The two travel from the capital city to the rebel enclave , but are attacked shortly before reaching their destination and taken captive by Kobus Breed , a mercenary assisting the rebels . The group are attacked on their return journey and Ogilvy @-@ Grant goes missing in the confusion , while Bond escapes .
Bond proceeds to the enclave , where he is met by Breed , who accepts Bond 's cover as a journalist . Bond meets Solomon Adeka and realises that the leader will shortly die of cancer : his mission to kill Adeka is needless . Bond sees supply flights of arms and equipment coming into the country , all funded by billionaire Hulbert Linck ; the aeroplanes all show the AfriKIN name on the fuselage . When Adeka dies a few days later , Bond tries to leave the country on one of the supply flights , but is confronted by Breed and Blessing , who both shoot him and leave him to die .
Bond is saved by a journalist he befriended and returns to the UK , where he spends time in a military hospital . After discharging himself , he decides to go on a revenge mission against Breed and Ogilvy @-@ Grant . Discovering AfriKIN has relocated to Washington DC , Bond travels to the US and tracks down both of them at the AfriKIN offices . While conducting surveillance against the company , Bond is briefly detained by Brigham Leiter — nephew of Felix — of the CIA , who explains Ogilvy @-@ Grant also works for the CIA .
Bond meets Ogilvy @-@ Grant , who assures him that she shot to wound him in order that Breed would not shoot them both . The following day Bond watches a mercy flight bringing in maimed and injured Zanzarimi children ; he dines alone and returns to his hotel to find that Breed has killed Ogilvy @-@ Grant .
Bond attacks the house where Breed is staying with the children , and incapacitates the mercenary , leaving him for dead . He establishes that the children are being used as drug mules to smuggle raw heroin into the country and locates Solomon Adeka , who had not been killed in Africa , but been turned into a heroin addict in order to control him . Adeka 's older brother had been killed in London , ensuring Solomon became chief of the tribe whose lands held massive amounts of oil : as he was an addict , these rights were signed away in favour of Hulbert Linck . Linck was killed by the CIA during the raid on the house .
= = Characters and themes = =
The central character of the novel is James Bond , the fictional MI6 agent created by Ian Fleming . The author , William Boyd modelled his version of the character on Fleming 's version , which Boyd identified as being very different from the version seen in the films . Solo is set in 1969 — six years after Fleming 's last work was set — and the novel begins with Bond celebrating his 45th birthday . Boyd altered aspects of the character , making him " an older , wiser Bond " ' ; while having coffee on the King 's Road , Bond 's " advancing age lends an undertone of poignancy to his almost detached observation of the bra @-@ less , mini @-@ skirted cavalcade " . Boyd 's version of Bond is " more impulsive , less emotionally guarded , and also more sadistic " than Fleming 's , and he has the facility for extreme violence : Bond 's " casual sexism has gone , to be replaced by a flaring lust that teeters on the edge of being out of control , and has to be reined in " .
The primary antagonist of the novel is Kobus Breed , a mercenary with a disfigured face and a permanently weeping eye who had previously served with the Rhodesian Light Infantry in Matabeleland ; Olen Steinhauer , writing in The New York Times thinks the scarred villain to be " an obligatory nod toward the requirements of the Bond formula " . Some writers are unimpressed with Breed ; Robert Crampton of The Sunday Times thinks that the character " feels more like a henchman than a proper power @-@ crazed villain . He has menace , but no ambition . You wait for the evil genius to turn up — but he never does " , while David Sexton in the London Evening Standard thinks the character " lacks charisma " , and David Connett in the Sunday Express considers him " a colourless character in comparison with factual and fictional counterparts " . The journalist Geoffrey Wansell in the Daily Mail disagreed and Breed , along with a second villain , millionaire Hulbert Linck , were as strong as some of Fleming 's villains ; Steinhauer also thought that the novel 's villains were realistic , " motivated by simple greed yet clever enough to be legitimately dangerous " . There are two main female characters in Solo — a horror film actress , Bryce Fitzjohn and the local MI6 contact Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant ; rather like many of Fleming 's female characters , both are " determined females who are not to be patronised by Bond " .
The main theme of the novel is revenge . Bond is stopped from leaving Zanzarim by Breed and subsequently shot and badly wounded by Ogilvy @-@ Grant ; he tracks down the pair to Washington and attempts to get his revenge from the pair . According to the Sunday Business Post , " this is where the author comes into his own , along with our hero , and it 's all taken up a notch . " Associated with the revenge is treachery : it is a subject that recurred through Fleming 's works , and Boyd uses it to provide a motive for Bond 's mission of revenge .
= = Background = =
On 31 March 2012 Boyd announced at the Oxford Literary Festival that he was working on a novel set in Africa . Boyd had lived in Nigeria — " where his mother was a teacher and his father a doctor " — during the Nigerian Civil War , which " had a profound effect on him . " On 11 April 2012 the Fleming estate announced that Boyd would write a Bond novel to follow Jeffery Deaver 's 2011 novel Carte Blanche . The civil war , over the attempted secession by Biafra from Nigeria , was the location for Solo , although Boyd renamed this as the fictional Zanzarim .
On 15 April 2013 Boyd announced the book 's title at the London Book Fair . The announcement was part of the " Author of the Day " event at the English Pen Literary Café . Selected press were invited to the event and were given a brief opportunity to question Boyd about the book 's title . Boyd believes the short title is " strikingly apt " for the novel . He remarked that " titles are very important " to him , and that as soon as he " wrote down Solo on a sheet of paper I saw its potential . Not only did it fit the theme of the novel perfectly , it 's also a great punchy word , instantly and internationally comprehensible , graphically alluring and , as an extra bonus , it 's strangely Bondian in the sense that we might be subliminally aware of the ' 00 ' of ' 007 ' lurking just behind those juxtaposed O 's of SOLO " .
For background Boyd read all the Bond stories in chronological order ; and had researched Fleming and the literary Bond 's background . Boyd was a child when his father introduced him to Fleming 's works . As a result , Boyd found himself also becoming fascinated with Ian Fleming . He told reporters that he was interested in Bond as a human being . " Bond is not just a superhero . He has flaws , he has weaknesses , he makes mistakes . ... That was Fleming 's genius . " The novel is set in 1969 when Bond is 45 ; Boyd intentionally picked the year , further adding that " there are no gimmicks , it 's a real spy story . " Boyd criticised how the filmmakers have portrayed Bond onscreen as a " cartoon character " ; he also believes that Bond should be " troubled and a massive boozer . " The novel reflects Boyd 's view , where Bond " drinks enough to float a boat . He drinks so much you wonder that he ever has the time or inclination to do anything else " .
The writing process took 18 months and Boyd was required to run synopses and drafts through the Fleming estate , a process he described as " benevolent surveillance " . The process was not always smooth , and the author had a number of arguments with the estate over the portrayal of Bond : " they were concerned about Bond being seen as an assassin , but I would argue Bond is sent on an assassination mission in at least four Fleming books " , with further issues over Bond 's relationship with M.
Boyd described writing the book as " tremendous fun " and a " once in a lifetime challenge " , but admitted that he had to take it " really , really seriously . " After completing the writing process , Boyd commented that he did not " attempt to write as pastiche Fleming novel ... it 's my own voice ; I 'm dealing with things and subjects I am interested in ... it is very much my novel ; it just features these characters invented by Fleming .
= = Release and reception = =
Solo was launched on 25 September 2013 at the Dorchester Hotel . Seven copies of the book were signed by Boyd , were collected by seven Jensen Interceptors and were then flown by British Airways to Amsterdam , Edinburgh , Zurich , Los Angeles , Delhi , Cape Town and Sydney . The book was released into the shops on 26 September 2013 ; the hardcover book was published by Jonathan Cape and was 336 pages long and cost £ 18 @.@ 99 . An e @-@ book edition was also released , as was an audio book , narrated by Dominic West . The hardcover edition was released in the US by HarperCollins on 8 October 2013 for $ 26 @.@ 99 .
The jacket was designed by Suzanne Dean , the creative director at Random House . The book 's dust jacket featured die @-@ cut bullet holes , while the hardcover binding featured " burn marks " under the holes . Dean commented that she took inspiration from the 1960s in her design , and was influenced by the graphic designers Saul Bass , Paul Rand and Alvin Lustig .
= = = Reviews = = =
The novel sold nearly 9 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , although that was 48 % down on Deaver 's 2011 novel Carte Blanche , and even further behind Sebastian Faulks 's 2008 book Devil May Care . By 10 October the London Evening Standard listed the books as number one on the London 's Bestsellers list , and in the two weeks of 5 and 12 October 2013 was shown as number 3 in the UK fiction best sellers list , dropping to fourth place on 19 October 2013 .
Solo received mixed reviews . A number of reviewers , including Robert McCrum in The Guardian , David Mills in The Sunday Times and Olen Steinhauer in The New York Times , all considered the book to be equal with , or superior to , Fleming 's stronger novels . Steinhauer considered that it was Boyd 's description of the Zanzarim civil war that gave the novel its " greatest power " , but he also thought there was a " neat metafictional trick " by connecting Bond 's wartime experiences with 30 Assault Unit — a British Commando unit developed by Fleming . The connection was also picked up by Geoffrey Wansell , reviewing for the Daily Mail , who saw the tribute paid to Fleming as a " masterstroke " , in a novel that he thought " brings back the real Bond , triumphantly " . Writing in The Guardian , Richard Williams saw Boyd using some similar phrasing of Fleming 's , while also including " gestures of independence " with his own ideas . The result , Williams considers , is a story that " entertains far more than it exasperates " .
Much of the criticism about the novel focuses on the plot ; Jon Stock , writing in The Daily Telegraph , thought that although Boyd used details in the same way Fleming did that would appeal to Bond aficionados , the book was based on " a curiously unstirring plot " , which was also " convoluted " . The National 's Nick Leech also noted the use of details , but considered that this led to " a pedantic , meandering narrative " which led to " an underwhelming finale " . Writing in the London Evening Standard , David Sexton agreed , calling the book a " rather inattentive novel " , that was a " lame outing " in the Bond canon . David Connett was another who saw flaws in the novel , calling it " anaemic stuff " , although it was " far superior to the last effort to breathe life into a Bond novel by Jeffery Deaver " .
= = Adaptations = =
On 30 September 2013 Solo was the chosen work for Book at Bedtime on BBC Radio 4 . The work was read by Paterson Joseph ; the book was adapted by Libby Spurrier and was broadcast in ten episodes .
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= Middlesbrough F.C. =
Middlesbrough Football Club ( / ˈmɪdəlzbrə / ) is a professional association football club based in Middlesbrough , North Yorkshire , England . Formed in 1876 , they have played at the Riverside Stadium since 1995 , their second ground since turning professional in 1889 . They played at Ayresome Park for ninety @-@ two years , from 1903 to 1995 .
They were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992 . The club 's main rivals are Sunderland and Newcastle United . There is also a rivalry with Yorkshire club Leeds United .
The club 's highest league finish to date was third in the 1913 – 14 season and they have only spent two seasons outside of the Football League 's top two divisions . The club came close to folding in 1986 after experiencing severe financial difficulties before it was saved by a consortium led by then board member and later chairman Steve Gibson . Middlesbrough were deducted three points for failing to fulfil a fixture against Blackburn Rovers in the 1996 – 97 Premier League season and subsequently relegated . They were promoted the following season and spent eleven seasons in the top division before being relegated again in 2009 .
Middlesbrough won the League Cup in 2004 , the club 's first and only major trophy . They reached the 2006 UEFA Cup Final , but were beaten by Spanish side Sevilla . After seven years in the Championship , Middlesbrough secured promotion to the Premier League in 2016 after finishing in second place .
The club 's traditional kit is red with white detailing . The various crests throughout the club 's history , the most recent of which was adopted in 2007 , incorporate a lion rampant .
= = History = =
They won the FA Amateur Cup in 1895 and again in 1898 . The club turned professional in 1889 , but reverted to amateur status in 1892 . They turned professional permanently in 1899 . After three seasons , they won promotion to the First Division , where they would remain for the next 22 years .
In 1903 , the club moved to Ayresome Park , their home for the next 92 years . In 1905 , the club sanctioned the transfer of Alf Common for £ 1 @,@ 000 , a record fee . Over the next few years , their form fluctuated greatly , rising to sixth in 1907 – 08 before dropping to 17th two seasons later . The club rose to their highest league finish to date , third , in 1913 – 14 . The First World War soon intervened and football was suspended . Before league football resumed , Middlesbrough won the Northern Victory League , but the team were unable to maintain their previous form and finished the 1919 – 20 season in mid @-@ table . They remained in the First Division for the next few seasons , but were relegated in 1923 – 24 after finishing bottom , 10 points adrift of their nearest rivals . Three seasons later , they won the Division Two title . During that season , debutant George Camsell , who had signed from Third Division North side Durham City the previous season , finished with a record 59 league goals , which included nine hat tricks . He would continue as top scorer for each of the next ten seasons . Their tenure back in the top flight lasted only one season , and the club were relegated . They were promoted at the first attempt in 1928 – 29 , winning another Second Division title . The club remained in the First Division until 1954 .
The decade before the war saw the emergence of Wilf Mannion and George Hardwick , both of whom would go on to become England internationals in the years ahead . Middlesbrough climbed to fourth in the last full season before the Second World War and were expected to challenge for the title next season , but the war intervened . After the war , the club was unable to recover the form of the previous seasons and hovered around mid @-@ table and exited in the early rounds of the FA Cup . Soon afterwards the team began to falter , eventually suffering relegation in 1953 – 54 . This was the start of a 20 @-@ year spell outside the top division , but saw the emergence of one of the club 's top goalscorers , Brian Clough , who scored 204 goals in 222 games , before he left for Sunderland . Over that period , Middlesbrough maintained reasonable progress in the Second Division but were never serious contenders for promotion . After a fourth @-@ place finish in 1962 – 63 , the club endured a steady decline and were relegated to the Third Division for the first time in their history in 1966 .
New manager Stan Anderson returned the club to the second flight at the first attempt . Middlesbrough would not finish below ninth during the next eight seasons . By 1974 , Jack Charlton had taken over as manager and guided the team back to the top flight . They ensured promotion as early as 23 March , and with eight games of the season left , they became runaway champions , finishing with a record 65 points . Middlesbrough won their first silverware as a professional side in the 1975 – 76 season , lifting the Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup in its inaugural season after a two @-@ legged final win over Fulham .
The club experienced severe financial difficulties during the mid @-@ 1980s . Middlesbrough were dropping down the table , and finished 19th in the 1984 – 85 season . In April 1986 the club had to borrow £ 30 @,@ 000 from the PFA to pay wages . The final game of the season saw Middlesbrough relegated to the Third Division again . That summer , the club called in the Provisional Liquidator and shortly afterwards , the club was wound up and the gates to Ayresome Park were padlocked . Without the £ 350 @,@ 000 capital required for Football League registration , a new rule , it seemed inevitable that the club would fold permanently . However , Steve Gibson , a member of the board at the time , brought together a consortium and with 10 minutes to spare before the deadline , they completed their registration with the Football League for the 1986 – 87 season . Following the registration came both a change of club crest and a change of the official company name to Middlesbrough Football and Athletic Club ( 1986 ) Ltd .
Over the next two seasons , Middlesbrough gained successive promotions into Division Two and then into Division One . The next season though , they came straight back down to Division Two , and with it came the then British transfer record move of Gary Pallister to Manchester United for £ 2 @.@ 3 million . Despite constant promotion and relegation , Middlesbrough were founding members of the FA Premier League for the 1992 – 93 season .
Player @-@ manager Bryan Robson , from Manchester United , took charge in 1994 and Middlesbrough were brought back into national attention . Following promotion to the Premier League and high @-@ profile purchases like diminutive Brazilian Juninho , many considered Middlesbrough were on the way up . However , a difficult 1996 – 97 season was compounded by a deduction of three points imposed just after Christmas , as punishment for the club 's failure to fulfil a fixture against Blackburn , which ultimately resulted in relegation . Without the points deduction , the club would have had enough points to avoid the drop . At the same time , the club managed to reach both the League and FA Cup finals for the first time , but lost out in both . Despite being in the second tier they were again runners up in the League Cup final the next year .
Despite losing high profile players Fabrizio Ravanelli and Juninho due to relegation , Middlesbrough were promoted back to the Premiership at the first attempt in 1998 . The following season saw them settle well and they enjoyed a 12 @-@ game unbeaten run midway through 1998 – 99 , including a 3 – 2 win at Old Trafford in January during which they took a 3 – 0 lead . It was United 's only home defeat during their treble winning season . Middlesbrough continued to stay secure in mid @-@ table the following season , thanks mainly to the goals of Hamilton Ricard and the signings of big name players such as Paul Ince and Christian Ziege . In 2000 – 01 they had a brief relegation scare that was solved with the arrival of Terry Venables as co @-@ manager , and a 3 – 0 win away at Arsenal in April was the team 's best result . The trend of buying European stars continued with the acquisitions of Christian Karembeu and Alen Bokšić .
Bryan Robson left the club before the start of 2001 – 02 season , having served as manager for seven years , and was replaced by Manchester United assistant coach Steve McClaren . The following seasons saw Premiership security maintained as Middlesbrough slowly improved and were seen as a tough side to beat when playing at the Riverside Stadium . During McClaren 's reign , Middlesbrough achieved their highest Premier league placing of 7th in the 2004 – 05 season .
The 2003 – 04 season was the most successful in the club 's history as they finally won a major trophy after beating Bolton 2 – 1 in the League Cup final under manager Steve McClaren . This success also ensured that Middlesbrough would qualify for Europe – the UEFA Cup – for the first time , in which they reached the last 16 . UEFA Cup qualification was achieved for the second consecutive year after a dramatic 1 – 1 away draw with Manchester City thanks to a late penalty save from Mark Schwarzer in the last game of the season .
Middlesbrough reached the 2006 UEFA Cup Final in Eindhoven , following two comebacks from 3 – 0 down in the rounds preceding it , but lost 4 – 0 to Sevilla . Following the cup final , McClaren left to head up the England team , and captain Gareth Southgate took over . Despite not having the coaching qualifications , he was allowed to continue after receiving special dispensation . During the 2007 – 08 season , Southgate broke Middlesbrough 's record transfer fee , paying £ 13 @.@ 6 million for Brazilian striker Afonso Alves . Southgate 's first two seasons saw the club finish in 12th and 13th places . He oversaw the club reaching the quarter finals of the FA Cup for three seasons , but the club was relegated to the Football League Championship on the last day of the 2008 – 09 season . Southgate was sacked in October 2009 , and replaced by Gordon Strachan . At the time of Southgate 's dismissal , Boro were fourth in the Championship and only one point away from the automatic promotion spot , but their form under Strachan was significantly worse and they finished mid @-@ table .
Despite starting the 2010 – 11 campaign as promotion favourites , the club endured a disappointing start to the season securing only one point in five away games . Having slipped to 20th in the Championship following a home defeat to rivals Leeds , Strachan resigned on 18 October . A week later , Tony Mowbray was confirmed as the new manager . Having staved off the threat of relegation , Mowbray successfully transformed Boro 's fortunes , eventually guiding them to a top @-@ half finish . Boro ended the season top of the form table after four consecutive league wins , the first such run since 1998 . However , despite a magnificent first half of the season , Boro failed to capitalise , and finished seventh in the league , missing out on the play @-@ offs by five points and one position .
Following a poor run of form of two wins in 12 games in the 2013 – 14 campaign , on 21 October 2013 , nearly three years after his arrival , Tony Mowbray left the club with immediate effect . Aitor Karanka , a former Spanish defender and assistant coach at Real Madrid to José Mourinho became the new Middlesbrough manager on 13 November 2013 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He became the first non @-@ British manager at the club , which finished the season 12th in the final league standings .
In his first full season in charge Middlesbrough finished fourth and thus qualified for the 2015 Football League play @-@ offs . After seeing off Brentford 5 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final , the club lost 0 – 2 to Norwich City at the Wembley Stadium in the final . Under Karanka 's tutelage Patrick Bamford , on loan from Chelsea , won the Championship Player of the Year award for the 2014 – 15 Football League Championship . Middlesbrough were promoted back to the Premier League after finishing second in the Championship in the 2015 / 16 season , drawing 1 @-@ 1 with Brighton & Hove Albion on the final day of the season .
= = = Overall = = =
Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 60
Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 44
Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 2
Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 0
As of season 2015 / 16 .
= = Colours and crest = =
Middlesbrough 's original home kit upon election to the Football League in 1899 was a white home shirt with blue shorts and they did not adopt their colours of red and white until later that season . Previous kits included a white shirt with a blue and white polka dotted collar from around 1889 . The Middlesbrough kit has remained broadly the same over the years with a red shirt and socks and either red or white shorts . The distinctive broad white stripe across the chest was introduced by Jack Charlton in 1973 ( following an attempt to change the home shirt to a Leeds United @-@ style white shirt ) and brought back for a one @-@ off in 1997 – 98 and then again for the 2000 – 01 and 2004 – 05 seasons due to popular demand . The club subsequently announced in December 2007 that the club would allow the fans to decide via an online and text vote whether the white band should return for the following season . On 8 January 2008 the club announced that the white band was to return , with 77 @.@ 4 % of voters voting in its favour , with the fans to choose the final shirt design from a selection of three designs , of which the winner was announced on 7 May 2008 .
The Middlesbrough crest has gone through four changes since the formation of the club . Initially , the badge was simply the town of Middlesbrough 's crest with a red lion instead of a blue lion in order to fit in with the club 's colours . Following the adoption of the white band on the shirts in 1973 , only the red lion remained with the letters " M.F.C " underneath in red . This was further adapted following the reformation of the club in 1986 to a circular crest with the lion in the middle and the words " Middlesbrough Football Club 1986 " around the circle in order to reflect this new era . In 2007 , Middlesbrough changed their crest again , this time with the lion inside a shield and the words " Middlesbrough Football Club 1876 " underneath . The club stated that this was to reflect the club 's long history and not just their post @-@ liquidation status .
= = Kit information = =
= = Stadium = =
After formation in 1876 , and with the club still amateurs , Middlesbrough 's first two years of football were played at Albert Park in Middlesbrough . After seeing the damage being caused by players and supporters , the Park Committee ordered the club to find an alternate venue . The club moved to Breckon Hill , behind the former Middlesbrough College longlands site , after agreeing to rent the land from its owner . However , two years later in 1880 , the owner increased the rent and the club decided to move . They moved into the Linthorpe Road Ground in 1882 , home at the time of Middlesbrough Cricket Club . The cricket club departed in 1893 – 94 to move to the Breckon Hill field , and Middlesbrough Football Club became sole users of the ground .
With the club 's growing size , and entry to the Football League , they had to move to a new ground in 1903 , Ayresome Park . It was designed by Archibald Leitch and would be the club 's home for the next 92 years . Following the Taylor Report in 1990 , the ground either needed modernising or the club needed a new stadium . The club decided on the latter , and moved out at the end of the 1994 – 95 season . It was used as a training ground during 1995 – 96 , before it was demolished in 1997 and a housing estate built in its place . The club now trains at a £ 7 million complex at Rockliffe Park , in Hurworth , on the outskirts of Darlington .
The Riverside Stadium , named by the supporters of the club after a vote , became the club 's home in 1995 . It was the first stadium to be built in line with the Taylor Report 's recommendations on all @-@ seater stadia for clubs in the top two divisions of the English football league system . It was originally a 30 @,@ 000 seater stadium , constructed at a cost of £ 16 million , before it was expanded in 1998 to a capacity of 35 @,@ 100 for an extra £ 5 million .
Since then , several reorganisations of the Riverside Stadium have taken place . At the start of the 2013 – 14 season , away fans were moved from behind the goal in the South stand to the South East corner , whilst home fans are now situated behind both goals to help create a better atmosphere inside the stadium . A giant TV screen was also installed at the back of the South @-@ East corner , replacing the older style scoreboards attached to the North and South stand roofs . For the start of the 2016 @-@ 17 season ( and return to the Premier League ) the club had to improve the stadium 's broadcasting facilities and floodlighting in order to meet current Premier League requirements . As a result of these changes , the current stadium capacity has been reduced to 33 @,@ 746 . The club also took the opportunity to move the main camera gantry to the back of the East stand where it will now face the main West stand .
Average attendances at Middlesbrough matches have fluctuated over the past several years , moving from a 2004 – 05 high average of 32 @,@ 012 to a low of 26 @,@ 092 in 2006 – 07 , then up again to 28 @,@ 428 in 2008 – 09 . Following relegation to the Championship attendances have dipped , although the crowd of 23 @,@ 451 which saw Middlesbrough 's first Championship game against Sheffield United represents far higher gates than is usual for the division , and indeed larger than those of some Premier League clubs . The club attracted an average of 24 @,@ 627 for their 2015 / 16 promotion season from the Championship to the Premier league .
= = Supporters = =
Traditionally supporters come from Middlesbrough itself and towns in the immediate area . Middlesbrough have one of the highest proportions in Britain of locally born season ticket holders at 80 % , and one of the highest proportions of female fans at 20 % . A survey at the start of the 2007 – 08 season found Middlesbrough supporters were the seventh loudest set of fans in the Premier League .
Middlesbrough Official Supporters Club , which features its own team in the local football league , has links with supporters ' clubs across the globe . The largest supporters ' clubs include the Official Supporters ' Club , the Middlesbrough Disabled Supporters ' Association , Yarm Reds , Red Faction and Middlesbrough Supporters South .
Middlesbrough supporters ' main rivals are Sunderland ( with whom they contest the Tees – Wear derby ) , Newcastle United ( with whom they contest the Tyne – Tees derby ) , and Leeds United , a fact confirmed by planetfootball.com 's 2004 survey , . Carlisle United see Middlesbrough as their biggest rivals , but Middlesbrough supporters have not reciprocated , as they do not see Carlisle as a top three rival .
The nickname Smoggies was first used as a derogatory term by opposing supporters ; it relates to the industrial air pollution ( smog ) that used to hang over the town , but it was later used by Middlesbrough fans in a somewhat self @-@ deprecating manner before finally being adopted as a badge of pride by supporters of the club . An example of this can be seen on the banners carried to away games stating " Smoggies on Tour " . Middlesbrough fans were notably praised by UEFA Chief Executive Lars @-@ Christer Olsson after their behaviour during the 2005 – 06 UEFA Cup campaign . He commended that :
You have the satisfaction of knowing that , although your team did not win the game , your supporters present in Eindhoven proved to the world that football fans can turn a match into a friendly , violence @-@ free celebration .
Middlesbrough fans had also been praised by Cleveland Police for their behaviour in previous rounds , particularly in the light of aggravation prior to and during the match at Roma .
= = Media relations = =
Middlesbrough were the first football club in the world to launch its own TV channel – Boro TV . The first broadcasts were tied to the club 's first ever major cup final appearance in 1997 , a full year ahead of Manchester United 's MUTV , which still claims to be the first in the world . The channel was the brainchild of then NTL marketing director , Peter Wilcock . The programme became synonymous with former Middlesbrough star Bernie Slaven and radio commentator Alastair Brownlee who proveed to be as popular on TV as they were on radio . Its programmes were not live initially but were pre @-@ recorded and hosted by local radio / TV broadcaster & Boro fan , Dave Roberts . Boro TV went on to claim another first when in August 2001 it become the first English football club to broadcast time @-@ delayed full @-@ match footage of their league games on their own channel . Boro TV ran through NTL cable television until July 2005 . The club now show match highlights through a subscription @-@ based scheme on their official website .
Middlesbrough 's official matchday programme , Redsquare , was Programme Monthly 's 2006 – 07 Programme of the Year . There are numerous other fanzines available , most notably Fly Me to the Moon , formed in September 1988 following Bruce Rioch 's quote to Tony Mowbray , stating " If I had to go to the moon I 'd want him by my side " .
= = Community = =
Middlesbrough Football Club in the Community ( MFCIC ) was founded in 1995 by club chairman Steve Gibson and is one of the largest community @-@ based football schemes in the United Kingdom . It is run separately from the football club but receives support from both the club in terms of providing players , staff , stadium facilities and PR in the matchday programme and other publications , as well as support from other local organisations .
Since 2002 , the club and MFCIC have also run the Middlesbrough Enterprise Academy , a scheme which helps local children improve their entrepreneurial skills and increase their awareness of business planning and finance . In March 2008 , plans were announced by the Premier League to roll out the scheme nationally amongst all Premier League clubs .
It was announced in December 2007 that Middlesbrough football club had carried out more community work during 2006 – 07 than any other Premier League club , rising from second place the previous year , with the club making 318 appearances – almost twice the Premier League average of 162 . They were in the top two for community appearances again in 2007 – 08 , with 374 – a 17 % increase on the previous season .
Middlesbrough 's mascot is Roary the Lion . The club runs Roary 's Children 's Charity Fund which purchases items for local children 's charities .
In 2009 , steel producer Corus Group announced the possibility that it would mothball its Teesside plant , with up to 4 @,@ 000 employees and contractors facing redundancy , after a consortium of steel magnates walked away from a 10 @-@ year deal . Middlesbrough Football Club helped with the " Save Our Steel " campaign by hosting dozens of steel workers and their families as they marched around the ground , promoted the campaign via the stadium 's PA system , scoreboards and in match day programmes , while players wore T @-@ shirts during warm @-@ ups promoting the campaign . Chairman Steve Gibson said :
" Middlesbrough Football Club exists for the community , for the people of Teesside — and the closure of the steel plants threatens to rip the heart out of our community . We cannot stand by and allow that to happen . We want the steelworkers and their families to know that we are behind them and will help their campaign in any way we can ... We like to think that the football club is the flagship of Teesside . Well this is our town and these are our people and we have to do what we can to help them . "
= = Honours = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = League = = = =
Second Division / Division One / Championship :
Winners ( 4 ) : 1926 – 27 , 1928 – 29 , 1973 – 74 , 1994 – 95
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1901 – 02 , 1991 – 92 , 1997 – 98 , 2015 – 16
Play @-@ off winners ( 1 ) : 1987 – 88
Football League Third Division :
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1966 – 67 , 1986 – 87
Northern League :
Winners ( 3 ) : 1893 – 94 , 1894 – 95 , 1896 – 97
Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 1890 – 91 , 1891 – 92 , 1897 – 98
= = = = Cup = = = =
League Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98
FA Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1996 – 97
FA Amateur Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1895 , 1898
Full Members Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1990
FA Youth Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2004
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1990 , 2003
= = = International = = =
UEFA Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1976
Kirin Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1980
= = Club staff = =
As of 20 July 2016
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = = Out on loan = = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Reserves and Academy = = =
= = Notable players = =
= = = Middlesbrough Legends = = =
These 10 players were voted for by fans as part of a campaign with the Evening Gazette .
= = = Top appearances = = =
These players made more than 430 appearances during their time at the club . The number in brackets indicates the number of appearances in all competitions .
= = = Top goalscorers = = =
These players scored more than 140 goals during their time with the club . The number in brackets indicates the number of goals scored in all competitions .
= = = Player of the Year award winners = = =
= = = Football League 100 Legends = = =
The Football League 100 Legends is a list of 100 legendary football players produced by The Football League in 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football .
= = = English Football Hall of Fame = = =
The English Football Hall of Fame is housed at The National Football Museum in Preston , England . The Hall aims to celebrate and highlight the achievements of top English Footballers and Footballers who have played in England . These players appeared for or managed Middlesbrough at some point in their careers .
= = = Scottish Football Hall of Fame = = =
The following former Middlesbrough players and managers have been inducted into the Scottish Football Hall of Fame .
= = Managers = =
The following are all the full @-@ time Middlesbrough managers since the club turned professional in 1899 .
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= Government of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China was the second imperial dynasty of China , following the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) . It was divided into the periods of Former Han ( 202 BC – 9 AD ) and Later Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) , briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) of Wang Mang . The capital of Western Han was Chang 'an , and the capital of Eastern Han was Luoyang . The emperor headed the government , promulgating all written laws , serving as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces , and presiding as the chief executive official . He appointed all government officials who earned a salary of 600 bushels of grain or more ( though these salaries were largely paid in coin cash ) with the help of advisors who reviewed each nominee . The empress dowager could either be the emperor 's actual or symbolic mother , and was in practice more powerful than the emperor , as she could override his decisions . The emperor 's executive powers could also be practiced by any official upon whom he bestowed the Staff of Authority . These powers included the right to execute criminals without the imperial court 's permission .
Near the beginning of the dynasty , semi @-@ autonomous regional kings rivaled the emperor 's authority . This autonomy was greatly diminished when the imperial court enacted reforms following the threats to central control like the Rebellion of the Seven States . The End of the Han dynasty came about during a time of civil , military and religious upheaval , which resulted in the period of Three Kingdoms .
The highest officials in the central bureaucracy , who provided advisory , censorial , executive , and judicial roles in governing the empire , consisted of cabinet members known as the Excellencies , heads of large specialized ministries known as the Nine Ministers , and various metropolitan officials of the capital region . Distinguished salary @-@ ranks were granted to officials in the bureaucracy , nobles of the imperial family , concubines of the harem , and military officers of the armed forces .
Local government divisions , in descending order by size , were the province , commandery , county , and district . Local fiefs of the nobility included the kingdom , which was modeled largely upon the regular commandery , as well as the marquessate , modelled largely upon the regular county . Although the central government 's monopolies on salt , iron , and liquor eventually failed and were relinquished back to private production , the government successfully nationalized the issuing of coin currency through its imperial mint , which lasted from 113 BC until the end of the dynasty . The conscription system for commoners as non @-@ professional soldiers was reduced in size in favor of a volunteer army and a substitution tax by Eastern Han . A small professional standing army existed throughout Western and Eastern Han . During times of crisis , the volunteer army increased in size , but large militias were raised and certain officer titles were revived for temporary use .
= = Salaries = =
During the Han dynasty , the power a government official exercised was determined by his annual salary @-@ rank , measured in grain units known as dan ( 石 , a unit of volume , approximately 35 litres ( 0 @.@ 99 US bsh ) ) . However , approximately half an official 's salary in grain was made in payments of cash coins , the standard of which , after 119 BC , was the wushu ( 五銖 ) coin measuring 3 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 11 oz ) . The other half of an official 's salary consisted of unhusked grain and husked grain measured in hu ( 觳 , approximately 20 L / 676 oz ) ; since one hu of unhusked grain was equal to 100 coins and one hu of husked grain was equal to 160 coins , the conversion ratio for unhusked grain to husked grain was 10 to 6 ( see table below ) . The most senior officials in central government earned a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary . The officials who oversaw nine specialized ministries each earned the Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan rank , while the magistrate of a county earned a 600 @-@ dan rank . Occasionally , emperors bestowed luxurious gifts of wine , foodstuffs , and silk clothes upon high officials . These gifts , in some generous cases , could equal as much as half the value of the officials ' standard annual salary . Aged officials were often retired from service and given a pension . Below is a table outlining salaries measured in coin cash , unhusked grain , and husked grain for the highest to lowest @-@ paid officials in Han officialdom :
= = Central government = =
= = = Emperor = = =
= = = = Qin 's imperial model = = = =
Qin Shi Huang , the first ruler of the Qin dynasty , established China 's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying the Seven Warring States through conquest , bringing to an end the Warring States period . For a time , the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the Zhou dynasty ( c . 1050 – 256 BC ) , yet the Zhou kings ' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors . The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC . However , following Han 's victory over Chu , the King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) .
The Han system of imperial government borrowed many of its core features from the regime established by the Qin dynasty . For example , Gaozu 's Chancellor Xiao He ( d . 193 BC ) integrated much of the statutes of the Qin law code into the newly compiled Han law code . Yet Gaozu 's establishment of central control over only a third of the empire — the other two @-@ thirds of territory was controlled by semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms — strayed from Qin 's imperial model which gave the emperor direct control over all of China . However , a series of reforms eventually stripped away any vestiges of the kingdoms ' independence . Han emperors thereafter enjoyed full and direct control over China , as had the first Qin emperor . The Han court 's gradual move towards reestablishing central control can also be seen in its monetary policy . While the Qin regime installed a nationwide standard currency , the early Western Han regime oscillated between abolishing and legalizing private mints , commandery @-@ level mints , and kingdom @-@ level mints issuing various coins . In 113 BC the Han court finally established the central government 's monopoly control over the issuance of a standard , nationwide currency .
= = = = Roles , rights , and responsibilities = = = =
The emperor , who enjoyed paramount social status , was the head of the government administration . His rule was virtually absolute , although civil officials , representing the competing interests of different state organs , scrutinized his decisions . Although the Grand Commandant had a nominal role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the emperor served as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . The emperor had the sole right to appoint central government officials whose salary @-@ rank was 600 @-@ dan or higher . The emperor also appointed the leading officials at the provincial , commandery , and county levels of government . Appointees to office were usually recommended men from the commanderies , family relatives of high officials , or student graduates of the Imperial University . This institution was established in 124 BC , and provided a Confucian @-@ based education for those entering civil service .
The emperor had the exclusive right to modify the law code and issue new laws in the form of imperial edicts ( zhao 詔 ) and decrees ( ling 令 ) . However , he often accepted the decisions and reforms suggested by his chief judicial minister , the Commandant of Justice . The emperor also acted as the supreme judge . Any lawsuits which a county administration , then commandery administration , and then Minister of Justice could not resolve were deferred to the emperor .
The emperor 's role as supreme judge could be temporarily duplicated by any official he designated in times of emergency or in distant borderlands where central government had little influence . This entailed a symbolic conferral of power , which was embodied in the Staff of Authority ( Jiezhang 節杖 ) . Roughly 2 m ( 6 ft ) in height and decorated with ribbons , the Staff of Authority was often granted to an official with a specific errand , such as acting on behalf of the emperor as ambassador to a foreign country , appointing civilians to office , or immediately promoting a deserving military officer on the field of battle . Moreover , it granted its bearer the authority to sentence criminals and political rebels with execution without notifying the court first .
During the Qin dynasty , the first Qin emperor 's legitimacy to rule was ultimately decided by his ability to conquer others . However , by the time of Wang Mang 's ( r . 9 – 23 AD ) reign , the Mandate of Heaven was considered the only legitimate source of imperial authority . This concept was given greater prominence after the state officially sponsored the worship of Heaven over that of the Five Powers in 31 BC . Moreover , the philosophy of the scholar Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BC ) , which held that a dynasty 's rule on earth was bound to greater cosmological cycles in the universe , was officially sponsored by the Han court from Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) reign onward . The emperor was expected to behave according to proper ritual , ethics , and morals , lest he incur the wrath of Heaven and bring an end to his reign . He became the highest priest in the land . By performing certain religious rites and rituals , the emperor acted as a sacred link between Heaven and Earth .
= = = = Court conferences = = = =
Although the emperor held supreme power , he more often sought the advice of his cabinet and other ministers before making decisions and when revoking them . He often assembled leading officials for debates or discussions on policy , known as court conferences ( tingyi 廷議 ) . Various issues were debated at these gatherings , such as installment of new emperors , enfeoffment of nobles , the establishment of new ancestral temples , reforms to the state religion , the monetary or tax systems , management of government monopolies on salt and iron ( when they existed during Western Han ) , the introduction of new laws or the repeal of old ones , complex lawsuits , or whether or not to declare war on a foreign country or accept peaceful negotiation . Although the emperor could reject the decisions reached by his court conference , he did so at the risk of alienating his leading ministers . More often than not , he was forced to accept the majority consensus of his ministers , whose individual opinions were equally tallied regardless of their standing or salary @-@ rank .
= = = Empress dowager = = =
When the emperor died without officially appointing a successor , his widow , the empress dowager , had the sole right to appoint one of the late emperor 's surviving sons or relatives to the position . Most often the successor chosen in this fashion was a minor , thus the empress dowager served as regent over the government . A high @-@ status male relative , usually a father or brother , would assume control of the Imperial Secretariat . Even when an emperor reached his majority and became an active ruler , he often sought the advice and acceptance of the empress dowager on policy decisions ; she also had the right to override his decisions . The empress dowager was protected by the Minister of the Guards , yet if her faction — the consort clan — was removed from power , he was then responsible for keeping her under house arrest .
= = = Grand Tutor = = =
The post of Grand Tutor ( Taifu 太傅 ) , although given the highest civil status below the emperor , was not regularly occupied . The role was considered an honorary rather than substantive office . In Western Han , a Grand Tutor was supposedly appointed at the beginning of each emperor 's reign , and was not replaced until that emperor 's death . However , only four Grand Tutors were appointed between 202 BC – 6 AD . In contrast , during Eastern Han , a new Grand Tutor was appointed when every emperor except Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 AD ) had a Grand Tutor installed at the beginning of their reigns . The Grand Tutor 's salary @-@ rank was unspecified in literary sources , although it was likely higher than the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan rank . The Grand Tutor was nominally in charge of providing a young emperor with moral guidance , but it is doubtful that this role was ever taken seriously or formally conducted . The post often served to deliberately block someone from obtaining a more important post , such as one of the Excellencies , while Grand Tutors were usually elder statesmen chosen for their age rather than merits ( so they would die off quickly after being appointed ) .
= = = Excellencies = = =
= = = = Title variations = = = =
The Excellencies ( gong , literally translated as " dukes " ) were the foremost officials in central government who formed the cabinet during both Western and Eastern Han . For most of Western Han , the Excellencies were the Chancellor ( Chengxiang 丞相 ) , the Imperial Counselor ( Yushi dafu 御史大夫 ) , and the Grand Commandant ( Taiwei 太尉 ) . The Great Commandant 's post was irregularly filled , and it was retitled to Grand Marshal ( Da sima 大司馬 ) in 119 BC . In 8 BC , the post of Imperial Counselor was abolished in favor of a Grand Excellency of Works ( da sikong 大司空 ) , and by 1 BC the Chancellor 's post was abolished and replaced by the Grand Excellency Over the Masses ( da situ 大司徒 ) . On 8 June , 51 AD the prefix " Grand " ( 大 ) was removed from the titles of the Excellency over the Masses and Excellency of Works , while the Grand Marshal was reinstated with the original title of Grand Commandant , and would remain so for the rest of Eastern Han . The exact salary figures for the Excellencies before 8 BC are unknown , although from that year forward they were given a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary @-@ rank , in addition to periodic gifts which further boosted their incomes .
= = = = Chancellor = = = =
During Western Han , the Chancellor was the chief civil official . The duties of the chancellery were divided between a Right Chancellor ( 右丞相 ) and Left Chancellor ( 左丞相 ) between 196 and 180 BC . After 180 BC , the Left Chancellor 's post was merely titular and its incumbent had no real authority . The Western Han Chancellor oversaw state finances , logistics for military campaigns , registers for land and population , maps of the empire 's territories , annual provincial reports , high @-@ profile lawsuits , and drafted the government budget . The Chancellor could directly appoint officials who were ranked 600 @-@ dan or below , while he was also able to recommend nominees to the emperor for recruitment to the senior roles in central government . The Chancellor was held responsible for the actions of officials he recommended and appointed , yet he could also punish inadequate officials without the emperor 's consent .
Whenever the emperor was absent from a court conference but sought its advice , he relied on the chancellor to direct it and inform him of the resulting majority opinion . If the attending ministers were split into opposing factions of roughly equal size , the chancellor would listen to the positions of both sides and count the exact number of ministers who supported either opposing opinion .
The Palace Writers ( Zhongshu 中書 ) were originally palace eunuch secretaries ( Zhongshu guan 中書官 ) from Emperor Wu 's reign until 29 BC , when they were staffed by regular officials . They usurped much of the Chancellor 's powers by the end of the Western Han . The position of Chancellor was abolished for much of Eastern Han and replaced by the Excellency over the Masses . However , in 208 AD the Excellency of Works Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 AD ) assumed the revived post of Chancellor while acting as the de facto ruler over the court of Emperor Xian ( r . 189 – 220 AD ) . Cao Cao also abolished the Grand Commandant and Excellency of Works while reinstating the Imperial Counselor .
= = = = Imperial Counselor = = = =
During Western Han the Imperial Counselor , also known as the Grandee Secretary and Imperial Secretary , was considered the second @-@ ranking official below the Chancellor . Like the Chancellor , he exercised censorial powers over provincial officials who also sent him annual reports . His primary duty was to uphold disciplinary procedures for officials ; he could investigate even those attached to the chancellery and the imperial palace . Since one of his main functions was to prevent abuse of authority , his jurisdiction over officialdom tended to overlap with that of the Chancellor 's . His subordinates included the Imperial Clerks ( Shiyushi 侍御史 ; also known as Attending Secretaries ) , led by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk ( Yushi zhongcheng 禦史中丞 ; also known as the Palace Assistant Secretary ) . They were often sent out into the provinces to investigate possible wrongdoing on the part of local officials .
The Imperial Counselor transmitted and received imperial edicts to and from the chancellery and also presented officials ' memorials to the throne . During Western Han , the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's office was located within the walls of the palace . He had the authority to investigate attendants and eunuchs of the palace and to reject improperly written memorials before submission to the Imperial Counselor . The Masters of Writing under the Minister Steward then processed these memorials before they were sent to the throne . The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's proximity to the emperor during Eastern Han allowed him to surpass the authority of his nominal superior , the Excellency of Works , yet his Western @-@ Han @-@ era power to inspect local provincial authorities was removed . The Minister Steward — who was supervised by the Imperial Counselor ( and later Excellency of Works ) — became the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's new superior by early Eastern Han . The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk also managed the Imperial Library in both Western and Eastern Han , this duty being transferred to a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies in 159 AD .
= = = = Grand Commandant = = = =
The Grand Commandant ( also known as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ) was the head commander of the military in Western Han , yet his office was irregularly filled ( from 205 – 202 BC , from 196 – 195 BC , from 189 – 177 BC , from 154 – 150 BC , and in 140 BC ) . After 119 BC , the generals Huo Qubing ( d . 117 BC ) and Wei Qing ( d . 106 BC ) simultaneously held the title until their deaths , but when the post was revived in 87 BC it became politicized when conferred as a regent 's title for Huo Guang ( d . 68 BC ) . The regent was thus considered one of the Three Excellencies , although he was not technically part of the cabinet .
The Grand Commandant 's office witnessed significant changes during the Eastern Han . Wang Mang separated the regent 's role from the Grand Commandant 's post during the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) , since he did not want an active regent for his regime . This was retained by Eastern Han , while the third Grand Commandant of Eastern Han appointed in 51 AD transformed his ministry into a primarily civilian one . Although the Eastern @-@ Han Grand Commandant shared the same salary @-@ rank as the other two Excellencies who were nominally considered his equals , he was nonetheless given de facto privilege as the most senior civil official . However , his censorial jurisdiction now overlapped with the other two Excellencies ( i.e. he was able to investigate the same officials in central and local government ) , who shared an advisory role to the emperor ( policy suggestions could be submitted independently or jointly by all three cabinet members ) . His various bureaus handled appointment , promotion , and demotion of officials , population registers and agriculture , the upkeep of transportation facilities , post offices , and couriers , civil law cases , granary storage , and military affairs . He was also given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of Ceremonies , Minister of the Household , and Minister of the Guards .
= = = = Excellency over the Masses = = = =
The Excellency over the Masses ( also known as the Minister over the Masses ) shared the same censorial and advisory roles as the other two Excellencies , the Excellency of Works and Grand Commandant . Like his previous counterpart , the Chancellor , he must have been responsible for drawing up the annual budget , although contemporary sources fail to mention this point . Aside from the court conference , the Great Conference of leading officials across the empire was conducted by his ministry . The Chancellor 's bureaus were also retained by the Excellency over the Masses , and were nearly identical to that of the new Eastern @-@ Han Grand Commandant 's bureaus . He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister Coachman , Minister of Justice , and Minister Herald .
= = = = Excellency of Works = = = =
The Excellency of Works , also known as the Minister of Works , was less powerful than his previous counterpart , the Imperial Counselor . This official 's advisory and censorial responsibilities coincided with those of two other Excellencies , forming a tripartite cabinet arrangement . Unlike the abolished Imperial Counselor , he was given the specialized role of overseeing public works projects throughout the empire . The Excellency of Works was responsible for the construction of city walls , towns , canals , irrigation ditches , dykes and dams , and other structural engineering projects . The Court Architect supervised only imperial building projects . The Excellency of Works made annual reports to the throne about the progress of local administrations ' conduct of construction projects . He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of the Imperial Clan , Minister of Finance , and Minister Steward .
= = = Nine Ministers = = =
The Nine Ministers , who were supervised by the Three Excellencies but not direct subordinates of the cabinet , each headed a specialized government ministry and held a salary @-@ rank of Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . Along with the tripartite cabinet members , these ministers usually attended court conferences .
= = = = Minister of Ceremonies = = = =
The Minister of Ceremonies ( Taichang 太常 ) also known as Grand Master of Ceremonies , was the chief official in charge of religious rites , rituals , prayers , and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars . The role 's title was changed to Upholder of Ceremonies ( Fengchang 奉常 ) from 195 to 144 BC before reverting to the original title . Although his main concern was to link the emperor with the supernatural world and Heaven , he was also given the task of setting educational standards for the Imperial University ( est . 124 BC ) and the academic chairs ( boshi 博士 ) who specialized in the Five Classics , the canon of Confucianism .
One of the Minister of Ceremonies ' many subordinates was the Court Astronomer ( Taishi ling 太史令 ; also known as the Prefect Grand Astrologer ) , who made astronomical observations and drafted the annual lunisolar calendar . The Court Astronomer also upheld a literacy test of 9 @,@ 000 characters for nominees aspiring to become subordinate officials for either the Minister Steward or Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk . These nominees were often recommended subordinates of commandery @-@ level Administrators . Other subordinates of the Minister of Ceremonies reported illegal acts at ancestral temples , prepared sacrificial offerings of food and wine at shrines and temples , and arranged for the music and dancing that accompanied ceremonies .
= = = = Minister of the Household = = = =
The Minister of the Household ( Guangluxun 光祿勳 ) , also known as Superintendent of the Household and Supervisor of Attendants , was originally titled the Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( Lang zhongling 郎中令 ) before 104 BC . He was responsible for the emperor 's security within the palace grounds , external imperial parks , and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot . However , to ensure that the emperor 's entire safety was not entrusted to a single officer , the subordinates of the Minister of the Guards were given sole right to patrol the palaces ' entrances and walls while the eunuchs guarded the emperor 's private apartments and harem . Three of the five cadet corps commanded by the Minister of the Household were actually armed civilian nominees serving a period of probation before appointment to a government office ; the other two corps were composed of imperial bodyguards who were never appointed to civilian offices . The former were often recommended by commandery @-@ level Administrators as Filial and Incorrupt , while others could be relatives of high officials in central government . The Minister of the Household oversaw subordinate court advisors ( Yi Lang 議郎 / 议郎 ） who advised the emperor and engaged in scholarly debates . They were allowed to openly criticize the emperor , participate in provincial inspections , and conduct mourning ceremonies for recently deceased kings and marquesses while installing their successors . Internuncios ( Yezhe 謁者 ) , led by a Supervisor of the Internuncios ( Yezhe puye 謁者僕射 ) , were subordinates of the Minister of the Household who participated in state ceremonies , condoled on behalf of the emperor for recently deceased officials , inspected public works and military camps along the frontiers , and acted as diplomats to the semi @-@ autonomous fiefs and non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese peoples along the borders .
= = = = Minister of the Guards = = = =
The Minister of the Guards ( Weiwei 衛尉 ) was also known as Commandant of the Guards ) , and briefly as the Prefect of the Palace Grandees ( Zhong da fuling 中大夫令 ) during Emperor Jing of Han 's reign ( r . 157 – 141 BC ) before reverting to the original title . This Minister was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls , towers , and gates of the imperial palaces . The duties of his ministry were carried out by prefects , one of whom controlled the gates where nominees for office were received and officials sent memorials to the throne . To control and monitor the flow of traffic through the palace gates , the prefects used a complex passport system involving wooden and metal tallies . During an emergency , the tallies were collected and no @-@ one was allowed to enter unless they breached the gates by force . The guards were conscripted peasants who served for a year 's term as soldiers and were invited to attend a celebratory feast hosted by the emperor before demobilization .
= = = = Minister Coachman = = = =
The Minister Coachman ( Taipu 太僕 ) , also known as the Grand Coachman , was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables , horses , carriages and coachhouses for the emperor and his palace attendants , and for the supply of horses for the armed forces . His latter duty entailed the supervising of large breeding grounds of frontier pastures , tended by tens of thousands of government slaves . By the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) these contained 300 @,@ 000 warhorses intended for use in campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu Confederation . Some of the Minister Coachman 's subordinates managed stables outside the capital city . These stables housed Ferghana horses that were imported or gathered as tribute from Central Asian countries .
In Eastern Han — possibly due to the Coachman 's influence over the transport of arms — a prefect in charge of manufacturing bows , crossbows , swords , and armor for the military was transferred from the Minister Steward 's ministry to that of the Minister Coachman .
= = = = Minister of Justice = = = =
The Minister of Justice ( Tingwei 廷尉 ) , also known as the Commandant of Justice , and was known as the Grand Judge ( Dali 大理 ) between 144 BC and 137 BC and again between 1 BC and c . 25 AD . He was the chief official in charge of upholding , administering , and interpreting the law . Only the emperor , in his role as judge , was superior to this minister . The Minister of Justice was the supreme civil @-@ appointed judge for cases deferred to the capital from provincial lawsuits . His judicial powers , however , were similar to those of the Chancellor . He could recommend changes to the law code and the granting of general amnesties to those charged with crimes . His ministry was responsible for maintaining the Imperial Prison , where trials were conducted , and carrying out executions . It is unknown whether he oversaw all of the twenty @-@ six prisons in Western Han Chang 'an , which were built to house convicted ex @-@ officials . However , during Eastern Han , the Imperial Prison in Luoyang was the only prison managed by the Minister of Justice .
= = = = Minister Herald = = = =
The Minister Herald ( Dahonglu 大鴻臚 ) was also known as the Grand Herald ; he was also called the Director of Guests ( Dianke 典客 ) between 202 BC and 144 BC and Prefect Grand Usher ( Daxingling 大行令 ) between 144 BC and 104 BC . He was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests , such as nobles and foreign ambassadors , at the imperial court . Alongside the Minister of the Imperial Clan , his ministry oversaw the inheritance of titles and fiefs by condoling on behalf of the emperor at kings ' funerals and memorializing the posthumous names of kings and marquises . The Minister Herald 's office received the annual reports from the commanderies and kingdoms when they arrived in the capital at the beginning of the year , before passing them on to the Excellencies . His subordinates acted as seating guides and ushers for officials , nobles , and foreign delegates at imperial ceremonies and sacrifices . One of his subordinates maintained living quarters for officials in the commanderies and kingdoms who were traveling to the capital . While the Minister Herald had always conducted the formal reception of foreign envoys and enlisted the aid of interpreters , his powers in matters of foreign affairs were expanded further when the post of Director of Dependent States was abolished in 28 BC . However , by Eastern Han his duties involving the affairs of Dependent States were transferred to local administrations along the borders .
= = = = Minister of the Imperial Clan = = = =
While eight of the Nine Ministers could be of commoner origin , the post of Minister of the Imperial Clan ( Zongzheng 宗正 ) , also known as the Director of the Imperial Clan , was always occupied by a member of the imperial family . He oversaw the imperial court 's interactions with the empire 's nobility and extended imperial family , such as granting fiefs and titles . His ministry was responsible for record @-@ keeping of all nobles , a register being updated at the beginning of each year . When a serious infraction was committed by a member of the imperial family , the Minister of the Imperial Clan was the first high official to be notified before the emperor , who made the ultimate decision about any possible legal action . This minister 's subordinates heard grievances of imperial family members and informed them about new ordinances . Unlike kings and marquesses , who were not responsible to any of the Nine Ministers , imperial princesses and their fiefs were kept under surveillance by the Minister of the Imperial Clan .
= = = = Minister of Finance = = = =
The Minister of Finance ( Da sinong 大司農 ) was also called the Grand Minister of Agriculture , and before 144 BC , was known as Clerk of the Capital for Grain ( Zhisu neishi 治粟內史 ) . This minister was the central government 's treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces . While the Chancellor drafted the state budget , the Minister of Finance was responsible for funding it . He was in charge of storing the poll taxes , which were gathered in coin cash , and land tax , which was gathered as a proportion of farmers ' annual crop yields . He was also responsible for setting the standards for units of measurement . In addition to reviewing tax collections , he could implement policies for price control exacted on certain commercial commodities .
During Western Han , the Minister of Finance 's powers were limited to the public treasury , the Minister Steward being responsible for the emperor 's private wealth . However , in Eastern Han , the responsibilities for the public treasury and the emperor 's private wealth were amalgamated and entrusted solely to the Minister of Finance , which later proved disastrous when handled by irresponsible emperors such as Ling ( r . 168 – 189 AD ) . During Western Han , the Minister of Finance managed the government 's monopolized salt and iron agencies , which were abolished during Eastern Han and transferred to local administrations and private entrepreneurship . He also managed the government 's brief monopoly over liquor from 98 – 81 BC , before it was returned to private production . Although the Minister Steward and then the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed the imperial mint for issuing standard coins during Western Han , in Eastern Han the imperial mint was transferred to the office of the Minister of Finance .
= = = = Minister Steward = = = =
The Minister Steward ( Shaofu 少府 ) , also known as the Privy Treasurer and Small Treasurer , served the emperor exclusively , providing him with entertainment and amusements , proper food and clothing , medicine and physical care , valuables and equipment . For this purpose he was given responsibility for the emperor 's personal finances during Western Han , yet this responsibility was transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han . Although he was not a castrated eunuch , many of his subordinates were , since his ministry managed the imperial harem housing concubines . His secretaries were headed by a Prefect of the Masters of Writing ( Shangshu ling 尚書令 ) . The secretaries were responsible for relaying all written messages to the emperor , official correspondence with Excellencies , senior ministers , provincial authorities , common people who submitted memorials to the throne , and non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese peoples within and outside the empire . Since the Masters of Writing were not eunuchs , and thus not allowed into the imperial harem , Emperor Wu established an all @-@ eunuch office of secretaries for the inner palace , which was abolished in 29 BC .
The Minister Steward had many subordinates , including the Court Physician ( Taiyi ling 太醫令 ) , also known as the Prefect Grand Physician , who checked the emperor 's health every morning and accompanied him on imperial hunting trips . The Court Provisioner ( Taiguan ling 太官令 ) , also known as the Prefect Grand Provisioner , was responsible for managing the kitchen , its cooks , and supplying food for the emperor . Other subordinates managed the weaving houses which supplied the clothes for the emperor , the workshops which produced wares , utensils , and funerary items for the emperor , and the imperial parks and gardens where the emperor could hunt and attend outings . The Bureau of Music ( Yuefu 樂府 ) was overseen by the Minister Steward and was in charge of musical performances at imperial ceremonies and entertaining the emperor with folk songs gathered from throughout the empire ; it was disbanded in 7 BC and its musicians transferred to the Minister of Ceremonies .
= = = Staffs of the heir apparent , empress , and harems = = =
When a Liu @-@ family relative of an emperor — usually a princely son — was designated as his heir apparent , he was provided living quarters within the palace and a personal staff which was not disbanded until he became the next emperor . During Western Han , the staff had two divisions : one was led by educators of the heir apparent , known as the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent ( ranked 2000 – dan ) and Junior Tutor of the Heir Apparent ( ranked 2000 – dan ) , the other led by a Supervisor of the Household ( ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) . During Eastern Han , the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent lost his administrative role but remained the chief educator and was promoted in rank to Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ; the Junior Tutor remained an administrator with a salary @-@ rank of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . The post of Supervisor of the Household was abolished . Other Western Han staff offices of the heir apparent were abolished during Eastern Han , such as the Chief of the Kitchen and the Household Prison of the Heir Apparent . If he reached adulthood , the heir apparent could be married to a principal wife who led a harem of his concubines .
The empress , the legal wife of the emperor , also had an area of the palace separate from that of the emperor 's private apartments , where the empress was expected to spend every fifth night with the emperor . Both the empress and the heir apparent received an income from the taxes of forty counties . She also had a Supervisor of the Household ( ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) , and many other subordinates , either male eunuchs or female maids , who took care of domestic needs . The concubines of the harem were subordinates of the empress and were ranked below her in fourteen grades by the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han ( r . 49 – 33 ) . However , the founder of Eastern Han abolished the fourteen salary @-@ ranks in favor of three ranks with no definite salary ; instead , the concubines were irregularly granted gifts . The chief concubine of Western Han , the Brilliant Companion , shared the same salary @-@ rank as the Chancellor , while the concubine ranked just below her , the Favorite Beauty , shared the same salary @-@ rank as any one of the Nine Ministers .
= = = Metropolitan offices = = =
The metropolitan areas of both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang were governed and secured by several officials and officers . The county and municipal divisions of the capital cities were governed by a Prefect ( Ling 令 ) . The Prefect was also responsible for a prison and could arrest officials of high rank . The Colonel of the City Gates ( Chengmen xiaowei 城門校衛 ) commanded the garrisons at the twelve city gates , each guarded by a captain , in both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang .
= = = = Bearer of the Mace = = = =
The Bearer of the Mace ( Zhi jinwu 執金吾 ) was also known as the Bearer of the Gilded Mace . This official , whose title had been Commandant of the Capital ( Zhongwei 中尉 ) before 104 BC , maintained law and order in the capital city — excluding the imperial palaces — in both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang . During Western Han , his salary @-@ rank was Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , thus his prestige was similar to that of the Nine Ministers . However , during Eastern Han his salary @-@ rank was reduced from Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan to Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan .
While his subordinates were on constant patrol , the Bearer of the Mace personally inspected the city three times each month . He was responsible for the military arsenal as well as disaster relief efforts during floods and fires . The Bearer of the Mace had a large staff of subordinates during Western Han , whose posts were abolished or transferred elsewhere during Eastern Han . This included the abolition of the Captains of the Standard Bearers , and the emperor 's entourage became responsible for clearing the roadways when the emperor left the palace and hoisting colored standards to signal his return .
= = = = Court Architect = = = =
The Court Architect ( Jiangzuo dajiang 將作大匠 ) was in charge of the construction , maintenance , and repair of imperial palace halls , government halls , temples , grave tumuli , buildings in funerary parks , roads leading out of the capital , and flood control works . His salary @-@ rank was 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . He directed the efforts of conscripted corvée laborers until this duty was transferred to the ministry of the newly created Excellency of Works in 8 BC . The Court Architect 's subordinates were responsible for gathering timber for carpenters and stone for masons . Although his office existed at the establishment of Eastern Han , it was abolished in 57 AD and his duties were transferred to an Internuncio in the Ministry of the Household . However , the post was reinstated in 76 AD with the original salary @-@ rank , yet many of his subordinates remained abolished . Since most buildings were constructed from wood , with ceramic roof tiles , a large workforce was needed to maintain buildings that fell into disrepair . The restoration of the Imperial University during Emperor Shun 's ( r . 125 – 144 AD ) reign required 100 @,@ 000 laborers to work for a year under the supervision of the Court Architect .
= = = = Colonel Director of Retainers = = = =
The Colonel Director of Retainers ( Sili xiaowei 司隸校尉 ) , also known as Colonel of Censure and Colonel Director of Convict @-@ Laborers , was originally called the Director of Retainers ( Sili 司隸 ) . His task was to supervise 1 @,@ 200 convicts in their construction of roads and canals . In 91 BC , an unsuccessful five @-@ day rebellion in Chang 'an was instigated by Crown Prince Liu Ju ( d . 91 BC ) and his mother Empress Wei Zifu ( d . 91 BC ) , who had been accused of witchcraft and black magic . For this event , Emperor Wu prefixed " colonel " to the Director of Retainers ' title in 89 BC , promoting him to the salary @-@ rank 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , and granted him the Staff of Authority , allowing him to arrest and punish those allegedly practicing witchcraft .
Following the crisis , the Colonel Director of Retainers retained his privileged possession of the Staff of Authority and was granted the same investigative and censorial powers as the Chancellor and Imperial Counselor over officialdom . He routinely inspected the conduct of officials in the capital region and seven nearby commanderies . His investigative powers matched those of a provincial Inspector , although his Staff of Authority made him more powerful than the latter . The Colonel Director of Retainers was a personal servant of the emperor , answering only to him , allowing the emperor to greatly enhance his control over the bureaucracy . However , the Staff of Authority was removed from the Colonel in 45 BC , limiting his powers to inspection , investigation , and impeachment and he was distinguished from a provincial Inspector only by a higher salary @-@ rank . The office of Colonel Director of Retainers was abolished in 9 BC , and reinstated once more as the Director of Retainers in 7 BC . He was now a subordinate of the new Excellency of Works and supervised convicts in public works projects , like his early Western Han counterpart . In Eastern Han , the Colonel Director of Retainers was reappointed without the Staff of Authority , with powers to inspect the capital region , but his salary @-@ rank was reduced from 2000 – dan to Equivalent to 2000 – dan .
= = = = Superintendent of Waterways and Parks = = = =
The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks ( Shuiheng duwei 水衡都尉 ) was also known as the Chief Commandant of Waterways and Parks , and was once a subordinate of the Minister Steward until 115 BC , when he , and other former subordinates of that ministry , became independent officers . His salary @-@ rank was equivalent to 2000 – dan . The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed a large imperial hunting park located outside Chang 'an , including its palaces , rest stops , granaries , and cultivated patches of fruit and vegetable gardens , which , along with game meat , provided food for the emperor 's household . He also collected taxes from commoners using the park 's grounds and transmitted these funds to the Minister Steward , who managed the emperor 's finances . One of the Superintendent 's subordinates supervised convicted criminals in their care of the park 's hunting dogs .
In 115 BC the central government 's mint was transferred from the Minister Steward 's ministry to the park managed by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks . In 113 BC the central government closed all commandery @-@ level mints ; private minting had previously been outlawed in 144 BC . The Superintendent 's imperial mint in the park outside Chang 'an had the sole right to issue coinage throughout the empire . However , Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) abolished the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks and revived his post annually during autumn to conduct a ritual sacrifice . The imperial mint became the responsibility of the Minister of Finance and the imperial park located outside Eastern @-@ Han Luoyang was administered by a prefect .
= = = = Director of Dependent States = = = =
The Director of Dependent States ( Dian shuguo 典屬國 ) , whose salary @-@ rank was 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , was responsible for embassies to foreign countries and nomadic peoples along Han 's borders and the annual exchange of hostages — usually foreign princes — submitted to the Han court . Dependent States ( Shuguo 屬國 ) were first established in 121 BC and composed mostly non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese nomadic tribes and confederations who surrendered after negotiation or armed conflict and accepted Han suzerainty . They served as a buffer between Han territory and hostile tribes , such as the Xiongnu , and as a means to quell tribes in the Ordos Desert . The Han court appointed a Commandant ( Duwei 都尉 ) , also known as Chief Commandant , ranked Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , to govern the non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese populations of each Dependent State . The Director of Dependent States ' title was abolished in 28 BC ; his duties and his subordinates , the Commandants , became the responsibilities of the Minister Herald . The Protectorate of the Western Regions , established in 60 BC , which conducted foreign affairs with the oasis city @-@ states in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia , was not the responsibility of the Director of Dependent States .
= = Local government = =
= = = Provincial authorities = = =
The Han Empire was divided by hierarchical political divisions in the following descending order : provinces ( zhou ) , commanderies ( jun ) , and counties ( xian ) . This model of local government was adopted from the previous government structure of the Qin dynasty .
A Han province consisted of a group of commanderies , the administrations of which were subject to scrutiny and inspection by centrally appointed officials . These were the Inspectors ( Cishi 刺史 ) , also known as the Circuit Inspector , who were first appointed in 106 BC at a salary @-@ rank of 600 @-@ dan . In Western Han they were supervised by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and were subordinates of the Imperial Counselor . Aside from the province @-@ sized capital region which was entrusted to the Colonel Director of Retainers from 89 – 9 BC , there were thirteen provinces during Western Han . Eventually , the title of Inspector was changed to Governor ( Mu 牧 ; literally " Shepherd " ) , a post with a considerably higher salary @-@ rank of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . From 5 – 1 BC , this post was reverted to Inspector , but was once again re @-@ titled Governor , who was now responsible to all Three Excellencies .
During early Eastern Han , the loss of Han 's control over the Ordos Desert prompted the Han court to reduce the provinces to twelve — excluding the capital region — in 35 AD . In that year , the Inspectors @-@ cum @-@ Governors were still appointed by the central government , but their staffs were recruited from local administrations where they were transferred . By 42 AD , the title Governor once more became Inspector , who remained the head of provincial authorities until 188 AD . In 188 AD , at the urging of the official Liu Yan , Emperor Ling reinstated the office of Governor , yet some of the provinces were still administered by Inspectors ; this arrangement remained in place until the end of the Han dynasty in 220 AD . A key difference between the roles was that an Inspector had no executive powers and only an advisory role , whereas a Governor could execute decisions on his own behalf . There were exceptions to this rule . If banditry or rebellion simultaneously arose in several commanderies under his jurisdiction at once , the Inspector was authorized to raise troops throughout all commanderies under his watch and lead this united force as commander to quell the disruption .
Both the Inspector and Governor were responsible for inspecting commandery @-@ level Administrators and their staffs , as well as the semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms and their staffs . They evaluated officials on criteria of competence , honesty , obedience to the imperial court , adherence to the law , their treatment of convicts , and any signs of extortion , nepotism , or factionalism . These reports were submitted to the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and Imperial Counselor during Western Han , but by Eastern Han these reports were submitted to each of the Three Excellencies . The reports were then used to promote , demote , dismiss , or prosecute local officials .
= = = Commandery administration = = =
There were thirteen commanderies , including the capital region , and ten kingdoms at the beginning of Western Han . Many kingdoms were reduced in size and the empire 's territory expanded through conquest . By 2 AD there were eighty @-@ three commanderies and twenty kingdoms containing an aggregate total of approximately 58 million people according to the census . A commandery consisted of a group of counties and was governed by an Administrator ( Taishou 太守 ) , also known as Grand Administrator , who was appointed by the central government and earned a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary @-@ rank . The Administrator was the civil and military leader of the commandery . He was not allowed to govern over his native commandery .
An Administrator was assisted by one or several Commandants ( Duwei 都尉 ) also known as Chief Commandant , who handled all local military affairs such as raising militias , suppressing bandit groups , and building beacon towers . The Commandants ' salary @-@ rank was Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . After 30 AD , all Commandants who were not located in distant frontier commanderies were abolished , yet if the commandery was located along borders where raids and armed incursions by hostile nomadic groups were frequent , he was still appointed . A Commandant in an interior commandery could only be appointed temporarily to deal with crises as they arose . Each commandery also had secretaries , a treasurer , and an Official in Charge of Accounts who submitted annual reports to the imperial court on the Administrator 's performance .
Many of the Administrators ' duties were seasonal , such as inspections of counties every spring to check on agriculture and maintain roads , bridges , dikes and other public works . In the fall he sent subordinates into the counties to report whether local criminal lawsuits had been conducted fairly . He was responsible for recommending worthy nominees , known as Filial and Incorrupt , to the capital at the end each year during winter ; the nominees would then be considered for an appointment to a central or local government office . This followed a system of quotas for each of the commanderies that was first established during Emperor Wu 's reign , when two Filial and Incorrupt men from each commandery were sent to the capital . This was changed in 92 AD to one man for every 200 @,@ 000 households in a commandery . After the Commandants of interior commanderies were abolished , the Administrators assumed their duties , yet they were still not allowed to raise militias , mobilize troops , or send troops outside their commandery without permission frm the central government .
= = = County administration = = =
The nationwide census conducted in 2 AD , listed 1 @,@ 587 counties . The Han county was the smallest political division containing a centrally appointed official . In larger counties of about 10 @,@ 000 households he was known as the Prefect ( Ling 令 ) ; in smaller counties he was known as the Chief ( Zhang 長 ) . Depending on the size of the county , the Prefect 's salary @-@ rank was 600 @-@ dan or 1 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , while a Chief was ranked at 300 @-@ dan or 500 @-@ dan . Due to their judicial role , historian Rafe de Crespigny does not differentiate between Prefects and Chiefs , referring to both as magistrate . The county 's head civil servants , usually respected scholars or elders in their local communities , were appointed directly by the Magistrate .
A county Magistrate was in charge of maintaining law and order , storing grain in case of famine , registering the populace for taxation , mobilizing conscripted commoners for corvée labor projects , supervising public works , renovating schools , and performing rituals . They were also given the duty to act as judge for all lawsuits brought to the county court . The judicial jurisdictions of the commandery Administrator and county Magistrate overlapped , so it was generally agreed that whoever arrested a criminal first would try him or her . Under Emperor Wu , commanderies and kingdoms operated public schools , and although counties could operate their own public schools , not all of them did .
The county was further divided into districts , each consisting of at least several hamlets grouped together ; typically a community of approximately one hundred families . A chief of police was assigned to each district by the county Magistrate . A county Magistrate heavily relied on the cooperation of local elders and leaders at the district level ; these carried out much of the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of arbitrating disputes in their communities , collecting taxes , and fighting crime .
= = = Kingdoms , marquisates , and fiefs of princesses = = =
A Han kingdom was much like a commandery in size and administration , except it was officially , and after 145 BC , nominally , the fief of a relative to the emperor , including brothers , uncles , nephews , and sons — excluding the heir apparent . The policy of awarding kingdoms only to imperial relatives was gradually adopted by the founder Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) , as many of the early kings were non @-@ relatives who were leading officers during the Chu @-@ Han contention ( 206 – 202 BC ) . Kingdoms were usually inherited by the king 's eldest son born to his queen .
The number of kingdoms fluctuated between Western and Eastern Han , but there were never fewer than eight nor greater than twenty @-@ five . In the early Western Han , the kingdoms accounted for approximately two @-@ thirds of the empire . The imperial court ruled over the commanderies located in the western third of the empire , while kings ruled their fiefs with little or no central government intervention . The administrative staffs of each kingdom paralleled the model of central government , as each kingdom had a Grand Tutor ( ranked 2000 – dan ) , Chancellor ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) , and Imperial Secretary ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) . No kingdom was allowed to have a Grand Commandant , since they were not allowed to initiate war campaigns on their own behalf . Although the kingdoms ' Chancellors were appointed by the imperial court , the king had the right to appoint all other officials in his fief .
The power of the kings declined after the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC ; the number of kingdoms and their sizes were reduced . An imperial edict in 145 BC removed the kings ' rights to appoint officials above the salary @-@ rank of 400 @-@ dan , and all officials ranked higher than this were appointed directly by the central government . Excluding the kingdom @-@ level Minister Coachman , the kingdoms ' Nine Ministers and Imperial Counselors were abolished . The Chancellor , now the equivalent of a commandery Administrator , was retained , although he was still appointed by the central government . After these reforms , the kings were no longer administrative heads and merely took a portion of the taxes collected by the government in their kingdoms as personal income . Charles Hucker notes that after this transformation of kingdoms and marquessates into virtual commanderies and counties , respectively , a " ... fully centralized government was achieved " for the first time since the Qin dynasty .
Han society below the level of kings was divided into twenty ranks , which awarded certain privileges such as exemption from certain laws , the nineteenth being a marquess and the twentieth being a full marquess — the difference being the former was only given a pension while the latter was given a marquessate ( houguo 侯國 ) — typically the size of a county . If the kings ' sons were grandsons of the emperor , they were made full marquesses ; if not , they were considered commoners . However , this rule was changed in 127 BC so that all the kings ' sons were made full marquesses . It is unknown whether early Western @-@ Han marquessates enjoyed the same level of autonomy as early Western @-@ Han kingdoms ; by 145 BC , all marquessates ' staff were appointed by the central government . The marquess had no administrative role over his marquessate ; he merely collected a portion of the tax revenues . His Chancellor was the equivalent of a county Prefect .
The emperor 's sisters and daughters were made either senior princesses , who shared the same rank as kings , or princesses , who shared the same rank as full marquesses ; a princess 's fief was typically the size of a county . The husband of a princess was ranked as a marquess . The daughters of kings were also princesses , but their fiefs were typically the smaller size of county districts , and could not be inherited by sons . Unlike the fiefs of kings and marquesses , the staffs of the princesses ' fiefs answered directly to one of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of the Imperial Clan .
= = Military = =
= = = Conscripted soldiers and militias = = =
Upon reaching the age of twenty @-@ three , male commoners became eligible for conscription into the armed forces ( zhengzu 正卒 ) for one year of training and one year of service ; the year of service could be served until the age of fifty @-@ six . Conscripts were trained , and would serve in one of three branches of the military : infantry , cavalry , or naval marine . The year of service could take the form of soldiering at frontier garrisons protecting the borders against nomadic enemies , serving as guards in the courts of kings or as guards under the Minister of the Guards in the capital . By 155 BC , the minimum age for conscription was lowered to twenty . During Emperor Zhao of Han 's ( r . 87 – 74 BC ) reign , the minimum age was raised to twenty @-@ three , but after his reign it was once again reduced to twenty .
Although this system of conscription survived into Eastern Han , conscription could be avoided upon payment of a commutable tax .
The government also exempted those who presented authorities with a slave , a horse , or grain . In the system of twenty ranks bestowed on commoners and nobles alike , those of the ninth rank and above were exempt from military service . To compensate for the loss of manpower , the Eastern Han government favored the recruitment of a largely volunteer army . Many other soldiers in Eastern Han were convicted criminals who commuted their sentences by joining the army . Mercenaries eventually comprised much of the capital guard , while foreign nomadic tribes were often employed to guard the frontiers .
After their year of active service , Western Han @-@ era soldiers were demobilized and sent home , where they were obligated to join the local militia that convened every eighth month of the year . This obligation was intended to curb local and regional warlordism that nonetheless became prevalent by the end of Han . Militias dismissed members who reached the age of fifty @-@ six . By Eastern Han , the obligation upon retired soldiers to join local militias was removed .
= = = Standing army and army reserves = = =
The non @-@ professional conscripted soldiers who served a one @-@ year term under the Minister of the Guards belonged to the Southern Army ( Nanjun 南軍 ) . Non @-@ conscripted , professional soldiers belonged to a standing army known as the Northern Army ( Beijun 北軍 ) . The Northern Army 's main purpose was to defend the capital , but it was sometimes required to repel foreign invasions . The Northern Army is first mentioned in Han records in about 180 BC , yet little is known of its command structure at that time . Several decades later , Emperor Wu reformed the Northern Army 's officer corps so that its command was shared by five Colonels ( Xiaowei 校尉 ) who each ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan and commanded a regiment . Emperor Wu also appointed three other Colonels , ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , whose forces were considered an extension of the Northern Army yet were stationed far outside the capital at strategic passes . Each of the eight Colonels was assisted by a Major ( Sima 司馬 ) who was ranked at 1 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . Professional soldiers could also be found in agricultural garrisons established in the Western Regions , such as those led by the Wu and Ji Colonels ( Wuji xiaowei 戊己校尉 ) , who were ranked Equivalent to 600 @-@ dan and were based at the Turpan oasis .
During Eastern Han , the conscripted army largely gave way to a volunteer army . The conscripted army under the Minister of the Guards was no longer referred to as the Southern Army . The Northern Army was retained , although it was reformed so that there were five Colonels instead of eight . The Eastern Han @-@ era Colonels of the Northern Army were also demoted to the rank of Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan .
According to Eastern Han @-@ era sources , the Northern Army was a relatively small fighting force of between 3 @,@ 500 and 4 @,@ 200 professional soldiers , each regiment consisting of approximately 750 soldiers and 150 junior officers . To aid this force , Emperor Guangwu established a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ soldier unit of army reserves in Liyang County along the Yellow River in 43 AD , while two other reserve units were created in 110 AD ; these were headed by a Commandant ( the same title used for the commandery @-@ level military officer ) . The main purpose of these reserve units was to position Han troops at strategic passes to guard the lower Wei River against Xiongnu , Wuhuan , and Tibetan tribes .
= = = Wartime militia and officers = = =
During peacetime and war , the command structure of the Northern Army remained the same . However , during times of great conflict and crisis , the raising of large militias required the appointment of many new officers with various titles , which were often bestowed as honorary titles to officials during times of peace . Large divisions were led by a General ( Jiangjun 將軍 ) whose rank depended on status ; divisions were divided into a number of regiments commanded by a Colonel , and sometimes by a Major . Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains , who ranked Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , while companies were further divided into platoons .
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= Subtropical cyclone =
A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical and an extratropical cyclone .
As early as the 1950s , meteorologists were unclear whether they should be characterized as tropical or extratropical cyclones . They were officially recognized by the National Hurricane Center in 1972 . Subtropical cyclones began to receive names from the official tropical cyclone lists in the North Atlantic , South @-@ west Indian Ocean and South Atlantic basins .
There are two definitions currently used for subtropical cyclones . Across the north Atlantic and southwest Indian ocean , they require central convection fairly near the center and a warming core in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere . Across the eastern half of the northern Pacific , they require a mid @-@ tropospheric cyclone to cut off from the main belt of the westerlies and only a weak surface circulation . Subtropical cyclones have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than typical tropical cyclones , and have no weather fronts linked into their center .
Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found in the tropics , the sea surface temperatures required for their formation are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , lying around 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . This also means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the North Atlantic hurricane season . Subtropical cyclones are also observed to form in the South Atlantic ; South Atlantic subtropical cyclones are observed in all months .
= = History of term = =
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the term semi @-@ tropical and quasi @-@ tropical were used for what would become known as subtropical cyclones . The term subtropical cyclone merely referred to any cyclone located in the subtropical belt near and just north of the horse latitudes . Intense debate ensued in the late 1960s , after a number of hybrid cyclones formed in the Atlantic Basin . In 1972 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) finally designated these storms as subtropical cyclones in real @-@ time , and updated the hurricane database to include subtropical cyclones from 1968 through 1971 . The term " neutercane " began to be used for small subtropical cyclones which formed from mesoscale features , and the NHC began issuing public statements during the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season employing that classification . This name was not noted as controversial in contemporary news reports , but it was dropped less than a year later . Recent articles , published after the year 2000 , have suggested that the name " neutercane " was considered sexist in the 1970s , but there do not appear to be any published reports from that period making this claim .
= = Naming = =
In the North Atlantic basin , subtropical cyclones were initially named from the NATO phonetic alphabet list in the early to mid @-@ 1970s . In the intervening years of 1975 – 2001 , subtropical storms were either named from the traditional list and considered tropical in real @-@ time , or used a separate numbering system . Between 1992 and 2001 , two different numbers were given to subtropical depressions or subtropical storms , one for public use , the other one for NRL and NHC reference . For example , Hurricane Karen in 2001 was initially known as Subtropical Storm One as well as AL1301 ( or 13L for short ) . In 2002 , the NHC began giving numbers to subtropical depressions and names to subtropical storms from the same sequence as tropical cyclones . From 2002 onwards , Subtropical Depression 13L would be known as Subtropical Depression Thirteen instead . Hurricane Gustav of 2002 was the first Subtropical Storm to receive a name but became tropical shortly after naming . Subtropical Storm Nicole , from the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the first subtropical storm that did not become tropical since the policy change . A subtropical storm from the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season also did not become tropical , but was not named since it was not recognized until post @-@ season analysis . In the southern Indian ocean , subtropical cyclones are also named once winds reach tropical storm , or gale , force . Since 2011 , subtropical storms in the South Atlantic Ocean are named by the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center .
= = Formation = =
Subtropical cyclones form in a wide band of latitude , mainly south of the 50th parallel in the northern hemisphere . Due to the increased frequency of cyclones which cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the summer and fall , subtropical cyclones are significantly more frequent across the North Atlantic than the northwestern Pacific ocean . In the eastern half of the north Pacific ocean and north Indian ocean , the older subtropical cyclone definition term is still used , which requires a weak circulation forming underneath a mid to upper @-@ tropospheric low which has cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the cold season ( winter ) . In the case of the north Indian ocean , the formation of this type of vortex leads to the onset of monsoon rains during the wet season . In the southern hemisphere , subtropical cyclones are regularly observed across southern portions of the Mozambique Channel .
Most subtropical cyclones form when a deep cold @-@ core extratropical cyclone drops down into the subtropics . The system becomes blocked by a high latitude ridge , and eventually sheds its frontal boundaries as its source of cool and dry air from the high latitudes diverts away from the system . Temperature differences between the 500 hPa pressure level , or 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) above ground level , and the sea surface temperatures initially exceed the dry adiabatic lapse rate , which causes an initial round of thunderstorms to form at a distance east of the center . Due to the initial cold temperatures aloft , sea surface temperatures usually need to reach at least 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) for this initial round of thunderstorms . The initial thunderstorm activity moistens up the environment around the low , which destabilizes the atmosphere by reducing the lapse rate needed for convection . When the next shortwave or upper level jet streak ( wind maximum within the jet stream ) moves nearby , convection reignites closer to the center and the system develops into a true subtropical cyclone . The average sea surface temperature that helps lead to subtropical cyclogenesis is 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . If the thunderstorm activity becomes deep and persistent , allowing its initial low level warm core to deepen , tropical cyclogenesis is possible . The locus of formation for North Atlantic subtropical cyclones is out in the open ocean ; the island of Bermuda is regularly impacted by these systems .
The South Atlantic environment for formation of subtropical cyclones has both stronger vertical wind shear and lower sea surface temperatures , yet subtropical cyclogenesis is regularly observed in the open ocean in the South Atlantic . A second mechanism for formation has been diagnosed for South Atlantic subtropical cyclones : lee cyclogenesis in the region of the Brazil Current .
= = = Transition from extratropical = = =
By gaining tropical characteristics , an extratropical low may transit into a subtropical depression or storm . A subtropical depression / storm may further gain tropical characteristics to become a pure tropical depression or storm , which may eventually develop into a hurricane , and there are at least three cases of tropical storms transforming into a subtropical storm ( Hurricane Klaus in 1984 , Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011 ) . Generally , a tropical storm or tropical depression is not called subtropical while it is becoming extratropical , after hitting either land or colder waters . This transition normally requires significant instability through the atmosphere , with temperature differences between the underlying ocean and the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere requiring over 20 ° C , or 72 ° F , of contrast in this roughly 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) layer of the lower atmosphere . The mode of the sea surface temperatures that subtropical cyclones form over is 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . Transition from subtropical cyclones into tropical cyclones occurs only in very rare cases over the South Atlantic Ocean , such as Hurricane Catarina in 2004 .
= = Characteristics = =
These storms can have maximum winds extending farther from the center than in a purely tropical cyclone and have no weather fronts linking directly to the center of circulation . The maximum recorded wind speed for a subtropical storm is 33 m / s ( 119 km / h , 65 knots , or 74 mph ) , also the minimum for a hurricane . In the Atlantic Basin , the United States NOAA classifies subtropical cyclones similarly to their tropical cousins , based on maximum sustained surface winds . Those with winds below 18 m / s , 65 km / h , 35 knots , or 39 mph are called subtropical depressions , while those at or above this speed are referred to as subtropical storms .
Subtropical cyclones are also more likely than tropical cyclones to form outside of a region 's designated hurricane season . North Atlantic examples include Subtropical Storm Alex ( which became Hurricane Alex ) in mid @-@ January of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season , Subtropical Storm Ana ( which became Tropical Storm Ana ) in late April of the 2003 hurricane season , Subtropical Storm Andrea in early May and Subtropical Storm Olga ( which became Tropical Storm Olga ) in mid @-@ December of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , and Subtropical Storm Beryl ( which became Tropical Storm Beryl ) in late May of the 2012 hurricane season . Diagrams which depict a cyclone 's phase depict subtropical cyclones with a shallow warm core and as asymmetric systems , similar to tropical cyclones which have begun the transition to an extratropical cyclone .
= = Types = =
= = = Upper @-@ level low = = =
The most common type of subtropical storm is an upper @-@ level cold low with circulation extending to the surface layer and maximum sustained winds generally occurring at a radius of about 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) or more from the center . In comparison to tropical cyclones , such systems have a relatively broad zone of maximum winds that is located farther from the center , and typically have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection .
= = = Mesoscale low = = =
A second type of subtropical cyclone is a mesoscale low originating in or near a frontolyzing zone of horizontal wind shear , also known as a dying frontal zone , with radius of maximum sustained winds generally less than 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . The entire circulation may initially have a diameter of less than 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) . These generally short @-@ lived systems may be either cold core or warm core , and in 1972 this type of subtropical cyclone was referred to as a " neutercane " .
= = Kona storm = =
Kona storms ( or Kona lows ) are deep cyclones that form during the cool season of the central Pacific ocean . A definition change in the term during the early 1970s makes categorization of the systems more complex , as many kona lows are extratropical cyclones , complete with their own weather fronts . Those across the northeast Pacific ocean consider them subtropical cyclones as long as a weak surface circulation is present . Kona is a Hawaiian term for leeward , which explains the change in wind direction for the Hawaiian Islands from easterly to southerly when this type of cyclone is present .
= = Australian East Coast Lows = =
Australian east coast lows ( known locally as east coast lows and sometimes as east coast cyclones ) are extratropical cyclones , the most intense of these systems have many of the characteristics of subtropical cyclones . They develop between 25 ˚ south and 40 ˚ south and within 5 ˚ of the Australian coastline , typically during the winter months . Each year there are about ten " significant impact " maritime lows . Explosive cyclogenesis is seen on average just once per year , but these storms cause significant wind and flood damage when they occur . Australian east coast cyclones vary in size from mesoscale ( approximately 10 km to 100 km ) to synoptic scale ( approximately 100 km to 1 @,@ 000 km ) . These storms which mostly affect the south east coast should not be confused with Australian region tropical cyclones which typically affect the northern half of the continent .
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= The Orb =
The Orb are an English electronic music group known for spawning the genre of ambient house . Founded in 1988 by Alex Paterson and KLF member Jimmy Cauty , the Orb began as ambient and dub DJs in London . Their early performances were inspired by ambient and electronic artists of the 1970s and 1980s , most notably Brian Eno and Kraftwerk . Because of their trippy sound , the Orb developed a cult following among clubbers " coming down " from drug @-@ induced highs . The Orb has maintained their drug @-@ related and science fiction themes despite personnel changes , including the departure of Cauty and other Orb members Kris Weston , Andy Falconer , Simon Phillips , Nick Burton and Andy Hughes . Paterson has been the only permanent member , continuing to work as the Orb with the Swiss @-@ German producer Thomas Fehlmann and , later , with Killing Joke 's Martin " Youth " Glover and Tim Bran of Dreadzone .
Alex Paterson prides the Orb on manipulating obscure samples beyond recognition on their albums and concerts ; his unauthorised use of other artists ' works has led to disputes with musicians , most notably with Rickie Lee Jones . During their live shows of the 1990s , the Orb performed using digital audio tape machines optimised for live mixing and sampling before switching to laptops and digital media . Despite changes in performance method , the Orb maintained their colourful light shows and psychedelic imagery in concert . These visually intense performances prompted critics to compare the group to Pink Floyd .
The Orb 's critical and commercial success in the United Kingdom peaked in the early 1990s with the albums The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld and U.F.Orb , the latter of which reached # 1 on the British album charts in 1992 . This success led to its infamous appearance on Top of the Pops , where the group showcased their quirky style by playing chess ( an interest of Paterson 's since his early youth ) while the group 's single " Blue Room " ran in the background . The Orb 's mid @-@ 1990s albums were met with mixed reactions from British critics ; their work received praise from American publications such as Rolling Stone . The group experimented with vocalists on the next two albums , which critics generally described as bland and uninspired . The Orb then shifted gears to a minimal techno style spearheaded by member Thomas Fehlmann , releasing their new material on the record label Kompakt .
= = History = =
= = = 1988 – 1990 : Paterson & Cauty = = =
Alex Paterson began his music career in the early 1980s as a roadie for the post @-@ punk rock band Killing Joke , for whom his childhood friend Martin " Youth " Glover played bass . After leaving Killing Joke in 1986 , Paterson met future KLF member Jimmy Cauty and the duo began DJ @-@ ing and producing music together under the name The Orb . Paterson and Cauty 's first release was a 1988 acid house anthem track , " Tripping on Sunshine " , released on the German record compilation Eternity Project One . The following year , the Orb released the Kiss EP , a four @-@ track EP based on samples from New York City 's KISS FM . It was released on Paterson and Glover 's new record label WAU ! Mr. Modo Records , which they created out of a desire to maintain financial independence from larger record labels . After spending a weekend of making what Paterson described as " really shit drum sounds " , the duo decided to abandon beat @-@ heavy music and instead work on music for after @-@ hours listening by removing the percussion tracks . Paterson and Cauty began DJ @-@ ing in London and landed a deal for the Orb to play the chill out room at London nightclub Heaven . Resident DJ Paul Oakenfold brought in the duo as ambient DJs for his " The Land of Oz " event at Heaven . Though the Orb 's Monday night performances had only several hardcore followers initially , their chill @-@ out room act grew popular over the course of their six @-@ month stay to the point that the room was often packed with around 100 people . The Orb 's performances became most popular among weary DJs and clubbers seeking solace from the loud , rhythmic music of the dancefloor . The Orb built up melodies using multitrack recordings linked to multiple record decks and a mixer . The group incorporated many CDs , cassettes , and BBC sound effects into the act , often accompanied with pieces of popular dance tracks such as " Sueño Latino . " Though the group used a variety of samples , they avoided heavy rhythm and drums so that the intended ambient atmosphere was not disrupted . Most often , the group played dub and other chill @-@ out music , which it described as ambient house for the E generation .
Throughout 1989 the Orb , along with Martin Glover , developed a music production style that incorporated ambient music with a diverse array of samples and recordings . The British music press later labelled the music ambient house . The culmination of the group 's musical work came toward the end of the same year when they recorded a session for John Peel on BBC Radio 1 . The track , then known as " Loving You , " was largely improvisational and featured a wealth of sound effects and samples from science fiction radio plays , nature sounds , and Minnie Riperton 's " Lovin ' You . " For its release as a single on the record label Big Life , the Orb changed the title to " A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld . " Upon the single 's release , Riperton 's management forced Big Life to remove the unlicensed Riperton sample , ensuring that only the initial first @-@ week release of the single contained the original vocals of Minnie Riperton ; subsequent pressings used vocals from a sound @-@ alike . Despite its running time of 22 minutes , the sample @-@ laden single reached # 78 on the British singles charts . Soon thereafter , the Orb were commissioned by Dave Stewart to remix his top @-@ 20 single " Lily Was Here . " The group obliged and were soon offered several more remix jobs from artists including Erasure and System 7 .
In 1990 , Paterson and Cauty held several recording sessions at Cauty 's studio , Trancentral . When offered an album deal by Big Life , the Orb found themselves at a crossroads : Cauty preferred that the Orb release their music through his KLF Communications label , whereas Paterson wanted to ensure that the group did not become a side @-@ project of the KLF . Because of these issues , Cauty and Paterson split in April 1990 , with Paterson keeping the name the Orb . As a result of the break @-@ up , Cauty removed Paterson 's contributions from the in @-@ progress recordings and released the album as Space on KLF Communications . Also out of these sessions came the KLF album Chill Out , on which Paterson appeared in an uncredited role .
Following the split , Paterson began working with Youth on the track " Little Fluffy Clouds " . The group incorporated samples from Steve Reich 's Electric Counterpoint . The signature of the piece centres around the repeated phrases sampled from the voice of singer / songwriter Rickie Lee Jones , her spaced @-@ out childlike ramble taken from a promotional CD released by Geffen records for her 1989 Flying Cowboys CD . In it she muses on the picturesque images of clouds from her Arizona childhood .
= = = 1991 – 1994 : Paterson & Weston = = =
In 1991 , Paterson invited freelance studio engineer Andy Falconer to join the Orb . He was closely followed by studio engineer Kris " Thrash " Weston . Steve Hillage , who Paterson had met while DJ @-@ ing in London , also joined as a guitarist . Along with producer Thomas Fehlmann , the Orb completed several additional tracks for their first album , The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld . At least six studios and twenty outside musicians were used during the three weeks of recording . Falconer 's and Weston 's technical abilities and Hillage 's guitar work allowed the group to craft panoramic sounds portraying aspects of space travel , including the launch of Apollo 11 . Adventures sold well in the United Kingdom and received praise for its balance of ambient music , house music , and sampling . Retrospectively , Adventures is considered ground @-@ breaking for changing the way musicians view sampling and as a vital work for the genres of ambient and dance music . The completion of Adventures saw the departure of Andy Falconer , whose last contribution was to one of the Orb 's Peel Sessions . To promote the release of an edited single @-@ disc version for an American release on Mercury Records , the Orb embarked on their first tour of the United States beginning in Phoenix , Arizona , in October 1991 .
In late 1991 and early 1992 , Paterson and Weston wrote their next single , " Blue Room " . Assisting with the recording was bassist Jah Wobble , keyboardist Miquette Giraudy , and guitarist Hillage . Despite its playing time of almost 40 minutes , " Blue Room " entered the British charts at # 12 and peaked at # 8 , making it the longest track to reach the charts . The Orb promoted this single with a " legendary avant @-@ garde " performance on Top of the Pops where Patterson and Weston played a game of chess in space suits while footage of dolphins and an edited version of " Blue Room " ran in the background . In July 1992 , U.F.Orb was released featuring " Blue Room " and , in the US release , the Orb 's next single , " Assassin " . Weston integrated his technical and creative expertise with Paterson 's Eno @-@ influenced ambience on U.F.Orb , combining " drum and bass rhythms " with " velvet keyboards " and " rippling synth lines " . U.F.Orb reached # 1 on the British album charts to the shock of critics , who were surprised that fans had embraced what journalists considered to be progressive rock . Despite the Orb 's success , Paterson and Weston preferred to avoid personal publicity and instead allow their music to be the focus of attention . Because of this partial anonymity and the Orb 's rotating membership , they are often recognised as more of a musical collective than a " band " .
Over the next year and a half , Paterson and Weston continued to produce new material , but releases stalled when Paterson began to feel that Big Life was trying to dictate the direction of the Orb 's music . This led to intense disagreements with Big Life and the Orb soon left the label to sign a deal with Island Records . Their first release on Island Records was the live album Live 93 , which gathered highlights from their recent performances in Europe and Asia . It featured the live crew of Paterson , Weston , producers Nick Burton and Simon Phillips , as well as audio engineer Andy Hughes , who had stepped in previously when Weston had decided to stop touring . The Orb 's first studio production on Island Records was Pomme Fritz , a chaotic EP noted for its heavy use of strange samples and its lack of conventional harmonies . Though Pomme Fritz reached # 6 on the British charts , critics panned it as " doodling " . Island Records " hated it " and " didn 't understand it at all " , according to Paterson . Soon after production finished on Pomme Fritz , Paterson , Weston , and Orb contributor Thomas Fehlmann joined with Robert Fripp to form the group FFWD as a side project . FFWD released a single self @-@ titled album on Paterson 's Inter @-@ Modo label , which Fehlmann later described as " an Orb track which became so long that it became a whole album ! " . Due to this aimlessness , FFWD lacked an artistic goal and disbanded after a single release . Soon after the release of FFWD in August 1994 , Weston suddenly left the Orb . Paterson claimed that Weston 's departure was due to his desire to have more control in the Orb . In an interview with i @-@ D , Weston attributed the split to Paterson , saying that Paterson " didn 't do his 50 per cent of the work . " Paterson reaffirmed the status of the Orb saying , " The Orb is the Orb , and nothing can change that " , and continued work with Hughes and Fehlmann .
= = = 1995 – 2001 : Paterson , Fehlmann & Hughes = = =
Following Weston 's departure from the Orb , Thomas Fehlmann joined as a full @-@ time studio member , but did not always participate in live performances . Paterson , Hughes , and Fehlmann then finished producing the album Orbus Terrarum , on which Paterson and Weston had been working . Orbus Terrarum , released in 1995 , featured more " earthbound " and " organic " sounds than their previous trippy science @-@ fiction @-@ themed music . Orbus Terrarum suffered , as Paterson described it , " a good kicking " at the hands of the British press , who described it as " generic " and a low point for Paterson 's creativity . Orbus Terrarum alienated many of the group 's fans , and only reached # 20 on the British charts . American critics gave it great acclaim , including Rolling Stone who made it their album of the month , citing its symphonic flow coupled with the Orb 's " uniquely British wit " . After a long world tour , the Orb , with Andy Hughes and Steve Hillage , settled down to produce their next album , Orblivion — the process of which saw a return to their spacey sounds . Though Orblivion was recorded in May 1996 , it was not released until almost a year later , due to Island Records ' desire to promote it as a follow up to U2 's techno @-@ rock album Pop . Orblivion sold well in Europe as well as the United States , where it reached the Billboard Top 200 . The first Orblivion single , " Toxygene " , was the highest charting single by the Orb , reaching # 4 in the United Kingdom on 8 February 1997 . Despite high sales , Orblivion received a lukewarm reception from the British press . As with Orbus Terrarum , Orblivion was better received by American critics , including Rolling Stone , who praised its " contrast of chaos and euphony " . Meanwhile , the stresses of touring sat heavily on Paterson ; he considered retiring the Orb , but continued touring and producing . In 1997 the band sold their studio Joe 's Garage to the Godfrey brothers of Morcheeba .
Paterson and Fehlmann , along with usual collaborators Hughes , Nick Burton , and Phillips , wrote and produced Cydonia for a planned 1999 release . Featured on the album were appearances from Robert Fripp , John Roome ( Witchman ) , and Fil Le Gonidec , one of the Orb 's live performers . Singers Nina Walsh and Aki Omori appeared on two tracks each , providing vocals and co @-@ writing lyrics with Paterson . Paterson felt that this new direction of songwriting for the Orb was more similar to the experimental work of Orbus Terrarum than to the techno @-@ pop of Orblivion . Island Records was in a period of restructuring due to its recent purchase by Universal Music Group , and Cydonia was not released until 2001 . Upon release , critics noted that Cydonia merged pop , trance , and ambient @-@ dub music , which they felt to be a conglomeration of bland vocals and uninventive ambience that lacked the appeal of the Orb 's earlier work . NME harshly described it as " a stillborn relic , flawed throughout by chronically stunted ambitions " and describing its only appropriate audience to be " old ravers " seeking nostalgia . The Orb were generally regarded by the British press as past their prime and an " ambient dinosaur " out of place in the current dance music environment . After the release of Cydonia , Hughes left the group for undisclosed reasons , becoming " another acrimonious departure from the Orb " according to The Guardian .
= = = 2001 – 2004 : Paterson , Fehlmann & Phillips = = =
In 2001 , Alex Paterson formed the record label Badorb.com as an outlet for Orb members ' side projects . To promote both Badorb.com and Cydonia , the Orb toured internationally , including their first visit to the United States in four years . NME described the Orb 's tour as " charming " and that they were " freed from the Floydian pretensions that dogged the band throughout the mid- ' 90s . "
The Orb , now composed of Paterson , Phillips , and Fehlmann , with guest John Roome , accepted an invitation to join the Area : One concert tour with Moby , Paul Oakenfold , New Order and other alternative and electronic artists . Though the Orb were paired with more mainstream artists during the tour such as Incubus , Paterson and Fehlmann made their next releases a series of several low @-@ key EPs for German label Kompakt in 2002 . The Orb found critical success on Kompakt ; but Badorb.com collapsed soon after releasing the compilation Bless You . Badorb.com had released fourteen records over the course of fourteen months from artists including Guy Pratt ( Conduit ) , Ayumi Hamasaki , and Takayuki Shiraishi , as well as the Orb 's three @-@ track Daleth of Elphame EP . Though Badorb.com was an internet @-@ based record label , they only sold vinyl releases ( with one exception , the Orb EP ) , which Paterson later remarked was a poor idea because " not many people ... have record players " .
Though their musical style had changed somewhat since the 1990s , the Orb continued to use their odd synthetic sounds on 2004 's Bicycles & Tricycles , to mixed reviews . The Daily Telegraph praised Bicycles & Tricycles as being " inclusive , exploratory , and an enjoyable journey " ; other publications dismissed it as " stoner dub " and irrelevant to current electronic music . Like Cydonia , Bicycles & Tricycles featured vocals , including female rapper MC Soom @-@ T who added a hip hop contribution to the album . The Orb left Island Records and released the album on Cooking Vinyl and Sanctuary Records . To promote the album , the band began a UK tour with dub artist Mad Professor . Though the Orb still pulled in large crowds , The Guardian noted that they lacked the intensity found in their earlier performances .
= = = 2004 – 2007 : Paterson & Fehlmann , The Transit Kings = = =
After two more EPs on Kompakt , the Orb ( now composed of only Paterson and Fehlmann ) released Okie Dokie It 's The Orb on Kompakt , which featured new material in addition to tweaked versions of their previous Kompakt output . By this stage , Allmusic observed , Thomas Fehlmann had become the primary creative figure in the Orb , " inhibiting Alex Paterson 's whimsical impulses " . Because of this , Okie Dokie was considerably more focused and less " goofy " than Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles . Fehlmann 's trademark hypnotic loops and delays made him the centre of Okie Dokie production and , according to Pitchfork Media , made it " difficult to say where [ Paterson ] is in the picture " . The Orb 's releases with Kompakt gained them back much of their musical credibility with the press and showed that they could " age gracefully " .
In August 2006 , the founders of the Orb - Paterson and Cauty - released Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God , their debut album as the Transit Kings with Guy Pratt and Pratt 's associate , Dom Beken . The album featured appearances from Smiths ' guitarist Johnny Marr and comedian Simon Day . Beken described Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God as " self @-@ consciously musically written and less sample @-@ based " compared to the members ' previous work . Living had been in production since 2001 , but due to members ' other obligations , it was delayed for several years . The album received mixed critical reactions , with reviewers such as The Sun comparing the album favourably to the music of DJ Shadow and Röyksopp while other publications , such as The Times , called it " Orb @-@ lite " and proclaimed it to be " Deep Forest @-@ style sludge " . Soon after the album 's release , Cauty left the Transit Kings on " extended leave " , leaving the project in indefinite limbo . Paterson and Beken reunited in 2008 as High Frequency Bandwidth , an ambient hip hop group on the Malicious Damage label .
= = = 2007 – present = = =
The Orb 's next studio album , The Dream , was released in Japan in 2007 and the following year in the United States and United Kingdom . Fehlmann is absent on The Dream and Paterson was instead reunited with Martin Glover and joined by Tim Bran of Dreadzone . The album saw a return to the Orb 's sounds of the early 1990s , with peculiar vocals and playful samples . The Orb also brought in jazz and house music singer Juliet Roberts and guitarist Steve Hillage .
After July 2006 re @-@ release of The Orb 's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld 3 @-@ CD Deluxe Edition , 2007 and 2008 saw releases of expanded 2 @-@ CD editions of the band 's subsequent regular studio records : U.F.Orb , Pomme Fritz EP , Orbus Terrarum , Orblivion and Cydonia . In late 2008 a double @-@ cd compilation of BBC Radio 1 sessions called The Orb : Complete BBC Sessions 1989 @-@ 2001 was released .
In May 2009 , the British Malicious Damage Records ( run by the members of Killing Joke ) announced the release of the Orb 's ninth regular studio album Baghdad Batteries ( Orbsessions Volume III ) on 11 September 2009 . A reunification of Paterson and long @-@ term collaborator Thomas Fehlmann who last worked together on Okie Dokie It 's the Orb on Kompakt , the album was promoted with a launch party with Paterson and Fehlmann performing the whole album live at The @-@ Situation Modern in Clapham , England on 10 September . A track " Chocolate Fingers " was uploaded onto the label 's MySpace profile . The 11 @-@ track album is said to be the third in the Orbsessions series , although unlike the first two outtakes parts composed of brand new material , recorded at Fehlmann 's Berlin studio .
In March 2010 Internet station Dandelion Radio broadcast a seventeen and a half minute long Orb session track by Patterson and Fehlmann on the Andrew Morrison show . This new track was titled " Battersea Bunches " and was a remixed version of the soundtrack to a short movie of the same title by Mike Coles and Alex Patterson - a film installation to be seen at London ’ s Battersea Power Station on 1 June 2010 as part of an evening of art and music . The film and its soundtrack ( together with remixes ) were later released as the CD / DVD album C Batter C on 11 November 2011 .
In mid @-@ 2010 Alex Paterson teamed up with Youth aka Martin Glover to compile a retrospective compilation album of tracks from the WAU ! Mr Modo label . The album titled Impossible Oddities is set to be released on CD and double Vinyl on 25 October 2010 via Year Zero records .
The Orb released the Metallic Spheres album in October 2010 , featuring David Gilmour of Pink Floyd . It was released by Columbia Records .
In 2011 Alex Paterson teamed up with electronic producer Gaudi and vocalist Chester for the creation of their experimental and ongoing collaborative project SCREEN , releasing the album " We are Screen " by Malicious Damage Records .
In 2012 the Orb worked with dub musician Lee " Scratch " Perry to produce a reggae @-@ infused album titled The Observer In The Star House , which was recorded in Berlin over a period of several months and features the single " Golden Clouds " . The title song was based on an earlier version of Little Fluffy Clouds , with the lyrics rewritten by Perry reflecting his childhood in Jamaica and the property Golden Clouds near his home .
In 2013 the Orb performed with the Kakatsisi drummers of Ghana on the West Holts stage at Glastonbury Festival .
= = Themes and influences = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
The Orb 's members have drawn from an assortment of influences in their music . The Orb 's central figure , Alex Paterson , had early musical tastes and influences which included King Tubby , Alice Cooper , Prince , Kraftwerk , and T.Rex. Among these , Paterson cites Kraftwerk as one of the most important , claiming they created the foundation from which all modern dance music has been built . While in Brixton with Martin Glover as a teenager , Paterson was also exposed to a large amount of reggae music , such as The Mighty Diamonds , The Abyssinians , and Bob Marley . The reggae influence on Paterson and the Orb can readily be heard in tracks such as the single " Perpetual Dawn " and U.F.Orb 's " Towers of Dub " . The earliest ambient influences of the Orb came in 1979 during Paterson 's roadie days with Killing Joke . While with the band in Neuss , Paterson listened to Brian Eno 's Music for Films while on LSD and watched " the Ruhr steel works explode in the distance " , noting that " [ t ] he scene seemed to be taking place in the music as well " . The same night , Paterson was also inspired while listening to Cluster 's Grosses Wasser and found that the steel works ' " huge metal arms were crushing molten rocks in time to the music " , which was something he 'd " never seen , or heard , anything like it before " . Along with Cluster and Kraftwerk , Paterson was also influenced by other German experimental music from Can and composer Karlheinz Stockhausen . Modulations calls Paterson 's music a " maximal " version of Brian Eno 's " minimal " ambience , though according to Paterson , Eno resents Paterson 's use of his music as an influence .
The Orb have often been described as " The Pink Floyd of the Nineties " , but Paterson has stated that their music is more influenced by experimental electronic music than progressive rock of the 1970s . He has noted though that the Pink Floyd album Meddle was influential to him as a child in the 1970s . The psychedelic prog @-@ rock similarities have led critics to describe the Orb as hippie revivalists ; Paterson has strongly rejected the tag , claiming that even as a youth , he was " one of those punks who hated hippies " .
During production of Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles , Paterson 's biggest influences were drum and bass and trip hop music , as seen on the tracks " Ghostdancing " , " Thursday 's Keeper " , and " Aftermath " . The Orb 's more recent influences consist largely of German techno producers , such as Triola , who were inspired by the Orb 's earlier work . Paterson cites the music of Kompakt as one of his primary modern influences and claims it to be among the best modern ambient music .
= = = Imagery = = =
Imagery has always been an important part of the Orb 's persona . This is most prominent during live performances , where they often project surreal images against onstage screens . Common images include morphing faces , futuristic cityscapes , and aliens . They have long associated their act with absurd symbology with images such as floating pigs . This has carried over to their music videos , most of which are spacy , brightly coloured montages of surreal images including astronauts , clouds , and neon dolphins . Because of their use of psychedelic images at shows , the Orb 's shows are frequently compared to those of Pink Floyd , who also used in @-@ show imagery and films . Paterson cites Godfrey Reggio 's and Philip Glass 's film Koyaanisqatsi as a primary influence to their concert imagery .
The Orb 's album art features much of the same imagery as their live act . Graphic design group The Designers Republic created the cover art for the earlier work , including Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld , U.F.Orb , and the singles from those two albums . For their next album , the Orb poked fun at their Pink Floyd comparisons with the cover of Live 93 featuring a floating stuffed sheep over the Battersea Power Station , which had appeared on the cover of Pink Floyd 's Animals . The artwork found in Badorb.com releases was similar to the Orb 's odd artwork of the mid @-@ 1990s , as it was stylistically similar and contained little writing . Paterson has also dabbled in the creation of cover art himself , designing the cover of Okie Dokie It 's The Orb on Kompakt .
= = = Science fiction and space = = =
Some of the more prominent motifs in the Orb 's work are outer space and science fiction , including alien visitations , space flight , and mind control . These have included the use of samples from serious sources such as NASA transmissions to comedic clips from films like Woody Allen 's Sleeper . U.F.Orb especially expressed a fascination with alien life with its bizarre sound samples and in the album 's title itself . The title of its most popular single , " Blue Room " , is a reference to the supposed Blue Room of Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , which was investigated as a possible UFO evidence holding room . Their 2001 album is named after the Cydonia Mensae region of Mars . Due to Paterson 's focus on science fiction and astronomical phenomena , The Guardian described Paterson as " pop [ music ] ' s primary spokesperson on aliens " .
= = Techniques , technology , live performances = =
In the Orb 's early DJ events in the 1980s , Paterson and Cauty performed with three record decks , a cassette player , and a CD player all of which were mixed through an Akai 12 @-@ track mixer . They used their equipment to harmonise recorded music and sound effect samples into an " endless sound continuum " for audiences of worn out dancers . Even after the Orb began producing original material , they kept the same sample @-@ heavy model for live acts by spontaneously integrating obscure samples into their pre @-@ recorded tracks . During promotional tours for Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld and U.F.Orb , they performed using a digital audio tape machine and experimented with other media sources such as dubplates . The tape machines held individual chords , rhythms , and basslines for each composition , allowing the Orb to reprocess them and mimic the act of DJ @-@ ing . Members could then easily improvise with these samples and manipulate them using sound effect racks . Often , the Orb had a live musician accompanying them , such as Steve Hillage on guitar . Their shows in the early 1990s would often be three hours of semi @-@ improvised , continuous music featuring a wealth of triggered samples , voices , and pre @-@ recorded tracks which were barely identifiable as the original piece .
The Orb began performing regularly at the Brixton Academy in the early 1990s , where they used the high ceilings and large space for their " well @-@ suited amorphous sound " , frequently performing their newest and more experimental pieces there . Andy Hughes took Weston 's place at live performances after the 1993 tour , though Weston did reappear for the Orb 's concert at the rainy Woodstock ' 94 . The Orb played for late night raves on the first two nights of Woodstock ' 94 in addition to artists including Aphex Twin , Orbital , and Deee @-@ Lite . The next year , the Orb 's touring group consisted of Paterson , Hughes , Nick Burton on percussion , and Simon Phillips on bass . This ensemble of live performers and electronic music created a " cacophony " of " gigantic , swarming sounds " . Though the Orb 's performances use much onstage equipment and many props , Paterson prefers to present them as " a non @-@ centralised figure of amusement on stage " .
The Orb used ADAT recorders for performances from 1993 to 2001 and utilised large 48 @-@ track decks , which Paterson described as being a " studio onstage " . They hooked synthesisers , such as the ARP 2600 , to MIDI interfaces to recreate specific sounds that appeared on their albums . The Orb 's methods of studio music creation changed as well . For more recent albums such as Cydonia , they used inexpensive equipment such as Korg 's Electribe products , which Paterson described as employing more of a " bedroom techno " approach . Despite their use of laptops during performances and in @-@ studio computers , Paterson says that he still cherishes vinyl and does not find purchasing CDs or downloading music to be nearly as satisfying .
= = = Sampling and remixing = = =
One of the Orb 's most notable contributions to electronic music is their idea of blurring the distinction between sampling and remixing . Albums such as Pomme Fritz , though released as a piece of original work , consist largely of manipulated samples . Conversely , the Orb 's remixes typically use only small sections of the original track , most notably in the case of their single " Toxygene " . " Toxygene " was originally commissioned as a remix of Jean Michel Jarre 's " Oxygene 8 " from Oxygene 7 @-@ 13 . The Orb " obliterated it " and reassembled only a few fragments for their remix , much to the chagrin of Jarre , who reportedly refused to release it ; The Orb released the track themselves under the name " Toxygene " , which further irritated Jarre , to whom Paterson retorted " The French are always five years behind us , anyway . " In statements made after the release of " Toxygene " , Jarre denied that he rejected the original remix because of disliking it .
Other artists have become agitated due to the Orb sampling their work , though Paterson jokingly suggests that " [ t ] hey don 't know the half of it . " Paterson says that he finds a " beauty " and a " cleverness " with slipping unlicensed samples into compositions without anyone recognizing it . Even though fans often try to guess the origins of many of the samples , Paterson states that they are rarely correct and that they would " die " if they discovered , for example , where the drums on " Little Fluffy Clouds " originated from . He has said that record labels have cautioned him , " Don 't tell anyone where you got your samples until we get them cleared ! " .
The Orb have used a wide variety of audio clips from sources ranging from McCarthy era speeches to prank phone calls by Victor Lewis @-@ Smith to David Thewlis ' apocalypse @-@ driven rant from the film Naked . Paterson obtains many samples from recording TV and radio for hours at a time and picking out his favourite clips . He and other members of the Orb record nature sounds for use on albums , especially FFWD and Orbus Terrarum . The Orb 's combination of ambient music and sampling from lower fidelity audio sources often creates a " fuzzy texture " in the sound quality , depersonalising the Orb 's music . The Orb are lauded for their " Monty Python @-@ esque levity " in their use of audio samples , though NME asserts that Paterson " sabotage [ s ] his majestic soundscapes " with " irritatingly zany " sounds .
The Orb has been a prolific remixing team , having completed over 80 commissioned remixes since 1989 . Even during periods of label conflict and contractual limbo , the Orb found steady work remixing for artists including Depeche Mode , Lisa Stansfield , and Front 242 . The Orb 's remixes from the early and mid @-@ 1990s feature a large number of comical samples , Progressive @-@ Sounds describe them as " ahead of their time " and NME notes them as " not entirely incompatible with contemporary chilling . " Some pieces , such as their Bee Gees cover collaboration with Robbie Williams , received criticism for being " beyond a joke " for their use of strange noises . The Orb 's remix of Nine Inch Nails ' " The Perfect Drug " , too , was described as " silly " , as they made it sound like Trent Reznor was " drowning in his bathtub " . Though Paterson maintains that much of the Orb 's remix work is done to support other artists , he admits some of their remixes for major artists were performed so that they could " pay the bills " .
= = Discography = =
The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld ( 1991 )
U.F.Orb ( 1992 )
Pomme Fritz ( 1994 )
Orbus Terrarum ( 1995 )
Orblivion ( 1997 )
Cydonia ( 2001 )
Bicycles & Tricycles ( 2004 )
Okie Dokie It 's the Orb on Kompakt ( 2005 )
The Dream ( 2007 )
Baghdad Batteries ( Orbsessions Volume III ) ( 2009 )
Metallic Spheres ( 2010 )
C Batter C ( 2011 )
The Orbserver in the Star House ( 2012 )
More Tales from the Orbservatory ( 2013 )
Moonbuilding 2703 AD ( 2015 )
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= The Boat Race 1948 =
The 94th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1948 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by the former rower Claude Taylor , Cambridge won by five lengths in a record time of 17 minutes and 50 seconds , beating the existing record set in the 1934 race . The victory , their second in a row , took the overall record in the race to 50 – 43 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1947 race by ten lengths , and led overall with 50 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were R. E. Eason ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race ) , J. H. Page and D. T. Raikes ( who represented Oxford in the 1920 , 1921 and 1922 races ) . Cambridge were coached by F. E. Hellyer ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1910 and 1911 races ) , Kenneth Payne ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races ) , Harold Rickett ( a Light Blue three times between 1930 and 1932 ) and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( a four @-@ time Light Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . The umpire for the race was the former Cambridge rower Claude Taylor who had represented the Light Blues in the 1901 , 1902 and 1903 races .
The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian anticipated a close race : " the prospects of Oxford and Cambridge for this year 's University Boat @-@ race on Saturday have now become much more even " . His counterpart at The Times was in agreement : " it really seems that whichever crew gets off best in the first two minutes will probably win the race . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 9 @.@ 375 lb ( 80 @.@ 3 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 62 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw three rowers return to the crew with Boat Race experience , including their stroke A. P. Mellows . Oxford 's boat also contained three former Blues , J. R. W. Gleave , P. N. Brodie and A. J. R. Purssell , all of whom were making their third appearances . Three of the participants were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's G. C. Fisk and W. W. Woodward , and Cambridge 's Brian Harrison were all from Australia .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race was started at 3 : 30 p.m. by Taylor . The Light Blues out @-@ rated their opponents from the start but soon after their number six , Paul Bircher " caught a crab " , allowing Oxford to take a half @-@ length lead which they extended to three @-@ quarters of a length by Craven Steps . Despite having stopped to allow Bircher to recover his oar , Cambridge drew level and were over a quarter of a length ahead by the time the crews passed the Mile Post , yet nine seconds off record pace and rowing into a head wind . Cambridge were a length ahead at Harrods Furniture Depository and drew clear as the boats passed below Hammersmith Bridge .
As the crews passed the HMS Stork training ship , Cambridge began to draw away and were two lengths ahead by Chiswick Steps . With a strong tailwind along Corney Reach , the Light Blues continued to pull ahead and passed below Barnes Bridge four lengths ahead , and six seconds ahead of the course record . Cambridge passed the finishing post five lengths ahead in a time of 17 minutes 50 seconds . The victory , Cambridge 's second in a row , and third in the last four races , took the overall record in the race to 50 – 43 in their favour . The special correspondent writing in The Observer called it " the maddest Boat Race for years " . The Times 's rowing correspondent suggested it was " a great triumph for the Cambridge coaches , who so often seem able to produce something out of the bag which has not been apparent in practice . " Writing in The Manchester Guardian , the rowing correspondent noted that it was " strange that Cambridge had never shown anything like this form in practice " .
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= Bobby Pulido =
Jose Roberto Pulido Jr . ( born April 25 , 1971 ) , known professionally as Bobby Pulido , is an American singer , songwriter , guitarist , and actor . He is credited for introducing Tejano music to a youthful crowd and became a teen idol and one of the most influential Tejano recording artists among Mexican American teenagers .
Pulido debuted on the music scene in 1995 as the lead vocalist of his eponymous band . That same year he signed a recording contract with EMI Latin and released his debut album , Desvelado . The album peaked at number nine on the United States Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and at number three on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The title track of Desvelado launched Pulido as a popular Tejano musician , but he was criticized by veteran musicians , who believed he was successful in the genre because of his father Roberto Pulido 's established music career .
Enséñame ( 1996 ) , which peaked at number two on the Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart , earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year and the Lo Nuestro Award for Regional Mexican New Artist of the Year . In 1998 , he performed to a sold @-@ out Auditorio Coca @-@ Cola in Monterrey , becoming the first Tejano musician to do so . He also became the youngest recipient to be awarded the Orgullo de la Frontera by the Fiestas Mexicanas in February 1999 . By 2000 , the popularity of Tejano music was declining , resulting in Pulido 's subsequent albums to not chart anywhere . Despite this , in 1998 he won Male Entertainer of the Year , which he won three consecutive times .
In 2003 , Pulido made his acting debut by starring in the made @-@ for @-@ television film La Decada Furiosa . He also appeared in the telenovelas Fuego en La Sangre and Qué pobres tan ricos . His album Enfermo de Amor ( 2007 ) was commercially unsuccessful , and he took a three @-@ year hiatus . Pulido returned to music in March 2010 and released an album titled Dias de Ayer ; he also returned to acting and guest @-@ starred in the film Noches Con Platanito . Aside from music and film , Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua in July 1996 . Pulido filed for divorce in September 2013 , after having fathered three sons with Anzaldua .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1971 – 94 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Jose Roberto Pulido Jr. was born on April 25 , 1971 , in Edinburg , Texas . He is the youngest child of Roberto Pulido , an award winning Tejano music singer ; and Diana Montes , daughter of Tejano musician Mario Montes . Known as Bobby Pulido , he attended Edinburg High School and joined the school 's mariachi group before joining his father 's band Los Clásicos as their saxophonist and backup vocalist . In 1994 , EMI Latin released a compilation album titled Branding Icons , which featured Pulido with his father on the song " Contigo " . Pulido was accepted at St. Mary 's University , where he studied business management as his major . After the album 's release in 1994 , he decided to leave college and pursue a singing career in the Tejano market , during what is now known as the genre 's golden age .
= = = 1995 – 99 : Debut album and commercial success = = =
Pulido started his own band with guitarist Gilbert Trejo , bassist Mike Fox , drummer and cousin Jimmy Montes , keyboardist Rey Gutierrez , and Frank Caballero serving as the band 's accordionist . Initially , Pulido received criticism from veteran Tejano musicians , who believed the singer was " riding on the hard @-@ earned reputation " of his father 's established music career . In May 1995 , Pulido signed a recording contract with EMI Latin and released his debut album Desvelado that September . Then @-@ president of EMI Latin Jose Behar told Billboard the company had " high hopes " for the singer in the country music market . His debut single " No Se Por Que " peaked at number 33 on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in December 1995 . Desvelado debuted at number 44 on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , the title track was second single released and debuted at number 21 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in the week of February 3 , 1996 , and Pulido became a popular Tejano recording artist . In April 1996 , the album peaked at number nine on the Top Latin Albums chart and number three on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . John Lannert of Billboard magazine called Pulido 's chart position " impressive " and called the singer a " fast @-@ rising artist " . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) the same year , signifying shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units in the U.S. Pulido ended 1996 as the eighth best @-@ selling regional Mexican artist and Desvelado ended the year as the eleventh best @-@ selling regional Mexican album . The album reached sales of 100 @,@ 000 units by the end of 1999 . At the 1996 Tejano Music Awards , Pulido tied first place with Eddie Gonzales for Best New Rising Male Tejano Artists .
In July 1996 , Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua and took a short career hiatus . He continued promoting his second studio album Enséñame , which was released a month after his marriage . Billboard called Enséñame a " rousing " ranchera and " infectious " cumbia @-@ flavored recording , and said it believed Pulido was aiming to follow Emilio Navaira , who wanted to crossover and become a country music artist . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News said Pulido 's vocals were " much improved " over his previous work . Enséñame peaked at number ten on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums and number two on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . It also produced three top @-@ twenty Regional Mexican Airplay tracks ; " Enséñame " , " Se Murió De Amor " , and " La Rosa " . The album earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year and the Lo Nuestro Award for Regional Mexican New Artist of the Year . Pulido along with Mexican singer Graciela Beltrán , American urban quintets the Barrio Boyzz , Tejano musicians Emilio Navaira , Pete Astudillo , and Jennifer Peña recorded " Viviras Selena " for the 1997 soundtrack to the biopic film about Selena , who was called the Queen of Tejano music and was killed in March 1995 . By 1997 , Pulido was being credited for introducing Tejano music to a much younger audience in the U.S. , among other Tejano novitiates .
In 1998 , Pulido released his third studio album Llegaste a Mi Vida , which peaked at number two on the Regional Mexican Albums chart and at number eleven on the Top Latin Albums chart . The only single to appear on the Latin singles chart , " Pedire " , peaked at number 28 on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . Pulido 's album won five of twelve nominations at the 1998 Tejano Music Awards ; winning Male Vocalist of the Year , Male Entertainer of the Year , Tejano Crossover Song of the Year for " ¿ Dónde Estás ? " , and Tejano Album of the Year . The same year , Desvelado and Llegaste a Mi Vida , each sold 100 @,@ 000 units in Mexico — an unprecedented milestone for the singer . In September 1998 , Pulido released his first live album En Vivo : Desde Monterrey Mexico , which was recorded on April 24 , 1998 , The album became the singer 's fourth top @-@ ten U.S. recording and peaked at number 21 on the Top Latin Albums chart. in a sold @-@ out concert at the Auditorio Coca @-@ Cola in Monterrey , becoming the first Tejano grupo musician to do so . In March 1999 , he released his fourth studio album El Cazador , which produced the top @-@ thirty Regional Mexican Airplay single " Cantarle a Ella " . Pulido became the youngest recipient to be awarded the Orgullo de la Frontera from the Fiestas Mexicanas in February 1999 . In an April 1999 interview , Pulido expressed interest in recording a Latin pop album and said he was not interested in crossing over and recording English @-@ language albums .
= = = 2000 – 09 : Decline in popularity , acting debut , and hiatus = = =
By 2000 , Tejano music 's dwindling popularity was thought to have recovered but it failed to do so ; music critics believed veteran Tejano artists such as Emilio Navaira , Selena , Mazz , Michael Salgado , and Pulido dominated the airwaves in the U.S. and that old @-@ school singers were not able to compete . That year , Pulido became a teen idol among Mexican American teenage girls and one of the most influential Tejano recording artists to the same demographic . In March 2000 , he released Zona de Peligro , which was less successful than his previous albums , peaking at number 48 on the Top Latin Albums chart . None of its singles were commercially successful , but Pulido won the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year — his third consecutive win . According to musicologist Guadalupe San Miguel , Tejano musicians beginning in the late 20th century and into the early 21st century were indistinguishable from each other . Pulido released his sixth studio album Siempre Pensando En Ti in March 2001 ; it fared less well commercially , peaking at number 50 on the Top Latin Albums chart . The album became Pulido 's last recording to impact a music chart on Billboard . In 2002 , Pulido organized the Celebrity Golf Classic , a benefit charity that raised US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the Easter Seals program . McAllen mayor Leo Montalvo announced at the event that November 2 , 2002 , would be " Bobby Pulido Day " .
That June , Pulido released an eponymous album titled Bobby , which spawned the top 40 U.S. single " Vanidosa " that failed to appear on any music chart and was his final single . He recorded a cover version of Mexican singer Juan Gabriel 's 1999 single " Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez " , which was included on Bobby . His next albums , Montame ( 2003 ) and Vive ( 2005 ) , failed to chart , ending his eight @-@ year presence on Billboard . In 2003 , Pulido made his acting debut in the telenovela television movie La Decada Furiosa , in which he played himself . Two years later , he appeared as a guest on the reality television show Big Brother México . Pulido performed and recorded " Ya Ves " for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . His next album , Enfermo de Amor , was released in August 2007 . AllMusic editor Evan Gutierrez complimented Pulido 's use of mixing genres without " [ pushing ] the envelope very far " , and said the album " sound [ s ] fresh rather than repetitive " . He called the title track " waltzing " , " Una Más " a roots rock recording , and " Desvelado Acústico " a " sophisticated acoustic " Latin pop track . However , Gutierrez said the album was lacking and its production quality was " not quite top @-@ notch " . After the album 's release , Pulido guest @-@ starred in three episodes of the telenovela series Fuego en La Sangre as himself .
= = = 2010 – present : Return to music and acting = = =
Pulido returned to recording music in 2010 and released Dias de Ayer in March that year . The album earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Vocalist of the Year ; the first time since 2003 . Two years later , he released Lo Mio , his first album on Apodaca Records . In 2013 , Pulido recorded with former Aventura vocalist Henry Santos on Santos ' song " No Sé Vivir Sin Tí " . The same year , Pulido returned to acting and guest @-@ starred as himself in two episodes of the telenovela Noches Con Platanito ( 2013 – 15 ) . In 2014 , he landed a regular , minor role as himself in the telenovela Qué pobres tan ricos . In November 2015 , Pulido released " No Es Como Tú " , a track from his twelfth studio album , Hoy . The album is Pulido 's first as sole songwriter for any of his albums . Pulido told Mexican newspaper Publimentero that Hoy will be released as a strategic plan to " help fight the war " on physical music consumption ; he is against the digital age of downloading and music streaming in the popular market . The album was expected to be released only through Pulido 's social networking sites to combat piracy . In a May 2016 concert , Pulido performed " Si No Te Hubiera Conocido " , a song he recorded with Miguel Luna that was shelved and forgotten during his career .
= = Personal life = =
Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua in July 1996 . They had three sons ; Remy Pulido ( born 1996 ) , Darian Pulido ( born 1998 ) , and Trey Pulido ( born 2005 ) . However , Pulido filed for divorce in September 2013 , after 17 years of being married and four months of separation . He currently resides in Miami , Florida and enjoys working out , eating healthily , and playing golf ; his favorite pastime is playing guitar and he finds composing songs therapeutic .
During his musical career , Pulido 's fans questioned his sexuality ; he said he is not homosexual but rumors that he had slept with men continue to circulate . Pulido spoke to a Mexican television news program in 2013 , and told viewers he is heterosexual and that he has gay fans , which he said did not concern him . In April 2010 , media outlets questioned Pulido after he released a music video in which he plays a stereotypical gay male ; the singer said he wanted to " try something different [ in his music videos ] " and defended his gay followers , saying he nothing against the LGBT community . After American Latin pop singer Ricky Martin publicly announced his homosexuality , Pulido defended Martin 's choice , saying " he is living his dreams " .
Pulido has been an outspoken opponent of the 2016 U.S. presidential candidate and Republican presumptive nominee Donald Trump . On his Instagram account , Pulido uploaded a picture of himself " urinating " on Trump 's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Discography = =
= = Filmography = =
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= Siege of Port Royal ( 1707 ) =
The Siege of Port Royal in 1707 was two separate attempts by English colonists from New England to conquer Acadia ( roughly the present @-@ day Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) by capturing its capital Port Royal ( now Annapolis Royal ) during Queen Anne 's War . Both attempts were made by colonial militia , and were led by men inexperienced in siege warfare . Led by Acadian Governor Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , the French troops at Port Royal easily withstood both attempts , assisted by irregular Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy outside the fort .
The first siege began on June 6 , 1707 , and lasted 11 days . The English colonel , John March , was able to establish positions near Port Royal 's fort , but his engineer claimed the necessary cannons could not be landed , and the force withdrew amid disagreements in the war council . The second siege began August 22 , and was never able to establish secure camps , owing to spirited defensive sorties organized by Acadian Governor Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase .
The siege attempts were viewed as a debacle in Boston , and the expedition 's leaders were jeered upon their return . Port Royal was captured in 1710 by a larger force that included British Army troops ; that capture marked the end of French rule in peninsular Acadia .
= = Background = =
Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604 . It consequently became a focal point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century . It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall , but eventually rebuilt . In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay , although it was restored to France by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick .
= = = French preparations = = =
With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702 , colonists on both sides again prepared for conflict . Acadia 's governor , Jacques @-@ François de Monbeton de Brouillan , had , in anticipation of war , already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701 , which was largely completed by 1704 . Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704 , the English in Boston organized a raid against Acadia the following May . Led by Benjamin Church , they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities . English and French accounts differ on whether Church 's expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal . Church 's account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack , but ultimately decided against the idea ; French accounts claim that a minor attack was made .
When Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706 , he went on the offensive , encouraging Indian raids against English targets in New England . He also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping . The privateers were highly effective ; the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707 , and some English coastal communities were raided .
= = = New England preparations = = =
English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal , and some of this activity had continued even after the war began . Some of these merchants , notably Samuel Vetch , were closely associated with Massachusetts Bay 's Governor Joseph Dudley , and by 1706 outrage began growing in the colonial assembly over the matter . Vetch chose to deal with these allegations by going to London to press a case for a military expedition against New France , while Dudley , who had previously requested such support without response , chose to demonstrate his anti @-@ French sentiment by organizing an expedition against Port Royal using mostly colonial resources . In March 1707 he revived an idea he had first developed in 1702 that called for provincial militia to man an expedition supported by resources of the Royal Navy that were locally available . His proposal was approved by the assembly on 21 March . Colonial popular opinion was divided on the need for the expedition : some ministers argued in its favour from the pulpit , while Cotton Mather " Pray 'd God not to carry his people hence . "
Massachusetts raised two full regiments , totalling nearly 1 @,@ 000 men ; New Hampshire provided 60 men , Rhode Island provided 80 , and a company of Indians from Cape Cod was also recruited . Recruiting was difficult in Massachusetts due to the lack of enthusiasm for the endeavour , and authorities were forced to draft men to fill the ranks . Connecticut was also asked to contribute to the expedition , but declined , citing bad feelings over the return of Port Royal by treaty after its capture in 1690 . The force , which was placed under the command of Massachusetts Colonel John March , totalled 1 @,@ 150 soldiers and 450 sailors , and was carried by a fleet of 24 ships , including the 50 gun man of war Deptford under the command of Captain Charles Stuckley , and the 24 gun colonial Province Galley of Cyprian Southack . ( March took a former prisoner of the Maliseet , John Gyles as his translator . )
= = First siege = =
The English fleet arrived outside the channel of the Port Royal harbour on June 6 , and troops were landed the next day . Governor Subercase 's defence force at the time consisted of 100 troupes de la marine that had fortuitously been reinforced by the recent arrival of another 60 who were due to take command of a recently built frigate . Just hours before the English arrival he had also welcomed about 100 Abenaki Indians led by the young Bernard @-@ Anselme d 'Abbadie de Saint @-@ Castin . As soon as the English ships were spotted , Subercase also called out the local militia , mustering about 60 men .
Colonel March landed with about 700 men to the north of the fort , and another 300 to its south under the command of Colonel Samuel Appleton , with the goal of establishing a siege line around the fort . Both forces were landed too far from the fort and spent the rest of the day marching toward it . Subercase sent a small force to the south on the morning of the 8th , who were driven back toward the fort by Appleton . Subercase himself led a larger contingent to the north , where he established an ambush at a river March 's force would have to cross . After a sharp battle in which Subercase 's horse was shot out from under him , the defenders were pushed back into the fort .
The New Englanders established camps about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the fort . Subercase sent parties out of the fort to harass English foraging parties , giving rise to rumors that additional militia forces were en route from northern Acadia . The English managed to advance their lines closer to the fort , but their engineer , Colonel John Redknap , did not believe the expedition 's heavy cannons could be landed safely , because they " must pass within command of the fort " . This led to disagreements between March , Redknap , and Stuckley which spelled the end of the expedition . After a final assault on June 16 , which French accounts describe as a failed attempt to take the fort , and English accounts say was merely an attempt to destroy some buildings outside the fort , the expedition embarked on its ships and sailed off on the 17th . March directed the fleet to sail for Casco Bay ( near present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) .
= = Interlude = =
From Casco Bay Colonel March sent a letter to Boston , in which he laid the blame for the expedition 's failure on Stuckley and Redknap . News of the failure preceded his messengers , and they were met upon their arrival by a jeering crowd of women and children . Colonel Redknap , one of the messengers , was able to convince Governor Dudley that he had acted within his orders , and blame was generally attached to March for the failure . Dudley issued orders to March that the fleet should stay put , with all men remaining aboard under penalty of death , while his council considered the next step . Dudley eventually sent reinforcements and a three @-@ man commission ( including two militia colonels and John Leverett , a lawyer with no military experience ) to oversee affairs , and ordered the expedition to make a second attack . Despite the orders , desertion from the fleet was high , and the forces was reduced to about 850 when it sailed for Port Royal in late August . Colonel March resigned the expedition command and was replaced by Colonel Francis Wainwright .
Governor Subercase was forewarned of the second attempt , and had erected additional defenses to impede the attackers ' approaches . He was also reinforced by the fortuitous arrival of the Intrepide , a French frigate under the command of Pierre Morpain . His crew was added to the defences , and captured prize ships he brought with him provided needed provisions for the fort .
= = Second siege = =
The English fleet arrived near Port Royal on August 21 , and Wainwright landed his troops about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below ( south of ) the fort the next day and marched them to a position about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the fort . This area , where March had previously camped , was one of the areas near which Subercase had thrown up additional defensive earthworks . On August 23 Wainwright sent a detachment of 300 to clear a path for the heavy cannon ; this attempt was repulsed by forces sent out by Subercase to harass them . Using guerrilla @-@ style tactics and fire from the fort 's cannons , they forced the English to retreat to their camp . This defeat apparently had a significant effect on English morale ; Wainwright wrote that his camp was " surrounded with enemies and judging it unsafe to proceed on any service without a company of at least one hundred men . " In what was probably the most serious clash , an English party cutting brush was ambushed by a French and Indian force , and nine of the party were killed . The situation got so bad in the English camp that on the 27th they withdrew to a camp protected by their ships ' guns . The camp was not properly fortified , and the Englishmen were constantly subjected to sniping and attacks from swarming French and Indians . When Wainwright made a second landing at another point on August 31 , Subercase himself led 120 soldiers out of the fort . About 70 men engaged the New Englanders in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , which was fought with axes and musket butts . Saint @-@ Castin and almost 20 of his men were wounded while five others were killed . The next day , September 1 , the English reembarked on their ships , and sailed back to Boston . The French in their reports claimed to have killed as many as 200 men , but English sources claim only about 16 killed and 16 wounded in the siege .
= = Aftermath = =
The expedition 's return to Boston was also met with jeers . Dudley 's commissioners were sarcastically called " the three Port Royal worthies " and " the three champions " . Dudley 's reports of the affair minimized its failings , pointing out that many plantations around Port Royal had been destroyed during the two sieges . Dudley also refused to make inquiries into the expedition 's failure , fearing the blame would be placed on him .
Subercase , concerned that the British might return the following year , worked to strengthen the fortifications at Port Royal . He also built a small warship to assist in the colony 's defenses , and convinced Morpain to raid New England shipping . The privateer was so successful that by the end of 1708 Port Royal was overcrowded with prisoners from the captured prizes .
None of this ultimately helped save Port Royal from the next attack , since France failed to send any significant support , while the British mobilized larger and better @-@ organized forces . Samuel Vetch , with support from Dudley , Boston merchants , and the New England fishing community , successfully lobbied Queen Anne for military support for an expedition to conquer all of New France in 1709 . This prompted the colonists to mobilize in the expectation that troops would arrive from England ; their efforts were aborted when the promised military support failed to materialize . Vetch and Francis Nicholson returned to England in its aftermath , and again secured promises of military support for an attempt on Port Royal in 1710 . In the summer of 1710 a fleet arrived in Boston carrying 400 marines . Augmented by colonial regiments , this force successfully captured Port Royal after a third siege in 1710 .
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= Survivor Series ( 2007 ) =
Survivor Series ( 2007 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on November 18 , 2007 , at the American Airlines Arena in Miami , Florida . It was presented by THQ 's WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 . It was the 21st annual Survivor Series and starred wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW brands .
The show 's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers , who acted out the franchise 's stories in and out of the ring . The main event featured SmackDown wrestlers in a Hell in a Cell match , in which the ring was surrounded by a roofed steel structure . In this match , World Heavyweight Champion Batista defeated The Undertaker to retain his title . In Raw 's main match , Randy Orton defeated Shawn Michaels in a singles match , while in ECW 's prime match , ECW Champion CM Punk defeated John Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the title . Two matches were on the undercard . The first was a singles match , in which The Great Khali defeated Hornswoggle . The other featured Team Triple H ( Triple H , Jeff Hardy , Rey Mysterio and Kane ) defeating Team Umaga ( Umaga , Mr. Kennedy , Montel Vontavious Porter , Finlay and Big Daddy V ) in an inter @-@ brand five @-@ on @-@ four Survivor Series elimination tag team match .
Survivor Series helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 1 @.@ 2 million , through ticket sales and pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . It received mixed critical reviews by various independent sources , including Canadian Online Explorer and the Pro Wrestling Torch . After its release on DVD , the event peaked at number five on Billboard 's Video Sales chart , before it fell off the chart after ten weeks .
= = Background = =
Survivor Series was the culmination of various scripted plots and storylines . For three months before the event , several professional wrestling matches and scripted plots were played out on WWE programming ( Raw , Friday Night SmackDown ! , and ECW on Sci Fi ) to create feuds between various wrestlers , casting them as villains and heroes . Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW were also the names of WWE 's televised brands – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a specific program , thus each brand promoted distinct matches .
The main narrative for Survivor Series from the SmackDown brand continues the events that unfolded at WrestleMania 23 , WWE 's April pay @-@ per @-@ view , in which The Undertaker defeated Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . Over the course of several months , the two wrestlers fought in various matches over the title , which eventually involved Edge . The Undertaker was billed as having been injured in one of these matches in May , in which Edge had won the title . During The Undertaker 's absence , Edge was legitimately injured , and The Great Khali won the championship in a Battle Royal , in which wrestlers were eliminated until one remained as the winner . At Unforgiven , WWE 's September pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Undertaker returned to WWE , while Batista won the World Heavyweight Title from The Great Khali . Afterwards , the original feud between the two wrestlers was restarted and culminated into a standard wrestling match , known in professional wrestling as a singles match , at WWE 's October pay @-@ per @-@ view event Cyber Sunday ; Batista won this match and retained his title . On the November 2 , 2007 episode of Friday Night SmackDown ! , a rematch was advertised in a Hell in a Cell match , in which both wrestlers would fight in a ring surrounded by a roofed steel structure at Survivor Series .
The prime rivalry scripted from the Raw brand continued a storyline that extended from Cyber Sunday , between WWE Champion Randy Orton and Shawn Michaels over Orton 's title . At Cyber Sunday , Michaels was chosen by the WWE fans , via online voting , to face Orton for the title , though , Orton retained his title via disqualification . A rematch was promoted for Survivor Series on the October 29 , 2007 edition of Raw , in which Michaels would face Orton for his title . Afterwards , Michaels and Orton fought in different match types over the weeks leading to Survivor Series . On the episode of Raw before Survivor Series , Michaels and Orton met " Face to Face " in a scripted confrontation , in which Orton attacked Michaels .
The prime storyline on the ECW brand featured ECW Champion CM Punk , John Morrison , and The Miz . Morrison and Punk 's rivalry revolved over the outcome of their match at Vengeance : Night of Champions , WWE 's June pay @-@ per @-@ view event , in which Morrison defeated Punk to win the ECW Title . Punk sought revenge , but Morrison defeated Punk in two championship matches ; however , Punk won the title from Morrison on the September 4 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci fi . At Cyber Sunday , The Miz was voted online by fans to challenge Punk for the ECW Title , though , Punk defeated Miz to retain his title . A Triple Threat match was announced for Survivor Series on the November 13 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci @-@ Fi , in which Punk would defend his title against Morrison and Miz , and the first wrestler to gain a pinfall or submission would win the match and the title .
In a narrative extending to the September 10 , 2007 episode of Raw , in which Hornswoggle , a dwarf , was announced as Vince McMahon 's illegitimate son . In this storyline , McMahon did not like the fact that Hornswoggle was his son , and as a result , he promoted matches in which Hornswoggle faced much larger opponents . As part of this storyline , McMahon announced that The Great Khali , who was billed as standing at 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) , would face Hornswoggle at Survivor Series . In a promotional in @-@ ring segment on the episode of Friday Night SmackDown ! before the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Khali and Hornswoggle weighed in for their match , in which Khali weighed double the weight of Hornswoggle ; this was a segment created by McMahon to humiliate his son . As a Survivor Series tradition , every event features an inter @-@ brand 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series elimination tag team match . Announced via WWE.com , WWE 's official website , Team Triple H ( Triple H , The Hardy Boyz ( Matt and Jeff ) , Rey Mysterio , and Kane would face Team Umaga ( Umaga , Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) , Finlay , Big Daddy V , and Mr. Kennedy ) .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The pay @-@ per @-@ view began with the ECW Championship Triple Threat match , in which CM Punk defended his title against John Morrison and The Miz . Throughout the match , The Miz and Morrison double @-@ teamed Punk , however , Miz turned his back on Morrison by attacking him . After Miz tossed Morrison over the top ring ropes onto ringside , Punk lifted Miz onto his shoulders and hit the Go To Sleep . He then pinned Miz to retain his ECW Title . The next scheduled match was an inter @-@ brand 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , in which the team of Kelly Kelly , Torrie Wilson , Mickie James , Maria , and Michelle McCool faced Victoria , Beth Phoenix , Melina , Layla , and Jillian Hall . Phoenix 's team had the advantage over James ' team , until James was tagged into the match . She attacked Melina with her forearm and kissed her before kicking her in the head . James then pinned her to earn the victory for her team . Next was a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship , in which the champions , Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defended against Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes . At one point , Holly hit Cade with his forearm , and sent Cade and himself onto ringside . In the ring , Murdoch flipped over Rhodes ' back and pulled him down to the mat to perform the " Ace of Spades " . Successfully pinning Rhodes , Murdoch retained the World Tag Team Championship for his team .
The fourth match was the five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series Elimination Tag team match between Team Triple H and Team Umaga . Before the event , it was announced that Matt Hardy would be unable to compete in the match due to a scripted injury . Kane was the first wrestler eliminated off of Team Triple H , after a Big Daddy V elbow drop . Umaga then pinned Rey Mysterio after the " Samoan Spike " . Only Jeff and Triple H remained for their team , while MVP was Team Umaga 's first elimination ; Jeff Hardy eliminated him after a " Twist of Fate " . Team Umaga 's second elimination occurred after Big Daddy V accidentally dropped an elbow on Mr. Kennedy , which led to a pinfall by Triple H. Big Daddy V was Team Umaga 's third elimination , which occurred after Hardy and Triple H hit a Double DDT . Finlay and Umaga were then eliminated via pinfall , after a " Pedigree " to Finlay , and a " Swanton " to Umaga . As a result , Team Triple H won . The Great Khali versus Hornswoggle was the next scheduled match . At one point , Hornswoggle tried to hit Khali with a shillelagh , but Khali slapped Hornswoggle down to the mat . The match ended via disqualification , after Finlay , Hornswoggle original caretaker , entered the ring and hit Khali in the head with his own shillelagh .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth match was Raw 's main match , in which Randy Orton faced Shawn Michaels for Orton 's WWE Championship . In this stipulated match , Michaels was banned from using his signature move , " Sweet Chin Music " , while Orton was unable to get disqualified , and if either man broke those stipulations he would have lost the WWE Championship match . Because Michaels was banned from using the superkick , his signature maneuver , Michaels attempted various submission moves , such as the Sharpshooter , Crossface , and ankle lock . Eventually , Michaels , attempted to perform his superkick , but to prevent himself from losing the match , he stopped , which then allowed Orton to hit an RKO . Successfully pinning Michaels , Orton retained his WWE Title .
The main event from SmackDown was the event 's final match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Batista defended his title against The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match . At one point , Batista hit the The Undertaker with a Batista Bomb through a table . Batista then attempted to pin The Undertaker but he only got a two count . The Undertaker then hit Batista with a Tombstone Piledriver . He pinned Batista but Batista kicked out at two . The Undertaker then hit another Tombstone Piledriver on top of the steel ring steps . The Undertaker pinned Batista , and as the referee counted the pin , Edge , dressed as a cameraman , pulled the referee out of the ring , and hit The Undertaker with the camera he was holding and then positioned Undertaker 's head on top of the steel steps . Edge then slammed a folding chair across the back of The Undertaker 's head . While the referee re @-@ entered the ring , Edge dragged Batista onto The Undertaker , and as a result , Batista pinned The Undertaker and retained his World Heavyweight Title . After the match Edge came back into the ring and struck The Undertaker in the head as he was sitting up .
= = Aftermath = =
After Survivor Series , Randy Orton was scripted into a feud with Chris Jericho , who made his return to WWE after a two @-@ year hiatus . The following night on Raw , the evolving feud culminated into a match being promoted for Armageddon , WWE 's December pay @-@ per @-@ view . At Armageddon , Orton retained his WWE Title . After Batista retained his World Heavyweight Championship , Edge was scripted into a rivalry with him over his title . Eventually , The Undertaker was also placed in feud , which led to the advertising of a Triple Threat match at Armageddon for the title . At Armageddon , Edge won the World Heavyweight Championship . Due to the events that occurred at Survivor Series , a match was announced between Finlay and The Great Khali for Armageddon . Finlay prevailed at Armageddon via pinning The Great Khali . After surviving their Elimination tag team match , Triple H and Jeff Hardy were promoted into a match for Armageddon , in which the winner would win the opportunity to challenge for the WWE Championship . At Armageddon , Hardy defeated Triple H. Because Beth Phoenix and Mickie James were the leaders of their teams at Survivor Series , a feud evolved from this , which culminated into a match at Armageddon over Phoenix 's WWE Women 's Championship . Phoenix retained her title at Armageddon .
= = = Reception = = =
The American Airlines Arena usually has a capacity of 19 @,@ 600 , which was reduced for Survivor Series due to production purposes . From an approximate attendance of 12 @,@ 000 and 341 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , Survivor Series helped WWE earn $ 19 @.@ 9 million in pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue versus $ 18 @.@ 7 million the previous year ; this was confirmed by WWE in its 2007 fourth quarter financial report . Although Survivor Series helped WWE 's revenue , it earned 42 @,@ 000 less buys than the previous year 's Survivor Series .
In addition , the pay @-@ per @-@ view received mixed reviews . Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk of Canadian Online Explorer 's SLAM ! Sports – Wrestling rated the entire event 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 points . They also rated Raw and SmackDown 's main event an 8 out of 10 points . J.D. Dunn of 411Mania stated that the event was " The best WWE PPV since Backlash . " Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch , a professional wrestling newsletter operated since 1987 , reported that the main event was " disappointing " and that " WWE set expectations too high for the Cell . " He rated the Raw main event 3 out of 5 points , while rating the SmackDown main event 2 @.@ 25 out of 5 points . Survivor Series was released on DVD on December 26 , 2007 by WWE Home Video , and it was distributed by Genius Products . The DVD debuted on Billboard 's Video Sales chart on January 19 , 2008 at number five . It spent nine more weeks on the chart , before it fell off the chart at number 20 .
= = Results = =
Survivor Series elimination match
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= More Demi Moore =
More Demi Moore or the August 1991 Vanity Fair cover was a controversial handbra nude photograph of the then seven @-@ months pregnant Demi Moore taken by Annie Leibovitz for the August 1991 cover of Vanity Fair to accompany a cover story about Moore .
The cover has had a lasting societal impact . Since the cover was released , several celebrities have posed for photographs in advanced stages of pregnancy , although not necessarily as naked as Moore . This trend has made pregnancy photos fashionable and created a booming business . The photograph is one of the most highly regarded magazine covers of all time , and it is one of Leibovitz 's best known works .
The picture has been parodied several times , including for advertising Naked Gun 33 ⅓ : The Final Insult ( 1994 ) . This led to the 1998 Second Circuit fair use case Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. In addition to being satirically parodied and popularizing pregnancy photographs , there was also backlash . Critics rated it grotesque and obscene , and it was also seriously considered when Internet decency standards were first being legislated and adjudicated . Others thought it was a powerful artistic statement .
In each of the subsequent two years , Moore made follow @-@ up cover appearances on Vanity Fair , the first of which propelled Joanne Gair to prominence as a trompe @-@ l 'œil body painter .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , Demi Moore was a budding A @-@ list film star who had been married to Bruce Willis since 1987 . The couple had had their first child Rumer Willis in 1988 , and they had hired three photographers for an audience of six friends for the delivery . In 1990 , she had starred in that year 's highest @-@ grossing film , Ghost , for which she was paid $ 350 @,@ 000 , and she had earned $ 2 million for 1991 roles in The Butcher 's Wife , Mortal Thoughts and Nothing But Trouble . Following the photo , she would earn $ 3 million for her 1992 role in A Few Good Men and $ 5 million apiece for roles in The Scarlet Letter ( 1995 ) and Disclosure ( 1994 ) .
Annie Leibovitz had been chief photographer at Rolling Stone from 1973 until 1983 , when she moved to Vanity Fair . In 1991 , she had the first mid @-@ career show , Annie Leibovitz Photographs 1970 @-@ 1990 , ever given a photographer by the National Portrait Gallery in Washington , D.C. , with a similarly titled accompanying book . The show traveled to New York City at the International Center of Photography for a showing that would run until December 1 , 1991 .
= = Details = =
The photograph was one of several taken by Leibovitz of seven @-@ months pregnant 28 @-@ year @-@ old Moore , then carrying the couple 's second daughter , Scout LaRue . The photographs ranged from Moore in lacy underwear and spiked high heels , to a revealing peignoir . The final selection had Moore wearing only a diamond ring . Joanne Gair worked on make @-@ up for the shoot . Samuel Irving Newhouse , Jr . , chairman of Conde Nast Publications , was very supportive of the chosen cover despite the potential for lost sales . Tina Brown , Vanity Fair editor , quickly realized that there would be harsh backlash for regular distribution of the magazine ; the issue had to be wrapped in a white envelope with only Moore 's eyes visible . Some editions had a brown wrapper that implied naughtiness . However , Brown viewed the image as a chance to make a statement about the decade of the 1990s after a decade dominated by power suits . Approximately 100 million people saw the cover .
The use of a pregnant sex symbol was in a sense an attempt to combat the pop culture representations of the anathema of the awkward , uncomfortable , and grotesquely excessive female form in a culture that values thinness . Leibovitz ' candid portrayal drew a wide spectrum of responses from television , radio and newspaper personalities and the public at large ranging from complaints of sexual objectification to celebrations of the photograph as a symbol of empowerment . One of the judges in Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. stated that the image evoked Botticelli 's Birth of Venus . The contemporary retrospective view of some is that this photograph is " high art " . The intent of the photograph was to portray pregnancy with a celebrity in a way that was bold , proud and understated in a " anti @-@ Hollywood , anti @-@ glitz " manner . It was successful in some regards as many perceived it as a statement of beauty and pride . However , many took offense and the cover drew unusually intense controversy for Vanity Fair in the form of ninety @-@ five television spots , sixty @-@ four radio shows , 1 @,@ 500 newspaper articles and a dozen cartoons . Some stores and newsstands refused to carry the August issue , while others modestly concealed it in the wrapper evocative of porn magazines .
The photo is not only considered one of Leibovitz 's most famous , but also an almost mythical representation . It is considered emblematic of Si Newhouse 's reputation for " newsy features and provocative photos . " It is the first photo mentioned in the New York Times review of Leibovitz 's exhibition Annie Leibovitz : A Photographer 's Life , 1990 @-@ 2005 at the Brooklyn Museum and it is contrasted with another of her female pregnancy photographs ( of Melania Trump ) .
A year later , Moore still did not understand the controversy that caused photos of a naked , pregnant woman to be viewed as morally objectionable . Moore stated that , " I did feel glamorous , beautiful and more free about my body . I don 't know how much more family oriented I could possibly have gotten . " She considered the cover to be a healthy " feminist statement . " In 2007 , Moore stated that the picture was not originally intended for publication . She had posed in a personal photo session , not a cover shoot . Leibovitz has had personal photo sessions of Moore and all of her daughters .
= = = Cover story = = =
One journalist 's professional account of the cover story describes it as " relentlessly long " , and a second journalist 's description is that it is a " very long profile " . The article discussed the then three @-@ year @-@ old Rumer Willis and husband Bruce Willis . Willis and Moore discuss each other in the article . The article also spends three pages recounting her life . The article spent little time on her next film , The Butcher 's Wife or the baby inside her , Scout LaRue Willis .
= = Legal issues = =
= = = Naked Gun 33 ⅓ = = =
The photograph was parodied on several occasions , including the computer @-@ generated Spy magazine version , which placed Willis ' head on Moore 's body . In Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. , Leibovitz sued over one parody featuring Leslie Nielsen , made to promote the 1994 film Naked Gun 33 ⅓ : The Final Insult . In the parody , the model 's body was used and " the guilty and smirking face of Mr. Nielsen appeared above " . The teaser said " Due this March " . The case was dismissed in 1996 because the parody relied " for its comic effect on the contrast between the original " .
In a parody ruling the court must determine whether a work is transformative in a way that gives a new expression , meaning or message to the original work . In this case , the court ruled that the " ad may reasonably be perceived , as commenting on the seriousness and even pretentiousness of the original . " It also ruled that the ad differed from the original " in a way that may , reasonably , be perceived as commenting , through ridicule on what a viewer might reasonably think is the undue self @-@ importance conveyed by the subject of the Leibovitz photograph . "
= = = Other issues = = =
When the Internet arose as a popular and important medium and the United States Supreme Court issued a ruling on the Communications Decency Act of 1996 ( CDA ) , Moore 's image was described as a sort of litmus test to determine if the law could be reasonably applied in the current environment by the trial court . When John Paul Stevens ' rendered an opinion over a year later , the image was still on the minds of legal scholars .
Fifteen years later the photo continued to be parodied . In 2006 , graffiti artist Banksy used a Simpsons @-@ like character to replace Moore 's head for a promotion in Los Angeles , California . He illegally posted the parody around Los Angeles to promote his website and his exhibition .
= = Follow @-@ ups = =
In the Demi 's Birthday Suit August 1992 issue of Vanity Fair , Moore was shown on the cover in the body painting photo by Joanne Gair . The painting is a memorable example of modern body painting artwork . It made Gair an immediate pop culture star as the most prominent body paint artist , which prompted consideration for an Absolut Vodka Absolut Gair ad campaign . The 1992 cover , which required a thirteen @-@ hour sitting for Gair and her team of make @-@ up artists , was a commemoration of the August 1991 photo . Leibovitz could not decide where to shoot , and reserved two mobile homes , four hotel rooms and five houses .
In December 1993 , Moore was again on the cover of Vanity Fair , but this time she was dressed in two straps and a large red bow and was sitting on David Letterman 's lap while he was dressed up as Santa Claus .
Other celebrities have since posed nude or semi @-@ nude while in advanced pregnancy , including Christina Aguilera and Britney Spears whose billboard advertisements led to great controversy . Newsweek referred to the pose more than a decade later , and The New York Times coined " demiclad " for the nude pregnant handbra pose . Eventually , Vogue and Harper 's Bazaar included pregnant cover models , and Star included a pregnant foursome of Katie Holmes , Gwen Stefani , Gwyneth Paltrow and Angelina Jolie . They also had a " Bump Brigade " of Jennie Garth , Maggie Gyllenhaal and Sofia Coppola . Vogue had a very pregnant 37 @-@ year @-@ old Brooke Shields on the cover of its April 2003 issue . By the time Linda Evangelista appeared pregnant ( and clothed ) on the August 2006 cover of Vogue , pregnancy was not the emphasis of the story . However , even at the end of 2007 appearing bare @-@ bellied and pregnant on the cover of a magazine , as Aguilera did for Marie Claire , was still considered a derivative of Moore 's original . When Melania Trump appeared in American Vogue , she held in esteem as a model of maternity fashion by Anna Wintour . A commemoration of the photo was a self @-@ portrait by Leibovitz in which she appeared in profile and pregnant for her A Photographer 's Life exhibition . Myleene Klass posed for a similar nude pregnant photo for Glamour magazine in 2007 .
= = Legacy = =
The photo has had long cultural and social impact in the U.S. Many women feel that the rush of celebrities taking pregnant photos has made taking such photos glamorous for pregnant mothers . As the photos have become more common on magazine covers the business of documenting pregnancies photographically has boomed . Furthermore , the photo is critically acclaimed . Almost fifteen years after its publication the American Society of Magazine Editors listed it as the second best magazine cover of the last forty years .
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