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= Big Girls Don 't Cry ( book ) =
Big Girls Don 't Cry : The Election that Changed Everything for American Women is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book written by American journalist Rebecca Traister and published by Free Press . The book discusses women 's contributions to and experiences of the 2008 United States presidential election . Traister places particular focus on four main political figures — Hillary Clinton , Sarah Palin , Michelle Obama and Elizabeth Edwards — as well as women in the media , including Katie Couric , Rachel Maddow , Tina Fey and Amy Poehler . She also describes her personal experience of the electoral campaign and her shift from supporting John Edwards to Hillary Clinton .
Traister began writing about the presidential election while working as a political columnist for Salon ; her coverage for Salon provided much of the book 's content . She aimed to write an account of the election from a feminist perspective , focusing on events that she felt were otherwise underreported in the media . The book was generally well received by critics .
= = Background = =
Rebecca Traister described the 2008 presidential election as " a completely gripping narrative " during which " everything in America was busted open " , but was disappointed by the way it was covered in the mainstream media . She felt that some " big stories " — such as Hillary Clinton becoming the first woman to win an American presidential primary — had been underreported , and that many misogynistic and racist remarks made by commentators had gone unnoticed . By writing the book , she wanted to defend the feminist perspective of the election against its Democrat and progressivist critics " who continue to write off concern with these issues " . Asked about what she intended for readers to [ take away from ] the book , Traister said :
I want those people who lived through the 2008 election — and in many cases suffered through it , on one end or the other — to think about the history that we all made and we all witnessed . I really want those of us who were pained by it or who were exhausted by it to understand the way that living through that election changed our country . Because I believe it did .
Traister chose the title Big Girls Don 't Cry when it was suggested by a friend , before she began writing the book ; she thought it was " the perfect ironic reference to Hillary [ Clinton ] ' s ( non- ) crying moment in New Hampshire " , as well as a reference to her own response of " gulp [ ing ] out sobs " when Clinton lost the Democratic primary . She said that , after interviewing women who described crying at various moments during the election , " I realized that the title was more prophetic than I knew " . Some of Traister 's political views expressed in the book contradict those she expressed when writing for Salon , such as her support for Clinton and her defense of Michelle Obama in the book ; throughout the book she describes the transformations of her opinions .
= = Content = =
Big Girls Don 't Cry is divided into twelve chapters , telling a roughly chronological recount of the 2008 election , interwoven with Traister 's own experiences and perspectives as well as analysis from other political commentators . She focuses on four key women involved in the election : Hillary Clinton , Sarah Palin , Michelle Obama and Elizabeth Edwards .
In 2008 Clinton , a Senator and candidate for the Democratic Party presidential nomination , became the first American woman to win a presidential primary . Traister discusses Clinton 's political campaign , which did not focus on her gender , and the misogynistic reactions she received from the media and political opponents . She argues that the Democratic Party 's lack of response to the sexism of Clinton 's opponents led a large number of liberal female voters to abandon the party , and blames Mark Penn for advising Clinton not to advertise herself as a feminist . Although she originally supported John Edwards ' candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination , she became a strong supporter of Clinton .
Palin was the Republican Party nominee for Vice President and then @-@ Governor of Alaska . Traister criticises Palin 's " faux feminism " , as she claimed to be a feminist despite running under a party whose policies did not align with feminist ideals , and claims that her strong conservatism led Clinton supporters to back Barack Obama rather than John McCain after Clinton 's withdrawal from the race . Despite this , Palin was celebrated by Republican women voters ; Traister argues that this inspired a wave of feminism which focused on political empowerment but neglected other values such as reproductive rights .
Traister also discusses the wives of men involved in politics : Michelle Obama , the wife of Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama , and Elizabeth Edwards , the wife of John Edwards , another candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination . Traister contrasts the Obamas ' relationship with that of Hillary and ex @-@ President Bill Clinton . She argues that Michelle Obama 's candidness led many women voters to feel they had more in common with her than Hillary Clinton . She compares Elizabeth Edwards ' public image to that of Michelle Obama and Hillary Clinton , and criticizes her for " enabl [ ing ] her husband 's deception " about his extramarital affair .
In addition to female political figures , Traister also discusses women in the media who played influential roles in the election coverage . These include Rachel Maddow , whose political commentary led to a surge in her popularity ; television journalist Katie Couric , who led a critical interview with Sarah Palin ; and Tina Fey and Amy Poehler , who parodied Palin and Clinton , respectively , in several Saturday Night Live skits .
The book is written from a feminist perspective ; Traister recounts her own experiences with the women 's liberation movement , identifying with neither second @-@ wave nor third @-@ wave feminism . She notes the various responses to the election and candidates from different generations of feminists , and argues that for older feminists the main priority was the election of a female President , while younger women were less inclined to automatically vote for a female candidate . She concludes that the 2008 election marked the year that " the women 's liberation movement found thrilling new life " .
= = Reception = =
Big Girls Don 't Cry was deemed a New York Times Notable Book of 2010 and the winner of the Ernesta Drinker Ballard Book Prize .
It also received positive reviews from critics . In a review for Foreign Affairs , Walter Russell Mead described Traister as " one of the most powerful voices in a new generation of American feminist writers " , while Liesl Schillinger of The New York Times called the book " a passionate , visionary and very personal account " of the 2008 election . Maureen Corrigan of NPR praised the " superb " book , and concluded that " Girls , these days , can not only run for president ; they can brilliantly analyze presidential campaigns , too . " The Washington Post critic Connie Schultz felt that at times Traister 's writing at times seemed to " alienate every female reader over 40 " , but wrote that the book was " in its best parts ... a raw and brave memoir " . A writer for Kirkus Reviews praised Traister 's arguments and summarized the book as " nuanced look at how the recent election shaped — and was shaped by — gender " . Lynda Obst wrote for The Atlantic that the book served as a satisfying explanation to " mystified " Obama supporters " what the hell all the crying was about " after Clinton conceded from the Democratic primary . Slate reviewer Hanna Rosin questioned the relevance of some chapters but overall concluded that " Traister can be clever , caustic , wickedly funny , and as cynical as the next blogger , but it 's always clear that in her heart she cares . "
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= Sabre Wulf =
Sabre Wulf a 1984 action @-@ adventure game by Ultimate Play the Game and the first game of the Sabreman series . The player , as Sabreman , navigates a 2D jungle flip @-@ screen maze aiming to reconstruct an amulet and escape . The maze is divided into 256 edge @-@ to @-@ edge screens filled with colourful flora and enemies that spawn randomly . Ultimate released the game for the ZX Spectrum in 1984 at an above @-@ average price to combat piracy . The game 's premium packaging became a company standard . Ultimate , a developer known for its secrecy , had finished Sabre Wulf 's sequels in advance of its release , but withheld them for marketing purposes . They were swiftly released the same year . Ultimate hired outside developers to make Sabre Wulf ports for the BBC Micro , Commodore 64 , and Amstrad CPC platforms , and the game was subsequently included in multiple compilation releases , including the 2015 Ultimate and Rare retrospective Rare Replay .
Reviewers lauded the game 's graphics and found its gameplay similar to Ultimate 's previous release , Atic Atac , though preferred Sabre Wulf . Reviewers also noted the game 's difficulty . It was recommended in several gaming publications and won " Best Maze Game " in the 1984 Crash Reader Awards . Sabre Wulf was a financial success and reached the top of the format charts . It was listed in multiple lists of top Spectrum games . It introduced the Sabreman character , who has recurred throughout Ultimate and Rare intellectual properties , and the Sabreman game series .
= = Gameplay = =
The player , as the adventurer Sabreman , must fight their way through a 2D jungle and reconstruct an amulet in order to leave . After collecting four pieces of the ACG Amulet ( Ashby Computers & Graphics , the developer 's former name ) , the player can bypass the gatekeeper guarding the cave exit , which leads to the game 's sequel , Underwurlde . Sabre Wulf is presented as a flip @-@ screen maze with paths bordered by tropical flora . The player only views a single small and static area of the maze at any time . When the player character reaches the edge of the screen , the next section of the maze loads . There are 256 screens in the maze . The player does not receive any explicit guidance on how to play and is left to decipher the game 's objectives through trial and error . Sabre Wulf 's graphics fill the full screen with no interface , inventory , or damage indicators apart from a high score meter in the top corner . Sabreman can eat orchid power @-@ ups , which bloom for only a few seconds . He turns the colour of the orchid and receives one of five abilities : some are helpful , like invulnerability or faster walking speed , and others impair him , such as slower walking speed , or reversed controls . Sabreman also collects treasure and extra lives scattered throughout the maze .
The Sabre Wulf map is drawn in a 16 by 16 grid populated by attacking enemies and bordered by landforms . The player swings Sabreman 's sabre with the push of the joystick 's fire button to defeat enemies that spawn in random locations on @-@ screen . Enemies include spiders , scorpions , snakes , bats , indigenous people , sleeping hippos , and a fast wolf ( the titular Sabre Wulf ) . Some enemies , such as the hippos , flee when hit . The sword does not affect the wolf or cave guardians . An indestructible bushfire appears and pursues the player who idles for too long in the same screen . Apart from the jungle , the game 's settings include mountains and lakes .
The game begins with an electronic rendition of classical music composed by Bach . The Spectrum and Commodore 64 versions have an optional two @-@ player mode in which players take turns controlling Sabreman .
= = Development = =
Ultimate Play the Game , the developer of Sabre Wulf , was known for its secrecy , distance from game development circles , and reticence to reveal details about their development practices and upcoming games . Little is known about their process apart from that they used Sage IV computers . They also preferred to develop for the ZX Spectrum 's Z80 microprocessor and chose to outsource development for other platforms , such as those that ran 6502 microprocessors . After releasing Atic Atac at the end of 1983 , Ultimate went silent until it ran teaser advertisements for Sabre Wulf in April 1984 . ( The company rarely depicted actual gameplay in their advertisements . ) They had already prepared Knight Lore , the third game in the Sabreman series , before the character 's introduction in Sabre Wulf . Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper withheld Knight Lore for about a year because they felt Sabre Wulf would not have sold as well once players saw the former 's graphical advancements . ( Knight Lore became known as a seminal work in British gaming history and an iconic game of the 1980s for its popularization of the isometric platformer format . )
Ultimate released Sabre Wulf for the ZX Spectrum in 1984 and the other Sabreman titles soon followed . Sabre Wulf was Ultimate 's first game to use what would become the company 's standard price and mysterious , unadorned packaging . Ultimate nearly doubled its usual retail price in what they saw as a " bold step " to combat piracy . They expected legal owners to be more protective over letting friends copy their more expensive copies . Ultimate had seen competitor prices slowly increasing and felt that their full price was fair for their time invested . The game retailed in a high @-@ quality , big cardboard box with a glossy instruction manual , which were both upgrades over regular game packaging . It became Ultimate 's standard packaging for new games . The company 's game packaging was nondescript and showed no screenshots of the in @-@ game world . Ultimate 's games did not display internal credits , and they hired outside developers to complete Sabre Wulf ports for other consoles . Paul Proctor wrote the BBC Micro conversion , and in 1985 , Greg Duddle wrote the Commodore 64 conversion , which was licensed under Firebird . Sabre Wulf later appeared in the 1985 compilation They Sold a Million , a collection of Spectrum games that had together sold a million units . When the compilation was released for the Amstrad CPC , Sabre Wulf was converted for the platform and eventually released in a standalone edition . Sabre Wulf also appeared alongside Underwurlde , its sequel , in a Commodore 64 pack , and in the August 2015 Xbox One compilation of 30 Ultimate and Rare titles , Rare Replay .
= = Reception = =
Reviewers appreciated the game 's graphics and found its gameplay similar to Ultimate 's previous game , Atic Atac — particularly in its opening sequence and maze format — though reviewers preferred Sabre Wulf . Critics also noted the game 's difficulty and above @-@ average pricing . Sabre Wulf was a selected recommendation in Crash ( July 1984 ) , Personal Computer Games ( August 1984 ) , and Popular Computing Weekly ( June 1984 ) . The game was named " Best Maze Game " in the 1984 Crash Readers Awards . Retro Gamer reported that Ultimate 's new pricing strategy was a success and that Sabre Wulf broke the company 's sales records and reached the top of the format charts , though Computer and Video Games ( CVG ) reported in December 1984 that Sabre Wulf had sold only 30 @,@ 000 copies — not as many as the company 's prior games . Eurogamer reported that 350 @,@ 000 units were sold in total .
Crash confirmed rumors that the game was similar to Atic Atac , but declared Sabre Wulf the better of the two , and predicted that they would have similar legacies . Crash wrote that their inability to intuit Sabreman 's current inventory or resistance to damage added to the game 's mystique , and that Ultimate was particularly skilled at not giving hints but leaving sufficient clues through the game 's design . Personal Computer Games found one such tip : that the indigenous enemies will play a sound when they align both horizontally and vertically with a piece of the amulet . In a similar experience , Popular Computing Weekly slowly learned to use rather than avoid the orchids . CVG described the game 's instructions as " cryptic " . Crash had high praise for the colourful and detailed graphics and animations , as well as the sound . One of their staff called it " a Software Masterpiece " . The magazine 's chief complaints were of a bug in two @-@ player mode and of the game 's high price , nearly double the average . They predicted that the cost may lead to more piracy . A year later , in 1985 , Crash repeated that Sabre Wulf was among the top games available for the Spectrum . They added that the game did not feel antiquated and that comparisons to Atic Atac at its launch were unfair , similar to calling any two text adventures identical . They received more mail in praise of Sabre Wulf in 1984 than for any other game .
CVG wrote that Sabre Wulf carried Ultimate 's momentum from Jetpac and Atic Atac . In their opinion , Sabre Wulf had the best graphics on the Spectrum , with graphical detail that surpassed what previous reviewers thought was possible . In describing the game 's difficulty , CVG mentioned the narrow window in which sword swings register as enemy hits . Their Commodore 64 review two years later approved of the port and said that the game remained a classic . They recommended drawing a map of the maze , without which it was easy to get lost . Personal Computer Games found that many of Sabre Wulf 's 256 screens were repeated from elsewhere in the game world . Sinclair User liked how the hippo enemies forced the player to vary their hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay style . They thought that the game 's price was too high and noted that while Sabre Wulf had some flicker issues , it altogether met Ultimate 's high quality benchmarks .
A retrospective review from Retro Gamer said that Sabre Wulf was " essentially an interactive maze " packed with colour and hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay . They likened the game 's colour choice and setting to what the magazine considered Ultimate 's best arcade game , Dingo ( 1983 ) . Retro Gamer disliked Sabreman 's inability to hit enemies above or below him . Eurogamer 's Peter Parrish found the game 's collision detection imprecise as well . In The Routledge Companion to Video Game Studies , Simon Niedenthal used Sabre Wulf as an example of games that maximized the limited colour palette of 8 @-@ bit computers . He described its colours as pure , with a glow like stained glass and a strong figure – ground contrast against the Spectrum 's black background .
= = Legacy = =
The Spectrum release was included in multiple lists of top games for the platform . Parrish ( Eurogamer ) wrote that the game was " much @-@ beloved " in a retrospective review . Sabre Wulf was the first of four titles in the Sabreman series for the ZX Spectrum . Retro Gamer wrote that the Sabreman character was memorable both in name and appearance , and fit the " 8 @-@ bit hero " archetype : an ordinary human with a hat and exaggerated nose . The last , unreleased game in the Spectrum Sabreman series , Mire Mare , was planned to have been similar to Sabre Wulf in gameplay . Rare , the successor to Ultimate , later released the side @-@ scrolling platformer Sabre Wulf for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 that had Sabreman enlist jungle animals to solve the Sabre Wulf 's puzzles . It was not received well by fans . Elements from the original Sabre Wulf appear in other games , including Rare 's Jet Force Gemini . Retro Gamer considered Sabreman 's recurrence to be proof that Rare was interested in the character and series .
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= Fasci Siciliani =
The Fasci Siciliani [ ˈfaʃʃi sitʃiˈljani ] , short for Fasci Siciliani dei Lavoratori ( Sicilian Workers Leagues ) , were a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration , which arose in Sicily in the years between 1889 and 1894 . The Fasci gained the support of the poorest and most exploited classes of the island by channeling their frustration and discontent into a coherent programme based on the establishment of new rights . Consisting of a jumble of traditionalist sentiment , religiosity , and socialist consciousness , the movement reached its apex in the summer of 1893 , when new conditions were presented to the landowners and mine owners of Sicily concerning the renewal of share cropping and rental contracts .
Upon the rejection of these conditions , there was an outburst of strikes that rapidly spread throughout the island , and was marked by violent social conflict , almost rising to the point of insurrection . The leaders of the movement were not able to keep the situation from getting out of control . The proprietors and landowners asked the government to intervene , and Prime Minister Francesco Crispi declared a state of emergency in January 1894 , dissolving the organizations , arresting its leaders and restoring order through the use of extreme force . Some reforms followed , including workmen 's compensation and pension schemes . The suppression of the strikes also led to an increase in emigration .
= = Characteristics = =
The Fasci movement was made up of a federation of scores of associations that developed among farm workers , tenant farmers , and small sharecroppers as well as artisans , intellectuals , and industrial workers . The immediate demands of the movement were fair land rents , higher wages , lower local taxes and distribution of misappropriated common land . Between 1889 and 1893 some 170 Fasci were established in Sicily . According to some sources the movement reached a membership of more than 300 @,@ 000 by the end of 1893 . The Fasci constituted autonomous organizations with their own insignia ( red rosettes ) , uniforms and sometimes even musical bands , and their own local halls for reunions and congresses . They were called Fasci ( Fascio literally means bundle ) because everyone can break a single stick , but no one can break a bundle of sticks .
While many of the leaders were of socialist or anarchist leanings , few of their supporters were true revolutionaries . Nevertheless , the peasants who assembled into the Fasci were eager for social justice and convinced that a new world was about to be born . A crucifix hung beside the red flag in many of their meeting @-@ places , and portraits of the King beside those of the revolutionaries Garibaldi , Mazzini and Marx . Cheers for the King were often heard in their marches that almost resembled quasi @-@ religious processions . Many of the Fasci were part of the Italian Workers ' Party ( Partito dei Lavoratori Italiani , the initial name of the Italian Socialist Party ) that had been founded at a conference in Genoa on August 14 , 1892 .
The rural Fasci in particular were a curious phenomenon : both ancient and modern . They combined millenarian aspirations with urban intellectual leadership often in contact with workers ’ organizations and ideas in the more industrialized Northern Italy . According to the Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm , the Fasci were millenarian insofar as the socialism preached by the movement was seen by the Sicilian peasantry as a new religion , the true religion of Christ – betrayed by the priests , who were on the side of the rich – that foretold the dawn of a new world , without poverty , hunger and cold , in accordance with God ’ s will . The Fasci , which included many women , were encouraged by the messianic belief that the start of a new reign of justice was looming and the movement spread like an epidemic .
= = Foundation and rapid growth = =
The Fasci were the result of the revolt of the Sicilian peasants against the introduction of capitalist relationships into the rural economy aggravated by the world depression in agriculture of the 1880s . The agrarian crisis between 1888 and 1892 led to a steep decrease in wheat prices . The island ’ s main sources of wealth – wine , fruit and sulphur – suffered a heavy blow . The dominant landowning class channeled most of the economic burden on to the peasantry , in the form of higher rents and discriminatory local taxation . As social tension rose , a handful of young and hitherto quite unknown socialist intellectuals – many of them recent graduates of Palermo University – seized their opportunity . The movement grew under the first government of Prime minister Francesco Crispi ( 1887 @-@ 1891 ) and coincided with unpopular tax increases and ratification of a series of laws curtailing personal freedom . The Italian economy had been sliding into a deep recession since the late 1880s . New protective tariffs had been introduced in 1887 on agricultural and industrial goods , followed by a trade war with France , which badly damaged Italian commerce and affecting Italy ’ s agricultural exports , the only potentially dynamic economic sector of southern Italy . Many farmers suffered severely .
The first official Fascio was founded on May 1 ( Labour Day ) , 1891 , in Catania by Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida . ( An earlier Fascio was set up in Messina on March 18 , 1889 , but was dormant after its founder , Nicola Petrina , was arrested in July of that year and not released until 1892 . Another reason why the first Fascio of Messina – formed after the example of the Fasci operai [ Workers leagues ] constituted in Central and North Italy from 1871 – did not develop was that it brought together not individual workers but the workers ' associations of the city , which retained their independence , their status and economic orientation . ) Other leaders included Rosario Garibaldi Bosco in Palermo , Nicola Barbato in Piana dei Greci , Bernardino Verro in Corleone , and Lorenzo Panepinto in Santo Stefano Quisquina . While the ruling elite depicted the men of the Fasci as treasonous socialists , communists and anarchists seeking to overthrow the monarchy ; in fact many were devout Catholics and monarchists . The movement sometimes had a messianic nature , characterised by statements as " Jesus was a true socialist and wanted just what the Fasci were demanding . " Nicola Barbato was known as " the workers ' apostle . "
The keenest socialist among the Fasci leaders was Garibaldi Bosco . In August 1892 he attended the Socialist party ’ s congress at Genoa and on his return obediently purged his fascio of its anarchist and other non @-@ socialist members . His ideal of a united democratic front was shared by the father of Sicilian socialism , Napoleone Colajanni . The leader in Catania , De Felice , also maintained contact with leading anarchists like Amilcare Cipriani . On these and other important issues there was much friction between Catania and Palermo .
Crispi was replaced by Antonio Di Rudinì in February 1891 , who was succeeded by Giovanni Giolitti in May 1892 . On January 20 , 1893 , when peasants of Caltavuturo occupied communal land that they claimed was theirs , local authorities killed 13 and wounded 21 in the Caltavuturo massacre . Disturbances continued throughout the year . The Fasci started out as urban movements , animated by artisans , which evolved into a more popular and combative mass movement with the adherence of sulphur miners , and in a later stage with the involvement of peasants and sharecroppers . In the autumn of 1893 , labour conflicts in the cities and the mines came together with the protests and claims of the farmers . The movement reached its greatest breadth in the manifestations against taxes , involving the lowest tiers of the city and the countryside , becoming difficult , if not impossible , to control by its leaders .
= = Initial success = =
From its initial origins in Eastern Sicily , especially in Catania , the movement got its real impetus with the establishment of the Fascio of Palermo on June 29 , 1892 . The Leagues rapidly radiated over all Sicily . In the spring of 1893 the leaders of the movement decided to carry their propaganda to the peasants and miners of the countryside . Between March and October the number of fasci grew from 35 to 162 with more than 200 @,@ 000 members .
On May 21 – 22 , 1893 , a Congress was held in Palermo attended by 500 delegates from nearly 90 leagues and socialist circles . A Central Committee was elected , composed of nine members : Giacomo Montalto for the province of Trapani , Nicola Petrina for the province of Messina , Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida for the province of Catania , Luigi Leone for the province of Siracusa , Antonio Licata for the province Agrigento , Agostino Lo Piano Pomar for the province of Caltanissetta , Rosario Garibaldi Bosco , Nicola Barbato and Bernardino Verro for the province of Palermo . The Congress decided that all Leagues were obliged to join the Italian Workers ' Party ( Partito dei Lavoratori Italiani ) , the predecessor of the PSI .
In July 1893 a peasant conference at Corleone drafted model agrarian contracts for labourers , sharecroppers and tenants and presented them to the landowners . When those refused to negotiate , a strike against landowners and against state taxes broke out over a large part of western Sicily . The so @-@ called Patti di Corleone ( Corleone Covenants ) , are considered by historians to be the first trade union collective contract in capitalist Italy . In September the state authorities intervened and some of the landowners were persuaded to capitulate . Elsewhere the strike continued until November 1893 . Railwaymen of Catania and Palermo , the sulphur @-@ miners and many other workers followed their example winning higher wages or better working conditions .
In October 1893 , a congress of miners was held in Grotte in the Province of Agrigento which was attended by some 1 @,@ 500 people , including workers and small producers . The miners demanded that the minimum age to be raised to 14 years for those who worked in the sulfur mines , the decrease of working hours and setting a minimum wage . Small producers demanded measures to avoid exploitation by large owners . The minimum @-@ age measure was meant to improve the situation for the carusi , minors that worked in conditions of near @-@ slavery that sparked public outrage and inspired many complaints .
The successful struggle convinced the Sicilian ruling elite that the " upheaval " had to be stopped . They were seized by panic and some even demanded the closing of all schools to halt the spread of subversive doctrines . Prefects and frightened local councils bombarded Rome with requests for the immediate suppression of the Fasci . Despite the heavy pressure from the King , the army and conservative circles in Rome , however , Giolitti would neither treat strikes – which were not illegal – as a crime nor dissolve the Fasci nor authorise the use of firearms against popular demonstrations . His policy was “ to allow these economic struggles to resolve themselves through amelioration of the condition of the workers ” and not to interfere in the process .
= = Rising tensions = =
Nonetheless , Giolitti acknowledged the need to stifle the agitation . From May 1893 onwards , leaders of the Fasci were arrested occasionally and police and military reinforcements were sent to Sicily . In the autumn of 1893 the leadership lost control over the Fasci and the popular agitation got out of hand . Peasant squatters seized land , violent crowds demonstrated for work and against local misgovernment , tax offices were burnt down and clashes with the police grew more frequent and bloody . The violent social conflict almost rose to the point of insurrection . The proprietors and landowners asked the government to intervene .
However , his attitude could not be maintained . Landowners were infuriated by the unwillingness of the government to use force , while the peasants were annoyed by the unwillingness to redistribute land from the latifundia . Landowners matched the strike with a lockout , and many peasants , probably a majority in the strike centres , were left without tenancies when the planting season ended in mid @-@ December . In December 1893 the failure of the Giolitti government to restore public order gave rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power . Giolitti had to resign on November 24 , 1893 , as a result of the Banca Romana scandal .
In addition to the unrest in Sicily , a wave of rioting spread through Italy in August 1893 , triggered by the killing of a number of migrant workers in the salt pans of Aigues Mortes in southern France escalated into a more generalized working @-@ class revolt supported by anarchists and violent riots in Rome and Naples . Italy seemed to be slipping to a revolution . By the time Crispi returned to power in December 1893 , Italy appeared to many to be on the brink of collapse . Crispi promised important measures of land reform for the near future . He was not blind to the misery and the need for social reform . Before 1891 he had been the patron of the Sicilian working @-@ class and many of their associations had been named after him . Colajanni , the chief architect of Giolitti ’ s fall by exposing the Banca Romana scandal , was first offered the Ministry of Agriculture , which he refused , then sent to Sicily on a mission of appeasement .
Crispi ’ s good intentions got lost in the outcry for strong measures . In the three weeks of uncertainty before the government was formed , the rapid spread of violence drove many local authorities to defy Giolitti ’ s ban on the use of firearms . In December 1893 , 92 peasants lost their lives in clashes with the police and army . Government building were burned as well as flour mills and bakeries that refused to lower their prices when taxes were lowered or abolished . Eleven people were killed on December 10 , 1893 , in Giardinello after a rally that asked for the abolition of taxes on food and disbandment of the local field guards ( guardie campestri ) . The protestors carried the portrait of the King taken from the municipality and burned tax files . On December 17 , 1893 , many people were wounded when troops fired on a manifestation in Monreale . Another 11 protestors were killed in Lercara Friddi on December 25 . On January 1 , 1894 , 20 people were killed and many wounded in Gibellina and Pietraperzia . On January 2 , there two dead in Belmonte Mezzagno and the next day 18 dead and many wounded in Marineo . Two days after , on January 5 , thirteen dead and many wounded closed the series in Santa Caterina .
The disorders were not the product of a revolutionary plot , but Crispi chose to believe otherwise . On the basis of dubious documents and reports , Crispi claimed that there was an organised conspiracy to separate Sicily from Italy ; the leaders of the Fasci conspired with the clerics and were financed by French gold , and war and invasion were looming .
= = Crackdown = =
On January 3 , 1894 , Crispi declared a state of siege throughout Sicily . Army reservists were recalled and General Roberto Morra di Lavriano was dispatched with 40 @,@ 000 troops . The old order was restored through the use of extreme force , including summary executions . The Fasci were outlawed , the army and the polices killed scores of protesters , and hundreds wounded . Thousands of militants , including all the leaders , were put in jail or sent into internal exile . Some 1 @,@ 000 persons were deported to the penal islands without trial . All working @-@ class societies and cooperatives were dissolved and freedom of the press , meeting and association was suspended . A solidarity revolt of anarchists and republicans in the Lunigiana was crushed as well . The government also seized the opportunity to ' revise ' the electoral registers . In Catania 5 @,@ 000 of the 9 @,@ 000 electors were struck off .
Exactly in the early days of January a meeting of the Central Committee of the Fasci took place in Palermo to discuss the position of the movement . Two sharply contrasting positions emerged . De Felice Giuffrida , known for his anarchist tendencies , supported the need to take advantage of the situation of unrest to provoke a revolution on the island . However , the majority took an opposite view , arguing the need to proceed peacefully . A revolt was not only inappropriate , but it would be detrimental to the movement . The meeting condemned the violent incidents in various parts of the island , and launched an appeal to stay calm and not to retaliate . In the end De Felice Giuffrida accepted the position of the majority . But the die was cast for the authorities to arrest De Felice , Montalto , Petrina , and others . Garibaldi Bosco , Barbato and Verro were arrested on board the steamship Bagnara that was about to leave for Tunis .
On February 28 , 1894 Crispi presented the " evidence " for a widespread conspiracy in parliament : the so @-@ called " International Treaty of Bisacquino " , signed by the French Government , the Czar of Russia , Giuseppe De Felice , the anarchists and the Vatican , with the goal to detach Sicily from the rest of the country and put it under a Franco @-@ Russian protectorate . The Radical deputy Felice Cavallotti ridiculed the conspiracy of Crispi , poking fun at " the famous treaty between the Emperor of Russia , the President of the French Republic , and Mr De Felice " . The so @-@ called " Treaty of Bisacquino " was so named not because it was signed in the Sicilian town , but because it had been invented by the Director of Public Safety of Bisacquino , the Neapolitan Sessi .
= = Trial in Palermo = =
The trials against the central committee of the Fasci that took place in Palermo , in April and May 1894 , were the final blow to the movement . In spite of an eloquent defence , which turned the Court into a political platform and thrilled every socialist in the country , they were condemned to heavy sentences of imprisonment . On May 30 , 1894 , the leaders of the movement received their sentence : Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida to 18 years and Rosario Bosco , Nicola Barbato and Bernardino Verro to 12 years in jail .
“ In front of you , ” Barbato told the judges , “ we provided the documents and evidence of our innocence . My friends thought it necessary to support their defence legally ; I will not do so . Not because I have no confidence in you , but it is the law that does not concern me . So I do not defend myself . You have to sentence : we are the elements that destroy your sacred institutions . You have to sentence : it is logical , human . I will always pay tribute to your loyalty . But we say to our friends outside : do not ask for pardon , do not ask for amnesty . Socialist civilization should not begin with an act of cowardice . We demand a condemnation , we do not ask for mercy . Martyrs are more useful to the holy cause than any propaganda . Condemn us ! ”
The heavy sentence aroused strong reactions in Italy and in the United States . In Palermo a group of students went to the Teatro Bellini and asked the orchestra to perform the hymn of Garibaldi . And the theatre applauded . In March 1896 , after Crispi had to resign due to the humiliating defeat of the Italian army at Battle of Adwa in Ethiopia during First Italo @-@ Ethiopian War , the new government under Prime minister Antonio Di Rudinì recognized the excessive brutality of the repression . Many Fasci members were pardoned and released from jail . Di Rudinì made it clear though that a reorganization of the Fasci would not be tolerated . After their release , De Felice , Barbato and Bosco were met by a large crowd of supporters in Rome , who released the horses form their carriage and dragged them to the hotel , cheering for socialism and denouncing Crispi .
= = Aftermath = =
The brutal repression backfired to some extent . The Fasci leaders used the military tribunals to make impassioned and well @-@ reported speeches in their defence . The tribunals were too repressive and revolted the Liberal consciences of many Northern Italians . In an attempt to regain his former ' left wing ' , Crispi introduced a bill in July 1894 to take over large estates and uncultivated land . The idea was to rent out the land on long leases in medium @-@ sized holdings and leaseholders would be given reduced credit and tax concessions . While the bill failed to convince the Radicals and democrats of Crispi 's good intentions , it angered the Sicilian landowners . After the suppression of the Fasci those were now unwilling to make any concessions . Under the leadership of Di Rudiní , they battled against the bill . When Crispi fell from power after Adwa in March 1896 , their proponent Di Rudiní became Prime Minister and the Sicilian landowners were safe .
Nevertheless , the revolt inspired social reforms . In 1898 two measures of social legislation were passed by the minister of the treasury of Di Rudini ’ s cabinet , Luigi Luzzatti . The industrial workmen ’ s compensation scheme from 1883 was made obligatory with the employer bearing all costs ; and a voluntary fund for contributory disability and old age pensions was created .
Many former adherents of the Fasci left Sicily . Life had grown hard and employment difficult to find because of their involvement with the movement . For those in Sicily who wanted to change their life for the better in those days , there were only two alternatives : rebel or emigrate . After the failure of the rebellion many peasants had no choice but to vote with their feet and opted for emigration . Others remained , and a year later , in 1895 , protests against unjust taxes and about the issue of communal land resumed in many towns in Sicily . The disbandment of troop had to be postponed .
According to Hobsbawm , the Fasci were a prime example of primitive agrarian movement that became modern by aligning itself with socialism and communism . Many of its leaders continued in the Socialist Party and continued the struggle for land rights and land reform once they were released . Despite the 1894 defeat , permanent movements were set up in some areas of Sicily using modern socialist models of organisation .
With the dissolution of the Fasci , the unrest on Sicily did not subside . In January 1898 , peasants demanding work and bread ransacked the town hall in Siculiana . In the fall of 1901 , Sicilian peasants – following the example of numerous agrarian strikes that were affecting the whole of Italy – again set off a wave of agrarian unrest , conscious of the fact that in a way they resumed " the march abruptly interrupted in 1894 by the repression of the Fasci . " Just as the Fasci movement , one of the main goals of the 1901 strikes and was a revision of the land leases to undermine the economic power of the gabellotti . After the First World War the communist movement In Sicily built on the incipient organisational structures of the Fasci , such as during the Biennio Rosso . The Fasci inspired social struggle in Sicily well into the 1950s .
= = The role of women = =
The role of women in the Fasci siciliani was substantial , but is regularly overlooked in historical accounts . Women were often at the forefront of demonstrations and strikes , taking the word in meetings and conferences . During municipal elections they made sure that men were going to vote ( women did not have the right to vote at the time ) . They patrolled the taverns to prevent the men from betraying the duty of militancy with bottles of wine . They also took care of many organizational aspects and were particularly active in proselytizing for the movement , decorating the stage of the rallies , preparing ceremonies such as the inauguration opening of the flag of the Fasci , and welcoming the leaders who came to the towns with flowers .
Women were among the most ardent . In some municipalities the women organized themselves into women 's sections and in others even in exclusively female Fasci . The strongest and most numerous presence of women was in the Fascio of Piana degli Albanesi , where over a thousand of the 3 @,@ 500 members were women in a town of 9 @,@ 000 inhabitants . For the Fasci the women abandoned the Church , but not the religious sentiment , to protest against the priests , who had tried to frighten them and isolate them with the threat of excommunication . In Piana the women organised a boycott of annual religious procession in protest of the priest ’ s opposition to the movement in 1893 .
At the congress in Palermo in May 1893 where the union of all the Fasci in Sicily was decided , Maria Cammarata , of the Fascio of Piana , urged the audience to ensure the registration of women . The presence and political sophistication of the female representatives at the congress surprised the editor of the Giornale di Sicilia : " I could not believe it myself . They spoke loudly and clearly , with ease and astonishing courage . " One of the most prominent women was Marietta De Felice Giuffrida , the daughter of Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida – one of the founders of the movement . Only 14 years old , she accompanied her father throughout Sicily to help him setting up Fasci in the interior . She was " extraordinarily animated by the spirit of socialism , who spoke to the people with a fervour of a missionary , and because of her sex and age , she commanded the fascination of the masses . "
The authorities watched the Fasci closely and in a report to the government in Rome noticed that the female Fasci in Piana , Belmonte Mezzagno and San Giuseppe Jato should be considered as dangerous . The women had developed " highly successful propaganda activities and revolutionary agendas , through which they exercised considerable influence on the other fasci in the region . "
= = Mafia involvement = =
Some historians emphasize that the leagues were engaged in class struggle against a coalition of landowners and mafiosi and ignore evidence of strategic alliances between the Fasci and the Mafia . The leagues were not only led by socialists and anarchists ; some were run by local gentry and mafiosi . The Mafia bosses Vito Cascioferro and Nunzio Giaimo led the Fasci in Bisacquino in alliance with Verro . The Mafia was sometimes needed to enforce flying pickets with credible threats of violence and to make the strike costly to landowners by destroying their property .
In order to give the strike teeth and to protect himself from harm , Verro became a member of a Mafia group in Corleone , the Fratuzzi ( Little Brothers ) . However , during the great strike of the Fasci in September 1893 , the Fratuzzi mobilized to boycott it , providing the necessary manpower to work on the lands that the peasants refused to cultivate . Since then Verro broke away from the mafiosi , and – according to police reports – became their most bitter enemy . He was killed by the Mafia in 1915 when he was the mayor of Corleone .
= = In literature and film = =
Luigi Pirandello 's 1913 novel I vecchi e i giovani ( The Old and the Young ) retraces the history of the failure and repression of the Fasci Siciliani in the period from 1893 @-@ 94 . Although Pirandello was not an active member of this movement , he had close ties of friendship with some of its leading ideologists : Rosario Garibaldi Bosco , Enrico La Loggia , Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida and Francesco De Luca .
The film Il giorno di San Sebastiano ( Saint Sebastian 's Day ) ( 1993 ) , directed by Pasquale Scimeca , is based on the Caltavuturo massacre on January 20 , 1893 , when during the celebration of Saint Sebastian , a firing squad killed 15 peasants who claimed their right to state @-@ owned land . It won a Golden Globe and was presented at the Venice film festival . The play , a monologue depicting a peasant woman whose husband was killed in the events at Caltavuturo , was written by Rosario Garibaldi Bosco and first performed on February 2 , 1893 , in Palermo to raise money for the victims .
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= 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( United States ) =
The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was a Ranger light infantry company of the United States Army active during the Korean War . As a small special forces unit , it specialized in irregular warfare .
Four Airborne Ranger Companies were formed in the fall of 1950 . They were trained and graduated on November 15 . By the end of 1950 , the 1st , 2nd , and 4th Companies had deployed early for combat in Korea . The 3rd Ranger Company had been drawn upon heavily to replace training losses of the deploying companies . It received 80 trainees and completed a second cycle of Ranger training at the Ranger Training Center at Fort Benning , Georgia . The company deployed to South Korea in March 1951 and was assigned to the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division for four months , where it was used as a reconnaissance and scouting unit , probing North Korean People 's Volunteer Army positions . The company is known for its " Battle of Bloody Ridge " on 11 April where , on its first mission , it was able to push back the opposing force . The company later supported the 3rd Infantry Division at the Battle of the Imjin River .
Later in the summer , the company was used as a stealth " target acquisition " force , infiltrating Chinese positions and spotting concentrations of troops and equipment for artillery attack . The company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 , and was merged with the U.S. 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team alongside all other Ranger units .
= = Origins = =
With the 25 June 1950 outbreak of the Korean War , the North Korean People 's Army had invaded the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) with 90 @,@ 000 well @-@ trained and equipped troops who had easily overrun the smaller and more poorly equipped Republic of Korea Army . The United States ( U.S. ) and United Nations ( UN ) began an intervention campaign to prevent South Korea from collapsing . The U.S. troops engaged the North Koreans first at the Battle of Osan , being badly defeated on 5 July by the better @-@ trained North Koreans . From then on , the U.S. and UN saw a steady stream of defeats until they had been pushed back to the tip of the peninsula , into a 140 @-@ mile ( 230 km ) -long fortification dubbed Pusan Perimeter by August . At the same time , North Korean agents began to infiltrate behind UN lines and attack military targets and cities .
UN units , spread out along the Pusan Perimeter , were having a difficult time repelling these units as they were untrained in combating guerrilla warfare . North Korean special forces units such as the NK 766th Independent Infantry Regiment had defeated ROK troops and used irregular warfare tactics effectively , prompting Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton Collins to order the creation of an elite force which could " infiltrate through enemy lines and attack command posts , artillery , tank parks , and key communications centers or facilities . " All U.S. Army Ranger units had been disbanded after World War II because they required time @-@ consuming training , specialization , and expensive equipment .
With the defeat of the NK 766th Regiment at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , and the strength of U.S. infantry units in question , U.S. commanders felt recreating Ranger units was essential . In early August , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter was beginning , the Eighth United States Army , in command of all US forces in Korea , ordered Lieutenant Colonel John H. McGee , the head of its G @-@ 3 Operations miscellaneous division , to create a new experimental Army Ranger unit , the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In the meantime , the Ranger Training Center was established at Fort Benning , Georgia .
= = = Organization = = =
With the successful development of the Eighth Army Ranger Company as a " test " unit for the United States Army to bring back Army Ranger units , additional Ranger companies were ordered . The companies were small light infantry special forces units which specialized in infiltration and irregular warfare .
The new 3rd Army Ranger Infantry Company was formulated based on the Table of Organization and Equipment documents of Ranger units in World War II , all of which had been deactivated . The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company was organized into three platoons . A headquarters element of five men oversaw the platoons . However , due to lack of battalion support for clerical , transportation , supply and mess kitchen support , 3rd company had to acquire the personnel , vehicles , and other equipment needed to support their operations . This resulted in the involvement of considerably more highly trained personnel than the five called for by the TOE . Each platoon had three squads of ten men each , with a platoon sergeant and assistant platoon sergeant ( a.k.a platoon guide ) . Each squad had two fireteams of five men each and one man in each fireteam carried a M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle . The BAR was the largest weapon in the platoon . The 60mm M2 mortars , the 57mm recoilless rifles , and the M20 Super Bazookas were carried on the company M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck but seldom used . The company was authorized two vehicles ; an M38 Jeep and an M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck . The company was more heavily armed than the Eighth Army Ranger Company but less in strength and fire power than standard infantry companies . Like the other numbered Ranger companies , its organization called for five officers and 107 enlisted men in three platoons .
The troops for the Ranger company were to be Airborne qualified , so the Ranger Training Center heavily recruited troops from the 82nd Airborne Division and 11th Airborne Division who had already completed United States Army Airborne School . In spite of this , only one Ranger operation in the conflict ever required an airborne landing . At the first Airborne Ranger graduation in November 1950 , each Ranger was given a black and gold Ranger Tab as a shoulder sleeve insignia . A few days later , each Ranger was issued a blue and white tab and instructed to sew it above the Ranger Tab . The Airborne Ranger Companies then in Korea were deactivated on August 1 , 1951 . They were merged into the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team to bring them back up to strength with airborne @-@ qualified combat @-@ experienced replacements . The 187th had been moved to Kyushu , Japan ’ s southern island to take on a ( then Top Secret ) mission to save the UN negotiators at Kaesong , North Korea . All of the Ranger officers and top NCO ’ s met in a mess hall at Camp Chickamauga , Beppu , Kyushu , Japan . Some of the senior NCOs had been WWII Rangers . At this meeting , they designed a scroll @-@ type patch similar to the WWII Ranger patches . In the center , was Ranger on top and Airborne underneath . On the left was the company number . On the right was “ Co . ” . At a later date , back in the states , more patches were made with Airborne on top and Ranger underneath .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
Of a pool of 5 @,@ 000 applicants , the Ranger Training School selected 22 officers and 314 enlisted men for the first three Ranger companies on 2 October , which were entirely white . A fourth , all African @-@ American company was organized several days later . The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was organized on 9 October 1950 , assuming the lineage of A Company of the 3rd Ranger Battalion . It had an initial strength of 135 enlisted men and five officers . The unit was formally activated on 25 October 1950 at Fort Benning . It was placed under command of Captain Jesse Tidwell and Bob Channon , who would be later promoted to Captain and in December , 1950 , to executive officer .
The Rangers trained extensively in reconnaissance , long @-@ range patrols , setting up roadblocks , land navigation , camouflage , concealment , and adjusting indirect fire . They undertook frequent live fire exercises , many at night , simulating raids , ambushes and infiltrations . The Rangers trained 60 hours per week and ran 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) each day and frequently held 20 miles ( 32 km ) speed marches , which were considered traditions for Ranger training from World War II . The training for the numbered companies included much of the program used by second lieutenant Ralph Puckett to train the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In spite of a 30 percent dropout rate , most of the men completed the course and graduated 15 November 1950 .
While the 1st , 2nd and 4th Ranger Company each embarked for Korea shortly after their training was complete , the 3rd Ranger Company was retained at Fort Benning , to train the next cycle of Rangers along with the 5th , 6th , 7th and 8th Ranger Company . After providing fillers to 1st and 4th companies to cover their training losses , the 3rd had 40 men left . In mid @-@ December , they took an additional 80 men from 7th Company and completed a second cycle of Ranger training . This proved beneficial to the 3rd Company , as it was given cold @-@ weather training alongside the 5th and 8th companies at Fort Carson , Colorado . After the first training cycle was complete ; the Ranger units already in Korea had not received this training and were thus unprepared for the Korean winter . The 3rd Company also received additional training which better prepared it for combat , including tactics of the People 's Volunteer Army , which the other companies had learned in battle and tracer designation of targets during night attacks . They also received 57mm M18 Recoilless Rifles , however , these were kept on the cargo truck due to the necessity to break up a rifle team to man a crew @-@ served weapon , which didn 't happen . The entire company was trained to be their own forward observers for artillery . In March 1951 , the 3rd , 5th , and 8th Companies sailed for Korea , a trip which was fraught with frequent discipline problems as the Rangers continuously got into fights with U.S. Marines on board the troopship while en route . After spending one night in Kobe , Japan , the next morning they sailed for Pusan , South Korea .
= = = Bloody Nose Ridge = = =
The Rangers arrived in Korea on 24 March . They disembarked from the Army Transport Ship at Pusan . After spending a night or two there , all three companies continued on to Inchon on an LST Landing Ship , Tank , arriving at Inchon on 31 March . There , 3rd Airborne Ranger Company separated from its sister companies and was attached to the US 3rd Infantry Division near the Imjin River , where the division was engaged in an intense battle with Chinese forces , attempting to push them further north .
The 3rd Ranger Company entered action on 11 April , part of a tank @-@ infantry task force conducting aggressive reconnaissance in a wide valley near the river . Encountering a village , the 3rd Platoon cleared the village and killed two Chinese stragglers . After the lead elements of the tank company and the 3rd Platoon had taken the Kantongyon village , the tank company commander wanted to move his company west into the center of the valley before continuing north . Captain and now Executive Officer , Bob Channon was near the rear of the company column . CO , Jess Tidwell , riding with the tank Co , called Channon on the radio and instructed him to come up and take control of the 1st and 2nd Platoons . By the time Channon reached the two platoons , they were crossing over two small hills just north of Kantongyon . As they crossed over one of the hills , Channon and his radio operator were wounded by Chinese mortar rounds . Channon took the radio from Walker , who was now incapacitated , and joined the two platoons at the bottom of the hill . Channon then called Jess Tidwell for instructions , who responded , “ move out when the tanks move out . ” Two tanks had passed through a gap in the hills and were in front of them . Soon , the two tanks moved out at high speed to join their company in the center of the valley . As the Rangers started to move forward , toward the nose of a ridge from which the fire was coming about 700 @-@ 800 yards ahead , they began taking casualties from machine gun and rifle fire . About 100 yards out from the ridge , they received a heavy mortar barrage , resulting in a number of them being wounded . Channon also received a couple of burp gun rounds to his lower left leg . Shortly after , a couple of light tanks arrived . Pete Hamilton ( 1st Plt Ldr ) and Channon crawled up on the tanks , bore @-@ sighted the guns on the machine guns and blew them away . About 30 yards out from a Chinese trench at the base of the ridge nose , they received a heavy volley of grenades . Abandoning protocol ( once you start a charge , you are not supposed to hit the ground ) , Channon , knowing that he ’ d have no trouble getting his Rangers up again , had them hit the ground . When they got up , the Rangers took the ridge nose in a bayonet and grenade fight . When their position was secure , Platoon Sergeant Barber reported that they only had eight Rangers capable of continuing on . Pete Hamilton had been too seriously wounded to continue . Channon called Tidwell for instructions and was instructed to join the tanks and the 3rd Platoon in the center of the valley . The 2nd Platoon had been supporting the 1st Platoon with enfilade fire on the hill from their left flank . Channon put the 2nd Platoon in the lead , followed by the remnant of the 1st Platoon . The tanks and the 3rd Platoon had moved up the center of the wide valley and were more than a thousand yards to the northwest . Fortunately , after about 300 yards of sniper fire from higher on the ridge to their right , they were able to gain cover from a 3 @-@ 4 foot field dyke , and then joined the 3rd Platoon in the center of the valley . Channon moved the company up around the tanks on a small hill ahead . The tank company commander then moved the tanks up to the final objective for the day about 300 @-@ 400 yards ahead . Jess Tildwell was with him , so Channon brought the company up to that small hill and got it organized . Bob Scully , Channon 's third radio operator for the day , was wounded when a mortar round hit . Jess Tildwell had Channon get on a tank with other wounded for the trip back to clearing station . On the way back Channon noticed that there was more than a two thousand yard gap before they saw any fighting elements . So before continuing on , he had a jeep take him to the tank battalion CP . He strongly suggested the gap be closed before dark , which was done and 3rd Company was replaced on line . In addition to those wounded who were able to continue on , four Rangers were killed along with 25 wounded and evacuated in this first engagement .
The company then advanced up the valley under sniper and artillery fire until it located and destroyed a Chinese communications and supply center at the end , before returning to 3rd Infantry Division lines . In all , they had killed over 100 Chinese in this fight , and the division commanders considered the mission a success in spite of the high casualty count . In this action , the Rangers adopted a new motto , " Die Bastard , die ! " [ 1 ] They also picked up the nickname “ Cold Steel Third ” , when division commander Major General Seoul , who was observing the action with other senior officers , was heard to say , “ There go my Rangers . They like that cold steel . ”
= = = Imjin River missions = = =
Despite suffering over 50 percent casualties by this time and with few reinforcements , 3rd Ranger Company remained on the line , and was used as a reconnaissance element for the division . As the 3rd Infantry Division advanced , pressing gains from the Chinese , the company was used to guard a vital bridge over the Hantan River . It then massed with several combat engineers and other division elements to form Task Force Rogers . The task force then probed north searching for Chinese concentrations , but did not encounter any Chinese troops .
On 19 April , the Chinese conducted a counteroffensive in the 3rd Infantry Division sector , first striking to the east , followed by a feint that struck near the Rangers ' position . The task force was assigned to rescue a group of five 3rd Division tanks that had been disabled 8 miles ( 13 km ) inside Chinese territory . Advancing , they suppressed a Chinese ambush before the Chinese could attack , and advanced under mortar attack and took the hills surrounding the tanks . They then returned the stranded tanks to UN lines at a cost of two wounded .
On 22 April , the Rangers , tanks and engineers conducted another probe of the Chinese positions , to ensure they could not launch a surprise attack on nearby Republic of Korea Army formations . Encountering two Chinese companies dug in at a hill with one route of attack , Tidwell ordered a surprise attack on the hill , which was successful in pushing Chinese forces off the outlying fortifications .
It then moved to reinforce the British 29th Infantry Brigade , which was cut off on Hill 235 after ROK troops folded under attack . After two days of intense fighting and foot marching , the Rangers moved to relieve the British troops , despite itself being at only 67 percent strength . Encountering heavy resistance , they were initially unable to break through Chinese formations to relieve the British .
Chinese forces counterattacked , destroying a 3rd Infantry Division tank column sent to assist the Rangers and attacking the 3rd Ranger Company from three sides , as they dug into a hill . Though the Rangers eventually were forced to withdraw , the defense of the Rangers , the US 3rd Division and the British 29th Brigade had broken the momentum of the Chinese offensive .
= = = Target acquisition unit = = =
The 3rd Infantry Division then moved to the offensive , in early May 1951 they were used to scout for Chinese concentrations and then call in artillery to destroy them . These actions have been viewed by historians as one of few instances where Rangers in Korea were effectively employed , used as a stealthy infiltration force for terrain too difficult for conventional units .
On 11 May , with Chinese forces slackening their offensive , 3rd Ranger Company was recalled to Kimpo Airfield for parachute proficiency training , above the objections of the 3rd Infantry Division commanders who considered the company invaluable . The company spent several weeks in division reserve , and undertook various missions such as convoy security and guarding command posts , as well as surveillance and visiting patrols behind the front lines . In one of these rearguard actions , the Rangers evacuated a rundown village only to have one member of the unit , Corporal Dave Rauls , captured by three Chinese infiltrators .
By 17 June , the company was returned to the front and operated again as a target acquisition unit . Paired with 3rd Infantry Division 's reconnaissance company , an artillery battery and a forward air control party , they became known as " Task Force Ferret . " Positioned 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) ahead of the main division positions , the unit was also placed to warn the rest of the lines should the Chinese attack . By this time , however , the front lines in the battle had begun to largely stabilize , and as both armies fortified stationary positions , the Rangers infiltration abilities became unusable .
= = = Final mission and disbandment = = =
In July , the division was holding on the " Iron Triangle , " strategically important and defensible ground . In an attempt to strengthen its forces , the 3rd Infantry Division evacuated hills 682 and 717 at the southern base of the triangle , positioning the Rangers to appear as if they were still manned the hills . After eight days of patrols , Tidwell ordered an aggressive patrol to strike Chinese positions . Over three nights , they ambushed four Chinese patrols , causing several casualties and suffering few of their own .
On 10 July , the U.S. Army ordered the deactivation of all of its Ranger companies . The Army noted that the Ranger companies were only an exercise directed by The Pentagon which was complete . The 3rd Ranger Company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 in Korea . Like many of the other Ranger units , most of the Ranger veterans were folded into the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team , where their airborne skills could be used . Still , Operation Tomahawk was the last airborne jump of the war .
= = Awards and decorations = =
The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company was awarded three campaign streamers and two unit citations for its service in the Korean War . In 1953 , the unit was again designated A Company of the 3rd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment , that unit carries on the 3rd Ranger Company 's lineage .
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= Varagavank =
Varagavank ( Armenian : Վարագավանք , " Monastery of Varag " ; Turkish : Yedi Kilise , " Seven Churches " ) was an Armenian monastery on the slopes of Mount Varag ( Erek Dağı ) , 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of the city of Van , in eastern Turkey .
The monastery was founded in the early 11th century by Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , the Armenian King of Vaspurakan , on a preexisting religious site . Initially serving as the necropolis of the Artsruni kings , it eventually became the seat of the archbishop of the Armenian Church in Van . The monastery has been described as one of the great monastic centers of the Armenian church by Ara Sarafian and the richest and most celebrated monastery of the Lake Van area by Robert H. Hewsen .
During the Armenian Genocide , in April – May 1915 , the Turkish army attacked , burned , and destroyed much of the monastery . Much of it was destroyed in the 1960s , although good sections are barely extant .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
According to tradition , in the late 3rd century St. Rhipsime hid the remnant of the True Cross she wore on her neck at the site of the monastery . In 653 , when the location was discovered , Catholicos Nerses III the Builder built the Church of Surb Nshan ( Holy Seal ) . It is described by Robert H. Hewsen as " a simple hermitage " . Catholicos Nerses also established the Feast of the Holy Cross of Varag ( Վարագա սուրբ խաչի տոն ) , celebrated by the Armenian Apostolic Church on the Sunday nearest to September 28 , always two weeks after the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross .
Queen Khushush , the daughter of Armenian King Gagik I and spouse of Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , the future Artsruni King of Vaspurakan , built a church at the site in 981 dedicated to the Holy Wisdom ( Surb Sopi ) . In the late medieval period it was converted into a castle and was known as Berdavor ( " berd " means " fortress " in Armenian ) . The Church of Surb Hovhannes ( Saint John ) was built to the north in the 10th century .
= = = Foundation and medieval period = = =
The monastery itself was founded by Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes early in his reign ( 1003 – 24 ) to house a relic of the True Cross that had been kept on the site since Rhipsime . In 1021 , when Vaspurakan fell to Byzantine rule , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes took the relic to Sebastia , where the following year his son Atom founded the Surb Nshan Monastery . In 1025 , following his death , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes was buried at Varagavank and the True Cross was returned to the monastery . Fearing an attack by Muslims , Varagavank Father Ghukas took the True Cross in 1237 to the Tavush region of northeastern Armenia . There he settled in the Anapat monastery , which was renamed Nor Varagavank ( " New Varagavank " ) . In 1318 the Mongols invaded the region and ransacked the monastery . All the churches were destroyed except St. Hovhannes , which had an iron door and was where the monks hid . Between 1320 and the 1350s the monastery was completely restored .
= = = Modern period = = =
Persian Shah Tahmasp I ransacked the monastery in 1534 . In 1648 along with other buildings in the region , Varagavank was destroyed by an earthquake . Its restoration began immediately thereafter by monastery father Kirakos who found financial support among the wealthy merchants in Van . According to the 17th @-@ century historian Arakel of Tabriz four churches were restored and renovated .
The architect Tiratur built a square @-@ planned gavit ( narthex ) west of Church of Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) in 1648 . It functioned as a church during the 19th century , called Surb Gevorg . To the west of the narthex was a 17th @-@ century three @-@ arched open @-@ air porch ; to the north was Church of Surb Khach ( Holy Cross ) ; while to the south was the 17th @-@ century Church of Surb Sion . Urartian cuneiform inscriptions were used as lintels on their western entrances .
Suleyman , the prince of Hoşap Castle , invaded the monastery in 1651 , looting it of its Holy Cross , manuscripts and treasures . The cross was later repurchased and it was added to the Tiramayr Church of Van in 1655 . The monastery declined in the late 17th century , and in 1679 many of its treasures were sold due to economic difficulties . Archbishop Bardughimeos Shushanetsi renovated the monastery in 1724 .
In 1779 father Baghdasar vardapet decorated the narthex walls with frescoes of King Abgar , Empire Theodosius , Saint Gayane , Saint Rhipsime , Khosrovidukht , and Gabriel . According to Murad Hasratyan , the unknown painter had fused together the styles of Armenian , Persian , and Western European art .
= = = = 19th century = = = =
A wall was built around the monastery in 1803 , and fourteen years later , the Church of Surb Khach ( Holy Cross ) was completely renovated and converted into a depository of manuscripts by archbishop Galust . In 1832 Tamur pasha of Van robbed the monastery 's treasures and strangled the father Mktrich vardapet Gaghatatsi to death . In 1849 Gabriel vardapet Shiroyan restored the Church of Sion , which had been destroyed by an earthquake , and converted it into a wheat warehouse .
Mkrtich Khrimian , the future head of the Armenian Church , became father of Varagavank in 1857 and made the monastery effectively independent and subordinate only to the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople . He founded a printing house and began publishing Artsiv Vaspurakani ( " The Eagle of Vaspurakan " ) , the first newspaper in historical Armenia , which was published between 1858 and 1864 . He also established a modern school . The school taught subjects such as theology , music , grammar , geography , Armenian studies and history ; the prominent novelist Raffi was briefly one of the teachers . The school produced its first graduates in 1862 .
During the Hamidian massacres of 1896 the monastery was sacked and robbed , while some teachers and students were killed . According to a contemporary report by an American at Van , " Varak , the most famous and historic monastery in all this [ Van ] region , which has weathered the storms of centuries is almost certain to go [ on fire ] . "
= = = Sacking and abandonment = = =
Early in 1915 — during the early stages of the Armenian Genocide — Turkish government forces laid siege to Van , while the local Armenians organized self @-@ defense in what became the most notable resistance to the Turkish campaign of deportations and massacres . During most of April , the monastery was held by Armenians , but was captured and burnt by the Turks some time in late April and early May . The date of the burning of the monastery is contested . An April 27 , 1915 a message sent to " To Americans , or any Foreign Consul " by missionaries Clarence Ussher and Ernest Yarrow said that " From our window we could plainly see Shushantz afire on its mountain @-@ side and Varak Monastery , with its priceless store of ancient manuscripts , going up in smoke . " Missionary Elizabeth Barrows Ussher , Clarence 's wife , wrote in her diary that the monastery was attacked by 200 cavalry and foot soldiers on April 30 , but they were repulsed . She gave May 4 as the day when the monastery was burned . American missionary teacher Grace H. Knapp recounted , however , that " On the 8th May we saw the place in flames , and Varak Monastery near by , with its priceless ancient manuscripts , also went up in smoke . "
Van Governor Djevdet Bey ordered the Erzerum Battalion , composed of 300 cavalrymen and 1 @,@ 000 militiamen equipped with cannons , to attack Varag on May 8 . The 250 Armenian defenders were overwhelmed , and the monastery 's collections of medieval manuscripts burned and destroyed .
= = Current state = =
A significant number of the structures surviving the 1915 destruction were destroyed in the 1960s . As of 2006 the monastery 's remains were used a barn . According to historian Ara Sarafian , as of 2012 , " good sections have just barely survived until our days . " Dr. Jenny B. White , a scholar on Turkey , wrote in 2013 that on her visit the remains of the monastery " consisted of nothing more than a few brick vaults used to house goats amid a clutch of tumbledown Kurdish homes . " The best @-@ preserved section of the monastery is the church of Surb Gevorg ( St. George ) , which is now looked after by a caretaker . The dome is partly collapsed and contains some traces of surviving frescoes . The dome of the church of Surb Nshan is entirely gone .
In February 2010 , following the renovation of the Holy Cross Cathedral at Akdamar Island in Lake Van , Halil Berk , the Deputy Governor of Van Province , announced that the Governor 's Office sought to restore Varagavank and the Ktuts monastery at Çarpanak Island . In June of that year , the governor also stated that the monastery at Çarpanak Island and Varagavank would be renovated " in the near future . " In October 2010 Radikal reported that a nearby mosque , built in 1997 , would be demolished to make room for the restoration of Varagavank .
The monastery was damaged as a result of the 2011 Van earthquake . According to Ara Sarafian , " parts of the main church collapsed , while other parts were significantly weakened . Old cracks got bigger , new ones appeared . " Turkish engineers reportedly inspected it and announced that they would commence restoration work in the spring of 2012 . Sarafian wrote that " such promises have been made in the past and one needs to be a little skeptical . The current state of the church makes such work much harder than at any time in the past . " He noted in a 2012 article that the local and provincial governments supported the preservation and restoration of the monastery . In October 2012 , the artist Raffi Bedrosyan , who contributed to the restoration of the St. Giragos Church in Diyarbakır , stated that he had hoped to restore Varagavank and added that " Both Ankara and Van agreed to launch the restoration project , but social and natural obstacles delayed the process . "
= = = Ownership = = =
Taraf reported in September 2012 that the monastery is owned by the Turkish journalist and media executive Fatih Altaylı . In an interview Altaylı told the newspaper that the monastery belonged to his grandfather and he inherited it from his father . The monastery was confiscated during the Armenian Genocide . A group of Armenians in Turkey , led by the activist Nadya Uygun started a petition asking him to " Apply to the Armenian Patriarchate of Turkey and transfer the title deed of the church to the concerned [ Armenian community ] foundation . " Altayli told Agos that he is ready to give it to the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople , but no government authority has approached him to respond to his offer to give back the church to its owners , and that they displayed no interest in cooperating . Revolutionary Socialist Workers ' Party ( DSİP ) activists demonstrated in early October 2012 before the Habertürk headquarters in Beyoğlu , Istanbul demanding the return of the monastery land to the Armenians . As of September 2014 there was no progress .
= = Architecture and manuscripts = =
The monastery was composed of six churches , gavit , narthex ( nakhasrah ) and other structures . The main church of Varagavank was called Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) . It dated to the 11th century and was similar in plan to the prominent Saint Hripsime Church in Vagharshapat . The earliest structure was on the southern part of the ensemble and was known as Surb Sopia ( 10th century ) . Queen Khushush left an inscription ( dated 981 ) on its western wall .
In the 10th century Queen Mlke , the wife of Gagik I , presented the monastery the " Gospel of Queen Mlke " ( arm ) , one of the best known Armenian illuminated manuscripts . In the 14th – 16th centuries the monastery became a major center of manuscript production . A number of Varagavank manuscripts are now kept at the Matenadaran in Yerevan .
= = Cultural references = =
Raffi mentions the monastery in volume two of the novel Sparkles ( « Կայծեր » , 1883 – 87 ) . The prominent poet Hovhannes Tumanyan wrote an article about the monastery in 1910 on the fiftieth anniversary of Mkrtich Khrimian becoming father of Varag and the monastery 's subsequent revival as a great center of education and culture .
= = European visitors = =
Austen Henry Layard ( 1853 ) : " ... the large Armenian convent of Yedi Klissia , or the seven churches , built of substantial stone masonry , and inclosing a spacious courtyard planted with trees . [ ... ] The church , a substantial modern edifice , stand within the courtyard . Its walls are covered with pictyres as primitive in design as in execution . "
Henry Fanshawe Tozer ( 1881 ) : " ... the broken Varak Dagh formed a noble object on the further side of the plain . In one of the upper valleys of the last @-@ named mountain lies an important monastery , which is the residence of the archbishop , and has a good school . "
H. F. B. Lynch ( 1893 ) : " The monastery of Yed Kilisa , situated on the slopes of that mountain , is the most frequented of the numerous cloisters in the neighbourhood ... "
= = Gallery = =
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= British cavalry during the First World War =
The British cavalry were the first British Army units to see action during the First World War . Captain Hornby of the 4th ( Royal Irish ) Dragoon Guards is reputed to have been the first British soldier to kill a German soldier , using his sword , and Drummer Edward Thomas of the same regiment is reputed to have fired the first British shot shortly after 06 : 30 on 22 August 1914 , near the Belgian village of Casteau . The following Battle of Mons was the first engagement fought by British soldiers in Western Europe since the Battle of Waterloo , ninety @-@ nine years earlier . In the first year of the war in France nine cavalry brigades were formed for three British cavalry divisions . Other regiments served in six brigades of the two British Indian Army cavalry divisions that were formed for service on the Western Front . Three regiments also fought in the campaign in Mesopotamia , the only other theatre of the First World War where British cavalry served .
The doctrine of the British cavalry had been highly influenced by their experiences in the Second Boer War fifteen years earlier , during which one commander had preferred using irregular units to the professional cavalry regiments . By necessity , cavalry doctrine had changed since then , with emphasis being placed on dismounted firepower and covering fire from the flanks , using machine guns and attached artillery , to support cavalry charges . Cavalrymen dominated the higher command positions within the British Army during the war . The only officers to command the British Expeditionary Force on the Western Front were both cavalrymen , while the original commander of the British Cavalry Division went on to command the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Palestine Campaign , and another cavalryman became the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Altogether on the Western Front , five of the ten officers who commanded the five British armies were provided by the cavalry , while another ten commanded corps , and twenty @-@ seven served as divisional commanders .
Among other decorations for their valour , eight cavalrymen were awarded the Victoria Cross , Britain 's highest award for bravery in the face of the enemy . Three of the awards came in the first month of the war . All but one of the thirty @-@ two British regular army cavalry regiments fought in a recognised theatre of war , either on the Western Front or in the Mesopotamia Campaign , during which over 5 @,@ 600 cavalrymen were killed , including several senior officers .
= = Background = =
The traditional role of cavalry in war is scouting — gathering information about the enemy 's location , strength , and movements — while denying the enemy the same information about one 's own forces . Other tasks include raiding into enemy territory and damaging their infrastructure and economy while avoiding conflict with enemy forces . On the field of battle , cavalry were expected to charge into and break up enemy infantry and cavalry formations . The prestige gained by participating in a cavalry charge was such that additional officers would attempt to join one whenever possible . Notable examples of this include Louis Nolan of the 15th Hussars joining the Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War and Winston Churchill of the 4th Hussars joining the 21st Lancers for their charge during the Battle of Omdurman .
The normal peacetime British Army cavalry formation was the brigade , but twice a cavalry division had been formed . The first time was during the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War in 1882 . The second was during the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1901 ) in South Africa , the last major conflict fought by the British Army before the First World War . During the fighting in South Africa , it was the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ strong colonial mounted contingent , not the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ strong regular cavalry , that led the way in tactical development . They were better trained , better armed , and more efficient , if only because they had been correctly trained to use the right weapons and tactics for the conflict . Since 1880 British cavalrymen had been armed with only carbines and swords , although some carried a lance ; it was not until 1903 that the cavalry were issued rifles , the same ones used by the rest of the army . The regular cavalry regiments were considered so poor in quality that General Sir Redvers Henry Buller , commanding the advance into Northern Natal , left his six cavalry regiments behind at Ladysmith , trusting in the irregular mounted forces to carry out patrols in their stead .
Their Boer opponents taught not only the cavalry but the whole army some lessons . In one engagement at Dronfield , 150 Boers held off the British cavalry division , which was then supported by several artillery batteries , and at Bergendal seventy @-@ four men held up the entire British Army . So effective were their tactics that they forced the British cavalry , if only for a short time , to leave their swords and lances behind and concentrate on their firepower . This proved to the British Army the value of a full size rifle over a carbine . Soon the cavalry were practising working dismounted and advancing in open order . Their change in tactics was evidenced during the charge at Klip Drift . On their way to relieve the siege of Kimberley , the cavalry used their horses and rifles instead of swords and lances to get behind the defending Boers . The charge was later described as " an ideal cavalry operation , but not a cavalry charge as the term is generally understood . " Nevertheless , it would prove to be the last time that a full British cavalry division conducted a mounted charge .
Following the Boer War there were calls for the disbandment of the cavalry by such notable persons as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces Lord Roberts and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle . Between 1900 and 1903 the cavalry 's share of the army budget was cut from six to under 4 @.@ 5 per cent , and recruiting for the cavalry was suspended for a year . Added to this , the Commonwealth Defence Act 1903 proposed a force of nine brigades formed by a militia , with six of the brigades planned to be mounted infantry known as light horse . In the same year , Lord Roberts appointed Robert Baden @-@ Powell of the 5th Dragoon Guards to the position of Inspector General of Cavalry , a surprising choice as Roberts had earlier described him as being " certainly not a General " . Within the year , Baden @-@ Powell was endorsing a change in policy , recommending that instead of countering an enemy charge with a countercharge of their own , the cavalry should dismount and engage them with rifle fire . For cavalry to survive , by necessity British cavalry doctrine had to change , as the emphasis was now on dismounted firepower and cavalry charges that were supported by covering fire from the flanks , by their own machine guns , and the guns of the Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) . To support this change in policy , cavalrymen were now required to do two hours rifle or sword practice a day . This made them just as proficient as the infantry with their rifles . In 1908 one regiment , the 14th Hussars , recorded having 354 marksmen , 212 first class shots , thirty @-@ five second class , and only four third class shots .
The resulting reforms helped shape the cavalry 's contribution to the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) , which was established with one cavalry division supported by two brigades of horse artillery . All would be trained for the mounted charge but would also be armed with rifles , the only major power to do so . The cavalry regiments were armed with Maxim Machine Guns , although these were replaced by Vickers Machine Guns from 1912 . More than anything else , the issue of entrenching tools that were carried on the troop packhorses demonstrated how much the cavalry 's doctrine had changed since the Boer Wars .
= = Organisation = =
In 1914 , prior to the start of the First World War , there were just over 15 @,@ 000 cavalrymen serving in thirty @-@ one British Army cavalry regiments . There were three Household Cavalry regiments and twenty @-@ eight line cavalry regiments consisting of seven dragoon guards , three dragoon , twelve hussar , and six lancer regiments . In the British Army the term " cavalry " was only used for regular army units . The other mounted regiments in the army , which were part of the Territorial Force reserve , were the fifty @-@ five yeomanry regiments and three special reserve regiments of horse . Several of the cavalry regiments , amounting to 6 @,@ 000 men , were serving overseas in British India , South Africa , and Egypt . Twelve of the regiments based in Great Britain were assigned to four cavalry brigades , three regiments per brigade , identified as being part of the cavalry division for the BEF . After the declaration of war in August 1914 , the cavalry joined the rest of the BEF in France , together with a fifth independent cavalry brigade , formed from three un @-@ brigaded regiments then based in England . British cavalry brigades were a third larger than French and German brigades , which only had two regiments . To provide a reconnaissance force for the six infantry divisions , two regiments the 15th Hussars and the 19th Hussars were split up with one squadron being assigned to each infantry division . Also in August 1914 , a thirty @-@ second regiment , the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment , was formed from three squadrons that were drawn from each of the Household Cavalry regiments ; its existence proved short @-@ lived as it was disbanded on 11 November 1914 , with its manpower returning to their parent regiments .
Early in the war twenty @-@ four reserve cavalry regiments were formed to provide training to recruits for the cavalry and yeomanry regiments . Only four of them saw any combat — the 6th , 8th , 9th , and 10th Reserve Cavalry Regiments — all during the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin . The 6th Reserve Cavalry Regiment , with thirty @-@ five officers and 851 other ranks , was the largest unit then available to Dublin commander Brigadier General William Lowe of the 7th Dragoon Guards .
= = = Commanders = = =
The cavalry were well represented among the British Army 's higher ranks , with five of the ten officers who would command the five armies on the Western Front being cavalrymen . The two commanders of the BEF during the First World War , Field Marshals John French and Douglas Haig , came from the 19th Hussars and 7th Hussars respectively . William Robertson , 3rd Dragoon Guards , who rose in rank from private to field marshal , was the Quartermaster General , then Chief of Staff of the BEF before becoming the Chief of the Imperial General Staff in December 1915 .
Edmund Allenby , 6th Dragoons , who started the war as the commander of the Cavalry Division , went on to command the Cavalry Corps , then V Corps , the Third Army , and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . He was replaced as commander of the Third Army by Julian Byng , 10th Hussars , who had previously commanded the Canadian Corps . Hubert Gough of the 16th Lancers , known before the war for his involvement in the Curragh incident mutiny , started the war as a brigade commander , became the commander of the I Corps , then the Fifth Army . He was replaced by William Birdwood , 12th Lancers , who had previously commanded the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli Campaign . Charles Briggs , 1st Dragoon Guards , commanded the British Salonika Army . William Peyton , 15th Hussars , commanded the Western Desert Force during the Senussi Campaign . He later transferred to the Western Front , where he was temporarily commander of the Fifth Army before taking over command of the X Corps .
Philip Chetwood , 19th Hussars , commanded the XX Corps in Allenby 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force . Charles Kavanagh , 10th Hussars , commanded the I Corps and the Cavalry Corps . Hugh Fanshaw , 19th Hussars , commanded the Cavalry Corps and the V Corps . Beauvoir De Lisle , 1st Dragoons , commanded both the XIII and XV Corps . Michael Rimington 6th Dragoons , commanded the Indian Cavalry Corps . Altogether during the First World War , the British cavalry provided ten corps and twenty @-@ seven divisional commanders .
= = = Divisions and brigades = = =
The original cavalry division consisted of a ninety @-@ six man headquarters , as well as 6 @,@ 872 cavalrymen in four brigades , 1 @,@ 682 artillerymen in four artillery batteries , 191 men in a Royal Engineers field squadron and another 206 men in the engineers signal squadron , twenty @-@ six men in an Army Service Corps headquarters , and four field ambulances with 496 men . This made a total of 9 @,@ 269 men , 9 @,@ 518 horses , 425 wagons , twenty @-@ three cars , 412 bicycles , eighteen motorcycles , twenty @-@ four 13 @-@ pounder guns , and twenty @-@ four Vickers machine guns . It was a large force when mounted , but when asked to serve dismounted , the cavalry division was only the equivalent of two weakened infantry brigades , with less artillery than an infantry division . It did , however , have a higher allocation of artillery compared to foreign cavalry divisions .
By September 1914 , the cavalry division was numbered the 1st Cavalry Division . It was joined by the 2nd Cavalry Division , which had been formed on 6 September , and the 3rd Cavalry Division , formed on 29 September . By the end of the year another six British cavalry regiments ( as well as artillery and support elements ) , which had been in India , were now in France serving in two cavalry divisions that were part of the British Indian Army . The 1st Indian Cavalry Division arrived in November and the 2nd Indian Cavalry Division in December . They were renumbered the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions in December 1916 . Although they were numbered , to prevent confusion with similar numbered British and Indian brigades , the latter were generally known by their names : for example , the Mhow Cavalry Brigade instead of the 5th ( Mhow ) Cavalry Brigade for example . The three British and two Indian cavalry divisions now came under the command of the British Cavalry Corps and the Indian Cavalry Corps .
By the end of 1915 , after several occasions when the British had to temporarily dismount regiments and send them into the front lines , an establishment for the Dismounted Cavalry Division was created . The three British cavalry divisions each formed a dismounted cavalry brigade , with the 1st Brigade being raised from the 1st Division , and so on . The cavalry brigades formed a dismounted cavalry battalion , numbered after their parent brigades , so the 9th Cavalry Brigade formed the 9th Dismounted Battalion , for example . The cavalry regiments each formed one dismounted company and a machine gun section for their battalion . However , the Dismounted Cavalry Division , with only three brigades , was smaller than an infantry division , which had four brigades . This disadvantage was felt throughout the formation , with the dismounted cavalry brigade only having three battalions instead of the four in an infantry formation , and the dismounted cavalry battalion only having three , albeit larger , companies as opposed to the four of an infantry battalion . There was one other divisional @-@ sized formation raised in 1916 that contained British cavalry regiments . This was the Imperial Cavalry Division , which served in the campaign in Mesopotamia . This was another British Indian Army division , and like all Indian divisions , it had one British regiment per brigade .
By April 1915 the British Army had formed nine cavalry brigades , serving in three cavalry divisions . A cavalry brigade headquarters had seven officers and forty @-@ seven men , which controlled three cavalry regiments , a battery of six 13 @-@ pounder guns provided by the Royal Horse Artillery , and a signals troop from the Royal Engineers . When dismounted , one man in four would be assigned to hold the horses ; therefore a brigade 's rifle fire was only equivalent to an infantry battalion . By now only three British cavalry regiments were not serving on the Western Front , having remained in India on internal security duties . These were the 7th Hussars , 14th Hussars , and the 21st Lancers . When the two hussar regiments left for the Mesopotamia Campaign in 1915 , only one regiment , the 21st Lancers , remained . They did , however , see action on the North West Frontier , winning one of the eight Victoria Crosses awarded to British cavalrymen during the war .
In March 1916 the two cavalry corps were disbanded and the five divisions were assigned to the five British armies . A skeleton corps staff was retained to allow for the re @-@ establishment of a new corps if one was required , which did happen the following September . At the same time , Gough was appointed as the Inspector General of Training of Cavalry Divisions . The cavalry divisions went through a period of training , re @-@ organisation , and issuance of new equipment . One of the major changes was the withdrawal of the regiments ' machine guns for their concentration in newly formed brigade machine gun squadrons , each of twelve sections with two machine guns to a section . The division also received a Light Armoured Car Battery equipped with six Rolls Royce Armoured Cars . The training covered topics such as how to cross trench systems using mobile bridging equipment , tactics to employ against an entrenched enemy , blowing up and filling in trenches , and skill at arms , including machine guns and bayonet fighting .
= = = The cavalry regiment = = =
The 1914 British cavalry regiment was composed of twenty @-@ six officers and 523 other ranks . The commanding officer was a lieutenant colonel , with a major as the second in command ; other officers in the headquarters were an adjutant , quartermaster , signals officer , medical officer , and a veterinary officer . The other ranks included one warrant officer , thirty @-@ seven senior non commissioned officers , twenty @-@ two artificers , six trumpeters , and 457 privates , or twenty @-@ seven officers and 598 other ranks in the regiments based in India .
Of these men , forty @-@ eight were part of the regimental headquarters , and twenty @-@ seven , armed with two Vickers Machine Guns , were assigned to the machine gun section . In 1909 the School of Musketry proposed that each regiment should have six machine guns , but this was declined for " financial reasons " . The remaining 474 men were in the regiment 's three squadrons , four troops per squadron . Commanded by a major with a captain as the second in command , a squadron had 158 men , six officers , a squadron sergeant major , a squadron quartermaster sergeant , eight sergeants , two trumpeters , six artificers , and 134 other ranks . Each troop had one officer , two sergeants , one artificer , and thirty other ranks . Regiments in India had four squadrons with 173 men in each squadron .
To look after the regiment 's horses , attached to the regimental headquarters , was a veterinary officer , a quartermaster sergeant farrier ( also responsible for killing wounded or sick horses ) , a saddler sergeant , and a saddle @-@ tree maker . Each squadron had two saddlers , one a sergeant , and each troop had a shoeing smith . The regiment had 528 riding horses , seventy @-@ four draught horses , six pack horses , eighteen carts or horse @-@ drawn wagons , and fifteen bicycles .
British cavalry were armed with a 1908 pattern sword ; lancers were armed with a 9 @.@ 1 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) lance with a steel head mounted on an ash stave . Cavalrymen were also armed with Lee – Enfield rifles , unlike their French and German counterparts , who were only armed with a shorter range carbine . As the war progressed , the cavalrymen were issued with brodie helmets , hand grenades , trench mortars , and Hotchkiss light machine guns . The replacement of the Vickers Guns with the Hotchkiss , issued one per troop , greatly increased the firepower of the cavalry regiments . Like the infantry , cavalrymen were dressed in a khaki uniform , with a service dress cap . Instead of infantry webbing , they carried their ammunition in a bandolier . The French cuirassiers , by comparison , would not have looked out of place in the Napoleonic Wars ; they still wore blue and red uniforms with breast and back metal plates and plumed brass @-@ steel helmets . While the Germans had a standard field grey uniform , their uhlans still wore Polish style czapka helmets and tunics with plastron fronts , while the hussars wore frogged jackets and the cuirassiers had steel spiked helmets .
= = = Casualties = = =
Although the trench warfare on the Western Front was dominated by the artillery and infantry , the cavalry still suffered 5 @,@ 674 dead and 14 @,@ 630 other casualties . For comparison , one infantry regiment — the Northumberland Fusiliers — had 16 @,@ 000 casualties . Unlike the huge losses in the infantry regiments , only ten cavalry regiments suffered over 200 dead . The 3rd Dragoon Guards , with 333 dead , had the most killed , while the 7th Hussars had eighty dead , one less than the 21st Lancers , which had remained in India throughout the war . The dead included one major general , eleven brigadier generals , but only twenty @-@ eight of the 1 @,@ 161 lieutenant colonels killed during the war were from the cavalry , several of those after having assumed command of an infantry battalion .
= = Aftermath = =
The British Army tried to learn the lessons of the First World War and incorporate them into its doctrine . In the 1920s and much of the 1930s , the General Staff tried to establish a small , mechanised , professional army ; one result was the Experimental Mechanized Force . There was also a general reduction in the army , which resulted in the cavalry branch being reduced in numbers , with several famous regiments being amalgamated . In the Household Cavalry , the 1st and 2nd Life Guards became the Life Guards . In the line cavalry , sixteen regiments were amalgamated , becoming eight new regiments . The 3rd and 6th Dragoon Guards became the 3rd Carabiniers ( Prince of Wales 's Dragoon Guards ) , and the 5th Dragoon Guards and the 6th Dragoons became the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards . The other amalgamations used their previous regimental numbers as part of their new regimental names . The new regiments were the 4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards , the 13th / 18th Royal Hussars , the 14th / 20th King 's Hussars , the 15th / 19th The King 's Royal Hussars , the 16th / 5th The Queen 's Royal Lancers , and finally the 17th / 21st Lancers .
Although mechanisation of the British cavalry was well advanced by 1939 , there was still a 1st Cavalry Division that served in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign during the Second World War . Eventually all the cavalry regiments were mechanised and became part of the Household Cavalry and the Royal Armoured Corps . There is still one regiment that retains their horses , the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment , which together with the Household Cavalry Regiment was formed from the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals , which was itself an amalgamation of the Royal Horse Guards ( Blues ) and the 1st ( Royal ) Dragoons .
= = British cavalry regiments , brigades , and divisions = =
Other units that served in British cavalry , brigades , divisions and corps during the war
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= Skeptic 's Toolbox =
Held every August since 1992 , the Skeptic 's Toolbox was formed by psychologist and now @-@ retired University of Oregon professor Ray Hyman . The workshop , held over four days , focuses on making people into better critical thinkers by investigating a central theme . The attendees are broken up into groups and given tasks that they must work on together and present in front of the entire group on the last day . The Skeptic 's Toolbox is sponsored by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .
= = History = =
Hyman created the Skeptic 's Toolbox in 1989 to teach people how to be better skeptics . He tells James Underdown that " we were putting out more fires by skeptics than by believers ... they were going overboard " . The first toolbox was in Buffalo , NY with himself , James Alcock and Steve Shaw ( now called Banachek ) . With the exception of one year when the toolbox was held in Boulder , Colorado , the toolbox has been held at the University of Oregon in Eugene . In general , the faculty likes to keep the numbers at about 90 in order to give everyone personalized attention , and allow everyone the chance to participate . At the 1993 Toolbox , " More than a hundred people participated , from 19 states , Canada , and Hong Kong , and their enthusiasm continued to grow with each passing day , ending on the fifth day with what appeared to be a unanimous ' If only we had more time ! ' " .
In 1997 Skeptical Inquirer Magazine announced that CFI would begin offering an academic certificate for students in a three @-@ year program . Students needed to complete 30 units in academic work as well as in workshops . The two certificates offered were Humanistic Studies and Science and the Paranormal , attending The Skeptic 's Toolbox would satisfy one of the workshop requirements .
= = Methodology and focus = =
While critical thinking is the overall focus , lectures designed around the theme focus on the specialties of the faculty . A reporter for the Register @-@ Guard attended the 2003 toolbox and wrote of his experience hearing lectures on post traumatic stress syndrome , graphology , repressed memory court cases , communication with the dead , healing through prayer , traditional Chinese medicine and psychic dogs . All that and Jerry Andrus 's display of optical illusions too . The goal of the Toolbox is to " help skeptics add to their arsenal of tools and techniques with which to both guard against deception and properly evaluate paranormal claims " . Learning how to communicate with believers is also considered important : " Skeptics search for truths , believers tend to want validation of their experiences " .
Getting the skeptical message across to believers was a focus at the 1993 event . Faculty felt that non @-@ skeptics might be more receptive if attendees understood how they were perceived by others . " Many people view skeptics as die @-@ hard cynics and debunkers , even as enemies of free speech . Nonskeptics often hear only the " COP " in CSICOP " .
In 2010 , interviewed by D. J. Grothe , Hyman explained , " give people the tools to think , help them to become better thinkers " . Mentalist Bob Fellows performed at the second conference and told the audience , " The effect ( of a magic trick ) on audiences who ( believe the trick is real magic ) can be enormously powerful . And when deceit is involved , they can be potentially harmful as well " . Hyman felt that it was necessary to teach attendees with a " case @-@ based approach ... concrete examples as a first step toward extracting broad examples ... ( giving ) the benefit of context " to the learning experience .
= = Faculty of the Toolbox = =
Loren Pankratz - A founding faculty member of the Skeptic 's Toolbox , Pankratz explained to Harriet Hall , about the beginnings of the Toolbox , " Ray Hyman , Jerry Andrus and I were meeting together once a month or so and we decided that maybe the three of us could put a Toolbox together . "
Barry Beyerstein - " One of the many enjoyable tasks I undertake for CSICOP is to lecture in Ray Hyman 's annual summer workshop at the University of Oregon . Not only is it the towering presence of Ray himself , and the joy of observing the sheer brainpower of my fellow faculty at work , it is also the people , literally from around the world , who enroll in this and other CSICOP functions that keep me from suffering that occupational hazard ' skeptic 's burnout . ' They are a remarkable lot , genuinely nice people committed to critical thinking and leaving the place a bit better than they found it . They make me very pleased that my fate was to become a skeptical inquirer . "
Harriet Hall - Prior to attending the Toolbox as a student , Hall had been a " passive skeptic " , " I hadn 't done any writing ... Ray Hyman and Wally Sampson encouraged me to try my hand at writing , one thing led to another and now I 'm on the faculty of the Skeptic 's Toolbox . "
Lindsay Beyerstein - She started attending the Skeptic 's Toolbox when she was 14 ; her father Barry Beyerstein strongly influenced her involvement in the skeptical movement . " It 's sorta funny , the skeptics ' movement is now finally old enough , it 's like Scientology , we have second gen ! " She recounts , " I was always involved with my Dad in skeptical meetings ... " We would have family newsletter @-@ stuffing nights ( for the BC Skeptics ) . " instead of hiring babysitters her father would take Lindsay to his media interviews . " Does Satanic music cause suicide ? Out @-@ of @-@ body experiences ... it was always something new and different . "
James Alcock - " Ray and I and a magician by the name of Steve Shaw , now known as Banachek did the very first Toolbox in Buffalo ... a little while later Ray asked me if I could come out here to this group . " Ray stated " It took a long while to get Jim out here , but finally we managed it . "
= = Other = =
Gallery of photos
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= Marty Mayberry =
Marty Mayberry ( born 9 February 1986 ) is a double leg amputee LW3 classified Paralympic alpine skier from Australia . He lost both legs after contracting meningococcal disease when he was sixteen years old . His experiences led him to study medicine , and he attended Griffith University and the University of Sydney where he pursued health science courses . Beyond the classroom , he has written a paper on Meningococcal disease , worked part @-@ time on research about the disease , and talked about his experiences at a conference . While at a music festival , he met his future wife whom he married in June 2010 .
Having started out as an able @-@ bodied skier , Mayberry took up the disability sport . He made his national team debut in 2005 , and went on to represent Australia at the 2006 Winter Paralympics the following year , when he did not medal . With the aid of a prosthesis , adjustments were made to his skiing legs , and he competed in several skiing competitions during 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . He was selected for the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team at a ceremony in Canberra in November 2009 . Between then and the start of the Games , he participated in a few more competitions , including one where he picked up a gold medal , and participated in a national team training camp . He was selected as Australia 's flag bearer for the opening ceremony . In competition , he earned a silver medal in the men 's downhill standing event , finished 24th in the Super @-@ G , was disqualified from the slalom , and failed to finish in the giant slalom . Following the games , he retired from skiing .
= = Personal = =
Mayberry was born on 9 February 1986 , and grew up in Byron Bay , New South Wales , where he attended Byron Bay High School . By 2009 , he resided in Queensland , and was living in Yeerongpilly , Queensland by 2010 . In June 2010 , he married. a woman he met at a music festival .
Following a high school ski trip when he was in year 11 , Mayberry contracted meningococcal disease at the age of 16 , and this resulted in double below the knee amputations . He was in a coma for two weeks as a result of the disease , and , when he woke up at [ [ Lismore Base
Hospital ] ] , learned his legs had been amputated . One of the things that motivated him to keep going during rehabilitation was the opportunity for sports .
Mayberry studied health sciences at Griffith University , and medicine at the University of Sydney . He went into medicine partly because of his illness during high school . He relocated to Sydney with his fiance to do so not long before the start of the 2009 — 2010 ski season . In August 2010 , he was the opening speaker at the Amanda Young Foundation Meningococcal Conference , and in 2010 and 2011 , worked part @-@ time at the Kids Research Institute at the Children 's Hospital at Westmead , where he was in contact with " Robert Booy in his research on the psycho @-@ social impact of meningococcal B on families . " He wrote up his experiences in dealing with meningococcal infection in the Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health .
He lives by Gandhi 's quote " Be the change you want to see in the world " .
= = Skiing = =
Mayberry is an LW3 classified skier who competes in standing events using a pair of artificial legs . Prior to contracting meningococcal , he was involved with skiing . He was back to competing at it on the disability side by 2004 . When fully kitted out , he looks like an able @-@ bodied skier , and is capable of skiing faster than 110 kilometres per hour ( 68 mph ) . He received support for his skiing from the Australian Institute of Sport , New South Wales Institute of Sport and the Australian Government Sports Training Grants program .
Mayberry has won medals at IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup events and the Paralympic Games . He made his Australian national team debut in 2005 at the European Cup Finals , and went on to represent Australia the following year at the 2006 Torino Games where he failed to medal in the four men 's standing events he competed in . He finished 33rd in the downhill , 21st in the Giant Slalom , 19th in the Slalom and did not finish in the Super G. Mayberry attributed his poor performance at the 2006 Games to his prosthetic legs , which " just didn 't feel right during the speed events in Italy . " Following those Games , he worked with prosthetist Peter Farrand to develop new legs that would address the problems in Italy . Continuing to ski following the 2006 Games , he earned a gold medal at a World Cup event in 2007 in Slalom , and earned a bronze medal in slalom event at a 2008 World Cup competition .
During Australia 's 2009 — 2010 summer , Mayberry was based in Europe and North America for training . At the 2009 World Championships , he had a pair of sixth places finished in the Super G and downhill events . That year , at a Spanish hosted IPC World Cup , he crashed in the giant slalom event and did not score a time . He was officially named to the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team in November 2009 . A ceremony was held in Canberra with Australian Paralympic Committee president Greg Hartung and Minister for Sport Kate Ellis making the announcement . Mayberry was selected to the largest Winter Paralympics team that Australia had ever sent to the Games .
In 2010 , he was the only elite skier with his type of disability in his classification . At the second to last World Cup event before the 2010 Games , on a course in Vancouver , Canada , he won a silver medal in the downhill with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 02 . In Aspen , Colorado , at the last World Cup event before the 2010 Games , he won a gold medal in the downhill event . Prior to the start of the Games , he participated in a national team training camp in Vail , Colorado before the Aspen hosted World Cup . He and the rest of Australia 's para @-@ alpine team arrived in the Paralympic village on 9 March 2010 .
As a 24 @-@ year @-@ old , Mayberry competed in five events in the 2010 Paralympic games : downhill , super G , super combined , giant slalom , and slalom . His parents were in Vancouver to watch him compete . Mayberry won a silver medal in the men 's standing downhill event where he tied with another skier , and had a combined time of 1 : 22 @.@ 78 He finished 24th in the Super @-@ G , was disqualified from the slalom event after missing a gate , and did not finish in the Giant Slalom . Following the Games , he returned with the team to Sydney , where he attended a press conference at Sydney International Airport . He won an Australian Institute of Sport Sport Achievement Award in 2010 . By September 2010 , he had retired from elite skiing , one of several 2010 Winter Paralympic skiers to retire following the games . Others who retired at the same time he did included Shannon Dallas and Bart Bunting .
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= Red Museum =
" Red Museum " is the tenth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 1994 . It was written by Chris Carter , directed by Win Phelps , and featured guest appearances by Mark Rolston , Paul Sand , Bob Frazer , and Robert Clothier . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " Red Museum " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , being watched by 9 @.@ 9 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics , with many noting the episode 's complexity as a detractor .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully travel to Wisconsin after several teens are found wandering in the woods in their underwear with “ He Is One ” scrawled on their backs . However , the duo soon stumble upon a strange cult of vegetarian “ walk @-@ ins . ”
Originally , the episode was slated to be a crossover episode with the CBS show Picket Fences . However , the networks nixed the idea before any filming could begin . A facet of the episode , that the adherents of the Red Museum believe that the year 2012 will bring about the dawning of The New Age , is later referenced in the series ' finale " The Truth " , seven seasons later .
= = Plot = =
Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are called in to investigate a number of kidnappings in Delta Glen , Wisconsin where local teenagers are recovered half @-@ naked and drugged with either the phrase " He is one " or " She is one " written on their backs . Meeting with Sheriff Mazeroski , the agents initially suspect a nearby cult , the Church of the Red Museum , which was founded by vegetarian Richard Odin . Mulder , Scully and Mazeroski attend a ceremony of the Red Museum , causing Mulder to believe that they are walk @-@ ins , people whose souls have been taken over by someone else . One of the kidnap victims claims to have felt an animal spirit enter him .
The girlfriend of Mazeroski 's son , Rick , is the latest to be found , and her blood is found to contain an unknown alkaloid substance and high levels of scopolamine , a controlled substance . This appears to link her to Odin , a former doctor . Meanwhile , the agents meet an old man who points to a pair of men injecting growth serum into cattle , which he believes is at the cause of the trouble . That night , local doctor Jerrold Larson is killed in a plane crash . An investigation of the site turns up shipping orders that trace back to the kidnapped teens . One of the men injecting the cows is murdered by the Crew Cut Man . The other , a peeping tom named Gerd Thomas , is revealed to be the kidnapper after the agents find a hidden supply of videotapes in the home of one of the victims . Thomas claims that Larson had been turning the children into " monsters " with the drugs he had been injecting in them , which he claims to be unknown .
Meanwhile , Rick is murdered by the Crew Cut Man . Having passed by him on the road , Scully recognizes him as the assassin who killed Deep Throat . Her toxicology results on the victims show what she thinks is the mysterious substance known as " Purity Control " . Mulder theorizes that Larson had been injecting the children with alien DNA , and convinces Mazeroski to round up all of the children who had been receiving treatment from Larson and hide them with the Church of the Red Museum . Mulder tracks the Crew Cut Man down at a beef processing plant that he is about to destroy . While Mulder wants him alive , Mazeroski kills him as revenge for Rick 's murder .
Scully reports that the Crew Cut Man had no records on file with the FBI or other agencies . The material injected into the cows and children is found to be an unknown substance . All the children who were inoculated came down with a flu @-@ like illness while those in the Church of the Red Museum did not , causing her to think they were a control group . Scully declares the case open and unsolved .
= = Production = =
This episode was originally intended to be a crossover episode with the CBS show Picket Fences , which was set in another town in Wisconsin . David E. Kelley , the series creator of Picket Fences , and Chris Carter , the series creator of The X @-@ Files , were talking in a parking lot and thought it might be interesting to have Mulder and Scully visit Rome , Wisconsin for an X @-@ Files episode . Unlike a traditional crossover , the two shows would be shot with different viewpoints and one would be aired as an X @-@ Files episode and the other as an episode of Picket Fences . Ultimately , CBS decided against the crossover and both episodes created ended up becoming stand @-@ alones . Executive producer Robert Goodwin said of the experience " I spent days on the phone with a producer of Picket Fences . We spent days organizing our schedules . Then at the very last minute , of course , we found out that no one had told CBS , and they said ' Forget it . We 're having enough trouble on Friday nights without publicizing The X @-@ Files . ' It 's too bad . " The Picket Fences episode intended to be part of the crossover was called " Away in the Manger " and aired the week following " Red Museum . " While every reference to Picket Fences has been purged from the X @-@ Files episode , there still are some small winks left in the Picket Fences episode referring to the happenings at the X @-@ Files , including a mention of Dr. Larson . Ladner , British Columbia served as a location for Delta Glen , while the beef processing plant was shot in a facility in Cloverdale , with the local employees being used for the butchering and cleaning up scenes .
Producer Glen Morgan was disappointed with the resolution regarding the Crew Cut Man , saying " My feeling is that to bring this guy back , his presence should have been better developed , and he 's shot off screen . I thought ' Geez , this is the guy who killed Deep Throat , who the audience loved , and it 's kind of tossed away . ' The episode just seems like half of one thing for a while , then half of something else . I think that was a curious choice for Chris [ Carter ] . He wanted to take a real left turn , but I 'd rather have seen a whole episode about that guy showing up and Mulder getting back at him . " X @-@ Files writer James Wong also had a negative view of the episode , saying " I think that was one of the most confusing episodes I 've ever seen . It had some really neat ideas in it , but I don 't think it pulled together finally . "
The episode is the first in the series to mention the concept of walk @-@ ins , a plot device that would later be used five seasons later , when the truth about Samantha 's abduction was finally revealed to Mulder . It should also be noted that the adherents of the Red Museum believed that the year 2012 will bring about the dawning of The New Age . In the series ' finale , " The Truth , " it is revealed to Mulder by the Cigarette Smoking Man that the alien colonists plan to colonize the earth on December 22nd , 2012 . Despite the developments in the show 's mythological plot arc , this 2012 reference is the first explicit reference to the date of the planned colonization , a date that is only finally confirmed in the series finale — both to Mulder and the audience — seven seasons later . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Red Museum " premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 1994 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 9 million households .
The episode received mostly mixed to negative reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Red Museum " a B , noting that the episode was " creative if convoluted . " Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club criticized the way " Red Museum " was written , writing that the episode , " tries the neat trick of combining what appears to be a [ Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ] ep with mythos ; the results are intriguing , but not entirely successful . " He concluded that the episode was " good " but ultimately " forgettable . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode 5 / 10 , criticizing the complexity of the plot . He wrote that " Fairly quickly , The X @-@ Files gained a reputation for episodes that were so convoluted and confusing that few people could make sense of them . This episode stands as one of the shining examples of that trend , and it ’ s only appropriate that the episode was written by Chris Carter . "
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= Henry Chadwick ( theologian ) =
Henry Chadwick , KBE , FBA ( 23 June 1920 – 17 June 2008 ) was a British academic and Church of England priest . A former Dean of Christ Church Cathedral , Oxford – and as such , head of Christ Church , Oxford – he also served as Master of Peterhouse , Cambridge , becoming the first person in four centuries to have headed a college at both universities .
A leading historian of the early church , Chadwick was appointed Regius Professor at both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge . He was a noted supporter of improved relations with the Roman Catholic Church , and a leading member of the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission ( ARCIC ) . An accomplished musician , having studied music to degree level , he took a leading part in the revision and updating of hymnals widely used within Anglicanism , chairing the board of the publisher , Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd . , for twenty years .
= = Family and early life = =
Born in Bromley , Kent , Henry Chadwick was the son of a barrister ( who died when Chadwick was five ) and a music @-@ loving mother . He had a number of accomplished siblings : Sir John Chadwick served as the British Ambassador to Romania , and the Revd William Owen Chadwick and his other brother also became priests . Despite this , it was one of his sisters he would later describe as " the brightest of us all " . Chadwick was educated at Eton College , where he became a King 's Scholar . Although he did not show much aptitude as a Grecian , his lifelong love of music made its first appearance and resulted in his receiving organ lessons from Henry Ley .
After leaving Eton , he went to Magdalene College , Cambridge , on a music scholarship , and was expected to make music his career . A highlight of his undergraduate musical career was playing a two piano arrangement of Chabrier 's España with Boris Ord , then organist of King 's College , Cambridge . However , Chadwick chose to further his interest in Evangelical Christianity , which had existed from his school days . He graduated in 1941 and began his theological training in 1942 , at Ridley Hall , Cambridge , being ordained deacon by the Archbishop of Canterbury , in Canterbury Cathedral , in 1943 and priest by the Bishop of Dover in 1944 . He served a curacy at the Evangelical parish of Emmanuel , Croydon , arriving towards the end of the Second World War , as Croydon was attacked by German V @-@ weapons , which provided a difficult pastoral challenge . From there , he became an assistant master at Wellington College . He married Peggy in 1945 .
= = Academic career = =
= = = Cambridge = = =
Chadwick became a Fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , with his appointment as Chaplain in 1946 , and in 1950 advanced to the position of Dean . His rising academic reputation was confirmed in 1953 with the publication of a project had occupied him since the days of his curacy — his new translation of Origen 's Contra Celsum , with introduction and notes . He had by now made himself an expert in Patristic Greek ; only an inexactness in philology marking his earlier abandonment of Greek for music . Also in 1953 he was appointed co @-@ editor ( with Hedley Sparks ) of the Journal of Theological Studies and continued editing it until 1985 . He held the university appointment of Hulsean Lecturer from 1954 – 6 .
= = = Oxford = = =
Chadwick moved to Oxford in 1959 , to take up the position of Regius Professor of Divinity ( and with it the associated canonry at Christ Church Cathedral ) at the relatively young age of 39 . He was named a Fellow of the British Academy ( FBA ) soon after , and in 1962 Gifford Lecturer at the University of St Andrews lecturing on Authority in the Early Church . He gave a second series of lectures in 1963 – 4 , on Authority in Christian Theology . 1963 also saw him appointed to an early Anglican inquiry into the issues surrounding the ordination of women . In the 1960s , along with scholars like E. R. Dodds , Peter Brown , and John Matthews , Chadwick helped make Oxford a centre in the developing study of Late Antiquity . He clarified the classical philosophical roots of Christian thinkers from Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria to Augustine of Hippo , and set about raising academic standards within the theology department — in particular making the degree of Doctor of Divinity ( DD ) into a genuine research degree , as opposed to an honorary award made to senior clerics who had produced a volume of sermons . 1967 saw the publication of his most widely read work , The Early Church , published under the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books . He was disappointed that he was allowed to include so few footnotes in the original publication , and correspondingly delighted when the publishers of a German edition requested additional notes for their translation . That same year he was appointed to a Church of England doctrine commission investigating " The place of the Articles in the Anglican tradition and the question of Subscription and Assent to them " , which produced its report in July 1968 ready for that year 's Lambeth Conference . The report ultimately led to changes in the doctrinal affirmations required of Church of England clergy at their ordination or on taking up new appointments . In 1968 he was appointed a vice @-@ president of the British Academy .
In 1969 , Chadwick was appointed Dean of Christ Church , uniquely a dual role as a cathedral dean and head of a college . This period was not entirely happy ; a scholarly ability to see all sides of a question , along with an ingrained desire not to upset his colleagues , sometimes made it hard for him to make a quick or firm decision . However , during his time as Dean the college benefited from a continued programme of renovation with internal changes that provided more student accommodation . The position gave Chadwick the chance to influence the musical direction of the cathedral . In The Independent newspaper , obituary writer Andrew Louth notes that at the retirement of Sydney Watson as organist , when he and Chadwick played piano duets together Chadwick 's technique was the equal of Watson 's . The new organist , Simon Preston , had ambitious plans for improving musical standards , and Chadwick was pleased to be able to support these , not least by raising funds for a new organ .
Chadwick also found time to contribute to the administration of the wider university , serving on the Hebdomadal Council , as a Delegate of Oxford University Press , as one of the curators of the Bodleian , and as Pro @-@ Vice @-@ Chancellor 1974 – 5 . It was during this period that he began to participate in the discussions of the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission ( ARCIC ) ; he was a member of the commission 1969 – 81 and again 1983 – 90 @.@ his early Evangelical sympathies having been tempered over time , helped by his friendship with Edward Yarnold , Master of Campion Hall . He was a master of the Anglican approach of producing statements capable of a range of interpretations to enable common ground to be reached , this worked well for simpler historical differences , but did not always impress the Roman Catholic members of the commission when it came to questions of ecclesiology and church authority . He was also able to use his historical background to put forward summaries of early church positions on a variety of subjects , and he had a true desire to establish consensus on the basis of the principles revealed by this research . Although his scholarly output suffered from the pressures on his time , he was editor of Oxford Early Christian Texts ( from 1970 ) , and was able to work on two major monographs , Priscillian of Avila : the occult and the charismatic in the early Church ( published 1976 ) and Boethius : the consolations of music , logic , theology and philosophy ( published 1981 ) . The second of these in particular allowing him to draw on the full range of his interests .
= = = Return to Cambridge = = =
In 1979 , Chadwick resigned the deanship , returning to Cambridge to take up the Regius Chair of Divinity . Additionally , he became a Syndic of Cambridge University Press , a Fellow of Magdalene , and was installed as an honorary canon of Ely Cathedral . He gained a reputation as a popular lecturer in Cambridge , and between 1982 and 1983 gave the Sarum Lectures in Oxford , for which his subject was Augustine of Hippo . Edited , these lectures became the basis for his 1986 book , Augustine . He retired from the professorship in 1983 and settled in Oxford .
After four years in retirement , he received an unexpected invitation to become Master of Peterhouse in 1987 , thus becoming the first person in over four centuries to lead a college at both Oxford and Cambridge . Chadwick 's second appointment as head of a college proved a happier experience than his first . The college had been experiencing some problems following the admission of the first female students , to which some fellows were implacably opposed , making their displeasure known at High Table . Chadwick insisted on civility , which coupled with the retirement of some of the fellows , ensured an improvement in the atmosphere within the college . This continued after his second retirement ( again to Oxford ) in 1993 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1989 Queen 's Birthday Honours . In 1991 he published a new translation of Augustine 's Confessions , with extensive notes revealing Augustine 's debt to Plotinus .
Chadwick also edited Oxford Early Christian Studies ( from 1990 ) . With his brother Owen , he edited The Oxford History of the Christian Church ( 12 vols . , 1981 – 2010 ) . His own volumes in this series were The Church in Ancient Society : from Galilee to Gregory the Great ( 2001 ) and East and West : The Making of a Rift in the Church : From Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence ( 2005 ) . His final work was to have been on Photios I of Constantinople , research for which covered many of his interests , particularly classical learning and Christianity , and ecumenism . Some of his material on the topic was published in East and West . He was also an Editorial Advisor of Dionysius . He died in Oxford on 17 June 2008 .
= = Reputation and recognition = =
Writing in an obituary for The Guardian , the then Archbishop of Canterbury , Rowan Williams , wrote , " ' The Anglican church , ' it was said , ' may not have a Pope , but it does have Henry Chadwick . ' " and further described him as an " aristocrat among Anglican scholars " . Other obituaries and appreciations describe how he was generous with his time and knowledge , and always ready to point students in the right direction . The Independent credits his capacious memory and a personal library of around 20 @,@ 000 books as the foundation of his broad scholarship . According to The Times , when reviewing others ' writing he was usually generous , though capable of a courteous demolition job when well @-@ deserved .
A capable preacher , though doubtful of his ability when preaching to a non @-@ academic congregation , Chadwick was well regarded as a lecturer and companion at High Table . However , a natural shyness could give him a rather remote air . On an American lecture tour , he noticed three young women who came to every lecture , but took no notes . At the end of lectures he asked the women how they had enjoyed them , to be told that they had no real interest in the subject itself , but they loved to hear him speak . The character of the college provost in the A Staircase in Surrey novels of Christ Church colleague J. I. M. Stewart was based on that of Chadwick .
Chadwick held honorary degrees from the universities of Glasgow , Uppsala , Yale , Leeds , Manchester , Surrey , Chicago , Harvard , Jena and the Augustinian University of Rome . He was made an honorary fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , in 1958 , just before he took up his Oxford Chair ; and of Magdalene College , Cambridge , in 1962 . He also treasured a stole given to him by Pope John Paul II in 1982 , and this was placed on his coffin during his funeral at Christ Church on 25 June 2008 . Two Festschriften were made in his honour , one for his contributions to the study of church history ( Christian Authority , ed . Gillian Evans , 1988 ) , the other for his ecumenical work ( The Making of Orthodoxy , ed . Rowan Williams , 1989 ) . In addition to his work on ARCIC he was involved in similar conversations with the Eastern Orthodox Churches . In 1974 Ladbrokes had Chadwick at odds of 7 – 1 for appointment as the next Archbishop of Canterbury ; his brother Owen was at 6 – 1 . In 1984 The Times reported that both brothers were reputed to have turned down more than one bishopric .
Chadwick 's love of music led him to serve for twenty years as chairman of the council of Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd . During this time the company expanded its scope . From producing the hymnbooks Hymns Ancient and Modern ( A & M ) , and The English Hymnal , it also took ownership of Canterbury Press , SCM Press , and the Church Times , leading to jokes that Chadwick was an ecclesiastical Rupert Murdoch . He was heavily involved in the editorial process leading to the supplements to A & M , 100 Hymns for Today , More Hymns for Today , Worship Songs Ancient and Modern , and Hymns Ancient and Modern New Standard , which combined the best of the original book with that from the supplements into a single volume , and also the most recent revision , Common Praise . He had particularly argued for the inclusion of the Spiritual , Steal Away , and this was amongst the music used at his funeral .
= = Publications = =
Chadwick published over 125 books , monographs , articles etc . Mentioned in obituaries as being particularly notable are :
Origen : Contra Celsum ( 1953 )
Early Christian Thought and The Classical Tradition : Studies in Justin , Clement , and Origen ( Oxford , 1966 )
Priscillian of Avila : The Occult and the Charismatic in the Early Church ( 1976 )
Augustine ( Past Masters , Oxford , 1986 )
Saint Augustine : Confessions ( Translation , introduction , notes . Oxford , 1991 )
The Early Church ( The Penguin History of the Church , 1967 revised 1993 )
The Church in Ancient Society : From Galilee to Gregory the Great ( Oxford History of the Christian Church , 2001 )
East and West : the making of a rift in the Church ( History of the Christian Church , 2003 )
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= Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root =
The roots of the reconstructed Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European language ( PIE ) are basic parts of words that carry a lexical meaning , so @-@ called morphemes . PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like " eat " or " run " . Roots never occur alone in the language . Complete inflected words like verbs , nouns or adjectives are formed by adding further morphemes to a root .
= = Word formation = =
Typically , a root plus a suffix forms a stem , and adding an ending forms a word .
<formula>
For example , * bʰéreti ' he carries ' can be split into the root * bʰer- ' to carry ' , the suffix * -e- ' imperfective aspect ' and the ending * -ti ' present tense , third person singular ' .
The suffix is sometimes missing , which has been interpreted as a zero suffix . Words with zero suffix are termed root verbs and root nouns . Beyond this basic structure , there is the nasal infix , a present tense marker , and reduplication , a sort of prefix with a number of grammatical and derivational functions .
= = = Finite verbs = = =
Verbal suffixes , including the zero suffix , convey grammatical information about tense and aspect , two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished . Present and aorist are universally recognised , while some of the other aspects remain controversial . Two of the four moods , the subjunctive and the optative , are also formed with suffixes , which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes : * bʰér @-@ e @-@ e @-@ ti > * bʰérēti ' he would carry ' , with the first * e being the present tense marker , and the second the subjunctive marker . Reduplication can mark the present and the perfect .
Verbal endings convey information about grammatical person , number and voice . The imperative mood has its own set of endings .
= = = Nouns and adjectives = = =
Nouns usually derive from roots or verb stems by suffixation or by other means ( see the morphology of the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European noun for some examples ) . This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns : * ped- , for example , can mean ' to tread ' or ' foot ' , depending on the ablaut grade and ending . Some nouns like * agʷn @-@ o- ' lamb ' or * h ₂ ster- ' star ' , however , do not derive from verbal roots . In any case , the meaning of a noun is given by its stem , whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not . This leaves the ending , which conveys case and number .
Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of ( usually verbal ) roots . An example is * ǵn ̥ h ₁ -tó @-@ s ' begotten , produced ' from the root * ǵenh ₁ - ' to beget , to produce ' . The endings are the same as with nouns .
= = = Infinitives and participles = = =
Infinitives are verbal nouns and , just like other nouns , are formed with suffixes . It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages ( * -dʰye- , * -tu- , * -ti- , among others ) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE .
Participles are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes * -ent- ( active imperfective and aorist participle ) , * -wos- ( perfect participle ) and * -mh ₁ no- or * -m ( e ) no- ( mediopassive participle ) , among others .
= = Shape of a root = =
In its base form , a PIE root consists of a single vowel , preceded and followed by consonants . Except for a very few cases , the root is fully characterized by its consonants , while the vowel may alternate in accordance with inflection or word derivation . Thus , the root * bʰer- can also appear as * bʰor- , with a long vowel as * bʰēr- or * bʰōr- , or even unsyllabic as * bʰr- , in different grammatical contexts . This process is called ablaut .
In linguistic works , * e is used to stand in for the various ablaut grades that the vowel may appear in . Some reconstructions also include roots with * a as the vowel , but the existence of * a as a distinct vowel is disputed ; see Indo @-@ European ablaut : a @-@ grade . The vowel is flanked on both sides by one or more consonants ; the preceding consonants are the onset , the following ones are the coda .
The onset and coda must contain at least one consonant ; a root may not begin or end with the ablaut vowel . Consequently , the simplest roots have an onset and coda consisting of one consonant each . Such simple roots are common ; examples are : * deh ₃ - ' to give ' , * bʰer- ' to carry ' , * dʰeh ₁ - ' to put ' , * dʰew- ' to run ' , * h ₁ ed- ' to eat ' , * h ₂ eḱ- ' sharp ' , * ped- ' to tread ' , * sed- ' to sit ' , * wes- ' to clothe ' . Roots can also have a more complex onset and coda , consisting of a consonant cluster ( multiple consonants ) . These include : * dʰwes- ' to breathe ' , * h ₁ rewdʰ- ' red ' , * h ₂ erh ₃ - ' to plough ' , * h ₃ reǵ- ' straight ' , * leyǵ- ' to bind ' , * prews- ' to freeze ' , * srew- ' to flow ' and * swep- ' to sleep ' , * wleykʷ- ' to moisten ' . The maximum number of consonants seems to be five , as in * strengʰ- ' to twine ' .
Early PIE scholars reconstructed a number of roots beginning or ending with a vowel . The latter type always had a long vowel ( * dʰē- ' to put ' , * bʰwā- ' to grow ' , * dō- ' to give ' ) , while this restriction did not hold for vowel @-@ initial roots ( * ed- ' to eat ' , * aǵ- ' to drive ' , * od- ' to smell ' ) . Laryngeal theory can explain this behaviour by reconstructing a laryngeal following the vowel ( * dʰeh ₁ - , * bʰweh ₂ - , * deh ₃ - , resulting in a long vowel ) or preceding it ( * h ₁ ed- , * h ₂ eǵ- , * h ₃ ed- , resulting in a short vowel ) . These reconstructions obey the mentioned rules .
= = = Sonority hierarchy = = =
When the onset or coda of a root contains a consonant cluster , the consonants in this cluster must be ordered according to their sonority . The vowel constitutes a sonority peak , and the sonority must progressively rise in the onset and progressively fall in the coda .
PIE roots distinguish three main classes of consonants , arranged from high to low sonority :
Non @-@ labial sonorants * l , * r , * y , * n , denoted collectively as R.
Labial sonorants * w * m , denoted collectively as M.
Obstruents , denoted collectively as * C. These include three subgroups :
Plosives ( voiceless * p * t * ḱ * k * kʷ , voiced * b * d * ǵ * g * gʷ and aspirated * bʰ * dʰ * ǵʰ * gʰ * gʷʰ ) , denoted collectively as * P.
The sibilant * s .
The laryngeals * h ₁ * h ₂ * h ₃ , denoted collectively as H.
The following rules apply :
A consonant closer to the main vowel must have a higher sonority than the consonant further away . Thus , consonants in the onset must follow the order CMR , and the reverse RMC in the coda , giving CMReRMC as the full root shape . Roots with a different order of sonority , like * * mter- or * * resl- , are not allowed .
Only one member of each sonority class may appear in the onset or coda . Thus , roots like * * wmek- , * * lekt- or * * peyl- are not allowed .
Strangely , laryngeals can also occur in the coda before a sonorant , as in * peh ₂ w- ' small ' .
= = = Obstruent clusters = = =
The obstruent slot of an onset or coda may consist of multiple obstruents itself . Here , too , only one member of each subgroup of obstruents may appear in the cluster ; a cluster may not contain multiple laryngeals , sibilants or plosives .
The rules for the ordering within a cluster of obstruents are somewhat different , and do not fit into the general sonority hierarchy :
* s may appear only before a plosive , not after it . Thus , * speḱ- ' to observe ' , * steh ₂ - ' to stand ' and * strew- ' to spread ' are valid roots . * * tser- and * * ḱeps- are not . Plosives are automatically devoiced when preceded by * s in the onset .
A laryngeal may appear before or after any obstruent other than another laryngeal . Examples are * keh ₂ p- ' to grab ' , * peth ₂ - ' to fly ' .
In several roots , an unusual phenomenon called s @-@ mobile occurs , where some descendants include a prepended * s while other forms lack it . There does not appear to be any particular pattern ; sometimes forms with * s and without it even occur side by side in the same language .
= = = Further restrictions = = =
PIE abided by the general cross @-@ linguistic constraint against the co @-@ occurrence of two similar consonants in a word root . In particular , no examples are known of roots containing two plain voiced plosives ( * * ged- ) or two glides ( * * ler- ) . A few examples of roots with two fricatives , two nasals , or two glides ( * h ₂ eh ₃ - , * nem- etc . ) can be reconstructed , but they were rare as well . An exception , however , were the voiceless and voiced aspirated plosives , which relatively commonly co @-@ occurred ( e.g. * peth ₂ - ' to fly ' , * dʰegʷʰ- ' to burn ' ) . In particular , roots with two voiced aspirates were more than twice as common than could be expected to occur by chance .
An additional constraint prohibited roots containing both a voiced aspirated and a voiceless plosive ( * * tebʰ- ) , unless the latter occurs in a word @-@ initial cluster after an * s ( e.g. * stebʰ- ' to stiffen ' ) . Taken together with the abundance of * DʰeDʰ @-@ type roots , it has been proposed that this distribution results from a limited process of voice assimilation in pre @-@ PIE , where a voiceless stop was assimilated to a voiced aspirate , if another one followed or preceded within a root .
= = = Exceptions = = =
Some roots cannot be reconstructed with an ablauting * e , an example being * bʰuH- ' to grow , to become ' . Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of forms like * * bʰweH- , and thus follow the phonotactical rules .
Some roots like * pster- ' to sneeze ' or * pteh ₂ k- ' to duck ' do not appear to follow these rules . This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions . * pster- , for example , might not have existed in PIE at all , if the Indo @-@ European words usually traced back to it are onomatopoeias .
Thorn clusters are sequences of a dental ( * t * d * dʰ ) plus a velar plosive ( * k * g * gʰ etc . ) . Their role in PIE phonotactics is unknown . Roots like * dʰgʷʰei- ' to perish ' apparently violate the phonotactical rules , but are quite common .
= = Lexical meaning = =
The meaning of a reconstructed root is conventionally that of a verb ; the terms root and verbal root are almost synonymous in PIE grammar . This is because , apart from a limited number of so @-@ called root nouns , PIE roots overwhelmingly participate in verbal inflection through well @-@ established morphological and phonological mechanisms . Their meanings are not always directly reconstructible , due to semantic shifts that led to discrepancies in the meanings of reflexes in the attested daughter languages . Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verbal roots via suffixes and ablaut .
Nevertheless , some roots did exist that did not have a primary verbal derivation . Apart from the aforementioned root nouns , the most important of these were the so @-@ called Caland roots , which had adjectival meaning . Such roots generally formed proterokinetic adjectives with the suffix * -u- , thematic adjectives in * -ró- and compounding stems in * -i- . They included at least * h ₁ rewdʰ- ' red ' , * h ₂ erǵ- ' white ' , * dʰewb- ' deep ' and * gʷreh ₂ - ' heavy ' .
Verbal roots were inherently imperfective ( durative , present ) or perfective ( punctual , aoristic ) . To form a verb from the root 's own aspect , verb endings were attached directly to the root , either with or without a thematic vowel . The " other " aspect , if it was needed , would then be a so @-@ called " characterised " stem , as detailed in Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European verb . The characterised stems are often different in different descendants , which suggests that they did not yet exist in PIE proper .
= = Creation of new roots = =
Roots were occasionally created anew within PIE or its early descendants . A variety of methods have been observed .
= = = Root extensions = = =
Root extensions are additions of one or two sounds , often plosives , to the end of a root . These extensions do not seem to change the meaning of a root , and often lead to variant root forms across different descendants . The source and function of these extensions is not known .
For * ( s ) tew- ' to push , hit , thrust ' , we can reconstruct :
* ( s ) tewk- > Ancient Greek τύκος ( túkos ) ' hammer'
* ( s ) tewg- > English stoke ( Germanic k goes back to PIE * g . )
* ( s ) tewd- > Vedic tudáti ' beats'
= = = Sonorant metathesis = = =
When the root contains a sonorant , the zero grade is ambiguous as to whether the sonorant should be placed before the ablaut vowel or after it . Speakers occasionally analysed such roots the " wrong " way , and this has led to some roots being created from existing ones by swapping the position of the sonorant .
An example of such a pair of roots , both meaning ' to increase , to enlarge ' :
* h ₂ weg- > Gothic wahsjan , Ancient Greek aéksō .
* h ₂ ewg- > Gothic aukan , Latin augeō , Lithuanian áugti .
Another example concerns the root ' sky ' :
* dyew- > Ancient Greek Zeus , Latin diēs , Sanskrit dyú .
* deyw- > Latin dīvus , Old Prussian deiwis , Sanskrit devá .
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= M @-@ 14 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 14 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the southeastern portion of the US state of Michigan . Entirely freeway , it runs for 22 @.@ 250 miles ( 35 @.@ 808 km ) to connect Ann Arbor with Detroit by way of a connection with Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) . The western terminus is at a partial interchange with I @-@ 94 west of Ann Arbor . From there , the freeway curves around the north side of Ann Arbor and runs concurrently with US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) . East of that section , M @-@ 14 passes through woodlands and fields in Washtenaw County . In Wayne County , the freeway returns to a suburban area of mixed residential neighborhoods and light industrial areas . It crosses two different rivers and a pair of rail lines as it approaches Detroit 's inner suburbs , where it terminates at an interchange between I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 275 .
When the state 's highway system was first signed in 1919 , there was a different M @-@ 14 that ran the length of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan . This was later replaced by a pair of different US Highways in the 1920s and 1930s . Another M @-@ 14 was designated that lasted until the 1940s . The current highway dates back to 1956 when it was designated along a series of roads that previously carried US 12 . During the 1960s and 1970s , M @-@ 14 was moved to the freeway alignment it currently uses ; sections of the former route are still maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) as unsigned highways .
= = Route description = =
The western terminus of M @-@ 14 is west of Ann Arbor , at exit 171 on I @-@ 94 . This is a partial interchange ; only traffic from eastbound I @-@ 94 can access eastbound M @-@ 14 , and traffic from westbound M @-@ 14 must follow westbound I @-@ 94 . From this junction , M @-@ 14 runs northeasterly through suburban Scio Township . The freeway is bordered by residential subdivisions to the southeast and woodlands to the northwest . M @-@ 14 curves around to the east through an interchange that has ramps that connect Miller and Maple roads ; the ramps connect to Maple Road through a pair of roundabouts . As it approaches the Huron River , the freeway has an interchange with Business US 23 ( Bus . US 23 ) ; the two highways merge and run concurrently to the north over the river . Bus . US 23 / M @-@ 14 then has an ususual right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange that uses short connector roads to provide access to Barton Drive on the north side of the river . The freeway then continues north to an interchange with US 23 . The business loop ends there , and M @-@ 14 turns eastward to follow the US 23 freeway around the north side of Ann Arbor .
The US 23 / M @-@ 14 freeway runs for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before US 23 turns southward to run between Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti while M @-@ 14 continues east through Ann Arbor Township past Domino 's Farms , the office complex for Domino 's Pizza that was to be the home to Tom Monaghan 's Leaning Tower of Pizza . East of that complex , M @-@ 14 runs through woodlands and fields north of the community of Dixboro . The freeway turns northeasterly after the interchange with M @-@ 153 . At the Napier Road underpass , M @-@ 14 crosses into Wayne County .
Once across the county line , the M @-@ 14 freeway runs through residential subdivisions from the western Detroit suburbs . There is an interchange for Beck Road as M @-@ 14 turns back to the east . The freeway crosses a rail line operated by CSX Transportation The freeway passes Ford Motor Company 's Sheldon Road Plant near the Sheldon Road interchange . There is a crossing for another CSX rail line near the bridges over the River Rouge by the St. Johns Golf Course . The freeway through this area curves around a bit north of its previous course . As M @-@ 14 nears the Livonia city line , it meets an interchange with I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 275 that marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 14 in Plymouth Township .
M @-@ 14 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 14 were the 86 @,@ 500 vehicles daily east of the Sheldon Road interchange in Plymouth Township ; the lowest counts were the 26 @,@ 641 vehicles per day west of the Miller Road interchange . All of M @-@ 14 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
In July 1919 , M @-@ 14 was signed on a north – south route that ran most of the length of the Lower Peninsula , beginning at the Ohio state line south of Hudson to end three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of downtown Cheboygan . It mostly followed the path of present @-@ day US 127 , I @-@ 75 and M @-@ 27 . This edition of M @-@ 14 was truncated in November 1926 when the US Highway System was formed . From the Jackson area north to Lansing , it was US 127 ; from Lansing to Cheboygan , it was US 27 . In 1930 , US 127 was rerouted to replace the remainder of M @-@ 14 when US 223 was created . Right afterwards , M @-@ 14 was designated from Battle Creek to Edmore . This designation of M @-@ 14 was eliminated when M @-@ 66 was rerouted to replace it in the mid @-@ 1940s .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1956 , the portion of US 12 from the west side of Ann Arbor into Detroit was rerouted from surface streets to new stretches of freeways running south of Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti . The former route of US 12 , much of which was known as Plymouth Road , was retained as a trunkline and redesignated M @-@ 14 . In 1964 , a northern bypass connecting US 23 with M @-@ 153 was completed , and M @-@ 14 was rerouted onto the new freeway ; the highway still ran through Ann Arbor along routes now designated Bus . US 23 and Business Loop I @-@ 94 . The following year , the freeway was extended to its present western terminus at I @-@ 94 , and M @-@ 14 is removed from the business routes and transferred to the expressway .
In 1977 , when the Jeffries Freeway ( I @-@ 96 ) was completed , M @-@ 14 was shortened to have its eastern terminus at I @-@ 275 exit 28 in Plymouth Township , and the portion of Plymouth Road within the city of Detroit was returned to local control . The portion of Plymouth Road – Ann Arbor Road between I @-@ 275 and the city boundary with Redford Township was retained as an unsigned trunkline , maintained by the state to this day . In 1979 , the final segment of the M @-@ 14 freeway , between M @-@ 153 and I @-@ 275 was completed . The former route of M @-@ 14 in Washtenaw County along Plymouth – Ann Arbor Road was returned to local control . The portion of Ann Arbor Road from the Wayne County line east to I @-@ 275 also became an unsigned state trunkline , also still maintained by MDOT .
= = Exit list = =
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= The Ghost Network =
" The Ghost Network " is the third episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer David H. Goodman and supervising producer J. R. Orci , and was directed by Frederick E. O. Toye . The episode follows the Fringe team 's investigation into a bus that was filled with amber , encasing the people inside . They discover a man named Roy ( Zak Orth ) who predicted it and other similar events , and Walter realizes Roy has connections to a past experiment he did over twenty years ago , called the " Ghost Network " .
The episode was important in the show 's evolution , as the writers noted that Roy was the first guest character the audience could get emotionally invested in . " The Ghost Network " also included their quest to explain seemingly impossible and weird phenomenon through a real scientific explanation from Walter 's past research .
It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 23 , 2008 . An estimated 9 @.@ 42 million viewers watched the episode on its first broadcast . It received mixed reviews , with many believing the show to be finally finding its legs , while others worried over the ongoing formulaic storylines featured in each episode .
= = Plot = =
A man named Roy McComb ( Zak Orth ) confesses to his priest that he sees visions of bad things , including a bus where everyone is going to die . Simultaneously with this scene , a man enters a bus , unleashes a canister emitting gaseous fumes , and steals a backpack before quickly getting off . The Fringe team arrives soon after , only to find the fumes have hardened into an amber @-@ like substance , trapping and killing those inside . Walter ( John Noble ) studies the substance and concludes it started out as a gas and then solidified , suffocating the passengers . While looking at a victim 's video footage , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) discovers a backpack is missing , and traces it back to one of the victims , a Federal employee with undercover connections to a drug cartel . They interview her " handler " , who comes to identify her body . The Fringe team finds out about Roy , and search through his apartment , believing he is behind the bus and other Pattern @-@ related terror attacks . They soon realize all of his drawings are dated before the incidents took place , despite the fact that several of them were never made public . In an interrogation , Roy tells Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) he 's been receiving his visions for nine months , roughly when they began seeing Pattern @-@ related attacks .
Meanwhile , they trace the substance to Massive Dynamic . Olivia interviews Massive Dynamic executive Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , who tells her the substance has been seen in an attack before . Walter suspects Roy is psychic and runs tests on him before realizing Roy has some kind of magnetic compound in his blood . This leads Walter to recall he and his old lab partner William Bell had conducted research on creating a " Ghost Network " to secretly communicate messages from one person to another in an otherwise undetectable frequency range . During this research , Roy was one of his past test subjects . Walter further theorizes that someone else has perfected his research , and that Roy is overhearing secret messages from some of the people behind the terrorist attacks . Olivia and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) arrive at his old house to find equipment needed to tap into Roy 's mind .
Using the equipment , they are able to intercept messages in Latin detailing an upcoming exchange at South Station in an hour . They realize the handler removed a small crystalline disk from the Federal agent 's hand when he identified her body , and that he is now going to exchange it for something else . Olivia intercepts the man , who is killed before she can talk to him . She chases another man involved in the exchange , who commits suicide in front of a bus after giving them a briefcase containing the disc . Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) secretly gives the disc to Nina for analysis , while Roy is sent home , as they believe he will no longer see visions because the Ghost Network has been compromised .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Executive producer Jeff Pinkner decided he wanted fellow executive producer David H. Goodman and supervising producer J. R. Orci to collaborate in writing the episode ; Goodman wrote the first half , while Orci wrote the rest of the episode . The two later worked together on only one other episode , " The Equation " . Frederick E. O. Toye directed the episode , as he had worked previously with the writers on Alias . The writers had the idea for a couple of weeks of Olivia walking into an apartment and discovering walls covered with drawings of events that " no man could possibly have known about " . They wanted to take " urban myths or legends of strange events " and come up with a fringe science equivalent ; this led them to creating the story of Roy , a man with seemingly " psychic " abilities , which they then expanded by offering a real scientific explanation in the form of Walter 's past research . In the show 's early development , the producers were also unsure about how other aspects should be developed , such as Joshua Jackson 's character Peter . For instance , in " The Ghost Network " , they debated whether or not Peter would break into his childhood home before finally " stalling and just let him do it " ; Orci came up with Peter 's explanation to Olivia , that he used to live there so it wasn 't really breaking in .
= = = Casting = = =
The character Roy McComb was played by actor Zak Orth . Roy 's name was inspired from Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind . The writers noted in the audio commentary that Roy was the first guest character the audience could get emotionally invested in . They wanted the actor to shave off his head in preparation for the experimentation scene in Walter 's lab , but Orth successfully " begged " them to change their minds . When casting for the part of Grant , the writers looked for a man similar in appearance to previous character John Scott ( Mark Valley ) , as they wanted " to play into whatever Olivia 's feelings about how she was or was not betrayed by John " . Peter Hermann won the part .
= = = Filming = = =
Orci came up with the idea to start the episode in a church 's confessional , while the ambered scene on the bus was originally scripted to take place on a subway ; one of the writers felt the bus " let you see more of the city " . Early in the show 's creation the writers were trying to figure out what Fringe could be , and ultimately chose " big crazy event [ s ] " at the start of each episode that would catapult its plot and drive its characters . They felt the bus scene essentially achieved this . When creating the scene on the bus when the gas canister is released , the crew sat on a bus that was really driving through the streets of New York City ; director Frederick Toye called the shooting " Student film style , run and gun " . To shoot the three scenes of the bus in the tunnel , the crew looked at a variety of locations before choosing a tunnel near the United Nations headquarters on the east side of Manhattan . As it was a busy area , they had to shoot at night and then attempt to make it appear to be daytime , as the scenes were set during the day . They had a limited schedule to shoot all three scenes , and despite never having seen the tunnel before , the production crews had 8 @-@ 9 hours to quickly set up the massive set and leave enough time to shoot the scenes before dawn approached . To simulate being encased in amber , the actors had to pretend they were frozen .
The episode marked the first time composer Michael Giacchino worked with assistant Chad Seiter on a Fringe episode . Seiter would continue to score the rest of the season 's first half . Joshua Jackson 's character briefly plays the piano in a scene near the end of the episode , and it is really Jackson playing . The writers noted in the audio commentary that Jackson can actually play the piano , and that when he receives musical scenes , he learns the piece ( s ) beforehand to be able to play it for the scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Ghost Network " first aired in the United States on September 23 , 2008 . The episode 's broadcast was watched by an estimated 9 @.@ 42 million viewers in the US .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews . A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with a B , explaining that while he thought it was " much more fun " than the previous week 's episode and enjoyed Peter 's expanded presence , he was growing slightly wearied by the " hint @-@ dropping " of Peter 's past . Murray thought the climax was " so exciting " that he was willing " to forgive the fact that this is the third week in a row that Walter 's big idea has involved some kind of communication with the unconscious " . Jon Lachonis from UGO Networks compared it negatively to the pilot , as he thought " [ ' The Ghost Network ' ] struggled with the aspects that it really needed to prove itself in " . Lachonis also had problems with the villains ' logic , such as needing to kill a bus full of people to get at one person , rather than confront her alone later , though he understood they " just needed something weird to headline the show " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated it 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , writing that he thought it was a solid episode because the " characters are coming together nicely , the story is better than last week 's – but already it seems the show is hitting a formula " . Fickett expressed worriment that Fringe would eventually become too formulaic , much like the first season of Smallville , and concluded his review by calling Fringe " a solid show , but [ not ] exceptional yet " .
Critics did however praise John Noble 's consistent performance as Walter Bishop , with Jon Lachonis calling it " still fantastically done " . Writing for Mania.com , Stephen Lackey thought that though the episode wasn 't perfect , Fringe had finally seemed to hit its stride , as its " mix of humor and darker storytelling ... is starting to come together nicely " . Lackey concluded his review by expressing his " excitement " at watching Fringe get better and better , and thought the show could become the best new series of the year if it continued to improve with each episode . Another UGO writer , Alex Zalben , compared " The Ghost Network " to the similarly @-@ plotted The X @-@ Files film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe . Zalben wrote , " Man , that X @-@ Files movie was just no good . Fringe wins . "
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= Breathing ( Jason Derulo song ) =
" Breathing " is a song recorded by American recording artist Jason Derulo for his second studio album , Future History ( 2011 ) . It was written by Derulo , Jacob Luttrell , Lauren Christy , Julian Bunetta , Krassimir Tsvetanov Kurkchiyski , Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace , while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. " Breathing " was initially released as one of four promotional singles for the album in September 2011 . It was later released to contemporary hit radio in Australia on October 24 , 2011 , and elsewhere from January 31 , 2012 , as the third single from Future History . Musically , " Breathing " is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house , and features " tribal vocal chorales " in the background . It samples the song " Pilentze Pee " , which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir . Lyrical inspiration for the song came from the death of Derulo 's cousin , who died in 2011 .
" Breathing " garnered positive reviews by many music critics , most of whom praised the production . The song attained moderate chart success , where it peaked inside the top @-@ ten on the singles charts in Australia , Austria , Bulgaria , Germany , Slovakia and Switzerland . Additionally , it reached the top @-@ thirty in France , the Netherlands , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . The song peaked at number 28 on the US Pop Songs chart . " Breathing " was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley , and features Derulo in an abandoned warehouse , as well as other scenes of him shirtless in a blue tinted room . Derulo performed " Breathing " live at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song has been covered by British recording artist Cher Lloyd .
= = Background and release = =
" Breathing " was written by Jason Derulo , Jacob Luttrell , Lauren Christy , Julian Bunetta , Krassimir Tsvetano Kurkchiyski , Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace , while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. The track was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , with assistance by Erik Madrid and Chris Galland . Luttrell and Frank E played keyboards on the song , and the drums and synth programming was handled by Frank E. During an interview with Digital Spy , Derulo revealed that the inspiration for " Breathing " came from the death of his cousin , who died in 2011 . He stated , " That song means a lot to me as it 's serious and heartfelt " . Derulo further explained that " Breathing " was heavily influenced by African chants , eurodance and rock guitar .
" Breathing " was released digitally worldwide on September 9 , 2011 , as the third promotional single for Future History . The song later impacted contemporary hit radios in Australia on October 24 , 2011 , as the third official single from the album . In the United States , " Breathing " was sent to contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on January 31 , 2012 . In Germany , it was made available as a CD single on February 24 , 2012 . In the United Kingdom , a CD single and digital EP , which contains the album version , an instrumental version and three remixes of " Breathing " , was released on February 26 , 2012 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Breathing " is three minutes and fifty @-@ four seconds long . It is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house . " Breathing " is written in the key of B ♭ minor and is set in common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Derulo 's vocal range spans from the note of F4 to the note of F6 . The song features " tribal vocal chorales " in the background , and samples the song " Pilentze Pee " , which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir . The song contains lyrical content about winning back a past love . " Breathing " opens with a " slow build @-@ up of synths and a quick club beat " before Derulo sings : " I only miss you when I 'm breathing / I only miss you when my heart is beating / You are the color that I 'm bleeding / I only miss you when I 'm breathing . " Scott Shetler of PopCrush noted that he appears to be screaming the vocals during the chorus line : " I only miss you when I 'm breathing " , writing that " his final note [ is ] stretched out for several seconds " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breathing " received positive reviews from music critics . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as " hypnotic " and " an impressive club pumper " . He praised " Breathing " for being a perfect tribute to Derulo 's late cousin . Nicole James of MTV Buzzworthy viewed the song as a " more subtle route " than the album 's previous promotional single " Pick Up the Pieces " . She praised Derulo for knowing " how to make a dance song " and wrote that " Breathing " is the type of song you would add " to your Girls ' Night Out playlist " . Aaron @-@ Spencer Charles of Metro wrote that the song is " an anthem for the clubs " that fans of pop and dance music would love . Pete Rivas of The AU Review praised the song 's hook and likened its catchy production to the album 's other two singles " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " Scott Shetler and other reviewers of PopCrush wrote that " ' Breathing ' is a song we could definitely get down to in a club " . Ben Chalk of MSN Music viewed " Breathing " as one of the standout tracks on Future History . He concluded by writing that in the song , " Derulo 's energy overshadows the kitchen sink production and inane lyrics " . Meena Rupani of DesiHits noted that " Breathing " is " more tribal " than his previous singles . Rupani also noted Derulo 's continuation of past themes , " as he tries to romance the ladies with his cheesy lyrics but also keep the guys dancing in the clubs with the beats " .
= = Chart performance = =
In Australia , " Breathing " debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Singles Chart on November 14 , 2011 . It peaked at number nine in its fifth week on the chart , becoming Derulo 's sixth top @-@ ten single in that country . " Breathing " also charted on the Australian Urban Singles Chart at number four . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . " Breathing " debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 12 , 2011 . It ascended to number 30 in its third week , but descended the chart for the following two weeks . " Breathing " managed to peak at number 28 in its sixth week . In the United States , " Breathing " peaked at number 28 on the Pop Songs chart , but failed to impact the Billboard Hot 100 .
" Breathing " achieved commercial success in Europe . It peaked at number one on the Bulgarian Airplay Chart , and number four on the Slovak Airplay Chart . In Austria , " Breathing " debuted at number 43 on February 10 , 2012 , and peaked at number eight in its fifth week on the chart . It peaked at number five on the German Singles Chart , becoming Derulo 's third top @-@ ten single in that country . The song was certified gold by The Federal Association of Music Industry ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 150 @,@ 000 copies . In Switzerland , " Breathing " debuted at number 33 on March 11 , 2012 . It descended to number 50 in its second week on the chart , but managed to peak at number seven in its seventh week . The song was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . " Breathing " peaked at number 19 on the Irish Singles Chart and spent a total of 10 weeks in the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 101 on January 28 , 2012 , and ascended to number 49 the following week . It managed to peak at number 25 in its seventh week on the chart . " Breathing " also charted on the UK R & B Singles Chart at number nine .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Breathing " was directed by Colin Tilley and premiered exclusively on PopCrush.com on November 3 , 2011 . The video begins with Derulo on the balcony of a building at night , as well as scenes of him sitting in an old chair surrounded by cobwebs inside an industrial warehouse . There are then scenes which feature Derulo standing shirtless in a dark , blue @-@ tinted room , digitally showing the insides of his body to show the intensity of his emotion . After the first chorus , Derulo then rises out of the chair and begins to dance . During the bridge , Derulo is shown kissing his former love interest , before several female backup dancers join him to perform choreography in the final chorus . Aaron @-@ Spencer Charles of Metro noted that the video had " some impressive footwork and a great ' straight jacket ' dance move with the choreographed piece with female dancers . " A reviewer for 4Music also praised Derulo 's dance routines in the video . Contessa Gayles of AOL Music described the video as " creepy " and compared it to Rihanna 's " Disturbia " ( 2008 ) video .
= = = Live performances and cover versions = = =
On November 6 , 2011 , Derulo performed " Breathing " at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song was part of a set list , which also included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " . Holly Thomas of the Daily Mail praised his set , writing that " Jason Derulo gave a steamy performance " . In 2012 , British recording artist Cher Lloyd performed a cover of " Breathing " as part of the set list for her Sticks and Stones Tour .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Promotional single = = =
= = = Single release = = =
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= Scottish art in the eighteenth century =
Scottish art in the eighteenth century is the body of visual art made in Scotland , by Scots , or about Scottish subjects , in the eighteenth century . This period saw development of professionalisation , with art academies were established in Edinburgh and Glasgow . Art was increasingly influenced by Neoclassicism , the Enlightenment and towards the end of the century by Romanticism , with Italy becoming a major centre of Scottish art .
The origins of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting are in the capriccios of Italian and Dutch landscapes undertaken by James Norie and his sons . These were further developed by Jacob More , who added a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . Alexander Nasmyth helped found the Scottish landscape tradition and was highly influential as a teacher in Edinburgh on the subsequent generation of artists . John Knox linked it with the Romantic works of Walter Scott and was one of the first artists to take an interest in the urban landscape of Glasgow . Aberdeen @-@ born John Alexander and William Mossman were the leading portrait artists of the first half of the century . Allan Ramsay emerged as the leading portrait painter of the mid @-@ century and to the royal family , noted for his intimate representations . Towards the end of the century Henry Raeburn emerged as the leading portraitist and one of the first artists to spend the majority of their career in Scotland , extending his range to leading figures of the Enlightenment and most famous for his depiction of the Skating Minister .
Neoclassicism was pioneered by Gavin Hamilton and his proteges , the brothers John and Alexander Runciman , and David Allan . Alexander Runciman pioneered historical painting and Alan helped develop genre art , both of which would be taken up by Scottish artists in the next century . After the Acts of Union in 1707 there was very little patronage for large and expensive works of art in Scotland . With the growth of civic development there was an increasing demand for public statuary and the portrait bust also became popular . Commissions of new statuary tended to be made in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . From the late eighteenth century there are a handful of examples of work from Scottish artists .
= = Background = =
= = = Professionalisation = = =
Many Scottish painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans . Roderick Chalmers ' ( fl . 1709 – 30 ) painting The Edinburgh Trades ( 1720 ) shows the artist himself , perhaps ironically , among the glaziers , wrights and masons of the burgh . Thomas Warrender ( fl . 1673 – 1713 ) produced the Allegorical Still Life ( after 1708 ) , of a letter board that seems to be a commentary on the union of 1707 , but he made his living as a house decorator , working closely with architects , including William Adam . He may have trained James Norie ( 1684 – 1757 ) , who with his sons James ( 1711 – 36 ) and Robert ( d . 1766 ) , painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . They tutored many artists and have been credited with the inception of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting that would come to fruition from the late eighteenth century . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 68 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland . Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland , born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 .
In 1729 there was an attempt to found a school of painting in Edinburgh as the Academy of St. Luke , named after the Renaissance Accademia di San Luca in Rome . Its sponsors were the elder Norie , the poet Allan Ramsay and William Adam . Its president was George Marshall , a painter of still lives and portraits , and its treasurer was the engraver Richard Cooper . Other members included Cooper 's student Robert Strange , the two younger Nories , the portrait painters John Alexander ( c . 1690 @-@ c . 1733 ) and Allan Ramsay , son of the poet ( 1713 – 84 ) . The success of the group was limited by its associations with Jacobitism , with Strange printing bank notes for the rebels . The Foulis Academy was founded in Glasgow in 1754 by the printmaking brothers Robert and Andrew Foulis , and in Edinburgh the Board of Trustees for Fisheries , Manufactures and Improvements in Scotland established the Trustees Drawing Academy in 1760 , indicating that art was now part of civic life and not just aristocratic patronage .
The growing importance of art can be seen in the post of Royal Painter and Limner , created in 1702 for George Ogilvie . The duties included " drawing pictures of our [ Monarch 's ] person or of our successors or others of our royal family for the decorment of our houses and palaces " . However , from 1723 to 1823 the office was a sinecure held by members of the Abercrombie family , not necessarily connected with artistic ability .
= = = Intellectual trends = = =
All the major painters of the period were to varying degrees influenced by forms of Neoclassicism , which revived Greek and Roman form of artistic expression . Italy became an important point of reference for Scottish artists , with over fifty artists and architects known to have travelled there in the period 1730 – 80 as part of a Grand Tour , to paint , sample the art and learn from Italian masters . With so many artists visiting or resident , Rome became almost a " Third Academy ) " for Scots . In the second half of the century Scots became the major figures in the trade in antique sculpture , particularly Gavin Hamilton , Colin Morison ( 1732 – 1801 ) and James Byres ( 1734 – 1817 ) , making them the arbiters of British taste in this area . However , the only major Scottish collection of marble before the nineteenth century was that of James Johnstone , 2nd Marquess of Annandale .
Scottish artists in the later eighteenth century were strongly influenced by the Enlightenment , which stressed rationalism and human inquiry , of which Scotland was a major centre of influence . Artists like Alan Ramsey formed The Select Society , with philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith and produced his Dialogue on Taste , which made a major contribution to the study of aesthetics . Scotland also played a major part in the origins of the Romantic movement through the publication of James Macpherson 's Ossian cycle , which was proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal , written in 1762 , was speedily translated into many European languages , and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German literature , influencing Herder and Goethe .
= = Forms = =
= = = Landscape = = =
The origins of the Scottish landscape painting tradition are in the Nories ' capriccios or pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . Jacob More , having trained with the Nories , moved to Italy in 1773 and is chiefly known as a landscape painter . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by backwards and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , which were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Produced before his departure to Italy , More 's series of four " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) paintings have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape .
Alexander Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a large range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and is described in the Oxford Dictionary of Art as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . He was also a highly influential teacher at the Trustees Drawing Academy in Edinburgh . The work of John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) continued the theme of landscape , directly linking it with the Romantic works of Walter Scott . He was also among the first artists to take a major interest in depicting the urban landscape of Glasgow . Alexander Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the century .
= = = Portraiture = = =
Aberdeen @-@ born John Alexander and William Mossman were the leading portrait artists of the first half of the century . John Alexander was born in Aberdeen and was a great grandson of portrait painter George Jamesone . He studied in London and Rome , returning to Scotland about 1720 . His younger contemporary William Mossman ( 1700 – 71 ) was also from Aberdeen and studied in Rome . Both worked predominately in the north @-@ east around their home city , but also painted many of the figures of early @-@ Enlightenment Edinburgh . Alexander 's best known work included the portrait of George Drummond the Lord Provost of Edinburgh ( 1756 ) , who had been responsible for the creation of the New Town in Edinburgh and the Royal Infirmary , which is shown in the background of the painting . Mosman 's work included his portrait of John Campbell of the Bank ( 1749 ) , who was chief cashier of the Royal Bank of Scotland and a Whig , but who is depicted in the recently forbidden Highland Dress . Because of his Jacobite sympathies Alexander was forced to leave for the continent after the rebellion of 1745 , and in Rome he made a living painting the Jacobite expatriates who congregated there , before his return a few years later .
Allan Ramsay studied in Sweden , London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh , where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility and he undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment , including his friend the philosopher David Hume and the visiting Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . After a second visit to Italy he moved to London in 1757 and from 1761 he was Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III . He now focused on royal portraits , often presented by the king to ambassadors and colonial governors . His work has been seen as anticipating the grand manner of Joshua Reynolds , but many of his early portraits , particularly of women , are less formal and more intimate studies .
The leading portrait painter of the second half of the century was Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) . He was the first significant artist to pursue his entire career in Scotland . Born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 , he is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the Grand Manner tradition of Joshua Reynolds . The most famous painting attributed to him is The Reverend Robert Walker Skating on Duddingston Loch , known as The Skating Minister . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's painter and limner in 1823 , marking a return to the post being associated with the production of art .
= = = Neoclassism and genre painting = = =
Gavin Hamilton spent almost his entire career in Italy and emerged as a pioneering neoclassical painter of historical and mythical themes , including his depictions of scenes from Homer 's Iliad , as well as having been an informal tutor to British artists , early archaeologist and antiquarian . Many of his works can be seen as Enlightenment speculations about the origins of society and politics , including the Death of Lucretia ( 1768 ) , an event thought to be critical to the birth of the Roman Republic . His classicism would be a major influence on French artist Jacques @-@ Louis David ( 1748 – 1825 ) .
John and Alexander Runciman both gained reputations as painters of mythological and historical themes . They travelled to Italy , where they worked with Hamilton . John died in 1768 / 9 and Alexander returned home . His most widely known work , distributed in etchings , was mythological . His version of The Origin of Painting ( 1773 ) , depicting Pliny 's story of a young Corinthian woman outlining a shadow on the wall , has her hand guided by Cupid , suggesting the ultimate motivation for art was love . The same theme was painted by another of Hamilton 's proteges , David Allan , two years later . In the late eighteenth century Ossian became a common subject for Scottish artists , and works were undertaken by Alexander Runciman and David Allan among others .
Alexander also produced one of the earliest examples of a Scottish historical painting , showing the escape of Mary , Queen of Scots from Loch Leven Castle , which would become a major form in the nineteenth century . Allan returned to Edinburgh in 1780 , became director and master of the Academy of Arts in 1786 . Here he produced his most famous work , with illustrations of themes from Scottish life , earning him the title of " the Scottish Hogarth " . These included Highland Wedding , Blair Athol ( 1780 ) and illustrations for the elder Allan Ramsey 's Gentle Shepherd ( 1788 ) . These themes would be taken up by David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) , often noted as the founder of the British tradition of genre painting .
= = = Sculpture = = =
After the Acts of Union in 1707 the royal family spent very little time in , or money on , Scottish palaces and many Scottish nobles followed the royal court to England , tending to invest in sculpture for their residences in London , rather than their estates in Scotland . With the growth of civic development there was an increasing demand for public statuary , often with the patronage of a public institution , such as the lead figure of George II at the newly founded Royal Infirmary , Edinburgh in 1753 or the figure of the judge Duncan Forbes for the Outer Parliament House in 1752 . The portrait bust , designed for interior display , also became popular . By the middle of the century statuary were preferred to painted portraits among the aristocracy .
As in England , commissions of new statuary tended to be made in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . The plasterwork of John Cheere 's yard in London was particularly in demand . Also important was the work from the yard of John Bacon ( 1740 – 99 ) who produced a monument for Robert Dundas ( d . 1787 ) at Borthwick Church and one for Mrs Allardyce ( d . 1787 ) at West Church , Aberdeen . Bacon was also a partner in Mrs Eleanor Coade 's Artificial Stone Manufactory at Lambeth in London . This produced a buff coloured ceramic that could be moulded to provide fine detail , and be fired in sections , but was impervious to frost and fire . Much cheaper than carved stone , Coade stone was used for sphinxes , balustrading , capitals , coat of arms , tablets , ornamental vases , church monuments and fonts . It was used extensively by the Adam brothers , particularly in the houses they built in Scotland , such as Cullen , Banff , Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , Dunbar Castle , East Lothian , Register House , Edinburgh , Gosford House , East Lothian and Wedderburn , Berwickshire . As well as supplying sculpture , candelabra and cippi , the Adam family supplied designs to the Carron Company , founded in 1759 , which produced a wide range of iron products , including stoves , safes , vases and tablets .
From the late eighteenth century there are a handful of examples of work from Scottish artists . These included statues of druids on the portico of Penicuik House carved by one " Willie Jeans " in 1776 ; the marble bust of James Gillespie by the obscure Robert Burn ( fl . 1790 – 1816 ) and the bronze figure in Roman armour at the City Chambers , Edinburgh , which may represent Charles Edward Stuart or Louis XV . James Tassie ( 1735 – 99 ) was born in Glasgow and trained as a stonemason . He attended the Foulis Academy , before moving to Dublin and then London . He developed a formula for making casts in vitreous paste and manufactured casts of antique carved gems . He also produced portrait medallions and among his sitters were many leading figures in Scottish intellectual life , such as Adam Smith , David Hume and Henry Raeburn . His medallions were popular when produced in Wedgwood jasper and were used by the Carron Company to be cast in iron .
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= Clathrus ruber =
Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family , and the type species of the genus Clathrus . It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn , the basket stinkhorn , or the red cage , alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches . The fungus is saprobic , feeding off decaying woody plant material , and is usually found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil , grassy places , or on woodchip garden mulches . Although considered primarily a European species , C. ruber has been introduced to other areas , and now has a wide distribution that includes northern Africa , Asia , Australia , and North and South America . The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century , but was not officially described until 1729 .
The fruit body initially appears like a whitish " egg " attached to the ground at the base by cords called rhizomorphs . The egg has a delicate , leathery outer membrane enclosing the compressed lattice that surrounds a layer of olive @-@ green spore @-@ bearing slime called the gleba , which contains high levels of calcium that help protect the fruit body during development . As the egg ruptures and the fruit body expands , the gleba is carried upward on the inner surfaces of the spongy lattice , and the egg membrane remains as a volva around the base of the structure . The fruit body can reach heights of up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The color of the fruit body , which can range from pink to orange to red , results primarily from the carotenoid pigments lycopene and beta @-@ carotene . The gleba has a fetid odor , somewhat like rotting meat , which attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores . Although the edibility of the fungus is not known with certainty , its odor would deter most from consuming it . C. ruber was not regarded highly in tales in southern European folklore , which suggested that those who handled the mushroom risked contracting various ailments .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
Clathrus ruber was illustrated as early as 1560 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Nomenclator Aquatilium Animantium — Gesner mistook the mushroom for a marine organism . It appeared in a woodcut in John Gerard 's 1597 Great Herball , shortly thereafter in Carolus Clusius ' 1601 Fungorum in Pannoniis Observatorum Brevis Historia , and was one of the species featured in Cassiano dal Pozzo 's museo cartaceo ( " paper museum " ) that consisted of thousands of illustrations of the natural world .
The fungus was first described scientifically in 1729 , by the Italian Pier Antonio Micheli in his Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita , who gave it its current scientific name . The species was once referred to by American authors as Clathrus cancellatus L. , as they used a system of nomenclature based on the former American Code of Botanical Nomenclature , in which the starting point for naming species was Linnaeus 's 1753 Species Plantarum . The International Code for Botanical Nomenclature now uses the same starting date , but names of Gasteromycetes used by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum ( 1801 ) are sanctioned and automatically replace earlier names . Since Persoon used the specific epithet ruber , the correct name for the species is Clathrus ruber . Several historical names of the fungus are now synonyms : Clathrus flavescens , named by Persoon in 1801 ; Clathrus cancellatus by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and published by Elias Fries in 1823 ; Clathrus nicaeensis , published by Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla in 1879 ; and Clathrus ruber var. flavescens , published by Livio Quadraccia and Dario Lunghini in 1990 .
Clathrus ruber is the type species of the genus Clathrus , and is part of the group of Clathrus species known as the Laternoid series . Common features uniting this group include the vertical arms of the receptacle ( fruit body ) that are not joined together at the base , and the spongy structure of the receptacle . According to a molecular analysis published in 2006 , out of the about 40 Phallales species used in the study , C. ruber is most closely related to Aseroe rubra , Clathrus archeri , Laternea triscapa , and Clathrus chrysomycelinus .
The generic name Clathrus is derived from Ancient Greek κλειθρον or " lattice " , and the specific epithet is Latin ruber , meaning " red " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " basket stinkhorn " , the " lattice stinkhorn " , or the " red cage " . It was known to the locals of the Adriatic hinterland in the former Yugoslavia as veštičije srce or vještičino srce , meaning " witch 's heart " . This is still the case in parts of rural France , where it is known as cœur de sorcière .
= = Description = =
Before the volva opens , the fruiting body is egg @-@ shaped to roughly spherical , up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , with a gelatinous interior up to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick . White to grayish in color , it is initially smooth , but develops a network of polygonal marks on the surface prior to opening as the internal structures expand and stretch the peridium taut . The fruit body , or receptacle , bursts the egg open as it expands ( a process that can take as little as a few hours ) , and leaves the remains of the peridium as a cup or volva surrounding the base . The receptacle ranges in color from red to bright pink to pale orange , and it is often lighter in color approaching the base . The color appears to be dependent upon the temperature and humidity of the environment . The receptacle consists of a spongy network of " arms " interlaced to make meshes of unequal size . At the top of the receptacle , the arms are up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , but they taper down to smaller widths near the base . A cross @-@ section of the arm reveals it to be spongy , and made up of one wide inner tube and two indistinct rows of tubes towards the outside . The outer surface of the receptacle is ribbed or wrinkled . There are between 80 and 120 mesh holes in the receptacle . The unusual shape of the receptacle has inspired some creative comparisons : David Arora likened it to a whiffleball , while the German Mycological Society — who named C. ruber the 2011 " Mushroom of the Year " — described it as " like an alien from a science fiction horror film " .
A considerable variation in height has been reported for the receptacle , ranging from 8 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall . The base of the fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by rhizomorphs ( thickened cords of mycelia ) . The dark olive @-@ green to olive @-@ brown , foul @-@ smelling sticky gleba covers the inner surface of the receptacle , except near the base . The odor — described as resembling rotting meat — attracts flies , other insects , and , in one report , a scarab beetle ( Scarabaeus sacer ) that help disperse the spores . The putrid odor — and people 's reaction to it — have been well documented . In 1862 Mordecai Cubitt Cooke wrote " it is recorded of a botanist who gathered one for the purpose of drying it for his herbarium , that he was compelled by the stench to rise during the night and cast the offender out the window . " American mycologist David Arora called the odor " the vilest of any stinkhorn " . The receptacle collapses about 24 hours after its initial eruption from the egg .
The spores are elongated , smooth , and have dimensions of 4 – 6 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 µm . Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that C. ruber ( in addition to several other Phallales species ) has a hilar scar — a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium via the sterigma . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are six @-@ spored .
= = = Similar species = = =
Clathrus ruber may be distinguished from the closely related tropical species C. crispus by the absence of the corrugated rims which surround each mesh of the C. crispus fruit body . The phylogenetically close species C. chrysomycelinus has a yellow receptacle with arms that are structurally simpler , and its gleba is concentrated on specialized " glebifers " located at the lattice intersections . It is known only from Venezuela to southern Brazil . Clathrus columnatus has a fruit body with two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns , joined together at the apex .
= = = Edibility and folklore = = =
Although edibility for C. ruber has not been officially documented , its foul smell would dissuade most individuals from consuming it . In general , stinkhorn mushrooms are considered edible when still in the egg stage , and are even considered delicacies in some parts of Europe and Asia , where they are pickled raw and sold in markets as " devil 's eggs " . However , an 1854 report provides a cautionary tale to those considering consuming the mature fruit body . Dr. F. Peyre Porcher , of Charleston , South Carolina , described an account of poisoning caused by the mushroom :
" A young person having eaten a bit of it , after six hours suffered from a painful tension of the lower stomach , and violent convulsions . He lost the use of his speech , and fell into a state of stupor , which lasted for forty @-@ eight hours . After taking an emetic he threw up a fragment of the mushroom , with two worms , and mucus , tinged with blood . Milk , oil , and emollient fomentations , were then employed with success . "
British mycologist Donald Dring , in his 1980 monograph on the Clathraceae family , wrote that C. ruber was not regarded highly in southern European folklore . He mentions a case of poisoning following its ingestion , reported by Barla in 1858 , and notes that Ciro Pollini reported finding it growing on a human skull in a tomb in a deserted church . According to John Ramsbottom , Gascons consider the mushroom a cause of cancer ; they will usually bury specimens they find . In other parts of France it has been reputed to produce skin rashes or cause convulsions .
= = Ecology , habitat , and distribution = =
Like most of the species of the Phallales order , Clathrus ruber is saprobic — a decomposer of wood and plant organic matter — and is commonly found fruiting in mulch beds . The fungus grows alone or clustered together near woody debris , in lawns , gardens , and cultivated soil .
Clathrus ruber was originally described by Micheli from Italy . It is considered native to southern and central continental Europe , as well as Macaronesia ( the Azores and the Canary Islands ) , western Turkey , North Africa ( Algeria ) , and western Asia ( Iran ) . The fungus is rare in central Europe , and is listed in the Red data book of Ukraine .
The fungus has probably been introduced elsewhere , often because of the use of imported mulch used in gardening and landscaping . It may have extended its range northwards into the British Isles or been introduced in the nineteenth century . It now has a mainly southerly distribution in England and has been recorded from Cornwall , Devon , Dorset , Somerset , the Isle of Wight , Hampshire , Sussex , Surrey , and Middlesex . In Scotland , it has been recorded from Argyll . It is also known from Wales , the Channel Islands , and Ireland . The fungus also occurs in the United States ( California , Florida , Georgia , Virginia , North Carolina , and New York ) , Canada , Mexico , and Australasia . The species was also reported from South America ( Argentina ) . In China , it has been collected from Guangdong , Sichuan , Guizhou , and Tibet . Records from Japan are referable to Clathrus kusanoi ; records from the Caribbean are probably of C. crispus .
= = Biochemistry = =
Like other stinkhorn fungi , C. ruber bioaccumulates the element manganese . It has been postulated that this element plays a role in the enzymatic breakdown of the gleba with simultaneous formation of odorous compounds . Compounds like dimethyl sulfide , aldehydes , and amines — which contribute to the disagreeable odor of the gleba — are produced by the enzymatic decarboxylation of keto acids and amino acids , but the enzymes will only work in the presence of manganese . A chemical analysis of the elemental composition of the gelatinous outer layer , the embryonic receptacle and the gleba showed the gelatinous layer to be richest in potassium , calcium , manganese , and iron ions . Calcium2 + stabilizes the polysaccharide gel , protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg . Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water ; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle . The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a " placenta @-@ like " function — serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands .
Pigments responsible for the orange to red colors of the mature fruit bodies have been identified as carotenes , predominantly lycopene and beta @-@ carotene — the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots , respectively . Lycopene is also the main pigment in the closely related fungus Clathrus archeri , while beta @-@ carotene is the predominant pigment in the Phallaceae species Mutinus caninus , M. ravenelii , and M. elegans .
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= Garamond =
Garamond is a group of many old @-@ style serif typefaces , originally those designed by Claude Garamond and other 16th century French designers , and now many modern revivals . Though his name was written as ' Garamont ' in his lifetime , the typefaces are invariably spelled ' Garamond ' .
Garamond worked as an engraver of punches , the masters used to stamp matrices , the moulds used to cast metal type . He worked in the tradition of what is now called old @-@ style serif letter design , that produced letters with a relatively organic structure resembling handwriting with a pen but with a slightly more structured and upright design . Although Garamond himself remains considered an eminent figure in French printing of the sixteenth century , historical research over the last century has increasingly placed him in context as one artisan among several active at a time of rapid production of new typefaces in sixteenth @-@ century France , operating within a pre @-@ existing tradition defined by the work of printers of the preceding half @-@ century , in particular Aldus Manutius and his punchcutter Francesco Griffo . Therefore , the term Garamond may be understood to mean typefaces based on the appearance of early modern French printing , not necessarily specifically Garamond 's work .
Some distinctive characteristics in Garamond 's letters are the small eye of the ' e ' and the bowl of the a , which has a sharp hook upwards at top left . The ' M ' is slightly splayed . The x @-@ height ( height of lower @-@ case letters ) is low , especially at larger sizes , making the capitals large relative to the lower case , while the top serifs on the ascenders of letters like ' d ' have a downward slope and rise subtly above the cap height . Garamond typefaces are popular and often used , particularly for printing body text and books .
Since around 1910 , many modern revivals of Garamond and related typefaces have been developed . Among these , the roman ( regular ; upright ) versions of Adobe Garamond , Granjon , Sabon , and Stempel Garamond are directly based on Garamond 's work . It is common to pair these with italics based on those created by his contemporary Robert Granjon , who was well known for his proficiency in this genre . However , many ' Garamond ' revivals are actually based on the work of a later punch @-@ cutter , Jean Jannon , whose work was for some years misattributed to Garamond .
Modern Garamond revivals also often add a matching bold and ' lining ' numbers at the height of capital letters , neither of which were used in Garamond 's time . The most common digital release of Garamond is Monotype Garamond . Bundled with many Microsoft products , it is a revival of Jannon 's work .
= = History = =
= = = Garamond 's life and career = = =
Garamond designed type in the ' roman ' , or upright style , in italic , and Greek . In the period of Garamond 's early life roman type had been displacing the blackletter or Gothic type which was used in much ( although not all ) early French printing .
The roman designs of Garamond which are his most imitated were based on a typeface cut in 1495 – 1496 for the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius by Francesco Griffo . This was first used in the book De Aetna , a short work by poet and cleric Pietro Bembo which was Manutius ' first printing in the Latin alphabet after a long series of publications of classics of Greek literature that had won him an international reputation . Historian Beatrice Warde has assessed De Aetna as something of a pilot project , a small book printed to an even higher standard than Manutius ' norm .
French typefounders of the 16th century assiduously examined Manutius 's work ( and , it is thought , De Aetna in particular ) as a source of inspiration . De Aetna was printed using a mixture of alternate characters , perhaps as an experiment , and several of these are all found in Robert Estienne 's printing of the 1530s ; typefaces created by Antoine Augereau ( who may have been Garamond 's mentor ) only use those letters preferred in Manutius ' later printing , indicate that other Manutius books were examined as a source of inspiration separately . This examination extended to in some cases copying his first ' M ' shown in De Aetna which had no serif pointing out of the letter at top right , a design considered very eccentric . ( It has been suggested to be the result of defective casting , especially since Manutius ' later fonts do not show it . )
The period from 1520 to around 1560 , encompassing Garamond 's career , was an extremely busy period for typeface creation . Many fonts were created , some apparently for exclusive use by a specific printer , others sold or traded between them . Many engravers were active over this time , including Garamond himself , Granjon , Guillaume Le Bé , Antoine Augereau , Simon de Colines , Pierre Hautin and others , creating typefaces not just in the Latin alphabet , but also in Greek and Hebrew for scholarly use . This period saw the creation of a pool of high @-@ quality punches and matrices that would supply the French printing industry , to a large extent , for the next two centuries .
Garamond was born perhaps around 1510 , but very little is known about his life or work before 1540 . He worked for a variety of employers on commission , creating punches for publishers and the government . Garamond 's typefaces were popular abroad , and replaced Griffo 's original roman type at the Aldine Press in Venice . He also worked as a publisher and bookseller . While his italics have been considered less impressive than his roman typefaces , he was one of the early printers to establish the modern tradition that the italic capitals should slope as the lower case does , rather than remain upright as Roman square capitals do .
Garamond designed type for the Greek alphabet from early in his career , but these , the Grecs du roi fonts created for the government around 1540 , are very different to his Latin designs : they attempt to simulate the elegant handwriting of Cretan scribe Angelo Vergecio and include a vast variety of alternate letters and ligatures to achieve this . This style is impractical for modern setting of body text , since it requires careful manual choice of characters for every word . Several ' Garamond ' releases such as Adobe 's contain Greek designs that are either a compromise between Garamond 's upright Latin designs and his slanted Greek ones or primarily inspired by his Latin designs .
Garamond died in 1561 and his punches and matrices were sold off by his widow . Purchasers included the Le Bé type foundry in Paris run by the family of Guillaume Le Bé , Christophe Plantin of Antwerp , and the Frankfurt foundry often referred to by historians as Egenolff @-@ Berner . The chaotic sales caused problems , and Le Bé 's son wrote to Plantin 's successor Moretus offering to trade matrices so they could both have complementary type in a range of sizes . Egelhoff @-@ Berner brought out a specimen in 1592 of types by Garamond and others , which would later be a source for many Garamond revivals .
Plantin 's collection of original Garamond punches and matrices survives at the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum in Antwerp , together with many other typefaces collected by Plantin from other typefounders of the period . The collection has been used extensively for research , for example by historians Harry Carter and Hendrik Vervliet . Carter 's son Matthew would later describe his research as helping to demonstrate " that the finest collection of printing types made in typography 's golden age was in perfect condition ( some muddle aside ) [ along with ] Plantin 's accounts and inventories which names the cutters of his types . "
While some records such as Plantin 's exist of what exact types were cut by Garamond himself , many details of his career remain uncertain , with initial opinion of his date of birth as around 1480 being substituted by much later estimates more recently . A document called the Le Bé Memorandum ( based on the memories of Guillaume Le Bé , but collated by one of his sons around 1643 ) suggests that Garamond finished his apprenticeship around 1510 . This is considered unlikely by modern historians since his mother was still alive when he died in 1561 and little is known of him before around 1540 .
It has been suggested that the first Roman types designed by Claude Garamond were a set created for Robert Estienne and first used by him around 1530 @-@ 3 , that were the first typefaces used in Paris to copy the Manutius model . However , Vervliet , Mosley and the French ministry of culture 's history of Garamond 's career suggest that these ' Estienne typefaces ' were not designed by Garamond and that his career began somewhat later . Vervliet suggests that the creator of this set of typefaces to a unified design may have been a ' Master Constantin ' , recorded in the Le Bé Memorandum as a master type designer of the period before Garamond but about whom nothing is otherwise known and to whom no obvious other body of work can be ascribed . If so , his disappearance from history ( perhaps due to an early death , since all his presumed work appeared in just three years from 1530 to 1533 ) may have allowed Garamond 's reputation to develop in the following decade . The Le Bé Memorandum does however attribute them to Garamond ; Vervliet notes that attributions of the Estienne type to Garamond do begin quite early but suggests that this may be a mistake caused by his later reputation , and because the Estienne typefaces remained proprietary Le Bé might not have been knowledgeable about their source .
= = = Jean Jannon = = =
In 1621 , sixty years after Garamond 's death , the French printer Jean Jannon released a specimen of typefaces that had some characteristics similar to the Garamond designs . The French Royal Printing Office ( Imprimerie Royale ) appears to have bought matrices from him in 1641 . ( The contract is actually made for one ' Nicholas Jannon ' , which historians have concluded to be a simple mistake . ) Despite the purchase , it is not clear that the office ever much used Jannon 's type : historian James Mosley has reported being unable to find books printed by the Imprimerie that use more than a few specific sizes of italic , although " it is not easy to prove a negative " . His type would later be misattributed to Garamond . Jannon wrote in his specimen that :
Seeing that for some time many persons have had to do with the art [ of printing ] who have greatly lowered it ... the desire came upon me to try if I might imitate , after some fashion , some one among those who honourably busied themselves with the art , [ men whose deaths ] I hear regretted every day [ Jannon mentions some eminent printers of the previous century ] ... and inasmuch as I could not accomplish this design for lack of types which I needed ... [ some typefounders ] would not , and others could not furnish me with what I lacked [ so ] I resolved , about six years ago , to turn my hand in good earnest to the making of punches , matrices and moulds for all sorts of characters , for the accommodation both of the public and of myself .
Jannon 's career took place during a politically tense period . Jannon was a Protestant in mostly Catholic France , and began his career as printer for the Protestant Academy at Sedan in what is now north @-@ eastern France before taking up punchcutting , in his thirties by his report . Sedan the time enjoyed an unstable independence as a principality at a time when the French government had conceded through the Edict of Nantes to allowing a complicated system of restricted liberties for Protestants . While acknowledging his talent and commissioning equipment from him , as documented by the surviving purchase order , it is known that authorities in 1644 raided an office in Caen where he had been commissioned to do printing . Warde initially assumed that this was the source of the Jannon materials in the Imprimerie Nationale before the government 's purchase order from Jannon came to light . Jannon 's types and their descendants are recognizable by the triangular serifs on the top left of such characters as ' m ' , ' n ' and ' r ' , which have a very steep slant in Jannon 's design compared to Garamond 's . The italics are also very different to Garamond 's own or Granjon 's , being much more ornate .
By the nineteenth century , Jannon 's matrices had come to be known as the Caractères de l 'Université ( Characters of the University ) . It has sometimes been claimed that this term was an official name designated for the Jannon type by Cardinal Richelieu , while Warde in 1926 more plausibly suggested it might be a garbled recollection of Jannon 's work with the Sedan Academy , which operated much like a university despite not using the name . Carter in the 1970s followed this conclusion . Mosley , however , concludes that no report of the term ( or much use of Jannon 's type at all ) exists before the nineteenth century , and it may originate from a generic term of the previous century simply meaning older or more conservative typeface designs , perhaps those preferred in academic publishing .
= = = After Jannon = = =
The old @-@ style typefaces of Garamond and his contemporaries and successors remained in use in printing for over two hundred years after Garamond 's death , and became influential on Dutch printing during the period known as Dutch golden age , when Dutch printing was itself very influential across Europe . Dutch printers and punchcutters , however , sometimes favoured more solid , darker designs than Garamond 's .
Old @-@ style serif typefaces by Garamond and his colleagues finally fell out of use with the arrival of what is now called the Didone style of printing in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries , promoted by the Didot family in France and others . This favoured a much more geometric , constructed style of letter which could show off the increasingly refined paper and printing technologies of the period . Mosley comments :
The upheavals of the Revolution coincided with the major shift in the style of printing types that is associated with the family of Didot , and the stock of old materials abruptly lost its value , except as scrap . Punches rust , and the copper of matrices is recyclable . All traces of the early types that had been in the hands of the trade typefounders like Le Bé , Sanlecque and Lamesle in Paris vanished completely . No relics of them were saved anywhere , except in commercial centres that had become relative backwaters , like Antwerp , where the Plantin @-@ Moretus printing office piously preserved the collection of its founder ... the term caractères de l 'Université became attached by default to the set of apparently early matrices that had survived , its provenance forgotten , in the mixed stock of materials of the national printing @-@ office .
Garamond 's reputation remained respected , even by members of the Didot family whose type designs came to dominate French printing .
= = = Revival era = = =
A revival of interest in ' old @-@ style ' serif typefaces took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . This saw a revival of the Imprimerie royale typefaces ( the office was now called the Imprimerie nationale following the end of the French monarchy ) , which , unlike Garamond 's own work , had survived in Paris . The attribution came to be considered certain by the Imprimerie 's director Arthur Christian .
Early revivals were often based directly on the Imprimerie nationale types , one of the first by Peignot and then by American Type Founders . These revivals could be made using pantograph machine engraving systems , which gave a cleaner result than historic typefaces whose master punches had been hand @-@ carved out of steel , and allowed rapid development of a large range of sizes . In addition , the new hot metal typesetting technology of the period created increasing availability and demand for new fonts . Among hot metal typesetting companies , Monotype 's branches in Britain and the United States brought out separate versions , and the American branch of Linotype licensed that of ATF .
A number of historians began in the early twentieth century to question if the Imprimerie nationale Latin @-@ alphabet type was really the work Garamond as the Grecs du Roi undoubtedly were . Doubt was raised by French historian Jean Paillard , but he died in the First World War soon after publishing his conclusions in 1914 and his work remained little @-@ read . ATF 's historian Henry Lewis Bullen secretly doubted that the ' Garamond ' his company was reviving was really Garamond 's work , noting that he had never seen it in a sixteenth @-@ century book . He discussed his concerns with ATF junior librarian Beatrice Warde , who would later move to Europe and become a prominent writer on printing advising the British branch of Monotype .
In a 1926 paper published on the British typography journal The Fleuron , Beatrice Warde revealed her discovery that the Imprimerie nationale type had been created by Jean Jannon , something she had discovered by examining printing credited to him in London and Paris and through reading the work of Paillard .
By the time Warde 's article was published some revivals had been released that were more authentic revivals of Garamond 's work , based on period books and printing specimens . The German company Stempel brought out a crisp revival of the original Garamond typefaces in the 1920s , inspired by a rediscovered specimen from the Egenolff @-@ Berner foundry in Frankfurt , as did Linotype in Britain .
= = Timeline = =
= = = The Renaissance = = =
1470 – first book printed in France , by a Swiss / German team at the Sorbonne , Paris . Early books printed in France use type of a blackletter design or influenced by it .
1496 – Aldus Manutius publishes De Aetna , a short text of poetry that serves as his first printing in the Latin alphabet . Its new ' roman ' metal type sets a standard imitated by French printers .
= = = Late Renaissance = = =
1510 – Garamond may have been born around this time .
1530 – Robert Estienne begins to publish in a new and more elegant style of ' roman ' type , influenced by De Aetna with its asymmetrical ' M ' . These typefaces were once attributed to Garamond . Vervliet has argued that they are not by Garamond , but notes that the attribution of them to him begins quite early .
1541 – Garamond is advanced money to cut the Grecs du Roi type .
1561 – Death of Garamond .
1563 – Christophe Plantin buys matrices and other equipment in Paris at auction , some from Garamond 's widow , for his partnership in Antwerp . Other equipment is bought by other Parisian and German printers ; a specimen sheet identifying his types is issued by a Frankfurt foundry in 1592 .
1560 – 70s – The work of Garamond and his contemporaries becomes very influential in the Low Countries and western Germany . A decline sets into the production of new typefaces , probably mostly due to simple saturation of the market with typefaces of acceptable quality , and possibly also due to economic and religious factors causing the emigration of printers and typefounders to other countries . Typefounding now a clearly separate industry to printing .
= = = Early modern period = = =
1580 – birth of Jannon
1621 – Jannon issues a specimen of his type .
1640 – Jannon leaves Sedan for Paris .
1641 – foundation of the Imprimerie Royale , which buys matrices from Jannon
1644 – Jannon 's printing office in Caen is raided by authorities concerned that he may have been publishing banned material . Jannon is not imprisoned , but returns to Sedan .
1658 – death of Jannon
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
1756 – Parisian printer Jean @-@ Pierre Fournier , who had inherited the Le Bé foundry , writes of his collection of vintage type that " I own the foundry of Garamond , the Le Bé family and Granjon . I shall be happy to display my punches and matrices to all those who are lovers of true beauty ... these are the types that made the reputations of the Estiennes , Plantin and the Elzevirs . " However , his extensive collections are dispersed after his death in 1783 and ultimately ' traditional ' old @-@ style type falls out of use in France .
= = = Early revival era = = =
Late nineteenth century – revival in interest in ' old @-@ style ' typefaces such as the Caslon type ( 1730s , England ) and that of Jenson ( 1470s , Venice ) .
1912 – revival of the Imprimerie Royale ( now Imprimerie nationale , following the revolution ) type by the Peignot foundry .
1914 – Jean Paillard publishes a book arguing that the Imprimerie nationale type was not created by Garamond but his work attracts little attention . He is killed serving in the First World War a few months later .
1920 – a copy of the 1592 Berner specimen of typefaces is published in facsimile .
1923 – ATF issue a specimen of their Garamond revival , in development for several years prior . ATF 's historian Henry Bullen privately tells Beatrice Warde , then a junior librarian , that he suspects that Garamond had nothing to do with the type , since he had never seen it in a contemporary book , but has no better candidate for its creator . Warde subsequently moves to Europe , becoming a freelance writer on printing and adviser to Monotype in London .
1925 – Based on the Egelhoff @-@ Berner specimen , Stempel Garamond is released in Germany : later also released by Linotype , it is the first Garamond revival actually based on his work .
1923 – Monotype Garamond is published based on the Imprimerie nationale type .
1926 – Warde discovers and reveals that the Imprimerie nationale type was created by Jannon , and that all revivals based on it are not directly based on Garamond 's work .
= = Contemporary versions = =
= = = Based on Garamond 's design = = =
= = = = Adobe Garamond = = = =
Released in 1989 , Adobe Garamond is designed by Robert Slimbach for Adobe Systems , based on a Roman type by Garamond and an italic type by Robert Granjon . The font family contains regular , semibold , and bold weights and was developed through viewing fifteenth @-@ century equipment at the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum . Its quite even , mature design attracted attention on release for its authenticity to Garamond 's work , a contrast to the much more aggressive ITC Garamond popular at the time . The OpenType version of the font family was released in 2000 as Adobe Garamond Pro , with enhanced support for its alternate glyphs such as ligatures , small caps and italic swash capitals , and is sold through Adobe 's Typekit system . It is one of the most popular versions of Garamond in books and fine printing .
= = = = Garamond Premier = = = =
Slimbach started planning for a second interpretation of Garamond after visiting the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum in 1988 , during the production of Adobe Garamond . His visit there led him to conclude that Garamond could not be truly revived digitally unless in a set of optical sizes , with adaptations in the design for different sizes of text . Unable to create such a large range of styles practically with the technology and business requirements of the 1980s , he completed the project in 2005 with several optical sizes , each designed in four weights ( regular , medium , semibold and bold , with an additional light weight for display sizes ) using the OpenType font format . It features glyph coverage for Central European , Cyrillic and Greek characters including polytonics . Professor Gerry Leonidas , an expert in Greek @-@ language printing , described it in 2005 as " bar none , the most accomplished typeface you can get for complex Greek texts " . Adobe executive Thomas Phinney described it as a " modernized interpretation " different to their earlier Garamond , which remains on sale .
= = = = Stempel Garamond = = = =
A hot @-@ metal period adaptation created by the Stempel Type Foundry in the inter @-@ war period , and released through Linotype in other countries , that has remained popular . It is sharp , somewhat angular design with a crisp hook rather than a teardrop at top left of the ' a ' . Stempel Garamond has relatively short descenders , allowing it to be particularly tightly linespaced . An unusual feature is the digit 0 , which has reversed contrast , with the thickest points of the number on the top and bottom of the digit .
= = = = Sabon = = = =
Sabon is a Garamond revival designed by Jan Tschichold in 1964 , jointly released by Linotype , Monotype and Stempel in 1967 . It is named after Jacques Sabon , who introduced Garamond 's types to German printing . An unusual feature of many releases of Sabon is that the italic , based on Granjon 's work , is wider than most normal italics , at the same width as the roman style . This suited the hot metal typesetting machines of the period . Later Sabon versions , such as Jean François Porchez 's Sabon Next , have not always maintained this principle .
= = = = EB Garamond = = = =
Released in 2011 by Georg Duffner , EB Garamond is a free software version of Garamond released under the Open Font License and available through Google Fonts . Duffner based the design on a specimen printed by Egelnoff @-@ Berner in 1592 , with italic and Greek characters based on Robert Granjon 's work , as well as the addition of Cyrillic characters and OpenType features such as swash italic capitals and schoolbook alternates . It is intended to include multiple optical sizes , as of 2014 including fonts based on the 8 and 12 point forms on the 1592 specimen . It has been described as " one of the best open source fonts " by prominent typeface designer Erik Spiekermann . As of February 2016 , no bold weight has yet been released .
= = = = URW + + Garamond No. 8 = = = =
Garamond No. 8 is a freeware version of Garamond contributed by URW + + to the Ghostscript project , based on Stempel Garamond . Featuring a bold weight , small capitals , optional text figures and automatic ligature insertion , it is particularly popular in the TeX community and is also included on some Linux distributions . Originally released as a PostScript Type 1 , it has been converted into the TrueType format , usable by most current software . It is distributed under the AFP license , which allows it to be used freely ( without support ) but not sold or have its distribution charged for .
= = = = Granjon = = = =
Despite the name , Granjon , by the English branch of Linotype , is based on the original Garamond roman with a Granjon italic . ( Warde commented " It would seem that Garamond 's name , having so long been used on a design he never cut , is now by stern justice left off a face which is undoubtedly his . " )
= = = Based on Jannon 's design = = =
= = = = ATF Garamond / Garamond No. 3 = = = =
American Type Founders created a revival of the Imprimerie Nationale typefaces around 1919 – 1923 , designed in @-@ house by its design department led by Morris Fuller Benton . It received a first sumptuous showing , marketed especially towards advertisers , in ATF 's 1923 specimen book . Also involved in the revival was book designer T.M. Cleland , who created a set of matching borders and ornaments . The design gained its current name in a more practical hot metal adaptation licensed to and marketed by Linotype 's American branch from around 1936 ; the number distinguished it from Stempel 's version and other variants which Linotype also sold . It was the style of Garamond preferred by prominent designer Massimo Vignelli . A variant is used by Deutsche Bahn , and the original ATF Garamond on which it was based has also been revived .
= = = = Monotype Garamond = = = =
Monotype 's 1922 design , based on Jannon 's work in the Imprimerie Nationale , is bundled with many Microsoft products . Its italic , faithful to Jannon 's , is extremely calligraphic , with a very variable angle of slant and flourishes on several lower @-@ case letters . Its commercial release is more extensive than the basic Microsoft release , featuring additional features such as swash capitals and small capitals , although like many pre @-@ digital fonts these are only included in the regular weight . Popular in the metal type era , its digitisation has been criticised for having too light a colour on the page for body text if printed with many common printing systems . This is a known problem with many Monotype digitisations of the period . Some publicity art for it in the metal period was created by a young Rodney Peppé . Monotype 's 1933 guide to identifying their typefaces noted the asymmetrical T , the sharp triangular serif at top left of m , n , p and r , and a q unlike the p , with a point at top right rather than a full serif .
= = = = Garamont = = = =
A revival by Frederic Goudy for the American branch of Monotype , the name chosen to differ from other revivals . An elegant sample created by Bruce Rogers was shown in a spring 1923 issue of Monotype 's magazine . It like Monotype Garamond features a large range of swash characters , based on Imprimerie Nationale specimen sheets .
Mosley has described it as " a lively type , underappreciated I think . " LTC 's digitisation deliberately maintained its eccentricity and irregularity true to period printing , avoiding perfect verticals . In 1923 , Morison at the British branch of Monotype thought it somewhat florid in comparison to the version of his branch which he considered a personal project , noting in a 1923 letter to American printer Daniel Berkeley Updike that " I entertain very decided opinions about this latest of Mr. Goudy 's achievements ... a comparison leaves me with a preference for our version . " He added that he " could not bring myself to believe " that Garamond himself had cut the swash capitals that " Mr. Goudy has done his best to reproduce " .
= = = = Jannon = = = =
František Štorm 's 2010 revival with optical sizes is one of the few modern revivals of Jannon 's work . Štorm also created a matching sans @-@ serif companion design , Jannon Sans .
= = = Related fonts = = =
As one of the most popular typefaces in history , a number of designs have been created that are influenced by Garamond 's design but follow different design paths .
= = = = ITC Garamond = = = =
ITC Garamond was created by Tony Stan in 1975 , and follows ITC 's house style of unusually high x @-@ height . It was initially intended to serve as a display version but was used for text , in which its tight spacing and high x @-@ height gives it a somewhat hectoring appearance . As a result , it has proven somewhat controversial among designers ; it is generally considered poorly @-@ proportioned for body text . It remains the corporate font of the California State University system in printed text . As seen below , it was also modified into Apple Garamond which served as Apple 's corporate font from 1984 until replacement with Myriad . Publishers using it included O 'Reilly Media and French publisher Actes Sud .
= = = = Cormorant = = = =
An open @-@ source adaptation of Garamond intended for display sizes , designed by Christian Thalmann and co @-@ released with Google Fonts . It features a delicate style suitable for printing at larger sizes , and considerable contrast in stroke weight in its larger sizes . Thalmann added several unusual alternate designs such as an upright italic and unicase styles , as well as exaggerated , highly slanting accents .
= = = = Claude Sans = = = =
A humanist sans @-@ serif based on the letterforms of Jannon 's type , created by Alan Meeks and published by Letraset and later ITC .
= = In popular culture = =
This list focuses on notable references to Garamond or his typefaces , not including the extremely large number of books printed in them .
In Umberto Eco 's novel Foucault 's Pendulum , the protagonists work for a pair of related publishing companies , Garamond and Manuzio , both owned by a Mister Garamond .
Garamond is the name of a character in the Wii game Super Paper Mario . He appears in the world of Flopside ( the mirror @-@ image of Flipside , where the game begins ) . He is a prolific and highly successful author , unlike his Flipside counterpart , Helvetica ( a probable recognition of the relative suitability of the two fonts for use in book typesetting ) .
For many years the masthead of British newspaper The Guardian used " The " in Garamond and " Guardian " in bold Helvetica .
A condensed variant of ITC Garamond was adopted by Apple in 1984 upon the release of the Macintosh , known as Apple Garamond . This was a proprietary font not publicly available , less condensed than the publicly released ITC Garamond Condensed .
One of the initial goals of the literary journal Timothy McSweeney 's Quarterly Concern was to use only a single font : Garamond 3 . The editor of the journal , Dave Eggers , has stated that it is his favourite font , " because it looked good in so many permutations — italics , small caps , all caps , tracked out , justified or not . "
In Robin Sloan 's fantasy novel Mr. Penumbra 's 24 @-@ Hour Bookstore several character names derive from historical figures associated with the Garamond typeface .
= = = Printer ink claim = = =
It has been claimed that Garamond uses much less ink than Times New Roman at a similar point size , so changing to Garamond could be a cost @-@ saver for large organizations that print large numbers of documents , especially if using inkjet printers . Garamond , along with Times New Roman and Century Gothic , has been identified by the GSA as a " toner @-@ efficient " font .
This claim has been criticised as a misinterpretation of how typefaces are actually measured and what printing methods are desirable . Monotype Garamond , the version bundled with Windows , has a generally smaller design at the same notional point size compared to Times New Roman and quite spindly strokes , giving it a more elegant but less readable appearance . To make letters , especially the lower @-@ case , as high as in an equivalent setting of Times New Roman , the text size must be increased , counterbalancing any cost savings . Thomas Phinney , an expert on digital fonts , noted that the effect of simply swapping Garamond in would be compromised legibility : " any of those changes , swapping to a font that sets smaller at the same nominal point size , or actually reducing the point size , or picking a thinner typeface , will reduce the legibility of the text . That seems like a bad idea , as the percentage of Americans with poor eyesight is skyrocketing . " Professional font designer Jackson Cavanaugh commented " If we 're actually interested in reducing waste , just printing less – using less paper – is obviously more efficient . "
= = Gallery = =
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= Texas Recreational Road 8 =
Recreational Road 8 ( RE 8 ) is a Recreational Road located in McMullen County in the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) in length , and connects Texas State Highway 72 ( TX 72 ) to the community of Calliham and Choke Canyon State Park . The roadway travels through rural areas and central Calliham . Calliham was first laid out in 1922 , and a road first appeared in the location of RE 8 by 1940 . Farm to Market Road 99 ( FM 99 ) was designated in the location of RE 8 in 1954 . Recreational Road 8 was officially designated in June of 1981 , after FM 99 was relocated . The highway was cancelled and relocated in 1983 . The highway is currently the only route to deviate from the recreational road criteria .
= = Route description = =
RE 8 begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with TX 72 south of the unincorporated community of Calliham . The highway proceeds as a two @-@ lane , paved road , traveling northward toward Calliham . As it travels through mainly rural areas , the route intersects a small dirt road before entering the southern portion of Calliham . The road intersects Fletcher Street and continues past several houses , traveling parallel to Naylor Street for a short distance before it intersects Ritcher Street , where it bends northeastward and continues . The road passes a large RV park and intersects Deer Trail before continuing past several houses . It proceeds to its northern terminus , an intersection with Quail Run Road at the edge of Choke Canyon State Park . A long park road continues north into the park , providing access to several campgrounds and recreational areas .
The highway is maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) . Part of the job of the TxDOT is to measure traffic along the highway . These counts are taken using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles that travel along a portion of the highway . The TxDOT usually measures AADT near an intersection . In 2011 , the highway 's AADT was 530 vehicles , taken at a point just north of the intersection with TX 72 . This was an increase from the previous year , when the count was just 330 vehicles , which was taken at the same point . This was a decrease from 2009 , when the AADT for the route was 390 vehicles . No portion of the roadway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . RE 8 is currently the only route in the Recreational Road system to deviate from the system criteria . The TxDOT defines a Recreatonal Road as a route which travels " to a recognized recreational area " , while RE 8 serves Choke Canyon State Park .
= = History = =
The community of Calliham was first settled in 1918 , and was known as Guffeyola . The settlement was a simple camp city , but boomed in 1922 when oil was discovered nearby . In 1923 , due to the rapid expansion , J. W. Stephenson laid out the plan for the townsite for the community , which contained all roads and sites . The community continued to expand into the 1930s . By 1940 , an unimproved dirt road connected central Calliham to camps north of the community . The road crossed the Frio River on a concrete bridge , and had a single cattle guard located on its course . By 1951 , the road 's first block from its southern terminus was improved to a graded , bituminous surface , made up of crushed rock and asphalt . On October 28 , 1952 , FM 2153 was designated along the course of the highway , for a length of approximately 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) . On October 13 , 1954 , the Texas Transportation Commission ( TTC ) cancelled FM 2153 , and extended FM 99 over its course . The designation was officially passed by the Texas State Highway Department 's Administration Circle on December 1 , 1954 .
By 1956 , the entire length of the highway had been graded and resurfaced with crushed rock , as well as being minorly straightened . Between then and 1961 , the route was listed as being a Federal Aid Secondary Road , its surface was improved to bituminous , the bridge over the Frio River was replaced , and the road 's course was minorly straightened . On March 27 , 1981 , FM 99 was approved to be relocated around the location of the newly created Choke Canyon Reservoir . The relocation was officially designated on June 15 , 1981 . On April 3 , 1981 , RE 8 was approved to be designated over the relocated portion of FM 99 . The designation was made official the same day FM 99 was relocated . On June 29 , 1983 , the TTC approved the cancellation and redesignation of RE 8 , and on August 18 , 1983 the redesignation was approved . The route was shifted to its present location , with a total length of about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) . In 1988 , Calliham was shifted southward from the Choke Canyon Reservoir , causing RE 8 to be shortened by about 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in McMullen County .
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= U.S. Route 223 =
US Route 223 or US Highway 223 ( US 223 ) is a diagonal ( northwest – southeast ) United States Numbered Highway lying in the states of Michigan and Ohio . The southernmost section is completely concurrent with the US 23 freeway , including all of the Ohio segment . It connects US 23 in the south near Toledo , Ohio , with US 127 south of Jackson , Michigan . The highway passes through farmland in southern Michigan and woodland in the Irish Hills . Including the concurrency on the southern end , US 223 is 46 @.@ 34 miles ( 74 @.@ 58 km ) in total length .
The highway designation was created in 1930 out of the southern end of US 127 . Three sets of reroutings through Adrian have resulted in the creation of two different business loops through the city . A change proposed in the 1960s and implemented in the 1970s shifted the southern end of US 223 to replace M @-@ 151 and then run along the US 23 freeway between Whiteford Township , Michigan , and Sylvania , Ohio . Since the 1980s , US 223 no longer reaches Toledo , instead feeding into the freeway system for the city . Changes proposed and enacted into law in the 1990s would upgrade the highway as an Interstate Highway . Congress has designated this corridor as part of Interstate 73 ( I @-@ 73 ) , although neither state intends at this time to complete the freeway .
= = Route description = =
US 223 starts at an interchange in with State Route 51 ( SR 51 ) and SR 184 in Sylvania on the northwest side of the Toledo , Ohio metropolitan area . Although unsigned by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) along the US 23 freeway , US 223 runs concurrently around two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) to the Ohio – Michigan state line . Once across the border , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) has signed both numbers along the freeway . The two highways ' designations follow the freeway northward through rural farmland . At exit 5 , US 223 separates from the freeway and turns west along an extension of St. Anthony Road .
The highway continues westward through the farmland as a two @-@ lane road to the Monroe – Lenawee county line . US 223 meets its former routing and turns northwesterly along Lansing Road , crossing a branch of the Indiana & Ohio Railway . US 223 runs parallel to the Adrian & Blissfield Railroad that branches off southwest of the highway . Both the highway and rail line run northwesterly into Blissfield . The two cross while US 223 runs along Adrian Street through downtown , and the highway makes its first crossing of the River Raisin before leaving downtown . The second crossing is in Palmyra northwest of Blissfield .
US 223 returns to a due west track as it crosses a branch of the Norfolk Southern Railway , and the roadway approaches the outskirts of Adrian . The highway runs along the southern city limits for Adrian as it meets M @-@ 52 . The only business loop for US 223 runs north of this intersection with M @-@ 52 into downtown Adrian while US 223 continues through this secondary business corridor south and west of town . US 223 crosses Beaver Creek and then intersects M @-@ 34 on the western city line in a residential section of Adrian . As US 223 crosses fully into the city of Adrian , it continues northwesterly , then turns due west at the intersection were it meets its business loop 's western terminus . Outside of town , the highway cross through more farmland continuing to northwestern Lenawee County .
US 223 passes out of flat farmlands into the Irish Hills region as the highway runs northeast of Manitou Beach as the roadway rounds the northern shore of Devils Lake . The Irish Hills region has gently rolling hills that transition to forests from farms . Southeast of Somerset US 223 meets US 127 and ends . The entire highway in both Ohio and Michigan is listed on the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
As early as 1912 , the Ohio section of what is now US 223 was shown on maps as SR 54 , however the road was not signed with the number at the time . The Michigan section carried two numbers when the signs were erected by July 1 , 1919 . The segment from Somerset to Adrian was M @-@ 80 , and the remainder in Michigan was M @-@ 34 . Ohio signed its highways , including SR 54 , by July 1923 .
When the United States Numbered Highway System debuted on November 11 , 1926 , these highways were all used as part of the southern end of US 127 , which started in Lansing , Michigan , and ended in Toledo at the time . In 1930 , US 127 south of Somerset was rerouted to replace M @-@ 14 to the state line and extended to end in Cincinnati , Ohio . The section of US 127 between Somerset and Toledo was then renumbered US 223 , making the highway a spur of US 23 .
The routing of US 223 was changed through Adrian in 1935 , shifting the highway along different streets through town . Another change in 1942 through Adrian led to the creation of the first business loop through the city . This version of the business loop lasted until the main highway was moved a second time in 1956 . With this subsequent move , the business loop designation was shifted to its current location .
Michigan first started converting US 23 into a freeway in 1957 . Several years later , the state first proposed a realignment of US 223 in 1965 . This change would reroute the highway to replace M @-@ 151 in southern Monroe County , and use the US 23 freeway to connect to Sylvania , Ohio . The Michigan State Highway Department truncated M @-@ 151 in 1965 , eliminating the section that ran eastward through Samaria to US 25 south of Monroe . The remainder of the US 223 realignment change was made in 1977 when Michigan shifted its segment of US 223 over M @-@ 151 as previously proposed . Instead of running south through Ottawa Lake , US 223 continued east to the US 23 freeway and south into Ohio .
The last major change occurred when ODOT truncated US 223 at exit 234 . The city of Toledo and the state proposed the change in late 1985 to simplify travel in the area . The section of US 223 from Sylvania into downtown Toledo was used for an extension of SR 51 when the change was made between 1985 and 1987 . A local regional planning group in Michigan proposed upgrading the section of US 223 through Lenawee County in 1990 , citing increased congestion and accidents in the previous five years . The commission also supported upgrades to the highway because it was the main route between the Jackson and Toledo areas . Subsequent upgrades during 2000 added passing lanes near Palmyra and 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) of roads were resurfaced .
= = Future = =
The original defined alignment of I @-@ 73 would have run along I @-@ 75 to Detroit . However , Congress amended that definition in 1995 to have a branch along the US 223 corridor to south of Jackson and the US 127 corridor north to I @-@ 75 near Grayling . From Grayling it would use I @-@ 75 to Sault Ste . Marie . Except south of Jackson , where the existing highways are two @-@ lane roads and a section of road north of Lansing where the freeway reverts to a divided highway , this corridor is mostly a rural four @-@ lane freeway . While there are no immediate plans to convert the section of US 127 between St. Johns and Ithaca to freeway , MDOT continues to purchase parcels for right @-@ of @-@ way to be used for future upgrades .
MDOT included using the US 223 corridor as one of its three options to build I @-@ 73 in 2000 . The others included using the US 127 corridor all the way into Ohio with a connection to the Ohio Turnpike or using US 127 south and a new freeway connection to US 223 at Adrian . MDOT abandoned further study of I @-@ 73 after June 12 , 2001 , diverting remaining funding to safety improvement projects along the corridor . The department stated there was a " lack of need " for sections of the proposed freeway , and the project website was closed down in 2002 . According to press reports in 2011 , a group advocating on behalf of the freeway is working to revive the I @-@ 73 project in Michigan . According to an MDOT spokesman , " to my knowledge , we ’ re not taking that issue up again . " The Lenawee County Road Commission is not interested in the freeway , and according to the president of the Adrian Area Chamber of Commerce , " there seems to be little chance of having an I @-@ 73 link between Toledo and Jackson built in the foreseeable future . "
In 2012 , MDOT announced a construction project along the US 23 / US 223 freeway in southern Monroe County what would rebuild the northbound lanes of the freeway between exits 1 and 5 in addition to improving the interchange ramps in the area . The interchange between US 223 the freeway at exit 5 will also be upgraded to contain a pair of roundabouts in a configuration known as a dumbbell interchange .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business loop = =
Business US Highway 223 ( Bus . US 223 ) is a business route running through downtown Adrian , Michigan . It is also currently the highest numbered and signed business routing in the state of Michigan . Both Business Spur I @-@ 375 ( BS I @-@ 375 ) and Capitol Loop currently exist but BS I @-@ 375 is not signed and the Capitol Loop , while inventoried as Connector 496 does not use that number on signs .
The current routing of Bus . US 223 marks the second time the designation has been used in the Adrian area . The first was created in 1942 when the first bypass of Adrian was constructed . This bypass was built along Cadmus Road at Treat Highway west to M @-@ 52 ( Adrian Highway ) . US 223 then ran along M @-@ 52 to connect with the previous routing . Bus . US 223 was designated along Church , Center , Beecher and Treat streets , the former routing of US 223 through downtown . This incarnation of Bus . US 223 would survive until March 26 , 1956 when another new bypass of Adrian was built . The first Bus . US 223 was deleted to allow the designation to be used on the routing of the first US 223 bypass . This first bypass became the current alignment of Bus . US 223 .
In the current routing , Bus . US 223 follows M @-@ 52 ( Adrian Highway / Main Street ) and a former route of US 223 through downtown . The southern terminus is at US 223 at an intersection with M @-@ 52 near downtown Adrian . The business loop follows M @-@ 52 north into downtown on Main Street . At Church Street , the Bus . US 223 turns northwest and follows that street to Maumee Street . The loop follows Maumee Street west out of the center of town back to the main highway . The northern terminus of Bus . US 223 is an intersection with US 223 northwest of downtown Adrian .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Lenawee County .
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= Ralph Richardson =
Sir Ralph David Richardson ( 19 December 1902 – 10 October 1983 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century . He worked in films throughout most of his career , and played more than sixty cinema roles . From an artistic but not theatrical background , Richardson had no thought of a stage career until a production of Hamlet in Brighton inspired him to become an actor . He learned his craft in the 1920s with a touring company and later the Birmingham Repertory Theatre . In 1931 he joined the Old Vic , playing mostly Shakespearean roles . He led the company the following season , succeeding Gielgud , who had taught him much about stage technique . After he left the company , a series of leading roles took him to stardom in the West End and on Broadway .
In the 1940s , together with Olivier and John Burrell , Richardson was the co @-@ director of the Old Vic company . There , his most celebrated roles included Peer Gynt and Falstaff . He and Olivier led the company to Europe and Broadway in 1945 and 1946 , before their success provoked resentment among the governing board of the Old Vic , leading to their dismissal from the company in 1947 . In the 1950s , in the West End and occasionally on tour , Richardson played in modern and classic works including The Heiress , Home at Seven , and Three Sisters . He continued on stage and in films until shortly before his sudden death at the age of eighty . He was celebrated in later years for his work with Peter Hall 's National Theatre and his frequent stage partnership with Gielgud . He was not known for his portrayal of the great tragic roles in the classics , preferring character parts in old and new plays .
Richardson 's film career began as an extra in 1931 . He was soon cast in leading roles in British and American films including Things to Come in the 1930s , The Fallen Idol and The Heiress in the 1940s , and Long Day 's Journey into Night and Doctor Zhivago in the 1960s . He received nominations and awards in the UK , Europe and the US for his stage and screen work from 1948 until his death , and beyond , with a posthumous Academy Award nomination for his final film , Greystoke .
Throughout his career , and increasingly in later years , Richardson was known for his eccentric behaviour on and off stage . He was often seen as detached from conventional ways of looking at the world , and his acting was regularly described as poetic or magical .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Richardson was born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , the third son and youngest child of Arthur Richardson and his wife Lydia ( née Russell ) . The couple had met while both were in Paris , studying with the painter William @-@ Adolphe Bouguereau . Arthur Richardson had been senior art master at Cheltenham Ladies ' College from 1893 .
In 1907 the family split up ; there was no divorce or formal separation , but the two elder boys , Christopher and Ambrose , remained with their father and Lydia left them , taking Ralph with her . The ostensible cause of the couple 's separation was a row over Lydia 's choice of wallpaper for her husband 's study . According to John Miller 's biography , whatever underlying causes there may have been are unknown . An earlier biographer , Garry O 'Connor , speculates that Arthur Richardson might have been having an extramarital affair . There does not seem to have been a religious element , although Arthur was a dedicated Quaker , whose first two sons were brought up in that faith , whereas Lydia was a devout convert to Roman Catholicism , in which she raised Ralph . Mother and son had a variety of homes , the first of which was a bungalow converted from two railway carriages in Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea on the south coast of England .
Lydia wanted Richardson to become a priest . In Brighton he served as an altar boy , which he enjoyed , but when sent at about fifteen to the nearby Xaverian College , a seminary for trainee priests , he ran away . As a pupil at a series of schools he was uninterested in most subjects and was an indifferent scholar . His Latin was poor , and during church services he would improvise parts of the Latin responses , developing a talent for invention when memory failed that proved useful in his later career .
In 1919 , aged sixteen , Richardson took a post as office boy with the Brighton branch of the Liverpool and Victoria insurance company . The pay , ten shillings a week , was attractive , but office life was not ; he lacked concentration , frequently posting documents to the wrong people as well as engaging in pranks that alarmed his superiors . His paternal grandmother died and left him £ 500 , which , he later said , transformed his life . He resigned from the office post , just in time to avoid being dismissed , and enrolled at the Brighton School of Art . His studies there convinced him that he lacked creativity , and that his draughtsmanship was not good enough .
Richardson left the art school in 1920 , and considered how else he might make a career . He briefly thought of pharmacy and then of journalism , abandoning each when he learned how much study the former required and how difficult mastering shorthand for the latter would be . He was still unsure what to do , when he saw Sir Frank Benson as Hamlet in a touring production . He was thrilled , and felt at once that he must become an actor .
Buttressed by what was left of the legacy from his grandmother , Richardson determined to learn to act . He paid a local theatrical manager , Frank R Growcott , ten shillings a week to be a member of his company and be taught the craft of an actor . He made his stage debut in December 1920 with Growcott 's St Nicholas Players at the St Nicholas Hall , Brighton , a converted bacon factory . He played a gendarme in an adaptation of Les Misérables , and was soon entrusted with larger parts including Banquo in Macbeth and Malvolio in Twelfth Night .
= = = Early career = = =
The heyday of the touring actor @-@ manager was nearing its end but some companies still flourished . As well as Benson 's , there were those of Sir John Martin @-@ Harvey , Ben Greet , and , only slightly less prestigious , Charles Doran . Richardson wrote to all four managers : the first two did not reply ; Greet saw him but had no vacancy ; Doran engaged him , at a wage of £ 3 a week . Richardson made his first appearance as a professional actor at the Marina Theatre , Lowestoft , in August 1921 , as Lorenzo in The Merchant of Venice . He remained with Doran 's company for most of the next two years , gradually gaining more important roles , including Banquo in Macbeth and Mark Antony in Julius Caesar .
Doran 's company specialised in the classics , principally Shakespeare . After two years of period costumes Richardson felt the urge to act in a modern work . He left Doran in 1923 and toured in a new play , Outward Bound by Sutton Vane . He returned to the classics in August 1924 , in Nigel Playfair 's touring production of The Way of the World , playing Fainall . While on that tour he married Muriel Hewitt , a young member of Doran 's company , known to him as " Kit " . To his great happiness , the two were able to work together for most of 1925 , both being engaged by Sir Barry Jackson of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre for a touring production of The Farmer 's Wife . From December of that year they were members of the main repertory company in Birmingham . Through Jackson 's chief director , the veteran taskmaster H K Ayliff , Richardson " absorbed the influence of older contemporaries like Gerald du Maurier , Charles Hawtrey and Mrs Patrick Campbell . " Hewitt was seen as a rising star but Richardson 's talents were not yet so apparent ; he was allotted supporting roles such as Lane in The Importance of Being Earnest and Albert Prossor in Hobson 's Choice .
Richardson made his London debut in July 1926 as the stranger in Oedipus at Colonus in a Sunday @-@ night performance at the Scala Theatre , with a cast including Percy Walsh , John Laurie and D A Clarke @-@ Smith . He then toured for three months in Eden Phillpotts 's comedy Devonshire Cream with Jackson 's company led by Cedric Hardwicke .
When Phillpotts 's next comedy , Yellow Sands , was to be mounted at the Haymarket Theatre in the West End , Richardson and his wife were both cast in good roles . The play opened in November 1926 and ran until September 1928 ; with 610 performances it was the longest London run of Richardson 's entire career . During the run Muriel Hewitt began to show early symptoms of encephalitis lethargica , a progressive and ultimately fatal illness .
Richardson left the run of Yellow Sands in March 1928 and rejoined Ayliff , playing Pygmalion in Back to Methuselah at the Royal Court Theatre ; also in the cast was a former colleague from the Birmingham Repertory , Laurence Olivier . The critics began to notice Richardson and he gained some favourable reviews . As Tranio in Ayliff 's modern @-@ dress production of The Taming of the Shrew , Richardson played the character as a breezy cockney , winning praise for turning a usually dreary role into something richly entertaining . For the rest of 1928 he appeared in what Miller describes as several unremarkable modern plays . For much of 1929 he toured South Africa in Gerald Lawrence 's company in three period costume plays , including The School for Scandal , in which he played Joseph Surface . The sole venture into musical comedy of his career was in Silver Wings in the West End and on tour . It was not a personal triumph ; the director 's final injunction to the company was , " For God 's sake don 't let Richardson sing " . In May 1930 Richardson was given the role of Roderigo in Othello in what seemed likely to be a prestigious production , with Paul Robeson in the title role . The biographer Ronald Hayman writes that though a fine singer , " Robeson had no ear for blank verse " and even Peggy Ashcroft 's superb performance as Desdemona was not enough to save the production from failure . Ashcroft 's notices were laudatory , while Richardson 's were mixed ; they admired each other and worked together frequently during the next four decades .
= = = Old Vic , 1930 – 32 = = =
In 1930 Richardson , with some misgivings , accepted an invitation to join The Old Vic company . The theatre , in an unfashionable location south of the Thames , had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912 . Its profile had been raised considerably by Baylis 's producer , Harcourt Williams , who in 1929 persuaded the young West End star John Gielgud to lead the drama company . For the following season Williams wanted Richardson to join , with a view to succeeding Gielgud from 1931 to 1932 . Richardson agreed , though he was not sure of his own suitability for a mainly Shakespearean repertoire , and was not enthusiastic about working with Gielgud : " I found his clothes extravagant , I found his conversation flippant . He was the New Young Man of his time and I didn 't like him . "
The first production of the season was Henry IV , Part 1 , with Gielgud as Hotspur and Richardson as Prince Hal ; the latter was thought by The Daily Telegraph " vivacious , but a figure of modern comedy rather than Shakespeare . " Richardson 's notices , and the relationship of the two leading men , improved markedly when Gielgud , who was playing Prospero , helped Richardson with his performance as Caliban in The Tempest :
He gave me about two hundred ideas , as he usually does , twenty @-@ five of which I eagerly seized on , and when I went away I thought , " This chap , you know , I don 't like him very much but by God he knows something about this here play . " ... And then out of that we formed a friendship .
The friendship and professional association lasted until the end of Richardson 's life . Gielgud wrote in 1983 , " Besides cherishing our long years of work together in the theatre , where he was such an inspiring and generous partner , I grew to love him in private life as a great gentleman , a rare spirit , fair and balanced , devotedly loyal and tolerant and , as a companion , bursting with vitality , curiosity and humour . " Among Richardson 's other parts in his first Old Vic season , Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra gained particularly good notices . The Morning Post commented that it placed him in the first rank of Shakespearean actors . At the beginning of 1931 Baylis re @-@ opened Sadler 's Wells Theatre with a production of Twelfth Night starring Gielgud as Malvolio and Richardson as Sir Toby Belch . W. A. Darlington in The Daily Telegraph wrote of Richardson 's " ripe , rich and mellow Sir Toby , [ which ] I would go many miles to see again . "
During the summer break between the Old Vic 1930 – 31 and 1931 – 32 seasons , Richardson played at the Malvern Festival , under the direction of his old Birmingham director , Ayliff . Salaries at the Old Vic and the Festival were not large , and Richardson was glad of a job as an extra in the 1931 film Dreyfus . As his wife 's condition worsened he needed to pay for more and more nursing ; she was looked after in a succession of hospitals and care homes .
Succeeding Gielgud as leading man at the Old Vic , Richardson had a varied season , in which there were conspicuous successes interspersed with critical failures . James Agate was not convinced by him as the domineering Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew ; in Julius Caesar the whole cast received tepid reviews . In Othello Richardson divided the critics . He emphasised the plausible charm of the murderous Iago to a degree that Agate thought " very good Richardson , but indifferent Shakespeare " , whereas The Times said , " He never stalked or hissed like a plain villain , and , in fact , we have seldom seen a man smile and smile and be a villain so adequately . " His biggest success of the season was as Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Both Agate and Darlington commented on how the actor transformed the character from the bumbling workman to the magically changed creature on whom Titania dotes . Agate wrote that most of those who had played the part hitherto " seem to have thought Bottom , with the ass 's head on , was the same Bottom , only funnier . Shakespeare says he was ' translated ' , and Mr Richardson translated him . " With Sybil Thorndike as a guest star and Richardson as Ralph , The Knight of the Burning Pestle was a hit with audiences and critics , as was a revival of Twelfth Night , with Edith Evans as Viola and Richardson again playing Sir Toby , finishing the season to renewed praise .
= = = West End and Broadway = = =
Richardson returned to the Malvern Festival in August 1932 . He was in four plays , the last of which , Bernard Shaw 's Too True to Be Good , transferred to the New Theatre in London the following month . The play was not liked by audiences and ran for only forty @-@ seven performances , but Richardson , in Agate 's phrase , " ran away with the piece " , and established himself as a West End star . In 1933 he had his first speaking part in a film , playing the villain , Nigel Hartley , in The Ghoul , which starred Cedric Hardwicke and Boris Karloff . The following year he was cast in his first starring role in a film , as the hero in The Return of Bulldog Drummond . The Times commented , " Mr Ralph Richardson makes Drummond as brave and stupid on the screen as he is in print . "
Over the next two years Richardson appeared in six plays in London ranging from Peter Pan ( as Mr Darling and Captain Hook ) to Cornelius , an allegorical play written for and dedicated to him by J B Priestley . Cornelius ran for two months ; this was less than expected , and left Richardson with a gap in engagements in the second half of 1935 . He filled it by accepting an invitation from Katharine Cornell and Guthrie McClintic to play Mercutio in their production of Romeo and Juliet on a US tour and on Broadway . Romeo was played by Maurice Evans and Juliet by Cornell . Richardson 's performance greatly impressed American critics , and Cornell invited him to return to New York to co @-@ star with her in Macbeth and Antony and Cleopatra , though nothing came of this .
In 1936 London Films released Things to Come , in which Richardson played the swaggering warlord " The Boss " . His performance parodied the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini so effectively that the film was immediately banned in Italy . The producer was Alexander Korda ; the two men formed a long and mutually beneficial friendship . Richardson later said of Korda , " Though not so very much older than I am , I regarded him in a way as a father , and to me he was as generous as a prince . " In May 1936 Richardson and Olivier jointly directed and starred in a new piece by Priestley , Bees on the Boatdeck . Both actors won excellent notices , but the play , an allegory of Britain 's decline , did not attract the public . It closed after four weeks , the last in a succession of West End productions in which Richardson appeared to much acclaim but which were box @-@ office failures . In August of the same year he finally had a long @-@ running star part , the title role in Barré Lyndon 's comedy thriller , The Amazing Dr Clitterhouse , which played for 492 performances , closing in October 1937 .
After a short run in The Silent Knight , described by Miller as " a Hungarian fantasy in rhymed verse set in the fifteenth century " , Richardson returned to the Old Vic for the 1937 – 38 season , playing Bottom once again and switching parts in Othello , playing the title role , with Olivier as Iago . The director , Tyrone Guthrie , wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago 's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello . Olivier was willing to co @-@ operate , but Richardson was not ; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier 's Iago , and Richardson 's Othello seemed underpowered . O 'Connor believes that Richardson did not succeed with Othello or Macbeth because of the characters ' single @-@ minded " blind driving passion – too extreme , too inhuman " , which was incomprehensible and alien to him . It was for the same reason , in O 'Connor 's view , that he never attempted the title roles in Hamlet or King Lear .
Richardson made his television debut in January 1939 , reprising his 1936 stage role of the chief engineer in Bees on the Boatdeck . His last stage part in the 1930s was Robert Johnson , an Everyman figure , in Priestley 's Johnson Over Jordan directed by Basil Dean . It was an experimental piece , using music ( by Benjamin Britten ) and dance as well as dialogue , and was another production in which Richardson was widely praised but which did not prosper at the box @-@ office . After it closed , in May 1939 , he did not act on stage for more than five years .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the outbreak of war Richardson joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve as a sub @-@ lieutenant pilot . He had taken flying lessons during the 1930s and had logged 200 hours of flying time , but , though a notoriously reckless driver , he admitted to being a timid pilot . He counted himself lucky to have been accepted , but the Fleet Air Arm was short of pilots . He rose to the rank of lieutenant @-@ commander . His work was mostly routine administration , probably because of " the large number of planes which seemed to fall to pieces under his control " , through which he acquired the nickname " Pranger " Richardson . He served at several bases in the south of England , and in April 1941 , at the Royal Naval Air Station , Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent , he was able to welcome Olivier , newly commissioned as a temporary sub @-@ lieutenant . Olivier rapidly eclipsed Richardson 's record for pranging .
In 1942 , on his way to visit his wife at the cottage where she was cared for by a devoted couple , Richardson crashed his motor @-@ bike and was in hospital for several weeks . Kit was at that point mobile enough to visit him , but later in the year her condition worsened and in October she died . He was intensely lonely , though the comradeship of naval life was some comfort . In 1944 he married again . His second wife was the actress Meriel Forbes , a member of the Forbes @-@ Robertson theatrical family . The marriage brought him lifelong happiness and a son , Charles ( 1945 – 98 ) , who became a television stage manager .
During the war Richardson compered occasional morale @-@ boosting shows at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere , and made one short film and three full @-@ length ones , including The Silver Fleet , in which he played a Dutch Resistance hero , and The Volunteer , a propaganda film in which he appeared as himself .
Throughout the war Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going , even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near @-@ ruin . A small troupe toured the provinces , with Sybil Thorndike at its head . By 1944 , with the tide of the war turning , Guthrie felt it time to re @-@ establish the company in a London base , and invited Richardson to head it . Richardson made two stipulations : first , as he was unwilling to seek his own release from the forces , the governing board of the Old Vic should explain to the authorities why it should be granted ; secondly , that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate . Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues , but the former declined , saying , " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . " It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell . The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier ; the Sea Lords consented , with , as Olivier put it , " a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful . "
= = = Old Vic , 1944 – 47 = = =
The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company . Thorndike was joined by , among others , Harcourt Williams , Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton . It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays : Peer Gynt , Arms and the Man , Richard III and Uncle Vanya . Richardson 's roles were Peer , Bluntschli , Richmond and Vanya ; Olivier played the Button Moulder , Sergius , Richard and Astrov . The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences ; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception . The Times thought Olivier 's Astrov " a most distinguished portrait " and Richardson 's Vanya " the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos " . Agate , on the other hand , commented , " ' Floored for life , sir , and jolly miserable ' is what Uncle Vanya takes three acts to say . And I just cannot believe in Mr Richardson wallowing in misery : his voice is the wrong colour . " In 1945 the company toured Germany , where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen ; they also appeared at the Comédie @-@ Française theatre in Paris , the first foreign company to be given that honour . The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly " made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world . "
The second season , in 1945 , featured two double @-@ bills . The first consisted of Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second . He received good notices , but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff . Agate wrote , " He had everything the part wants – the exuberance , the mischief , the gusto . ... Here is something better than virtuosity in character @-@ acting – the spirit of the part shining through the actor . " As a teenager , the director Peter Hall saw the production ; he said fifty years later , " Of the performances I 've seen in my life I 'm gladdest I saw that . " In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated , in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic . Richardson took the supporting role of Tiresias in the first , and the silent , cameo part of Lord Burleigh in the second . After the London season the company played both the double @-@ bills and Uncle Vanya in a six @-@ week season on Broadway .
The third , and final , season under the triumvirate was in 1946 – 47 . Olivier played King Lear , and Richardson , Cyrano de Bergerac . Olivier would have preferred the roles to be cast the other way about , but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear . Richardson 's other roles in the season were Inspector Goole in An Inspector Calls , Face in The Alchemist and John of Gaunt in Richard II , which he directed , with Alec Guinness in the title role .
During the run of Cyrano , Richardson was knighted , to Olivier 's undisguised envy . The younger man received the accolade six months later , by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered . The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors , Lord Esher . He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it . He was encouraged by Guthrie , who , having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier , had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame . Esher terminated their contracts while both were out of the country , and they and Burrell were said to have " resigned " .
Looking back in 1971 , Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1947 " was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country " . The Times said that the triumvirate 's years were the greatest in the Old Vic 's history ; as The Guardian put it , " the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit " .
= = = International fame = = =
For Richardson , parting company with the Old Vic brought the advantage of being free , for the first time , to earn substantial pay . The company 's highest salary had been £ 40 a week . After his final Old Vic season he made two films in quick succession for Korda . The first , Anna Karenina , with Vivien Leigh , was an expensive failure , although Richardson 's notices in the role of Karenin were excellent . The second , The Fallen Idol , had notable commercial and critical success , and won awards in Europe and America . It remained one of Richardson 's favourites of his films . In Miller 's words , " Carol Reed 's sensitive direction drew faultless performances not just from Ralph as Baines ( the butler and mistakenly suspected murderer ) , but also from Michèle Morgan as his mistress , Sonia Dresdel as his cold @-@ hearted wife , and especially from Bobby Henrey as the distraught boy , Felipe . "
Richardson had gained a national reputation as a great actor while at the Old Vic ; films gave him the opportunity to reach an international audience . Unlike some of his theatre colleagues , he was never condescending about film work . He admitted that film could be " a cage for an actor , but a cage in which they sometimes put a little gold " , but he did not regard filming as merely a means of subsidising his much less profitable stage work . He said , " I 've never been one of those chaps who scoff at films . I think they 're a marvellous medium , and are to the stage what engravings are to painting . The theatre may give you big chances , but the cinema teaches you the details of craftsmanship . " The Fallen Idol was followed by Richardson 's first Hollywood part . He played Dr Sloper , the overprotective father of Olivia de Havilland in The Heiress , based on Henry James 's novel Washington Square . The film did not prosper at the box @-@ office despite good reviews , an Academy Award for Best Actress for Havilland , and nominations for the director ( William Wyler ) and Richardson .
The Heiress had been a Broadway play before it was a film . Richardson so liked his part that he decided to play it in the West End , with Ashcroft as Sloper 's daughter Catherine . The piece was to open in February 1949 at Richardson 's favourite theatre , the Haymarket . Rehearsals were chaotic . Burrell , whom Richardson had asked to direct , was not up to the task – possibly , Miller speculates , because of nervous exhaustion from the recent traumas at the Old Vic . With only a week to go before the first performance , the producer , Binkie Beaumont , asked him to stand down , and Gielgud was recruited in his place . Matters improved astonishingly ; the production was a complete success and ran in London for 644 performances .
After one long run in The Heiress , Richardson appeared in another , R C Sherriff 's Home at Seven , in 1950 . He played an amnesiac bank clerk who fears he may have committed murder . He later recreated the part in a radio broadcast , and in a film version , which was his sole venture into direction for the screen . Once he had played himself into a role in a long run , Richardson felt able to work during the daytime in films , and made two others in the early 1950s beside the film of the Sherriff piece : Outcast of the Islands , directed by Carol Reed , and David Lean 's The Sound Barrier , released in 1951 and 1952 respectively . For the latter he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor . With his characteristic liking for switching between modern roles and the classics , his next stage part was Colonel Vershinin in Three Sisters in 1951 . He headed a strong cast , with Renée Asherson , Margaret Leighton and Celia Johnson as the sisters , but reviewers found the production weakly directed , and some felt that Richardson failed to disguise his positive personality when playing the ineffectual Vershinin . He did not attempt Chekhov again for more than a quarter of a century .
In 1952 Richardson appeared at the Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon Festival at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre ( forerunner of the Royal Shakespeare Company ) . His return to Shakespeare for the first time since his Old Vic days was keenly anticipated , but turned out to be a serious disappointment . He had poor reviews for his Prospero in The Tempest , judged too prosaic . In the second production of the festival his Macbeth , directed by Gielgud , was generally considered a failure . He was thought unconvincingly villainous ; the influential young critic Kenneth Tynan professed himself " unmoved to the point of paralysis , " though blaming the director more than the star . Richardson 's third and final role in the Stratford season , Volpone in Ben Jonson 's play , received much better , but not ecstatic , notices . He did not play at Stratford again .
Back in the West End , Richardson was in another Sherriff play , The White Carnation , in 1953 , and in November of the same year he and Gielgud starred together in N C Hunter 's A Day by the Sea , which ran at the Haymarket for 386 performances . During this period , Richardson played Dr Watson in an American / BBC radio co @-@ production of Sherlock Holmes stories , with Gielgud as Holmes and Orson Welles as the evil Professor Moriarty . These recordings were later released commercially on disc .
In late 1954 and early 1955 Richardson and his wife toured Australia together with Sybil Thorndike and her husband , Lewis Casson , playing Terence Rattigan 's plays The Sleeping Prince and Separate Tables . The following year he worked with Olivier again , playing Buckingham to Olivier 's Richard in the 1955 film of Richard III . Olivier , who directed , was exasperated at his old friend 's insistence on playing the role sympathetically .
Richardson turned down the role of Estragon in Peter Hall 's premiere of the English language version of Samuel Beckett 's Waiting for Godot in 1955 and later reproached himself for missing the chance to be in " the greatest play of my generation " . He had consulted Gielgud , who dismissed the piece as rubbish , and even after discussing the play with the author , Richardson could not understand the play or the character . Richardson 's Timon of Athens in his 1956 return to the Old Vic was well received , as was his Broadway appearance in The Waltz of the Toreadors for which he was nominated for a Tony Award in 1957 . He concluded the 1950s with two contrasting West End successes , Robert Bolt 's Flowering Cherry , and Graham Greene 's The Complaisant Lover . The former , a sad piece about a failed and deluded insurance manager , ran for 435 performances in 1957 – 58 ; Richardson co @-@ starred with three leading ladies in succession : Celia Johnson , Wendy Hiller and his wife . Greene 's comedy was a surprise hit , running for 402 performances from June 1959 . Throughout rehearsals the cast treated the love @-@ triangle theme as one of despair , and were astonished to find themselves playing to continual laughter . During the run , Richardson worked by day on another Greene work , the film Our Man in Havana . Alec Guinness , who played the main role , noted " the object @-@ lesson in upstaging in the last scene between Richardson and Noël Coward " , faithfully captured by the director , Carol Reed .
= = = 1960s = = =
Richardson began the 1960s with a failure . Enid Bagnold 's play The Last Joke was savaged by the critics ( " a meaningless jumble of pretentious whimsy " was one description ) . His only reason for playing in the piece was the chance of acting with Gielgud , but both men quickly regretted their involvement . Richardson then went to the US to appear in Sidney Lumet 's film adaptation of Long Day 's Journey into Night , alongside Katharine Hepburn . Lumet later recalled how little guidance Richardson needed . Once , the director went into lengthy detail about the playing of a scene , and when he had finished , Richardson said , " Ah , I think I know what you want – a little more flute and a little less cello " . After that , Lumet was sparing with suggestions . Richardson was jointly awarded the Cannes Film Festival 's Best Actor prize with his co @-@ stars Jason Robards Jr and Dean Stockwell .
Richardson 's next stage role was in a starry revival of The School for Scandal , as Sir Peter Teazle , directed by Gielgud in 1962 . The production was taken on a North American tour , in which Gielgud joined the cast as , he said , " the oldest Joseph Surface in the business " . A revival of Six Characters in Search of an Author in 1963 was judged by the critic Sheridan Morley to have been a high @-@ point of the actor 's work in the 1960s . Richardson joined a British Council tour of South Africa and Europe the following year ; he played Bottom again , and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice .
For his next four stage productions , Richardson was at the Haymarket . Father Carving a Statue ( 1964 ) by Graham Greene was short @-@ lived . He had a more reliable vehicle in Shaw 's You Never Can Tell ( 1966 ) in which he played the philosopher @-@ waiter William , and in the same year he had a great success as Sir Anthony Absolute in The Rivals . The critic David Benedictus wrote of Richardson 's performance , " ... he is choleric and gouty certainly , the script demands that he shall be , but his most engaging quality , his love for his son in spite of himself , shines through every line . " In 1967 he again played Shylock ; this was the last time he acted in a Shakespeare play on stage . His performance won critical praise , but the rest of the cast were less well received .
Interspersed with his stage plays , Richardson made thirteen cinema films during the decade . On screen he played historical figures including Sir Edward Carson ( Oscar Wilde , 1960 ) , W E Gladstone ( Khartoum , 1966 ) and Sir Edward Grey ( Oh ! What a Lovely War , 1969 ) . He was scrupulous about historical accuracy in his portrayals , and researched eras and characters in great detail before filming . Occasionally his precision was greater than directors wished , as when , in Khartoum , he insisted on wearing a small black finger @-@ stall because the real Gladstone had worn one following an injury . After a role playing a disabled tycoon and Sean Connery 's father in Woman of Straw , in 1965 he played Alexander Gromeko in Lean 's Doctor Zhivago , an exceptionally successful film at the box office , which , together with The Wrong Box and Khartoum , earned him a BAFTA nomination for best leading actor in 1966 . Other film roles from this period included Lord Fortnum ( The Bed @-@ Sitting Room , 1969 ) and Leclerc ( The Looking Glass War , 1969 ) . The casts of Oh ! What a Lovely War and Khartoum included Olivier , but he and Richardson did not appear in the same scenes , and never met during the filming . Olivier was by now running the National Theatre , temporarily based at the Old Vic , but showed little desire to recruit his former colleague for any of the company 's productions .
In 1964 Richardson was the voice of General Haig in the twenty @-@ six @-@ part BBC documentary series The Great War . In 1967 he played Lord Emsworth on BBC television in dramatisations of P G Wodehouse 's Blandings Castle stories , with his wife playing Emsworth 's bossy sister Constance , and Stanley Holloway as the butler , Beach . He was nervous about acting in a television series : " I 'm sixty @-@ four and that 's a bit old to be taking on a new medium . " The performances divided critical opinion . The Times thought the stars " a sheer delight ... situation comedy is joy in their hands " . The reviewers in The Guardian and The Observer thought the three too theatrical to be effective on the small screen . For television he recorded studio versions of two plays in which he had appeared on stage : Johnson Over Jordan ( 1965 ) and Twelfth Night ( 1968 ) .
During the decade , Richardson made numerous sound recordings . For the Caedmon Audio label he re @-@ created his role as Cyrano de Bergerac opposite Anna Massey as Roxane , and played the title role in a complete recording of Julius Caesar , with a cast that included Anthony Quayle as Brutus , John Mills as Cassius and Alan Bates as Antony . Other Caedmon recordings were Measure for Measure , The School for Scandal and No Man 's Land . Richardson also recorded some English Romantic poetry , including The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and poems by Keats and Shelley for the label . For Decca Records Richardson recorded the narration for Prokofiev 's Peter and the Wolf , and for RCA the superscriptions for Vaughan Williams 's Sinfonia antartica – both with the London Symphony Orchestra , the Prokofiev conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent and the Vaughan Williams by André Previn .
Richardson 's last stage role of the decade was in 1969 , as Dr Rance in What the Butler Saw by Joe Orton . It was a conspicuous failure . The public hated the play and made the fact vociferously clear at the first night .
= = = 1970 – 74 = = =
In 1970 Richardson was with Gielgud at the Royal Court in David Storey 's Home . The play is set in the gardens of a nursing home for mental patients , though this is not clear at first . The two elderly men converse in a desultory way , are joined and briefly enlivened by two more extrovert female patients , are slightly scared by another male patient , and are then left together , conversing even more emptily . The Punch critic , Jeremy Kingston wrote :
At the end of the play , as the climax to two perfect , delicate performances , Sir Ralph and Sir John are standing , staring out above the heads of the audience , cheeks wet with tears in memory of some unnamed misery , weeping soundlessly as the lights fade on them . It makes a tragic , unforgettable close .
The play transferred to the West End and then to Broadway . In The New York Times Clive Barnes wrote , " The two men , bleakly examining the little nothingness of their lives , are John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson giving two of the greatest performances of two careers that have been among the glories of the English @-@ speaking theater . " The original cast recorded the play for television in 1972 .
Back at the Royal Court in 1971 Richardson starred in John Osborne 's West of Suez , after which , in July 1972 , he surprised many by joining Peggy Ashcroft in a drawing @-@ room comedy , Lloyd George Knew My Father by William Douglas @-@ Home . Some critics felt the play was too slight for its two stars , but Harold Hobson thought Richardson found unsuspected depths in the character of the ostensibly phlegmatic General Boothroyd . The play was a hit with the public , and when Ashcroft left after four months , Celia Johnson took over until May 1973 , when Richardson handed over to Andrew Cruickshank in the West End . Richardson afterwards toured the play in Australia and Canada with his wife as co @-@ star . An Australian critic wrote , " The play is a vehicle for Sir Ralph ... but the real driver is Lady Richardson . "
Richardson 's film roles of the early 1970s ranged from the Crypt Keeper in Tales from the Crypt ( 1972 ) to the Caterpillar in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland ( 1972 ) and Dr Rank in Ibsen 's A Doll 's House ( 1973 ) . The last of these was released at the same time as an American film of the same play , starring Jane Fonda ; the timing detracted from the impact of both versions , but Richardson 's performance won good reviews . In The Observer , George Melly wrote , " As for Sir Ralph as Dr Rank , he grows from the ageing elegant cynic of his first appearance ( it 's even a pleasure to watch him remove his top hat ) to become the heroic dying stoic of his final exit without in any way forcing the pace . " In 1973 Richardson received a BAFTA nomination for his performance of George IV in Lady Caroline Lamb , in which Olivier appeared as Wellington .
= = = 1975 – 83 = = =
Peter Hall , having succeeded Olivier as director of the National Theatre , was determined to attract Ashcroft , Gielgud and Richardson into the company . In 1975 he successfully offered Richardson the title role in Ibsen 's John Gabriel Borkman , with Ashcroft and Wendy Hiller in the two main female roles . The production was one of the early successes of Hall 's initially difficult tenure . The critic Michael Billington wrote that Hall had done the impossible in reconciling the contradictory aspects of the play and that " Richardson 's Borkman is both moral monster and self @-@ made superman ; and the performance is full of a strange , unearthly music that belongs to this actor alone . "
Richardson continued his long stage association with Gielgud in Harold Pinter 's No Man 's Land ( 1975 ) directed by Hall at the National . Gielgud played Spooner , a down @-@ at @-@ heel sponger and opportunist , and Richardson was Hirst , a prosperous but isolated and vulnerable author . There is both comedy and pain in the piece : the critic Michael Coveney called their performance " the funniest double @-@ act in town " , but Peter Hall said of Richardson , " I do not think any other actor could fill Hirst with such a sense of loneliness and creativity as Ralph does . The production was a critical and box @-@ office success , and played at the Old Vic , in the West End , at the Lyttelton Theatre in the new National Theatre complex , on Broadway and on television , over a period of three years .
After No Man 's Land , Richardson once again turned to light comedy by Douglas @-@ Home , from whom he commissioned The Kingfisher . A story of an old love affair rekindled , it opened with Celia Johnson as the female lead . It ran for six months , and would have lasted much longer had Johnson not withdrawn , leaving Richardson unwilling to rehearse the piece with anyone else . He returned to the National , and to Chekhov , in 1978 as the aged retainer Firs in The Cherry Orchard . The notices for the production were mixed ; those for Richardson 's next West End play were uniformly dreadful . This was Alice 's Boys , a spy and murder piece generally agreed to be preposterous . A legend , possibly apocryphal , grew that during the short run Richardson walked to the front of the stage one night and asked , " Is there a doctor in the house ? " A doctor stood up , and Richardson sadly said to him , " Doctor , isn 't this a terrible play ? "
After this débâcle the rest of Richardson 's stage career was at the National , with one late exception . He played Lord Touchwood in The Double Dealer ( 1978 ) , the Master in The Fruits of Enlightenment ( 1979 ) , Old Ekdal in The Wild Duck ( 1979 ) and Kitchen in Storey 's Early Days , specially written for him . The last toured in North America after the London run . His final West End play was The Understanding ( 1982 ) , a gentle comedy of late @-@ flowering love . Celia Johnson was cast as his co @-@ star , but died suddenly just before the first night . Joan Greenwood stepped into the breach , but the momentum of the production had gone , and it closed after eight weeks .
Films in which Richardson appeared in the later 1970s and early 1980s include Rollerball ( 1975 ) , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1977 ) Dragonslayer ( 1981 ) in which he played a wizard and Time Bandits ( 1981 ) in which he played the Supreme Being . In 1983 he was seen as Pfordten in Tony Palmer 's Wagner ; this was a film of enormous length , starring Richard Burton as Richard Wagner and was noted at the time , and subsequently , for the cameo roles of three conspiratorial courtiers , played by Gielgud , Olivier and Richardson – the only film in which the three played scenes together . For television , Richardson played Simeon in Jesus of Nazareth ( 1977 ) , made studio recordings of No Man 's Land ( 1978 ) and Early Days ( 1982 ) , and was a guest in the 1981 Morecambe and Wise Christmas Show . His last radio broadcast was in 1982 in a documentary programme about Little Tich , whom he had watched at the Brighton Hippodrome before the First World War .
Richardson 's final role was Don Alberto in Inner Voices by Eduardo De Filippo at the National in 1983 . The direction was criticised by reviewers , but Richardson 's performance won high praise . He played an old man who denounces the next @-@ door family for murder and then realises he dreamt it but cannot persuade the police that he was wrong . Both Punch and The New York Times found his performance " mesmerising " . After the London run the piece was scheduled to go on tour in October . Just before that , Richardson suffered a series of strokes , from which he died on 10 October , at the age of eighty . All the theatres in London dimmed their lights in tribute ; the funeral Mass was at Richardson 's favourite church , the Church of our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory , in Soho ; he was buried in Highgate Cemetery ; and the following month there was a memorial service in Westminster Abbey .
Richardson 's last films – one for television and two for the cinema – were released after his death . These were Witness for the Prosecution , in which he played the barrister Sir Wilfrid Robarts , co @-@ starring with Deborah Kerr and Diana Rigg ; Give My Regards to Broad Street , with Paul McCartney ; and Greystoke , a retelling of the Tarzan story . In the last , Richardson played the stern old Lord Greystoke , rejuvenated in his latter days by his lost grandson , reclaimed from the wild ; he was posthumously nominated for an Academy Award . The film bears the superscription , " Dedicated to Ralph Richardson 1902 – 1983 – In Loving Memory "
= = Character and reputation = =
As a man , Richardson was on the one hand deeply private and on the other flamboyantly unconventional . Frank Muir said of him , " It 's the Ralphdom of Ralph that one has to cling to ; he wasn 't really quite like other people . " In Coveney 's phrase , " His oddness was ever startling and never hardened into mere eccentricity . " Richardson would introduce colleagues to his ferrets by name , ride at high speed on his powerful motor @-@ bike in his seventies , have a parrot flying round his study eating his pencils , or take a pet mouse out for a stroll , but behind such unorthodox behaviour there was a closely guarded self who remained an enigma to even his closest colleagues . Tynan wrote in The New Yorker that Richardson " made me feel that I have known this man all my life and that I have never met anyone who more adroitly buttonholed me while keeping me firmly at arm 's length . "
Richardson was not known for his political views . He reportedly voted for Winston Churchill 's Conservative party in 1945 , but there is little other mention of party politics in the biographies . Having been a devoted Roman Catholic as a boy , he became disillusioned with religion as a young man , but drifted back to faith : " I came to a kind of feeling I could touch a live wire through prayer " . He retained his early love of painting , and listed it and tennis in his Who 's Who entry as his recreations .
Peter Hall said of Richardson , " I think he was the greatest actor I have ever worked with . " The director David Ayliff , son of Richardson 's and Olivier 's mentor , said , " Ralph was a natural actor , he couldn 't stop being a perfect actor ; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination . " Comparing the two , Hobson said that Olivier always made the audience feel inferior , and Richardson always made them feel superior . The actor Edward Hardwicke agreed , saying that audiences were in awe of Olivier , " whereas Ralph would always make you feel sympathy ... you wanted to give him a big hug . But they were both giants . "
Richardson thought himself temperamentally unsuited to the great tragic roles , and most reviewers agreed , but to critics of several generations he was peerless in classic comedies . Kenneth Tynan judged any Falstaff against Richardson 's , which he considered " matchless " , and Gielgud judged " definitive " . Richardson , though hardly ever satisfied with his own performances , evidently believed he had done well as Falstaff . Hall and others tried hard to get him to play the part again , but referring to it he said , " Those things I 've done in which I 've succeeded a little bit , I 'd hate to do again . "
A leading actor of a younger generation , Albert Finney , has said that Richardson was not really an actor at all , but a magician . Miller , who interviewed a large number of Richardson 's colleagues for his 1995 biography , notes that when talking about Richardson 's acting , " magical " was a word many of them used . The Guardian judged Richardson " indisputably our most poetic actor " . For The Times , he " was ideally equipped to make an ordinary character seem extraordinary or an extraordinary one seem ordinary " . He himself touched on this dichotomy in his variously reported comments that acting was " merely the art of keeping a large group of people from coughing " or , alternatively , " dreaming to order " .
Tynan , who could be brutally critical when he thought Richardson miscast , nevertheless thought there was something godlike about him , " should you imagine the Almighty to be a whimsical , enigmatic magician , capable of fearful blunders , sometimes inexplicably ferocious , at other times dazzling in his innocence and benignity " . Harold Hobson wrote , " Sir Ralph is an actor who , whatever his failure in heroic parts , however short of tragic grandeur his Othello or his Macbeth may have fallen , has nevertheless , in unromantic tweeds and provincial hats , received a revelation . There are more graceful players than he upon the stage ; there is none who has been so touched by Grace . "
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= Battle of Halmyros =
The Battle of Halmyros , known by older scholars as the Battle of the Cephissus or Battle of Orchomenos , was fought on 15 March 1311 between the forces of the Frankish Duchy of Athens and its vassals under Walter of Brienne and the mercenaries of the Catalan Company , resulting in a devastating victory for the Catalans .
Engaged in conflict with their original employers , the Byzantine Empire , the Catalan Company had traversed the southern Balkans and arrived in southern Greece in 1309 . The new Duke of Athens , Walter of Brienne , hired them to attack the Greek ruler of neighbouring Thessaly . Although the Catalans conquered much of the region for him , Walter refused to pay them the salaries owed , and prepared to forcibly expel them from their gains . The two armies met at Halmyros in southern Thessaly ( or at the Boeotic Cephissus , near Orchomenos , according to an earlier interpretation ) . The Catalans were considerably outnumbered and weakened by the reluctance of their Turkish auxiliaries to fight . The Company did have the advantage of selecting the battleground , positioning themselves behind marshy terrain , which they further inundated with water . On the Athenian side , many of the most important lords of Frankish Greece were present and Walter , a prideful man and confident in the prowess of his heavy cavalry , proceeded to charge headlong against the Catalan line . The marsh impeded the Frankish attack and the Catalan infantry stood firm . The Turks , seeing that battle was joined in earnest , re @-@ joined the Company , and the Frankish army was routed ; Walter and almost the entire knighthood of his realm fell in the field . As a result of the battle , the leaderless Duchy of Athens was taken over by the Catalans , who ruled that part of Greece until the 1380s .
= = Background = =
In 1309 , the Burgundian noble Walter of Brienne was selected as the Duke of Athens in Frankish Greece after the death of Guy II de la Roche . At that time the Greek world was in turmoil owing to the actions of the Catalan Company . These were a group of mercenaries , veterans of the War of the Sicilian Vespers , originally hired by the Byzantine Empire against the Turks in Asia Minor . Soon , however , mutual suspicion and quarrels brought about an open conflict ; evicted from their base in Gallipoli in 1307 , the Catalans marched west through Thrace and Macedonia , until , pressed by Byzantine troops under Chandrenos , they entered Thessaly in early 1309 .
The arrival of the marauding Company , some 8 @,@ 000 strong , in Thessaly caused concern to the region 's Greek ruler , John II Doukas . Having just availed himself of the death of Guy II to throw off the tutelage of the Dukes of Athens , John turned to Byzantium and the other Greek principality , the state of Epirus , for aid . Defeated by the Greeks , the Catalans agreed to pass peacefully through Thessaly to the south , towards the Frankish principalities of southern Greece . Walter of Brienne , who in his youth had fought against the Catalans in Italy , spoke Catalan and had gained the Catalans ' respect , now hired the Company for six months against the Greeks , at a high price : four ounces of gold for every heavy cavalryman , two for every light cavalryman and one for every infantryman , with two months ' payment in advance . Turning back , the Catalans captured the town of Domokos and some thirty other fortresses , and plundered the rich plain of Thessaly , forcing the Greek states to come to terms with Walter .
The Catalans gave Walter a remarkable success , which brought him accolades and financial rewards from Pope Clement V , but the Duke now declined to fulfil his end of the deal and pay the remaining four months ' pay . Instead , Walter picked the best 200 horsemen and 300 Almogavar infantry from the Company , paid them their arrears and gave them land so that they would remain in his service , while ordering the rest to hand over their conquests and depart his lands . In response , the Catalans offered to recognize him as their lord if they were allowed to keep some of the land they had taken to establish themselves , but Walter rejected their proposal and began preparations to expel them by force . To this purpose , the Duke of Athens assembled a large army , comprising his own feudatories — among them the most prominent were Albert Pallavicini , Margrave of Bodonitsa , Thomas III d 'Autremencourt , Lord of Salona and Marshal of Achaea , and the barons of Euboea , Boniface of Verona , George I Ghisi and John of Maisy — as well as reinforcements sent from the other principalities of Frankish Greece .
= = Battle = =
Three sources report in some detail on the events before and during the battle , all of them drawing on first @-@ hand Catalan accounts and reflecting the Catalan point of view : the near @-@ contemporary chronicle of Ramon Muntaner , the Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea , and the account found in the history of the Byzantine writer Nikephoros Gregoras ( ca . 1359 ) . According to the Chronicle of the Morea , the Catalan army comprised 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , at least 1 @,@ 100 of whom were Turkish prisoners captured during their previous campaigns , and whose skill as archers they had come to value . Many of these Turks had even converted to Christianity . The sources differ on the size of Walter 's army : Gregoras reports 6 @,@ 400 cavalry and 8 @,@ 000 infantry , the Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea puts it at more than 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , while Ramon Muntaner asserts that it comprised 700 knights and 24 @,@ 000 infantry , mostly native Greeks . Modern scholars consider these numbers to be clearly exaggerated , but they do suggest that the Athenian army had numerical superiority over the Catalans .
Ramon Muntaner and Gregoras place the site of the battle at the Boeotic Cephissus , which resulted in the identification of the battle with that locality in older literature , including the standard history of Frankish Greece by William Miller , but also repeated in more recent works . The Chronicle of the Morea on the other hand places the battle at " Halmyros " , apparently the town of the same name in southern Thessaly . William Miller rejected this identification on the basis of the topography described by Muntaner , but the discovery of a 1327 letter by the Venetian statesman Marino Sanudo , which was not published until 1940 and which also places the battle at Halmyros , has altered the scholarly consensus , and Halmyros is now the commonly accepted site of the battle .
Faced with a numerically superior , but less experienced enemy , the Company assumed a defensive position , taking care to select a battleground that favoured them . They chose a naturally strong position , protected by a swamp which , according to Gregoras , they further enhanced by digging trenches and inundating them with water diverted from the nearby river . The Catalans themselves took up positions on dry ground behind the swamp , arranging themselves in a solid line , but the sources give no further details as to their exact disposition . The Athenian army on the other hand assembled at Lamia . On 10 March 1311 , Walter of Brienne composed his testament there and led his army forth . On the eve of battle , the 500 Catalans in the Duke 's service , stricken by conscience , went to him and asked for leave to rejoin their old comrades @-@ in @-@ arms , saying that they would rather die than fight against them . Walter reportedly gave them permission to leave , replying that they were welcome to die with the others . At the same time , however , the Catalans ' Turkish auxiliaries took up a separate position nearby , thinking the quarrel was a pretext arranged by the Company and the Duke of Athens to exterminate them .
Walter was reputed for his bravery , bordering on recklessness , and was confident of success , as evidenced by his haughty reply to the 500 mercenaries . Walter 's pride and arrogance , combined with his numerical advantage and his innate belief in the superiority of heavy noble cavalry over infantry , led him to fatally underestimate his opponent and order a charge across even such an adverse terrain . Impatient for action , according to Muntaner Walter formed a cavalry line of 200 Frankish knights " with golden spurs " , followed by the infantry , and placed himself with his banner in the vanguard . The Frankish attack failed , but the reason is unclear ; Muntaner 's description is short and provides no details , while Gregoras states that the heavy Frankish cavalry got completely stuck in the mud , with the Almogavars , lightly armed with swords and darts , dispatching the knights , encumbered by their heavy armour . This is the commonly accepted version among scholars as well . The Chronicle of the Morea on the other hand implies that the battle was hard @-@ fought , which as military historian Kelly DeVries notes seems to contradict Gregoras , and that the marsh possibly simply reduced the impact of the charge instead of bogging it down entirely . What is clear is that the Catalans held , and that the Duke and most of his men fell . As the two lines clashed , the Turkish auxiliaries , reassured that this was not a ruse , descended from their camp upon the Athenian army , panicking and routing what remained of it .
Gregoras reports that 6 @,@ 400 cavalrymen and 8 @,@ 000 infantrymen fell in the battle , the same number he gives for Walter 's forces . According to Muntaner , 20 @,@ 000 infantrymen were killed , and only two of the seven hundred knights survived the battle , Roger Deslaur and Boniface of Verona . Like the numbers for the overall number of troops involved in the battle , these numbers are unverifiable and probably exaggerated , but they are nevertheless indicative of the scale of the Athenian defeat . In addition , other senior members of the Frankish nobility are known to have survived : Nicholas Sanudo , later Duke of the Archipelago , managed to escape the battlefield , and a few others such as Antoine le Flamenc , who is known to have participated in and survived the battle , were probably captured and later ransomed . Walter 's head was severed by the Catalans , and many years later was taken to Lecce in Italy , where his son buried him in the Church of Santa Croce .
= = Aftermath = =
According to DeVries , the battle was " significant and perhaps even could be defined as decisive " . Almost the entire Frankish elite of Athens and its vassal states lay dead in the field , and when the Catalans moved onto the lands of the Duchy , there was scant resistance : the Greek inhabitants of Livadeia immediately and willingly surrendered their strongly fortified town , for which they were rewarded with the rights of Frankish citizens ; Thebes , the capital of the Duchy , was abandoned by many of its inhabitants , who fled to the Venetian stronghold of Negroponte , and plundered by the Catalan troops ; and finally Athens itself was surrendered to the victors by Walter 's widow , Joanna of Châtillon . The entirety of Attica and Boeotia passed peacefully into the hands of the Catalans , and only the lordship of Argos and Nauplia in the Peloponnese remained in the hands of Brienne loyalists . The Catalans ' Turkish allies however refused the offer to settle in the Duchy , and instead , taking their share of the booty , departed to return to Asia Minor , only to be attacked and almost annihilated by the joint forces of the Byzantines and the Genoese as they were trying to cross the Dardanelles a few months later .
Lacking a leader of stature , the Catalan Company turned to their two distinguished captives : at first they asked Boniface of Verona , whom they knew and respected , to lead them , but after he declined , they chose Roger Deslaur instead . Deslaur proved unequal to the task , however , and the hostility of Venice and the other Frankish states compelled the Catalans to seek a powerful protector . Thus they turned to Frederick II of Sicily , who appointed his son Manfred as Duke of Athens . In reality , the Duchy was governed by a succession of vicars @-@ general appointed by the Aragonese Crown , often cadet members of the Aragonese royal family . The most successful of the vicars @-@ general , Alfonso Fadrique , expanded the Duchy into Thessaly , establishing the Duchy of Neopatras in 1319 . The Catalans consolidated their rule and survived a Briennist attempt to recover the Duchy in 1331 – 32 . In the 1360s , the twin duchies were plagued by internal strife , including a quasi @-@ war with Venice , and increasingly felt the threat of the Ottoman Turks , but another Briennist attempt to launch a campaign against them in 1370 – 71 came to naught . It was not until 1379 – 80 that Catalan rule faced its first major setback , when the Navarrese Company conquered Thebes and much of Boeotia . Finally , in 1386 – 88 , the ambitious lord of Corinth , Nerio I Acciaioli , captured Athens and claimed the Duchy for himself from the Crown of Aragon . With his capture of Neopatras in 1390 , the era of Catalan rule in Greece came to an end .
= = = Primary = = =
Lady Goodenough , ed . ( 1920 – 21 ) . The Chronicle of Ramon Muntaner ( PDF ) . London : Hakluyt Society .
Morel @-@ Fatio , Alfred , ed . ( 1885 ) . Libro de los fechos et conquistas del principado de la Morea compilado por comandamiento de Don Fray Johan Ferrandez de Heredia , maestro del Hospital de S. Johan de Jerusalem - Chronique de Morée aux XIIe et XIVe siècles , publiée & traduite pour la première fois pour la Société de l 'Orient Latin par Alfred Morel @-@ Fatio . Geneva : Jules @-@ Guillaume Fick .
Migne , Jacques Paul , ed . ( 1865 ) . Nicephori Gregorae , Byzantinae Historiae Libri XXXVII . Patrologia Graeca , vol . 148 . Paris : Garnier .
= = = Secondary = = =
DeVries , Kelly ( 1996 ) . Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 85115 @-@ 567 @-@ 7 .
Fine , John Van Antwerp ( 1994 ) . The Late Medieval Balkans : A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 472 @-@ 08260 @-@ 5 .
Lock , Peter ( 2006 ) . The Routledge Companion to the Crusades . London and New York : Routledge . ISBN 1 @-@ 135 @-@ 13137 @-@ 6 .
Miller , William ( 1908 ) . The Latins in the Levant , a History of Frankish Greece ( 1204 – 1566 ) . New York : E.P. Dutton and Company .
Nicol , Donald MacGillivray ( 1993 ) . The Last Centuries of Byzantium , 1261 – 1453 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 43991 @-@ 4 .
Setton , Kenneth M. ( 1975 ) . " The Catalans in Greece , 1311 – 1388 " . In Hazard , Harry W. A History of the Crusades , Volume III : The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries . Madison , Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 167 – 224 . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 06670 @-@ 3 .
Setton , Kenneth M. ( 1976 ) . The Papacy and the Levant ( 1204 – 1571 ) , Volume I : The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries . Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : DIANE Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 87169 @-@ 114 @-@ 0 .
Topping , Peter ( 1975 ) . " The Morea , 1311 – 1364 " . In Hazard , Harry W. A History of the Crusades , Volume III : The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries . Madison , Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 104 – 140 . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 06670 @-@ 3 .
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= Give Me a Ring Sometime =
" Give Me a Ring Sometime " is the first episode of the American situation comedy Cheers . Written by Glen and Les Charles and directed by James Burrows , the episode first aired September 30 , 1982 on NBC . The pilot episode introduces the employees of bar Cheers : Sam Malone , Diane Chambers , Coach Ernie Pantusso , and Carla Tortelli ; and regular customers : Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin . In this episode , Diane , brought in by fiancé Sumner Sloan , meets the employees and patrons of the bar . When she realizes that her fiancé has left her alone in the bar , Diane accepts Sam 's offer to be the bar 's waitress to start over .
In the original script the employees were the principal characters , and Norm and Cliff were not included . Later revisions added Norm and Cliff , and scenes were restructured and rewritten . Originally , Cheers ' set would be a hotel , but it was ultimatelly changed to a bar . Ratings were low when the episode first aired , but were moderately successful in reruns . It has been critically praised over the years , and earned its writers awards for Best Writing in 1983 .
= = Plot = =
As owner Sam Malone opens the bar , a professor Sumner Sloane ( Michael McGuire ) and his Boston University student fiancée Diane Chambers are the first customers . They are planning to go to Barbados to be married , but do not have a wedding ring ; Sumner leaves to get the ring from his ex @-@ wife . While she waits , Diane learns about the other people in the bar . Sam is an ex @-@ baseball player and a recovering alcoholic . Waitress Carla Tortelli is a bitter divorcée with four children . Male patrons are playing a " body sweat in movies " trivia game , which repulses Diane . Sumner returns a few hours later , suggesting Cool Hand Luke as a " sweaty " movie and telling Diane he could not get his ex @-@ wife 's ring . His ex @-@ wife calls the bar with a change of heart , and Sumner leaves Diane again .
Diane and Sam argue about Sumner , and Sam pointedly tells her Sumner is probably on a plane with his ex @-@ wife . Diane calls the airport to change their flight reservation , and finds out that " Mr. and Mrs. Sloane " have already used it . Heartbroken , she prepares to go home before realizing that her job as Sumner 's teaching assistant is gone . Out of pity , Sam offers her a job at Cheers as a waitress . Because of her educational background , Diane initially refuses ; however , when she remembers a number of orders ( including special requests ) from a table she reluctantly accepts the job . The following day , Diane 's first customer is an international tourist ( Erik Holland ) , asking for his lost luggage .
= = Casting = =
The pilot introduces employees of the bar , Cheers , in Boston , Massachusetts in order of appearance :
Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) is a recovering alcoholic , a former baseball player , a bartender and the owner of Cheers .
Diane Chambers ( Shelley Long ) is a college student and " bar misfit " who is abandoned by her fiancé , Sumner Sloane . She becomes a waitress at the end of the episode .
Ernie Pantusso ( Nicholas Colasanto ) is a " forgetful " , " gravelly @-@ voiced bartender " , nicknamed " Coach " because he was Sam 's coach during his career as a relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox .
Carla Tortelli ( Rhea Perlman ) is a bitter , " wisecracking , cynical waitress " and divorcée whose husband , Nick , abandons her and her four children .
The creators rejected the idea of casting a star such as Mary Tyler Moore , and sought actors who were previously unknown to the public . They interviewed almost 1 @,@ 000 people for the four principal roles : Sam Malone , Diane Chambers , Carla Tortelli , and " Coach " Ernie Pantusso . Steve Kolzak ( credited as Stephen Kolzak ) cast the original characters . According to Danson , Rhea Perlman was the first to be cast . Former umpire Ron Luciano auditioned for Coach ; however , the producers " wanted an experienced actor " . Robert Prosky , who later appeared as Rebecca Howe 's ( Kirstie Alley ) Navy father in the 1992 Cheers episode " Daddy 's Little Middle @-@ Aged Girl " and an author in the 1996 Frasier episode " A Crane 's Critique " , turned down the role of Coach . Actor @-@ director Nicholas Colasanto won the role .
Auditions were held for Sam and Diane . Three pairs were tested : William Devane and Lisa Eichhorn , Fred Dryer and Julia Duffy , and Ted Danson and Shelley Long . Before the show premiered Danson appeared in 1979 's The Onion Field ; Long appeared in 1982 's Night Shift , starring Henry Winkler of Happy Days . Fred Dryer later appeared as Dave Richards , a sportscaster friend of Sam 's , in " Sam at Eleven " in 1982 . Sam Malone was originally " a former wide receiver for the New England Patriots " , and Fred Dryer was considered for the role because he was a football player . However , NBC executives liked test scenes with Danson and Long so the creators chose them instead , making Sam a former relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox . Ed O 'Neill also auditioned for the role of Sam Malone .
We had some surprises . Some actors were terrific by themselves but not in concert with others . Each actor read the same scene . Everyone got the same chance . We were looking for actors who could make us laugh by being loyal to the characters . Then we matched them up .
Two customers were introduced :
Norm Peterson ( George Wendt ) , recognized by everyone in the bar , enters for a quick drink .
Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) appears for a conversation with other male patrons about bar trivia .
George Wendt and John Ratzenberger originally auditioned for the role of " George " , and Wendt was cast . In the original script , George was Diane 's first customer at the end of the episode . Annoyed with Diane 's long @-@ winded explanation of how she became a waitress , he delivered his one @-@ word line : " Beer ! " After Wendt was cast , the writers revised the script ; his role evolved into Norm Peterson , the first onscreen customer to enter the bar and " [ badgering ] Diane rather than the other way around " . After Wendt was cast , Ratzenberger suggested to the producers that a know @-@ it @-@ all character be added ; this led to the creation of another character , Cliff Clavin .
One character who was cut from the pilot episode was an unpleasant , racist , wheelchair @-@ bound old woman named Mrs. Littlefield , supposedly a regular customer of Cheers , who was intended to be a recurring character . Her lines were filmed as part of a rough cut of the pilot . However , the producers decided to cut the character out of the episode , as they found her character did not mesh with other characters or with the overall tone of the show . Nevertheless , the uncredited actress who played her can still be seen as a background performer in a few scenes . Some sources credit this actress as Elaine Strich , although the unidentified actress who is still seen on camera looks nothing like Stritch . In answer to a question about the actress , Cheers writer / producer Ken Levine has stated on his blog " that was not Elaine Stritch " The producers ultimately decided to eliminate Mrs. Littlefield completely from the show from that point forward , necessitating changes to some yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ filmed scripts for the first few episodes .
Three other bar patrons have speaking roles in the completed episode : John P. Navin , Jr. portrays a teenage boy in the cold open , Erik Holland has a brief bit as Diane 's first customer , and Ron Frazier appears as a barfly who stands at the bar near Cliff ( and who offers " Ben Hur " as his choice for the sweatiest movie ever made . )
= = Production = =
The creators of Cheers ( and the crew of Taxi ) , co @-@ writers Glen and Les Charles and director James Burrows , created a sitcom project in 1981 . Initially set in a hotel , the setting changed to a hotel bar and finally a " Boston neighborhood bar " . The show was filmed not in a pub , but on Stage 25 of the Paramount Studios lot . Cheers ' set was inspired by the Bull & Finch Pub in Boston , now known as Cheers Beacon Hill ( pictured , right ) . A Boston bar was chosen because of its " interior [ made out of ] brick , polished mahogany , and brass " ; the city was chosen because it is " cosmopolitan " , " a great sports town " and was not previously explored on television . Because the creators are sports fans , an athletic element was added to the bar . Burrows said that the show was intended to be about a bar which people visit for more than drinks .
Jokes from earlier scripts were used . In one scene , Carla Tortelli orders a phone caller to do something about their unruly children . When one of the bartenders suggests hiring a babysitter , Carla replied that the caller was the babysitter . The cast did not know the ending of the pilot episode during production , since the final draft of the script was dated April 16 , 1982 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The NBC premiere lineup on September 30 , 1982 consisted of ( beginning at 8 : 00 pm Eastern and Pacific Time ) Fame , Cheers , Taxi and Hill Street Blues . Cheers debuted at 9 : 00 pm against the two @-@ hour season premiere of Magnum , P.I. and the one @-@ hour season premiere of Too Close for Comfort . It finished in 60th place ( out of 63 programs ) , with a 9 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating . In Alaska , it premiered on October 14 , 1982 at 8 : 00 pm AKT . On December 23 , 1982 the episode was rerun , receiving an 11 @.@ 5 rating and finishing 57th out of 68 programs airing from December 20 – 26 , 1982 .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
When the episode originally aired in 1982 , Fred Rothenberg of the Associated Press called it an introduction to a " new wise @-@ cracking comedy " , " a warm and wacky companion of a television show , a delightful place to spend idle time , [ and ] a five @-@ star watering hole " known as Cheers . Television and radio critic Mike Drew said it was not great but " funnier [ ... ] with cute lines [ ... ] than " any other sitcom , even those ( like Archie Bunker 's Place on TV and Duffy 's Tavern on radio ) set in bars . Fred L. Smith of The News and Courier found this episode similar to Taxi : " Both are set in a place of business − Cheers at a [ Boston bar ] , Taxi at a [ New York taxi company ] — both have a sensible guy and a pretty , preppy girl as main characters — Ted Danson and Shelley Long in Cheers and Judd Hirsch and Marilu Henner in Taxi — and both are wacky comedies . " He found it " amusing " ; some jokes , funny ; many others , forced ; and the number of " weird characters " in the show greater than their real @-@ life bar counterparts .
In 2009 , Lex Walker on the Just Press Play website found this episode " sadder and more sentimental " than funny ; the episode focuses " less on character development and more on " Diane restarting her life as a waitress after the loss of love , and he said it contradicts " what [ Cheers ] will grow to be " . Nevertheless , he called the episode a true introduction to the series and considered the intertwining stories of Sam and his friends the series ' premise . In 2010 , Robin Raven from Yahoo ! Voices called it one of her top five Cheers episodes . In 2011 , Austin Lugar from The Film Yap website called it the " best " . IGN ranked it number nine of the top ten Cheers episodes .
= = = Awards = = =
At the 1983 Primetime Emmy Awards , writers and co @-@ creators Glen and Les Charles won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for this episode . The brothers also received a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay - Episodic Comedy . The episode earned production designer Richard Sylbert and set decorator George Gaines an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Art Direction for a Series ( won by Tales of the Gold Monkey ) .
= = = Home media = = =
The first home media release of the episode was a VHS cassette in the United States on September 29 , 1993 . It was part of the initial launch of seven cassettes by Paramount Home Video . One volume contained only the pilot episode itself , while each of other six volumes contained two episodes . The episode was released on Region 1 DVD as part of the season one box on May 20 , 2003 , and as part of Fan Favorites : The Best of Cheers on March 6 , 2012 .
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= SS Kommandøren =
SS Kommandøren was a steel @-@ hulled passenger / cargo steamship built in Norway in 1891 . She served as a communications link between the regional capital of Western Norway , Bergen , and the various communities of Sogn og Fjordane county .
Following the 9 April 1940 German invasion of Norway , she was requisitioned by the Norwegian authorities and carried troops for the Norwegian war effort until the forces in Western Norway ceased fighting on 2 May 1940 .
After a brief stint in German service , she returned to her civilian duties later in 1940 , and was accidentally torpedoed and sunk by a German E @-@ boat in Bergen on 29 March 1945 .
= = Construction and characteristics = =
Kommandøren was one of four passenger / cargo steamships built for Nordre Bergenhus Amts Dampskibe at Norwegian shipyards around the turn of the 20th century . The four ships were constructed to supplement four smaller vessels built decades earlier at British shipyards . In addition to Kommandøren , which was seen as the flagship of the company 's fleet , Lærdal , Balder and Stavenes were built between 1876 and 1904 . The company sailed on cargo / passenger routes in Western Norway . Kommandøren was the largest of the new @-@ builds , and was considered the grandest of the company vessels .
Delivered on 30 June 1891 , Kommandøren was yard number 132 at Akers Mekaniske Værksted in Kristiania ( modern @-@ day Oslo ) , Norway . The steel @-@ hulled ship measured 433 gross register tons ( GRT ) , had a length of 50 @.@ 8 metres ( 167 ft ) , a beam of 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) and a draught of 3 @.@ 9 metres ( 13 ft ) . Her 600 indicated horsepower / 116 nominal horsepower 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion steam engine could propel the ship at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Kommandøren cost the company NOK 264 @,@ 000 to build and could take up to 249 passengers .
Although much newer than the first ships operated by Nordre Bergenhus Amts Dampskibe , Kommandøren and the three other ships were only around 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster than the mid @-@ 19th century vessels used by the company .
The new ship was named Kommandøren by Nordre Bergenhus amt county council , after the affectionate nickname of the county 's shipping company 's first executive director , Hugo Lous , who had held the rank of kommandørkaptein ( English : commander ) in the Royal Norwegian Navy . To name the new ship after the executive director was an unusual decision , as most Norwegian ships of the era were named after place names , historical figures or royalty .
Built not only to carry people and cargo between the towns and villages of Western Norway , but also for the tourist trade , Kommandøren was fitted with a comparatively luxurious first class section . The 10 @-@ cabin , 36 @-@ bed , first class featured a smoking salon , a women 's salon and a dining salon for the first class passengers and ship officers . A promenade deck gave views in all directions . The third class passengers had two salons , one on the main deck and one on the orlop ( lowest ) deck . On Kommandøren , the third class section was expanded and improved in comparison with earlier vessels , after complaints from passengers to the county council . The third class section of Kommandøren was described by the newspaper Sogns Tidende as " large , spacious and almost comfortably equipped . Kommandøren was home ported in Bergen . She had her maiden passenger voyage from Bergen to Sogn on 5 July 1891 .
= = Passenger / cargo and tourist service = =
In the summer season , Kommandøren served the tourist trade in Sogn , while she sailed the regular passenger / cargo routes during the winter months . Kommandøren was generally used as an express route ship , often carrying patients on their way to treatment . Amongst the cargo carried by was often live animals , including horses , cattle and sheep . During one of her trips , Kommandøren ran aground on 20 October 1900 near Tjugum in Balestrand . The ship was also at times employed to transport important dignitaries in the region , like she did in September 1920 , when she brought politicians to Vik to inspect the area for a proposed railway project . Shortly after delivery , in September 1892 , Kommandøren provided transport support to a large @-@ scale Norwegian Army field exercise in Western Norway . She was tasked with transporting troops from Gudvangen to Lærdalsøyri after the completion of the exercises .
In 1910 , Kommandøren was modernized at Stavanger Støberi & Dok in Stavanger , gaining a new boiler for the steam engine and being painted white . In January the next year , she ran aground at Rongevær in the Fensfjord . She ran aground again in 1913 , in Herdlefjorden , and again in Bårdsundet off Tysnesøy in 1928 .
A rebuild in 1922 saw the ship 's well deck built over , creating a flush deck profile . In 1930 the ship was refurbished and modernized . By this time , Kommandøren measured 543 GRT and 315 NRT .
Kommandøren ran aground yet again in April 1938 , when she ran into the island Segløya while en route from Skjerjehamn to Eivindvik . The incident caused severe damage to the bottom of the hull .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =
= = = = Troop ship = = = =
When Norway was invaded by Nazi Germany on 9 April , Kommandøren was not in the areas immediately captured by the invading Germans . She was thus able to continue her service in the Sognefjord for much of the month of April 1940 . On 9 April 1940 , Kommandøren was en route to Bergen , but was stopped at Høyanger and ordered to Sogn to assist in the mobilization of Norwegian Army units to oppose the Germans .
Kommandøren was directed to transport troops from Dingja via several smaller villages to Nordeide and Gudvangen . Together with the steamer Gudvangen , she set out in the early morning of 10 April to retrieve troops . Kommandøren and the other ships of the company fleet were later praised by the regional police commander for their important role in the successful mobilization in Sogn og Fjordane .
= = = = Bombing in the Sognefjord = = = =
On 25 April 1940 , Kommandøren steamed in the Sognefjord , carrying regular passengers , as well as a load of around 100 soldiers bound for Gudvangen and Voss for service with the Norwegian Army 's 4th Division . The soldiers brought in that day belonged to an older age group not called up in the initial mobilization drive . While en route from Vik to Balestrand , the steamer was bombed and strafed by a German bomber . The bombs did not hit the ship , and the machine gun bullets only did minor damage and caused no casualties .
After calling at Balestrand , Kommandøren proceeded to Leikanger , where the soldiers on board disembarked . While Kommandøren was docked at Leikanger , the village was attacked by a German aircraft . The aircraft dropped 11 bombs in three series on the area , before strafing people and cars on the ground . Amongst the targets were the soldiers unloaded by Kommandøren , the troops being on the march to nearby Hermansverk . The attack killed a travelling salesman from Bergen outright , and wounded a 16 @-@ year @-@ old local boy and the boy 's mother , restaurateur Isak Roksvåg from Kommandøren and the ship 's captain , Thorvald Johannessen . While on the way to hospital in Lærdal with Kommandøren , Captain Johannessen died from his wounds .
= = = = End of the campaign = = = =
For the remaining week of the fighting in South Norway , Kommandøren was docked at Kvamsøya , immobilized by a damaged axle . As part of the ceasefire agreement accepted by the Norwegians in Western Norway in the evening of 1 May 1940 , Kommandøren was to be handed over to the Germans , along with the ferry Lærdal and 40 smaller boats . The transfer of the ships occurred at Lærdal on 2 May , and the ceasefire was announced on 3 May . The Germans used Kommandøren and the other vessels for a limited period to transport troops to occupy various places in Western Norway . When released by the Germans , Kommandøren was repaired before re @-@ entering service .
= = = During the German occupation = = =
By the autumn of 1940 , Kommandøren was back in regular service , providing an important link between Bergen and the smaller town and villages in the region . By 1944 , Kommandøren had been assigned the code letters LEGO .
She remained in service until 8 February 1945 , when she ran aground in the Alverstraumen narrows . Kommandøren remained aground for five weeks , and was filled by sea water before being salvaged and towed to Bergen to await repairs . Although the ship 's hull was intact , the interior and engine were heavily water damaged .
= = = Sinking = = =
During the night of 29 March 1945 , Kommandøren was docked at the remains of Søndre Nykirkekai in Bergen . At around 01 : 00 the ship was struck by one of two torpedoes accidentally fired by a German torpedo boat anchored on the opposite side of Vågen bay . The torpedo explosion threw debris from Kommandøren over a wide area , and left the ship lying on the harbour bed . Only the mast and a section of the bow remained above water . The midship and aft sections of the ship were completely destroyed by the torpedo . The only crew member on board at the time , Able Seaman Alf Larsen , was killed in the incident .
Before discovering that the incident had been caused by the accidental launch of two torpedoes by a drunken German crewman on the E @-@ boat S @-@ 13 , the German authorities in Bergen launched a search for saboteurs in the city . Kommandøren was the only total loss suffered by Fylkesbaatane i Sogn og Fjordane ( the formerly named Nordre Bergenhus Amts Dampskibe ) during the Second World War .
The wreck of Kommandøren was raised in April 1946 and towed to Kjøkkelvik in Askøy . Kommandøren was sold for scrap in November 1946 .
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= Warren County , Indiana =
Warren County lies in western Indiana between the Illinois state line and the Wabash River in the United States . According to the 2010 census , the population was 8 @,@ 508 . The county seat is Williamsport .
Before the arrival of non @-@ indigenous settlers in the early 19th century , the area was inhabited by several Native American tribes . The county was officially established in 1827 and was the 55th county to be formed in Indiana .
It is one of the most rural counties in the state , with the third @-@ smallest population and the lowest population density at about 23 inhabitants per square mile ( 8 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . The county has four incorporated towns with a total population of about 3 @,@ 100 , as well as many small unincorporated communities . The county is divided into 12 townships which provide local services .
Much of the land in the county is given over to agriculture , especially on the open prairie in the northern and western parts ; the county 's farmland is among the most productive in the state . Nearer the river along the southeastern border , the land has many hills , valleys , and tributary streams and is more heavily wooded . Agriculture , manufacturing , government , education , and health care each provide substantial portions of the jobs in the county . Four Indiana state roads cross the county , as do two U.S. Routes and one major railroad line .
= = History = =
In the centuries before the arrival of European settlers , the area that became Warren County was on the boundary between the Miami and Kickapoo tribes . By the late 18th century , many Miami had moved further south ; most of Indiana north of the Wabash was then occupied by the Potawatomi people . The first non @-@ indigenous settler in the area was probably Zachariah Cicott , a French @-@ Canadian who first traded with the Kickapoo and Potawatomi people around 1802 . When General William Henry Harrison took an army from Vincennes to the Battle of Tippecanoe in late 1811 , Cicott served as a scout ; the trail taken by Harrison 's army passed through the area that later became Warren County on its way to and from the battle site in Tippecanoe County . Following the War of 1812 , Cicott resumed his trading on the Wabash ; the state of Indiana was established in 1816 , and Cicott built a log house in 1817 at the location where he later founded the town of Independence . Other settlers came to the area , but probably not until around 1822 .
The county was established on March 1 , 1827 , by the Indiana General Assembly . It was named for Dr. Joseph Warren , who was killed in 1775 at the Battle of Bunker Hill , in which he fought as a private because his commission as a general had not yet taken effect . The short @-@ lived town of Warrenton was the original Warren County seat , chosen by commissioners in March 1828 ; the next year an act was passed calling for the seat to be relocated , and in June 1829 it was moved to Williamsport .
The first county courthouse was a log house in Warrenton that belonged to ( and was occupied by ) Enoch Farmer , one of the county 's earliest settlers . When the county seat moved to Williamsport , a log house belonging to the town 's founder , William Harrison , served this purpose for several years . The first purpose @-@ built courthouse was completed in 1835 at a cost of $ 2 @,@ 000 ; in 1872 , it was replaced with a new building that cost $ 48 @,@ 000 . The third courthouse was built in 1886 , in a new section of town that grew around the newly constructed railroad . That building burned in 1907 , and the fourth and current Warren County courthouse was completed on the same site in 1908 at a cost of $ 115 @,@ 000 .
As the 19th century progressed , the United States government 's Indian removal policy pushed Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River . In 1830 , the Indian Removal Act was signed into law , and though that act did not directly address the Potawatomi people of Indiana , it led to several additional treaties that resulted in their removal . In what came to be known as the Potawatomi Trail of Death , about 860 Potawatomi Indians who had refused to leave were forced to move from Indiana to Kansas . On September 14 , 1838 , the group camped near Williamsport , and on September 15 they camped in the southwestern part of the county before moving into Illinois . Before reaching their destination in Kansas , over 40 of them had died , many of them children ; two children died and were buried at the second Warren County campsite .
When the county was established , the Wabash River was vital to transportation and shipping . Zachariah Cicott traded up and down the river , and cities like Attica , Perrysville , Baltimore and Williamsport were founded near the river 's banks and flourished because of it . In the 1840s , the Wabash and Erie Canal began to operate and provided even broader shipping opportunities , but the canal favored towns which were on the " right side " of the river ; the canal was on the Fountain County side , and towns like Baltimore dwindled as a result . Some towns , such as Williamsport and Perrysville , managed to participate in canal traffic through the use of side @-@ cuts that brought traffic from the canal across the river . When railroads were constructed starting in the 1850s , they in turn began to render the canals obsolete and allowed trade to reach towns that lacked water connections . The canal continued to be used through the early 1870s .
The first trains to run in Warren County operated on portions of the Toledo , Wabash and Western Railway ( later the Wabash Railroad ) in 1856 . The railroad entered the county near Williamsport and was built westward , reaching the western border at State Line City by 1857 . West Lebanon was the only other settlement near the railroad 's path , but the line bypassed it by about a mile ; the town subsequently moved northward to be nearer the station . In 1869 the Indianapolis , Bloomington and Western Railway was built across Mound Township in the southern part of the county . A few years later , in 1872 , a branch of the Chicago , Danville and Vincennes Railroad ( known as the " Pumpkin Vine Railroad " ) was built from Bismarck , Illinois , southeast through Warren County ; it was built specifically to carry coal from the mines south of Covington . A labor riot at the mines in the late 1870s interrupted the flow of coal , and this combined with the poor financial state of the railroad led to the removal of most of the track by 1880 ; the remaining portion was removed a few years later . At about this time , in the early 1880s , the Chicago and Indiana Coal Railroad began operating a north – south line through the county . It became part of the Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad but was abandoned in 1920 due to financial difficulties ; a new company operated the line as the Chicago , Attica and Southern Railroad starting in 1921 , but financial problems affected the new company as well and the rails were removed in 1946 . Another line , part of the New York Central Railroad , was built through the area in 1903 ; locally , it ran northeast from Danville into Warren County , then turned north through the small towns of Sloan and Stewart and continued north into Benton County . In the 1970s it became part of Penn Central , then Conrail ; operations on the line ceased in the 1990s and the tracks were removed , though a portion running north from Stewart remained and became the Bee Line Railroad which serves the grain processing facility in Stewart .
The Wabash Cannonball was a passenger train that ran on the Wabash Railroad between Detroit , Michigan and Saint Louis , Missouri , starting in 1949 . On September 19 , 1964 , the southbound Cannonball struck a truck loaded with concrete blocks at a crossing in Johnsonville . The driver of the truck was killed instantly , but although the train derailed , no other lives were lost . On the train , the driver and fireman were severely injured when the engine caught fire , and about half of the 50 passengers were injured . Over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of track was torn out , and the damage was estimated at over $ 500 @,@ 000 . The last run of the Cannonball was in 1969 .
After peaking in the late 19th century , the county 's population declined during the 20th , in common with much of the rural Midwest . The widespread adoption of the automobile in the 1920s undercut small @-@ town businesses , which were threatened further by the Great Depression of the 1930s . World War II and the economic revival of the late 1940s and 1950s drew people to better jobs in growing regional cities , and this further diminished small towns . The population shrank again in the 1980s due largely to the effects of the " farm crisis " of low crop prices , high farmer debt and other economic causes .
The first county fair involved both Fountain and Warren counties and was held in Independence on September 6 and 7 , 1853 . In following years , the fair was held in Fountain County , and participation by Warren County farmers diminished . In 1856 , farmers in the northern part of the county held a fair just east of Pine Village , and this continued each year through 1864 . West Lebanon became the next site of the county fair , and it ran successfully through 1883 ; the fairgrounds just to the northwest of town were well @-@ developed . Later , the fair was held at the county seat of Williamsport , and this continues through the present day ; it is now a 4H fair .
One location in the county , near the small town of Kramer , once had an international reputation : the Hotel Mudlavia . Built in 1890 at a cost of $ 250 @,@ 000 , it drew guests from around the world to nearby natural springs that were said to have healing qualities . People such as James Whitcomb Riley , John L. Sullivan and Harry Lauder are known to have stayed at the hotel , which burned down in 1920 . Later , water from the springs was bottled and sold by Indianapolis @-@ based Cameron Springs company , which was acquired by the Perrier Group of America in 2000 for about $ 10 @.@ 5 million . As of 2008 the water was still being sold and was marketed under a variety of names .
= = Geography = =
The Wabash River , coming out of Tippecanoe County to the east , defines the southeastern border of the county ; the terrain here is hilly and wooded areas are common . Fountain County lies across the river . By contrast , the northwest region consists mainly of flat prairie farmland ; this continues in Benton County to the north . Along the western side of the county is the border with Vermilion County , Illinois . The small southern border is shared with the north end of the similarly named Indiana county of Vermillion . The state capital of Indianapolis lies about 70 miles ( 110 km ) to the southeast .
The highest free @-@ falling waterfall in the state , Williamsport Falls , is located in downtown Williamsport ; a stream named Fall Creek flows through the town and falls 90 feet ( 27 m ) over a sandstone ledge less than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) from the county courthouse . Northeast of Independence is the Black Rock Barrens Nature Preserve , a rare siltstone glade area that , with the adjacent Weiler @-@ Leopold Nature Reserve , supports a diversity of flora including sessile trillium , phlox and wild hyacinth in the moist lowlands and serviceberry , rue anemone , birdsfoot violet and yellow pimpernel on the drier slopes . Big Pine Creek is the county 's largest waterway after the Wabash River , and 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) segment of it is designated by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources as a state natural and scenic river and passes near Fall Creek Gorge Nature Preserve , an area of cascades and potholes .
According to the 2010 census , the county has a total area of 366 @.@ 40 square miles ( 949 @.@ 0 km2 ) , of which 364 @.@ 68 square miles ( 944 @.@ 5 km2 ) ( or 99 @.@ 53 % ) is land and 1 @.@ 72 square miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km2 ) ( or 0 @.@ 47 % ) is water . Elevations in the county range from 480 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level where the Wabash River enters Vermillion County to 830 feet ( 250 m ) in northeastern Prairie Township . The landscape consists mostly of flat or gently sloping moraine overlaying silty and loamy glacial till , except along the Wabash River where sand , gravel , sandstone and shale are exposed . Various forms of silt loam constitute most of the county 's soil and are conducive to agriculture . Forests cover about 14 % of the county , mainly around major waterways , and consist principally of deciduous hardwoods among which maple – beech and oak – hickory forests are the most common . The only coal mines in the county are located in the southeastern part of Steuben Township , near the Wabash River .
When the county was formed in 1827 , it was divided into four townships : Medina , Warren , Pike and Mound . Over the following decades , many changes were made to the township borders and eight new townships were created . Pine and Washington were the first of these , in March 1830 ; Steuben followed in 1834 . Liberty was formed in 1843 , Adams in 1848 , then Jordan in 1850 . Kent and Prairie were the last to be created , in 1864 . As of 2010 , Prairie Township , at 5 @.@ 4 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @.@ 1 / km2 ) , has the lowest population density ; it covers more area than any of the other townships — nearly 50 square miles ( 130 km2 ) — and contains no incorporated towns . The highest density is in Washington Township , which has 120 inhabitants per square mile ( 46 / km2 ) ; it includes Williamsport , the county 's largest town , and covers only about 20 square miles ( 52 km2 ) .
There are four incorporated towns in the county . The largest is Williamsport , which is on the western banks of the Wabash River in the eastern part of the county , just downstream of Attica ( which is on the east side of the river in Fountain County ) ; in 2010 , its population was 1 @,@ 898 — nearly one @-@ fourth of the county 's total . West Lebanon is about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Williamsport on State Road 28 , with a population of 723 . The town of Pine Village lies about 11 miles ( 18 km ) to the north of Williamsport where State Road 55 intersects State Road 26 , near the northern edge of the county ; 217 people live in Pine Village . State Line City is in the southwestern part of the county and shares its western border with the Illinois state line . A small Illinois community named Illiana lies immediately on the west side of the county road which runs along the state border ( and which is also a street between the two communities ) . State Line City is the smallest of the towns , with a population of 143 .
In addition to the incorporated towns , there are over a dozen small unincorporated communities in Warren County that are historical centers of activity . Now they consist mostly of dwellings , though several have churches and some still have small businesses . The small settlements of Hedrick , Pence and Stewart are in Jordan Township ; Stewart consists of a grain processing facility and a single residence . In Steuben Township , Johnsonville has a church and a handful of residences . Marshfield has an automotive body repair shop , a grain elevator and a church . Independence , platted in 1832 , is located on the site of a trading post set up by Zachariah Cicott . He is buried in a cemetery in Warren Township , just north of town . The township included the small settlement of Winthrop . Liberty Township has three unincorporated communities : Carbondale , Judyville and Kramer ( near the site of the Mudlavia Hotel ) . Several townships contain only a single settlement . Foster is the only one in Mound Township and has a motel and several houses . In the northeast corner of the county , Green Hill is Medina Township 's only settlement . Tab is the only settlement in Prairie Township ; most of this township is agricultural , and a large grain processing facility is Tab 's only remaining business . Pine Township 's only community is Rainsville .
Some settlements did not survive . The river town of Baltimore thrived and was a major center of trade until the river was overshadowed by the railroad for purposes of trade and transportation ; a single house , built long after the town 's heyday , is all that remains . Warrenton had a promising start as the first county seat , but it began to wane after the seat moved , and today no trace is left . Chesapeake was the first settlement in Steuben Township , but it faded away so early that even an 1883 county history has little to say on the subject . Brisco was never large , though it did have a school house from the 1850s through the 1920s . It likewise disappeared by the end of the 20th century . Chatterton had a school , a store and a post office , but it has disappeared even though the name continues to appear on maps . Other communities were planned but did not develop . Dresser was never much more than a collection of houses , though it did have a post office for a few years around the turn of the 20th century . The settlements of Kickapoo , Locust Grove , Sloan and Walnut Grove were similar in this respect . Point Pleasant never developed much beyond the founder 's residence and a liquor store , and was later described as a " paper town " .
= = Climate and weather = =
Warren County is in the humid continental climate region of the United States , as is most of Indiana . Its Köppen climate classification is Dfa , meaning that it is cold , has no dry season , and has a hot summer . From 1971 to 2000 , average temperatures in Indiana have ranged from a low of 26 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) in January to a high of 74 @.@ 3 ° F ( 23 @.@ 5 ° C ) in July , although a record low of − 33 ° F ( − 36 ° C ) was recorded in 1887 and a record high of 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) was recorded in 1936 . Average monthly precipitation has ranged from 2 @.@ 27 inches ( 58 mm ) inches in February to 4 @.@ 46 inches ( 113 mm ) inches in May .
On April 17 , 1922 , a tornado touched down in Warren County . The town of Hedrick in southern Jordan Township was almost entirely destroyed , along with other buildings in the vicinity of the town , and several people were killed . From 1950 through 2009 , ten tornadoes were reported in Warren County ; none resulted in any deaths or injuries , but the total estimated property damage was over $ 3 million .
Warren County was affected by the Great Blizzard of 1978 which covered several states and was the worst blizzard on record for Indiana ; in late January , a record of snowfall of over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) fell locally , and high winds resulted in snowdrifts as high as 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Local schools were closed for up to seventeen days , and some residents were snowbound for as many as five days .
= = Transportation = =
There are no interstate highways in Warren County , although Interstate 74 passes less than half a mile ( 800 m ) from the southern border . About 20 miles ( 32 km ) of federal highways and 86 miles ( 138 km ) of state highways cross the county , as do about 550 miles ( 890 km ) of county roads . Of these , roughly a third are paved and the rest are topped with crushed gravel or packed dirt .
U.S. Route 41 enters from Benton County to the north and runs through the center of Warren County , veering to the east and crossing the Wabash River between Williamsport and Attica before continuing south . U.S. Route 136 passes through the far southern part of the county on its route between Covington and Danville , Illinois .
In the northern part of the county , Indiana State Road 26 begins at the Illinois border and passes through the town of Pine Village , where it intersects State Road 55 on its way from Oxford in the north to Attica in the south ; State Road 26 continues east through Lafayette and on to the Ohio border . Likewise , State Road 28 runs across the state from Illinois to Ohio ; it connects West Lebanon with Williamsport and continues east through Attica .
The four @-@ lane divided State Road 63 runs south from its northern terminus at U.S. Route 41 near the center of the county ; both reach Terre Haute about 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the south , but while Route 41 crosses to the east side of the river , State Road 63 remains on the west side . Construction on the current State Road 63 , which replaced the older two @-@ lane road and streamlined its route , began in the late 1960s and was completed by the early 1980s . The current two @-@ lane State Road 263 is a part of the original route of State Road 63 and forms a 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) business route that leaves its parent route , passes through West Lebanon and along the river , then rejoins its parent near the south edge of the county . A small portion of State Road 352 lies in the far northwestern corner of the county , following the county and state border north from State Road 26 for only about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before leaving Warren County and entering Benton County on its way through the small town of Ambia .
A Norfolk Southern Railway route connecting Danville , Illinois , with the city of Lafayette is the county 's busiest rail line , carrying about 45 freight trains each day . It enters Warren County at State Line City and passes northeast through the communities of Johnsonville , Marshfield , West Lebanon and Williamsport before exiting the county at Attica . Two short @-@ line railroads operate less frequently . The Bee Line Railroad is used principally for agricultural transportation and runs approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Stewart north through Tab and into southern Benton County where it joins the Kankakee , Beaverville and Southern . The 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) Vermilion Valley Railroad serves the Flex @-@ N @-@ Gate factory near Covington and runs west from the plant through the town of Foster to meet a CSX line in Danville .
The nearest airport is the small Vermilion Regional Airport , located 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) northeast of Danville , Illinois . Purdue University Airport is Indiana 's second busiest airport and is operated by Purdue University in neighboring Tippecanoe County to the northeast . Indianapolis International Airport is located about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the southeast .
= = Economy = =
Warren County 's economy is supported by a labor force of approximately 4 @,@ 815 workers with an unemployment rate in July 2010 of 8 @.@ 8 % . Farming is a significant part of the economy , employing approximately 14 % of the county 's workers and supporting grain elevators in most towns . In some cases , the elevator is the town 's only formal business . The county 's farmland is highly productive and is among the top 10 % of Indiana counties in terms of crop yield per acre . In 2009 , 94 @,@ 700 acres ( 38 @,@ 300 ha ) of corn was planted and 93 @,@ 100 acres ( 37 @,@ 700 ha ) acres harvested , yielding an average of 187 bushels per acre ( 11 @.@ 7 metric tons per hectare ) for a total corn production of 17 @.@ 4 million bushels ( 441 @,@ 980 metric tons ) . Approximately 72 @,@ 000 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 ha ) of soybeans were planted , yielding 55 bushels per acre ( 3 @.@ 7 metric tons per hectare ) for a total of 3 @.@ 96 million bushels ( 107 @,@ 774 metric tons ) . Farmers also grew small amounts of hay ( 3 @,@ 700 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 ha ) ) and winter wheat , and held 3 @,@ 600 head of cattle . Roughly 86 % of the county 's 234 @,@ 413 acres ( 94 @,@ 864 ha ) is cropland .
About 14 % of the labor force works in the government sector for state and county services and schools ; in the non @-@ government sector , manufacturing is the largest industry at about 17 % of the labor force . The county has several industrial employers . Flex @-@ N @-@ Gate , an automobile parts assembly and warehouse facility , occupies the 750 @-@ acre ( 300 ha ) former Olin factory complex west of Covington . In Williamsport , industry includes TMF Center , which manufactures parts for construction equipment and trucking ; GL Technologies , which procures industrial tooling ; and Kuri @-@ Tec , which manufactures industrial hoses and accessories . Tru @-@ Flex Metal Hose in West Lebanon has made stripwound and corrugated flexible metal hose since 1962 ; Dyna @-@ Fab , also in West Lebanon , specializes in metal stampings and weldments . St. Vincent Hospital and a nursing home in Williamsport are also important local employers ; 9 @.@ 8 % of the county 's jobs relate to health care and social services .
Larger local economies in the more populous counties to the east and west offer additional employment and commerce , particularly in the cities of Lafayette and West Lafayette in Tippecanoe County and the city of Danville in Vermilion County , Illinois .
Electricity in the county comes from three providers . Duke Energy and the Warren County Rural Electric Membership Cooperative ( REMC ) serve most of the county , while the northern edge of the county receives power from NIPSCO .
= = Education and health care = =
The county 's four public schools are administered by the Metropolitan School District of Warren County . There is one junior – senior school in the system : Seeger Memorial Junior @-@ Senior High School north of West Lebanon , which was built in 1957 as part of the school consolidation effort . Seeger had an enrollment of 557 students during the 2014 – 15 school year and graduated 90 students the previous year . Warren Central Elementary School is co @-@ located with Seeger and served 305 students during the 2014 – 15 school year , while Williamsport Elementary School served 168 students and Pine Village Elementary School served 117 students .
There are no colleges or universities within Warren County , but there are several in nearby counties . Purdue University is a major undergraduate and graduate land @-@ grant university in West Lafayette , approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast in Tippecanoe County . The University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , another major research land @-@ grant university , is about 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the west . Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana has 23 campuses throughout the state ; the closest to Warren County is in Lafayette . Danville Area Community College is a public two @-@ year college located in neighboring Vermilion County , Illinois , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Williamsport . Indiana State University is located about 60 miles south of West Lebanon , in Terre Haute , IN . ISU is one of the Princeton Review 's " Best in the Midwest , " and holds Carnegie classification as a research / doctoral university .
The towns of Williamsport and West Lebanon both have public libraries . The Williamsport @-@ Washington Township Public Library was built in 2002 and replaced the town 's 1917 Carnegie library ; the West Lebanon @-@ Pike Township Public Library is housed in the original 1916 Carnegie building , which was expanded in 2006 .
The county 's single hospital is St. Vincent Williamsport Hospital , a 16 @-@ bed acute care facility operated by Indianapolis @-@ based St. Vincent Health . The hospital includes a 24 @-@ hour emergency medical service and ambulance service . Williamsport also has a nursing home that provides health care and rehabilitation services primarily for seniors .
= = Notable people = =
George D. Wagner was raised on a farm near Green Hill in Medina Township , where his family moved when he was four years old . As an adult he became a prosperous farmer ; in 1856 he was elected to the Indiana House of Representatives , and he later served in the Indiana Senate . He fought in the Civil War on the Union side and was promoted to Brigadier General in 1863 . After the war , he moved to Williamsport and practiced law ; he died in 1869 at age 39 and is buried in Armstrong Cemetery north of Green Hill , near the farm where he was raised .
James Frank Hanly was born in Champaign County , Illinois in 1863 . He moved to Warren County in 1879 and worked as a school teacher from 1881 to 1889 , when he joined a local law office . He entered politics and served as Governor of Indiana from 1905 to 1909 . He was a strong supporter of prohibition and lectured widely on the subject after his time as governor . While traveling to such a lecture in 1920 , he died in an automobile accident in Ohio and is buried at Hillside Cemetery on the northeast side of Williamsport .
Fremont Goodwine was born in West Lafayette in 1857 . He attended Purdue University and was part of the original freshman class in 1874 , graduating in 1878 . He became a teacher , and later lived in Williamsport and served as the superintendent of education for Warren County , starting in 1887 . He was elected to a seat in the state senate in 1897 and continued there for 12 years ; he served as President pro tem of the senate for one session . He died in 1956 at the age of 99 .
Albert Lee Stephens , Sr. was born in State Line City in 1874 . He studied law in California and set up a private practice there , and later served in several legal positions before becoming a judge in 1919 . In 1935 he was nominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt to serve as a United States District Court judge in California . Two years later Roosevelt nominated him to a new seat as judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , and in 1957 he became chief judge . He died while still serving in 1965 , at age 91 .
Vernon Burge attended school in West Lebanon , where his father worked as a blacksmith . After graduation , he enlisted in the United States Army in 1907 and was assigned to the Balloon Attachment of the Signal Corps . He later became part of the first United States military aviation unit , and in 1912 he became the first American enlisted man to be certified as a military pilot .
Like George Wagner , Donald E. Williams grew up in Green Hill . He studied mechanical engineering at Purdue University , served as a pilot during the Vietnam War , then as a test pilot , and became a NASA astronaut in 1979 ; he flew on two Space Shuttle missions in the 1980s .
Stephanie White @-@ McCarty attended Seeger Memorial High School and was named 1995 Indiana Miss Basketball after setting a state scoring record while playing on the Seeger team . She went on to be part of Purdue University 's first NCAA women 's basketball championship team in 1999 , then began a five @-@ year career in the Women 's National Basketball Association .
= = Media = =
The first newspaper in the county was The Wabash Commercial , which was printed in Williamsport and started publication in the 1850s . A new owner changed the name to The Warren Republican in 1854 , the same year that the Republican Party was formed . It had several different owners until 1870 ; it was then published by a single owner for the next 40 years . Another paper called The Warren Review was started in 1891 and also had several owners until the two papers combined in 1914 as The Review Republican , which is now billed as " Warren County 's only newspaper " . It is now owned by Community Media Group which produces newspapers and other print distribution products in six states . West Lebanon also had several newspapers which began publication around the time of the Civil War . The most recent was The Gazette , which was printed from the late 1800s into the early 1900s ; before this there were several other papers printed under several different names as owners changed . As of 1912 , Pine Village had a newspaper called the Sentinel @-@ News . The Neighbor is a weekly paper serving Fountain and Warren counties .
The nearest major television market area is based in Indianapolis . The smaller Lafayette market area is closer and includes several broadcast stations that can be received in much of Warren County ; the Champaign , Illinois market area is closer to the southwestern portions of the county and is also in broadcast range . There are no radio stations based in Warren County , but several nearby areas have AM and FM stations that are in broadcast range . This includes Lafayette and Terre Haute in Indiana , and Danville and Champaign @-@ Urbana in Illinois .
= = Government = =
The county government is a constitutional body granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and the Indiana Code . The seven @-@ member county council is the legislative branch of the county government and controls all spending and revenue collection . Representatives are elected from county districts . The council members serve four @-@ year terms and are responsible for setting salaries , the annual budget and special spending . The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes , in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval , excise taxes and service taxes . In 2010 , the county budgeted approximately $ 2 @.@ 2 million for the district 's schools and $ 2 @.@ 8 million for other county operations and services , for a total annual budget of approximately $ 5 million .
The executive body of the county consists of a board of commissioners . The three commissioners are elected from county districts in staggered four @-@ year terms . The commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council , collecting revenue , and managing the day @-@ to @-@ day functions of the county government .
The Warren Circuit Court serves as a trial court of general jurisdiction . It hears original disputes in civil , criminal , probate , juvenile , traffic and small claims cases . In most cases , court decisions can be appealed to the Indiana Court of Appeals or Supreme Court . The judge is elected to a term of six years , and is assisted by a clerk who is elected to a term of four years .
The county has several other elected offices , including sheriff , coroner , auditor , treasurer , recorder , surveyor and circuit court clerk . Each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government . Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and be residents of the county .
Each of the townships has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service , provides poor relief and manages cemetery care , among other duties . The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three @-@ member township board . The trustees and board members are elected to four @-@ year terms .
Based on 2000 census results , Warren County is part of Indiana 's 8th congressional district . Most of the county is in the 38th Indiana Senate district ; the exceptions are Warren and Washington townships , which are in the 23rd . The western portion of the county is in the 42nd Indiana House of Representatives district ; the eastern townships of Adams , Medina and Warren are in the 26th .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 8 @,@ 508 people , 3 @,@ 337 households , and 2 @,@ 416 families residing in the county . The population density was 23 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square mile ( 9 @.@ 0 / km2 ) . There were 3 @,@ 680 housing units at an average density of 10 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 3 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the county was 98 @.@ 3 % white , 0 @.@ 1 % black or African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 0 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 0 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0 @.@ 8 % of the population . In terms of ancestry , 27 @.@ 7 % were German , 11 @.@ 3 % were English , 10 @.@ 9 % were Irish , and 9 @.@ 2 % were American .
There were 3 @,@ 337 households , of which 31 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 59 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 8 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 27 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . 23 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 52 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 94 . The median age was 42 @.@ 4 years .
The median income for a household in the county was $ 49 @,@ 238 , and the median income for a family was $ 57 @,@ 990 . Males had a median income of $ 46 @,@ 731 versus $ 31 @,@ 064 for females . The per capita income for the county was $ 23 @,@ 670 . About 6 @.@ 9 % of families and 8 @.@ 8 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 13 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 6 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over .
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= 2011 Cofidis season =
The 2011 season for the Cofidis cycling team began in January at the Grand Prix d 'Ouverture La Marseillaise and ended in October at Paris – Tours . Cofidis was a UCI Professional Continental team in 2011 , meaning they had to be proactively selected by the organizers of UCI World Tour events , including each of the season 's Grand Tours , if they were to compete .
The team 's most successful rider in 2011 was David Moncoutié . The veteran Frenchman won the Tour Méditerranéen and Tour de l 'Ain overall crowns , as well as successes in the Vuelta a España . Moncoutié took a stage win and the King of the Mountains , each for the fourth straight year ( a new record for the mountains title ) . Sprinter Samuel Dumoulin was also a prolific winner , winning six races .
= = 2011 roster = =
Ages as of January 1 , 2011 .
= = One @-@ day races = =
The team was active in races which preceded those known as " classics " and the traditional start of the spring season . At the Grand Prix d 'Ouverture la Marseillaise , held in January as the first race of the season in France , El Fares rode to tenth place by finishing in the main field behind the solo winner . In February , Gallopin was the team 's best finisher at two of the races in the Vuelta a Mallorca series , coming ninth at the unofficial Trofeo Palma de Mallorca and tenth at the Trofeo Inca .
= = = Spring classics = = =
Duque took a high placing at the Gran Premio dell 'Insubria @-@ Lugano , finishing just off the podium in fourth place , coming home in a group that trailed two leading riders . At Kuurne – Brussels – Kuurne , a race which included most of the sport 's top teams , Petit finished ninth in a field sprint finish at the front of the race . Ista narrowly missed out on a victory at Le Samyn in early March . The race 's top finishers came across the finish line scattered , in groups of eight or fewer . Ista finished second , alone , 8 seconds back of solo winner Dominic Klemme . Two weeks later , Keukeilere finished fourth in a sprint at Nokere Koerse . Gallopin finished on the podium at Cholet @-@ Pays de Loire . Team Europcar 's Thomas Voeckler won the race with a late attack , with the peloton coming so close to catching him at the finish line that there was no time gap . Gallopin was first from the peloton for second overall . Vogondy rode to fourth place at the Route Adélie de Vitré , just missing the podium after figuring into a winning breakaway .
The team picked up their first single @-@ day win the same day as the more prestigious Tour of Flanders , in which they participated but were not especially competitive , with Duque in 19th their best finisher . The race they won was the inaugural Flèche d 'Emeraude , a new race in the UCI Europe Tour and the French Road Cycling Cup . Gallopin came first at the head of a field sprint in Saint @-@ Malo . Zingle figured into a winning breakaway at the Brabantse Pijl , the precursor to the Ardennes classics . He took seventh place , a minute and a half back of the winner Philippe Gilbert . Vogondy was sixth at the Tour du Finistère , finishing with a big main group behind two leaders .
Demaret took the team 's second single @-@ day win at the Tartu GP in late May . He was the best of a five @-@ rider breakaway at the front of the race , one which included teammate Taaramäe . That same day , Gallopin took sixth in a sprint finish to the Grand Prix de Plumelec @-@ Morbihan . The team 's last race of the early season was Halle – Ingooigem in June , where Sijmens rode to ninth place .
The team was not especially competitive at the spring season 's monument classics , coming in 37th at Milan - San Remo , 19th at the Tour of Flanders , 29th at Paris – Roubaix , and 57th at Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The team also sent squads to the Trofeo Laigueglia , Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , Gran Premio di Lugano , Les Boucles du Sud Ardèche , Dwars door Vlaanderen , E3 Prijs Vlaanderen – Harelbeke , Gent @-@ Wevelgem , Scheldeprijs , Paris – Camembert , the Grand Prix de Denain , the Amstel Gold Race , Tro @-@ Bro Léon , La Flèche Wallonne , the Eschborn @-@ Frankfurt City Loop , and the Tallinn @-@ Tartu GP , but finished no higher than 12th in any of these races .
= = = Fall races = = =
The team secured several high placings in the later season , but did not obtain any victories . In late July , the team took two of the top six placings at the Polynormande , with El Fares in second and Gallopin in sixth . El Fares had been part of a breakaway , and Gallopin first from the peloton four and a half minutes back . The result put Gallopin into the lead in the French Road Cycling Cup , the year @-@ long competition among French single @-@ day races where French riders , and those on French teams , can earn points . Cusin came eighth at the Tour du Doubs in September . Petit just missed out on the podium at the Grand Prix de Fourmies , finishing fourth in a large field sprint . He made the podium in a similar finish at Binche – Tournai – Binche in October , finishing third . Also in October , Dumoulin took ninth place at Paris – Bourges , from a selective sprint of ten riders . Duque was seventh in a leading group of thirteen at the Grand Prix de la Somme . Though he won only the one race , Gallopin 's consistent high finishes in the French single @-@ day races made him the overall victor of the season @-@ long French Road Cycling Cup , which he clinched after the Tour de Vendée .
The team sent squads to the Châteauroux Classic , the GP Ouest @-@ France , Paris – Brussels , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Montréal , the Grand Prix de Wallonie , the Tour de Vendée , and Paris – Tours , but finished no higher than 11th in any of these races .
= = Stage races = =
The team got their first win of the season , in their first stage race , at the Étoile de Bessèges . Dumoulin made a late selection in stage 3 , joining nine other riders who finished just ahead of the rest of the peloton , and won the sprint to the finish line . Later in February , Moncoutié won the queen stage of the Tour Méditerranéen , finishing at Mont Faron . He had previously won stages there in 2003 and 2009 , but his win this year was enough to win him the race overall thanks to his time gap . The squad also won the teams classification . Dumoulin took another win later in February , in the first stage of the two @-@ day Tour du Haut Var . He stayed latched onto Rinaldo Nocentini 's wheel during the stage 's final climb , and came around him in the sprint .
Taaramäe took fourth overall at Paris – Nice in March , winning the youth classification with this performance , which was easily the strongest for an Estonian rider in the event 's history . Taaramäe turned in a similar strong ride at the two @-@ day , three @-@ stage Critérium International , finishing on the event 's final podium in third place , and securing the youth classification . At the concurrent Volta a Catalunya , Dumoulin took two stage wins . The first was in stage 5 , on an uphill false flat finish which Dumoulin felt suited him well . The second was more unexpected , in that it was a dead flat run in to the finish on wide roads , a more traditional field sprint . Dumoulin was delighted to win twice in front of some of the sport 's biggest stars , and stated that his next goal would be a major spring classic , perhaps the Amstel Gold Race . Dumoulin , however , was not a factor at the Amstel , finishing 104th , over eight minutes behind the winner .
In June , Maté won the final stage at the Route du Sud , coming best in a five @-@ man breakaway sprint . Keukeleire , a prolific winner in his neo @-@ pro season of 2010 but shut out in the first several months of 2011 , took his first win of the year in July at the Tour of Austria . He won a selective sprint at the end of stage 3 , finishing at the head of a 23 @-@ rider group that included the race 's top riders . It was also in that stage that Edet took the lead in the mountains classification . He went on to win it at the end of the race , holding off Skil – Shimano 's Alexandre Geniez by a single point .
The team took several wins in August . Dumoulin took a win in the first stage of Paris – Corrèze , breaking away near the end of the day to finish 4 seconds better than the main field . By finishing in the front group the next day , he secured overall victory in the two @-@ day event . On the same day Dumoulin secured Paris – Corrèze , Cusin narrowly defeated Saxo Bank – SunGard 's Matti Breschel at the end of stage 2 at the Tour of Denmark . After laying 28 seconds down in the overall classification before the final day at the Tour de l 'Ain , Moncoutié secured overall victory the next day . He missed out on the stage win to FDJ 's Thibaut Pinot , but by finishing only 3 seconds back he moved past previous race leader Wout Poels to win the event itself . Lastly , Gallopin took a stage at the Tour du Limousin . He took his second win of the season by breaking away from the peloton within stage 's final kilometer , and holding on for first by 6 seconds .
The team also sent squads to the Volta ao Algarve , Three Days of West Flanders , the Circuit de la Sarthe , the Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey , Four Days of Dunkirk , the Circuit de Lorraine , the Tour of Belgium , the Critérium du Dauphiné , the Tour of Slovenia , the Eneco Tour , the Tour du Poitou Charentes , and Circuit Franco @-@ Belge , but did not obtain a stage win , classification win , or podium finish in any of them .
= = Grand Tours = =
As a Professional Continental team , Cofidis needed to be selected by the organizers of any of the Grand Tours in order to participate . They were selected to ride the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España , but not the Giro d 'Italia .
= = = Tour de France = = =
The Amaury Sport Organisation announced the wildcard entries to the Tour de France in January , much earlier in than in past years . Cofidis , who had participated in the Tour every year of their existence , were among the four teams added to the 18 UCI ProTeams obligated to attend . After not racing the Tour in 2010 and indicating at the time that he may not return to it , Moncoutié decided instead to ride the 2011 Tour with hopes of winning the King of the Mountains title . The decision put a bit of doubt to his potential return to the Vuelta a España , notwithstanding the team needing a wildcard for that race as well , in spite of his three @-@ year string of winning the mountains classification at that race . Taaramäe , Dumoulin , El Fares , and Vogondy were also named to the squad .
Taaramäe finished near the front of the race on stage 1 atop the short Mont des Alouettes hill . He was distanced by stage winner Philippe Gilbert and eventual Tour de France winner Cadel Evans , but finished with the main front group six seconds back for eighth on the day . The team had a very poor team time trial , coming in 21st . They were second to last , ahead of Euskaltel – Euskadi , who are renowned for having weak time trialists on their roster , and only by 2 seconds . The result dropped Taaramäe down to 66th place . The squad was mostly quiet in the first half of the Tour , with Gallopin taking fourth in a field sprint to finish stage 5 and Dumoulin tenth in stage 10 their best finishes .
On stage 13 into Lourdes , which included a passage over the hors catégorie climb Col d 'Aubisque , Moncoutié figured into a ten @-@ man breakaway . Given the lack of overall threat in the group , the peloton did not mount a serious chase , meaning the stage winner would come from this group of ten . FDJ 's Jérémy Roy broke away from the group on the way up the climb . Moncoutié strenuously chased him , with Thor Hushovd following behind . The other breakaway riders all faded , finishing five minutes back on the stage . Roy crested the Aubisque first , and Moncoutié second . Hushovd , a rider known as a very strong descender , caught up with Moncoutié on the way down the Aubisque . With a short flat section still to race after the descent , Moncoutié and Hushovd worked cohesively as a chase group behind Roy . They caught and passed Roy 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the end of the stage , and Hushovd eventually dropped Moncoutié as well to be the solo stage winner ; Moncoutié finished second and Roy third . Moncoutié was roundly criticized by the French press for collaborating with Hushovd in the chase , with Roy ( a fellow Frenchman ) up the road . To that point in the Tour , no French rider had yet won a stage . Team manager Boyer defended Moncoutié , saying Hushovd was likely to surpass Roy and win any sprint at the end of the stage no matter what , and by working with him Moncoutié assured himself second place rather than falling to third .
Taaramäe took over the white jersey for best young rider from Rigoberto Urán on stage 18 . Urán finished a distant 27th on the day , seven minutes off the pace of stage winner Andy Schleck . Taaramäe 's eighth place , three minutes back of Schleck but four minutes the better of Urán , moved him into 11th place overall and into the best young rider 's position , by 33 seconds over Pierre Rolland . Rolland won the stage at Alpe d 'Huez the next day , with Taaramäe finishing 14th two minutes back . This gave Rolland an advantage of a minute and 33 seconds going into the stage 20 individual time trial , where Taaramäe 's skills are superior . Taaramäe indeed finished better than Rolland in the time trial , tenth to Rolland 's 21st , but gained only 48 seconds . This was insufficient to win back the white jersey before the final , largely ceremonial stage into Paris on the Tour 's final day . Taaramäe finished the Tour in 12th place overall , at a deficit of eleven and a half minutes to Tour champion Cadel Evans . Moncoutié was not a major factor in any classification , finishing 41st overall and 25th in the mountains classification . Given his result at just 24 years of age , and that he retains eligibility for the white jersey in the 2012 Tour de France , Boyer expressed that he was quite pleased with Taaramäe 's performance , and that he expected the Estonian to be a contender for the overall podium at the Tour within two or three years .
= = = Vuelta a España = = =
Cofidis was one of the four wildcard entries to the Vuelta a España . After a disappointing Tour de France , Moncoutié decided to ride the Vuelta in hopes of capturing his fourth consecutive King of the Mountains jersey at the Spanish Grand Tour , which would be a new record . While he had entered 2011 thinking it would likely be his last season as a professional rider , Moncoutié changed his mind about that as well and said he would " probably be part of the bunch in 2012 . " Taaramäe was also named to the team for the Vuelta .
The squad did slightly better in the stage 1 team time trial than they did in the equivalent stage at the Tour de France , coming 17th of 22 teams . Moncoutié secured a high placing on stage 6 , coming in ninth on the day with the lead chase group that finished behind four Liquigas – Cannondale riders at the head of the race . Taaramäe climbed with the race 's best riders on stage 9 , coming in seventh on La Covatilla . However , he was not any sort of overall threat – he was already over an hour down in the overall standings , having been in breakaways in stages 4 , 6 , and 8 which did not succeed and lost considerable time to the stage winner each day .
Moncoutié participated in a winning breakaway in stage 11 . Some 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the end of the stage , which concluded on a climb at Estación de Montaña Manzaneda , Moncoutié set out on a solo attack to win the stage . The attack was successful , and the veteran Frenchman won a Vuelta stage for the fourth consecutive year . He said after the stage that he rued falling short at Sierra Nevada , and had studied this course profile carefully to know when to attack to get away for victory . The result also moved Moncoutié up to second in the mountains classification , just a single point behind Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Matteo Montaguti . He took the jersey two days later on stage 13 by joining another winning breakaway . Montaguti had also made the breakaway , but he was unable to stay at the front of the race all day . Moncoutié took two second places and one win on the final three climbs of the day , resulting in a 12 @-@ point lead over Montaguti in the classification . The next day was another good one for the team . Taaramäe made the morning breakaway and held off the race 's top riders as they neared the front of the race . He held on for victory atop La Farrapona by 25 seconds ahead of eventual Vuelta champion Juan José Cobo in second , as all other members of the breakaway finished well back .
Moncoutié all but clinched his mountains classification triumph on stage 15 . While he finished nine minutes behind Cobo on Angliru , he won the day 's second climb to score ten mountain points and increase his lead over Montaguti to 22 points . He scored his final mountain classification points on stage 17 , ending with a total of 63 . Montaguti nearly reclaimed the jersey on stage 18 , when he made a breakaway and Moncoutié did not . Fortunately for Moncoutié , teammate Sijmens had made the escape group and kept Montaguti from maximum points on four of the five climbs . Given that riders who are not involved in a classification nor have teammates that are will generally not ride against someone who is , Sijmens ' presence in this breakway was effectively the only way Moncoutié could have retained the jersey . Moncoutié continued to lead Montaguti , by a score of 63 @-@ 56 . Neither rider scored again , and Moncoutié won his fourth consecutive mountains title , a first in Vuelta history . He was the team 's best overall finisher as well , but was not any real threat , coming in 37th overall at a deficit of over an hour to Cobo . Taaramäe , for his part , did not complete the Vuelta , abandoning on stage 17 .
= = Season victories = =
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= James VI and I =
James VI and I ( 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 ) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death . The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states , with their own parliaments , judiciary , and laws , though both were ruled by James in personal union .
James was the son of Mary , Queen of Scots , and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Henry VII , King of England and Lord of Ireland ( through both his parents ) , uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three thrones . James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months , after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour . Four different regents governed during his minority , which ended officially in 1578 , though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583 . In 1603 , he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland , Elizabeth I , who died without issue . He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years , a period known as the Jacobean era after him , until his death in 1625 at the age of 58 . After the Union of the Crowns , he based himself in England ( the largest of the three realms ) from 1603 , only returning to Scotland once in 1617 , and styled himself " King of Great Britain and Ireland " . He was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland . In his reign , the Plantation of Ulster and British colonisation of the Americas began .
At 57 years and 246 days , James 's reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors . He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England , including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament . Under James , the " Golden Age " of Elizabethan literature and drama continued , with writers such as William Shakespeare , John Donne , Ben Jonson , and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture . James himself was a talented scholar , the author of works such as Daemonologie ( 1597 ) , The True Law of Free Monarchies ( 1598 ) , and Basilikon Doron ( 1599 ) . He sponsored the translation of the Bible that was named after him : the Authorised King James Version . Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed " the wisest fool in Christendom " , an epithet associated with his character ever since . Since the latter half of the 20th century , historians have tended to revise James 's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch .
= = Childhood = =
= = = Birth = = =
James was the only son of Mary , Queen of Scots , and her second husband , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley . Both Mary and Darnley were great @-@ grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor , the older sister of Henry VIII . Mary 's rule over Scotland was insecure , and she and her husband , being Roman Catholics , faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen . During Mary 's and Darnley 's difficult marriage , Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the Queen 's private secretary , David Rizzio , just three months before James 's birth .
James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle , and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland . He was baptised " Charles James " or " James Charles " on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle . His godparents were Charles IX of France ( represented by John , Count of Brienne ) , Elizabeth I of England ( represented by the Earl of Bedford ) , and Emmanuel Philibert , Duke of Savoy ( represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc ) . Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews , whom she referred to as " a pocky priest " , spit in the child 's mouth , as was then the custom . The subsequent entertainment , devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez , featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails ; the English guests took offence , thinking the satyrs " done against them " .
James 's father , Darnley , was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o ' Field , Edinburgh , perhaps in revenge for Rizzio 's death . James inherited his father 's titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross . Mary was already unpopular , and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley , heightened widespread bad feeling towards her . In June 1567 , Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle ; she never saw her son again . She was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half @-@ brother , James Stewart , Earl of Moray , as regent .
= = = Regencies = = =
The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar , " to be conserved , nursed , and upbrought " in the security of Stirling Castle . James was crowned King of Scots at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude , Stirling , by Adam Bothwell , Bishop of Orkney , on 29 July 1567 . The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox . In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class , James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland . The Privy Council selected George Buchanan , Peter Young , Adam Erskine ( lay abbot of Cambuskenneth ) , and David Erskine ( lay abbot of Dryburgh ) as James 's preceptors or tutors . As the young king 's senior tutor , Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning . Buchanan sought to turn James into a God @-@ fearing , Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy , as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos .
In 1568 , Mary escaped from her imprisonment at Loch Leven Castle , leading to several years of sporadic violence . The Earl of Moray defeated Mary 's troops at the Battle of Langside , forcing her to flee to England , where she was subsequently imprisoned by Elizabeth . On 23 January 1570 , Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh . The next regent was James 's paternal grandfather Matthew Stewart , 4th Earl of Lennox , who was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by Mary 's supporters . His successor , the Earl of Mar , " took a vehement sickness " and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling . Mar 's illness , wrote James Melville , followed a banquet at Dalkeith Palace given by James Douglas , 4th Earl of Morton .
Morton was elected to Mar 's office and proved in many ways the most effective of James 's regents , but he made enemies by his rapacity . He fell from favour when Frenchman Esmé Stewart , Sieur d 'Aubigny , first cousin of James 's father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox , arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James 's powerful male favourites . Morton was executed on 2 June 1581 , belatedly charged with complicity in Lord Darnley 's murder . On 8 August , James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland . The king , then fifteen years old , remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year .
= = Rule in Scotland = =
Lennox was a Protestant convert , but he was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox " went about to draw the King to carnal lust " . In August 1582 , in what became known as the Ruthven Raid , the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle , imprisoned him , and forced Lennox to leave Scotland . During his imprisonment , John Craig , whom James had personally appointed Royal Chaplain in 1579 , rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit ( 19 September 1582 ) for having issued a proclamation offensive to the clergy " that the king wept " .
After James was liberated in June 1583 , he assumed increasing control of his kingdom . He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk , and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan . Between 1584 and 1603 , he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords , ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane who led the government until 1592 . An eight @-@ man commission known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of James 's finances in 1596 , but it drew opposition from vested interests . It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh that was stoked by anti @-@ Catholicism led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily .
One last Scottish attempt against the king 's person occurred in August 1600 , when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven , the Earl of Gowrie 's younger brother , at Gowrie House , the seat of the Ruthvens . Ruthven was run through by James 's page John Ramsay and the Earl of Gowrie was himself killed in the ensuing fracas ; there were few surviving witnesses . James 's account of the circumstances was not universally believed , given his history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money .
In 1586 , James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England . That and the execution of his mother in 1587 , which he denounced as a " preposterous and strange procedure " , helped clear the way for his succession south of the border . Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless , and James was her most likely successor . Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy . During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588 , he assured Elizabeth of his support as " your natural son and compatriot of your country " .
= = = Marriage = = =
Throughout his youth , James was praised for his chastity , since he showed little interest in women . After the loss of Lennox , he continued to prefer male company . A suitable marriage , however , was necessary to reinforce his monarchy , and the choice fell on fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Anne of Denmark , younger daughter of Protestant Frederick II . Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589 , Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway . James sailed from Leith on hearing that the crossing had been abandoned , in what Willson calls " the one romantic episode of his life " , with a 300 @-@ strong retinue to fetch Anne personally . The couple were married formally at the Bishop 's Palace in Oslo on 23 November and returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590 , after stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe . By all accounts , James was at first infatuated with Anne and , in the early years of their marriage , seems always to have showed her patience and affection . The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood : Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , who died of typhoid fever in 1612 , aged 18 ; Elizabeth , later queen of Bohemia ; and Charles , his successor . Anne died before her husband in March 1619 .
= = = Witch hunts = = =
James 's visit to Denmark , a country familiar with witch @-@ hunts , sparked an interest in the study of witchcraft , which he considered a branch of theology . He attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563 . Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James 's ship , most notably Agnes Sampson .
James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches and wrote the Daemonologie in 1597 , a tract inspired by his personal involvement which opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth . James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . After 1599 , his views became more sceptical . In a later letter written in England to his son Prince Henry , James congratulates the Prince on " the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench . I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now @-@ a @-@ days prove but illusions , and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations " .
= = = Highlands and Islands = = =
The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard . The king had subdued the organised military might of the Hebrides , but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance . As a result , the 16th century became known as linn nan creach , the time of raids . Furthermore , the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the Gàidhealtachd , driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt .
In 1540 , James V had toured the Hebrides , forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him . There followed a period of peace , but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again . During James VI 's reign , the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood . Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as " void of the knawledge and feir of God " who were prone to " all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis " . The Gaelic language , spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V , became known in the time of James VI as " Erse " or Irish , implying that it was foreign in nature . The Scottish Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders ' shortcomings and sought to abolish it .
It was against this background that James VI authorised the " Gentleman Adventurers of Fife " to civilise the " most barbarous Isle of Lewis " in 1598 . James wrote that the colonists were to act " not by agreement " with the local inhabitants , but " by extirpation of thame " . Their landing at Stornoway began well , but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result , although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful . The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609 , which required clan chiefs to : send their heirs to Lowland Scotland to be educated in English @-@ speaking Protestant schools ; provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes ; outlaw bards ; and regularly report to Edinburgh to answer for their actions . So began a process " specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language , the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers . "
In the Northern Isles , James 's cousin Patrick Stewart , Earl of Orkney resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned . His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James , and the Earl and his son were hanged . Their estates were forfeited , and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown .
= = = Theory of monarchy = = =
In 1597 – 98 , James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron ( Royal Gift ) , in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy . In the True Law , he sets out the divine right of kings , explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons , though " the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon " . The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy , by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God , who would " stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him , for punishment of wicked kings " .
Basilikon Doron was written as a book of instruction for four year old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship . The work is considered to be well written and perhaps the best example of James 's prose . James 's advice concerning parliaments , which he understood as merely the king 's " head court " , foreshadows his difficulties with the English Commons : " Hold no Parliaments , " he tells Henry , " but for the necesitie of new Lawes , which would be but seldome " . In the True Law , James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief , because kings arose " before any estates or ranks of men , before any parliaments were holden , or laws made , and by them was the land distributed , which at first was wholly theirs . And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws , and not the laws of the kings . "
= = = Literary patronage = = =
James was concerned in the 1580s and 1590s to promote the literature of the country of his birth . His treatise Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody was published in 1584 at the age of 18 . It was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of Scots , applying Renaissance principles . He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music , seeing the two in connection .
In furtherance of these aims , he was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others , Montgomerie being a favourite of the King . James was himself a poet , and was happy to be seen as a practising member in the group .
By the late 1590s , his championing of his native Scottish tradition was diffused to some extent by the increasingly expected prospect of inheritance of the English throne . William Alexander and other courtier poets started to anglicise their written language , and followed the king to London after 1603 . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage of the high style in the Scottish tradition , which included his ancestor James I of Scotland , largely became sidelined .
= = Accession in England = =
Elizabeth I was the last of Henry VIII 's descendants , and James was seen as the most likely heir to the English throne through his great @-@ grandmother Margaret Tudor , who was Henry VIII 's oldest sister . From 1601 , in the last years of Elizabeth I 's life , certain English politicians — notably her chief minister Sir Robert Cecil — maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession . Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne in March 1603 , with the Queen clearly dying . Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March , and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day .
On 5 April , James left Edinburgh for London , promising to return every three years ( a promise that he did not keep ) , and progressed slowly southwards . Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the wealth of his new land and subjects . James said that he was ' swapping a stony couch for a deep feather bed ' . At Cecil 's house , Theobalds , Hertfordshire , James was so in awe that he bought it there and then , arriving in the capital after Elizabeth 's funeral . His new subjects flocked to see him , relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion . When he entered London on 7 May , he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators .
His English coronation took place on 25 July , with elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson . An outbreak of plague restricted festivities , but " the streets seemed paved with men , " wrote Dekker . " Stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children , open casements filled up with women . "
The kingdom to which James succeeded was , however , not without its problems . Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance , and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government . By the time of his succession , England had incurred a debt of £ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = Early reign in England = =
James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign , despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome : the Bye Plot and Main Plot , which led to the arrest of Lord Cobham and Sir Walter Raleigh , among others . Those hoping for governmental change from James were at first disappointed when he maintained Elizabeth 's Privy Councillors in office , as secretly planned with Cecil , but James shortly added long @-@ time supporter Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council , as well as five Scottish nobles .
In the early years of James 's reign , the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Robert Cecil , later Earl of Salisbury , ably assisted by the experienced Thomas Egerton , whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord Chancellor , and by Thomas Sackville , soon Earl of Dorset , who continued as Lord Treasurer . As a consequence , James was free to concentrate on bigger issues , such as a scheme for a closer union between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy , as well as to enjoy his leisure pursuits , particularly hunting .
James was ambitious to build on the personal union of the Crowns of Scotland and England to establish a single country under one monarch , one parliament , and one law , a plan which met opposition in both realms . " Hath He not made us all in one island , " James told the English parliament , " compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible ? " In April 1604 , however , the Commons refused his request to be titled " King of Great Britain " on legal grounds . In October 1604 , he assumed the title " King of Great Britain " by proclamation rather than statute , though Sir Francis Bacon told him that he could not use the style in " any legal proceeding , instrument or assurance " .
James achieved more success in foreign policy . Never having been at war with Spain , he devoted his efforts to bringing the long Anglo – Spanish War to an end , and a peace treaty was signed between the two countries in August 1604 , thanks to skilled diplomacy on the part of Robert Cecil and Henry Howard , now Earl of Northampton , which James celebrated by hosting a great banquet . Freedom of worship for Catholics in England , however , continued to be a major objective of Spanish policy , causing constant dilemmas for James , distrusted abroad for repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy Council to show even less tolerance towards them .
= = = Gunpowder Plot = = =
A dissident Catholic , Guy Fawkes , was discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings on the night of 4 – 5 November 1605 , the eve of the state opening of the second session of James 's first English Parliament . He was guarding a pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder with which Fawkes intended to blow up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction , as James put it , " not only ... of my person , nor of my wife and posterity also , but of the whole body of the State in general " . The sensational discovery of the Gunpowder Plot , as it quickly became known , aroused a mood of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons . Salisbury exploited this to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any but one granted to Elizabeth . Fawkes and others implicated in the unsuccessful conspiracy were executed .
= = King and Parliament = =
The co @-@ operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder Plot was atypical . Instead , it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign , though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity . On 7 July 1604 , James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies . " I will not thank where I feel no thanks due " , he had remarked in his closing speech . " ... I am not of such a stock as to praise fools ... You see how many things you did not well ... I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come " .
As James 's reign progressed , his government faced growing financial pressures , due partly to creeping inflation but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James 's court . In February 1610 , Salisbury proposed a scheme , known as the Great Contract , whereby Parliament , in return for ten royal concessions , would grant a lump sum of £ 600 @,@ 000 to pay off the king 's debts plus an annual grant of £ 200 @,@ 000 . The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610 . " Your greatest error " , he told Salisbury , " hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall " . The same pattern was repeated with the so @-@ called " Addled Parliament " of 1614 , which James dissolved after a mere nine weeks when the Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required . James then ruled without parliament until 1621 , employing officials such as the merchant Lionel Cranfield , who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown , and sold baronetcies and other dignities , many created for the purpose , as an alternative source of income .
= = = Spanish Match = = =
Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles , Prince of Wales , and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain . The policy of the Spanish Match , as it was called , was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war . Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the match — which may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade .
The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic @-@ leaning ministers and diplomats — together known as the Spanish Party — but deeply distrusted in Protestant England . When Sir Walter Raleigh was released from imprisonment in 1616 , he embarked on a hunt for gold in South America with strict instructions from James not to engage the Spanish . Raleigh 's expedition was a disastrous failure , and his son Walter was killed fighting the Spanish . On Raleigh 's return to England , James had him executed to the indignation of the public , who opposed the appeasement of Spain . James 's policy was further jeopardised by the outbreak of the Thirty Years ' War , especially after his Protestant son @-@ in @-@ law , Frederick V , Elector Palatine , was ousted from Bohemia by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620 , and Spanish troops simultaneously invaded Frederick 's Rhineland home territory . Matters came to a head when James finally called a Parliament in 1621 to fund a military expedition in support of his son @-@ in @-@ law . The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance serious military operations in aid of Frederick , and on the other — remembering the profits gained under Elizabeth by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipments — called for a war directly against Spain . In November 1621 , roused by Sir Edward Coke , they framed a petition asking not only for war with Spain but also for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant , and for enforcement of the anti @-@ Catholic laws . James flatly told them not to interfere in matters of royal prerogative or they would risk punishment , which provoked them into issuing a statement protesting their rights , including freedom of speech . Urged on by the Duke of Buckingham and the Spanish ambassador Gondomar , James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament .
In early 1623 , Prince Charles , now 22 , and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito , to win the Infanta directly , but the mission proved an ineffectual mistake . The Infanta detested Charles , and the Spanish confronted them with terms that included the repeal of anti @-@ Catholic legislation by Parliament . Though a treaty was signed , the prince and duke returned to England in October without the Infanta and immediately renounced the treaty , much to the delight of the British people . Disillusioned by the visit to Spain , Charles and Buckingham now turned James 's Spanish policy upon its head and called for a French match and a war against the Habsburg empire . To raise the necessary finance , they prevailed upon James to call another Parliament , which met in February 1624 . For once , the outpouring of anti @-@ Catholic sentiment in the Commons was echoed in court , where control of policy was shifting from James to Charles and Buckingham , who pressured the king to declare war and engineered the impeachment of Lord Treasurer Lionel Cranfield , by now made Earl of Middlesex , when he opposed the plan on grounds of cost . The outcome of the Parliament of 1624 was ambiguous : James still refused to declare or fund a war , but Charles believed the Commons had committed themselves to finance a war against Spain , a stance which was to contribute to his problems with Parliament in his own reign .
= = King and Church = =
After the Gunpowder Plot , James sanctioned harsh measures to control non @-@ conforming English Catholics . In May 1606 , Parliament passed the Popish Recusants Act which could require any citizen to take an Oath of Allegiance denying the Pope 's authority over the king . James was conciliatory towards Catholics who took the Oath of Allegiance , and tolerated crypto @-@ Catholicism even at court . Henry Howard , for example , was a crypto @-@ Catholic , received back into the Catholic Church in his final months . On ascending the English throne , James suspected that he might need the support of Catholics in England , so he assured the Earl of Northumberland , a prominent sympathiser of the old religion , that he would not persecute " any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law " .
In the Millenary Petition of 1603 , the Puritan clergy demanded the abolition of confirmation , wedding rings , and the term " priest " , among other things , and that the wearing of cap and surplice become optional . James was strict in enforcing conformity at first , inducing a sense of persecution amongst many Puritans ; but ejections and suspensions from livings became rarer as the reign continued . As a result of the Hampton Court Conference of 1604 , a new translation and compilation of approved books of the Bible was commissioned to resolve discrepancies among different translations then being used . The Authorized King James Version , as it came to be known , was completed in 1611 and is considered a masterpiece of Jacobean prose . It is still in widespread use .
In Scotland , James attempted to bring the Scottish kirk " so neir as can be " to the English church and to reestablish episcopacy , a policy that met with strong opposition from presbyterians . James returned to Scotland in 1617 for the only time after his accession in England , in the hope of implementing Anglican ritual . James 's bishops forced his Five Articles of Perth through a General Assembly the following year , but the rulings were widely resisted . James left the church in Scotland divided at his death , a source of future problems for his son .
= = Favourites = =
James 's sexuality is a matter of dispute . Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers , which has caused debate among historians about their exact nature . After his accession in England , his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth , as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth , nunc est regina Jacobus ( Elizabeth was King , now James is Queen ) .
Many of James 's biographers conclude that Esmé Stewart ( later Duke of Lennox ) , Robert Carr ( later Earl of Somerset ) , and George Villiers ( later Duke of Buckingham ) were his lovers . Restoration of Apethorpe Hall undertaken in 2004 – 08 revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers .
A few biographers of James argue that the relationships were not sexual . James 's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes " ye are bound in conscience never to forgive " , and James 's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children , as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages . Contemporary Huguenot poet Théophile de Viau observed that " it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham " . Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the King , writing to James many years later that he had pondered " whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham , where the bed 's head could not be found between the master and his dog " . Buckingham 's words may be interpreted as non @-@ sexual , in the context of seventeenth @-@ century court life , and remain ambiguous .
When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612 , he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum . Until Salisbury 's death , the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency ; from this time forward , however , James 's government entered a period of decline and disrepute . Salisbury 's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State , with his young Scottish favourite Robert Carr carrying out many of Salisbury 's former duties , but James 's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism .
The Howard party , consisting of Northampton , Suffolk , Suffolk 's son @-@ in @-@ law Lord Knollys , and Charles Howard , Earl of Nottingham , along with Sir Thomas Lake , soon took control of much of the government and its patronage . Even the powerful Carr fell into the Howard camp , hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Sir Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers . Carr had an adulterous affair with Frances Howard , Countess of Essex , daughter of the Earl of Suffolk , whom James assisted in securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr .
In summer 1615 , however , it emerged that Overbury had been poisoned . He had died on 15 September 1613 in the Tower of London , where he had been placed at the King 's request . Among those convicted of the murder were Frances and Robert Carr , the latter having been replaced as the king 's favourite in the meantime by Villiers . James pardoned Frances and commuted Carr 's sentence of death , eventually pardoning him in 1624 . The implication of the King in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James 's court with an image of corruption and depravity . The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619 .
= = Final year = =
After about the age of fifty , James suffered increasingly from arthritis , gout , and kidney stones . He also lost his teeth and drank heavily . The king was often seriously ill during the last year of his life , leaving him an increasingly peripheral figure , rarely able to visit London , while Buckingham consolidated his control of Charles to ensure his own future . One theory is that James may have suffered from porphyria , a disease of which his descendant George III of the United Kingdom exhibited some symptoms . James described his urine to physician Théodore de Mayerne as being the " dark red colour of Alicante wine " . The theory is dismissed by some experts , particularly in James 's case , because he had kidney stones which can lead to blood in the urine , colouring it red .
In early 1625 , James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis , gout , and fainting fits , and fell seriously ill in March with tertian ague and then suffered a stroke . James finally died at Theobalds House on 27 March during a violent attack of dysentery , with Buckingham at his bedside . James 's funeral on 7 May was a magnificent but disorderly affair . Bishop John Williams of Lincoln preached the sermon , observing , " King Solomon died in Peace , when he had lived about sixty years ... and so you know did King James " .
James was buried in Westminster Abbey . The position of the tomb was lost for many years . The lead coffin was found in the Henry VII vault in the 19th century , during an excavation of many of the vaults beneath the floor .
= = Legacy = =
James was widely mourned . For all his flaws , he had largely retained the affection of his people , who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era . " As he lived in peace , " remarked the Earl of Kellie , " so did he die in peace , and I pray God our king [ Charles I ] may follow him " . The earl prayed in vain : once in power , Charles and Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure . James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes , such as the hunt ; and his later dependence on male favourites at a scandal @-@ ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth .
According to a tradition originating with anti @-@ Stuart historians of the mid @-@ seventeenth @-@ century , James 's taste for political absolutism , his financial irresponsibility , and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War . James bequeathed Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings , combined with a disdain for Parliament , which culminated in the execution of Charles and the abolition of the monarchy . Over the last three hundred years , the king 's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Sir Anthony Weldon , whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s .
Other influential anti @-@ James histories written during the 1650s include : Sir Edward Peyton , Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts ( 1652 ) ; Arthur Wilson , History of Great Britain , Being the Life and Reign of King James I ( 1658 ) ; and Francis Osborne , Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James ( 1658 ) . David Harris Willson 's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility . In the words of historian Jenny Wormald , Willson 's book was an " astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author 's increasing hatred for his subject " . Since Willson , however , the stability of James 's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign , as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war , have earned him a re @-@ evaluation from many historians , who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism .
Under James the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began , and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown , Virginia , in 1607 . Cuper 's Cove , Newfoundland , was founded in 1610 . During the next 150 years , England would fight with Spain , the Netherlands , and France for control of the continent , while religious division in Ireland between Protestant and Catholic has lasted for 400 years . By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms , he helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
In Scotland , James was " James the sixth , King of Scotland " , until 1604 . He was proclaimed " James the first , King of England , France , and Ireland , defender of the faith " in London on 24 March 1603 . On 20 October 1604 , James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to " King of Great Britain , France , and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . " The style was not used on English statutes , but was used on proclamations , coinage , letters , treaties , and in Scotland . James styled himself " King of France " , in line with other monarchs of England between 1340 and 1800 , although he did not actually rule France .
= = = Arms = = =
As King of Scots , James bore the ancient royal arms of Scotland : Or , a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter @-@ flory Gules . The arms were supported by two unicorns Argent armed , crined and unguled Proper , gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses patée and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or . The crest was a lion sejant affrontée Gules , imperially crowned Or , holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a sceptre both erect and Proper .
The Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms , supporters and badges . Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled , and to which kingdom should take precedence , was solved by having different arms for each country .
The arms used in England were : Quarterly , I and IV , quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or ( for France ) , 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland , this was the first time that Ireland was included in the royal arms ) . The supporters became : dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn . The unicorn replaced the red dragon of Cadwaladr , which was introduced by the Tudors . The unicorn has remained in the royal arms of the two united realms . The English crest and motto was retained . The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose , with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem . The arms were frequently shown with James 's personal motto , Beati pacifici .
The arms used in Scotland were : Quarterly , I and IV Scotland , II England and France , III Ireland , with Scotland taking precedence over England . The supporters were : dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned , supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent ( Cross of Saint Andrew ) and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules ( Cross of Saint George ) . The Scottish crest and motto was retained , following the Scottish practice the motto In defens ( which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend ) was placed above the crest .
As royal badges James used : the Tudor rose , the thistle ( for Scotland ; first used by James III of Scotland ) , the Tudor rose dimidiated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown , a harp ( for Ireland ) and a fleur de lys ( for France ) .
= = Issue = =
James 's queen , Anne of Denmark , gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth , of whom three reached adulthood :
Henry , Prince of Wales ( 19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612 ) . Died , probably of typhoid fever , aged 18 .
Elizabeth ( 19 August 1596 – 13 February 1662 ) . Married 1613 , Frederick V , Elector Palatine . Died aged 65 .
Margaret ( 24 December 1598 – March 1600 ) . Died aged 1 .
Charles I ( 19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649 ) . Married 1625 , Henrietta Maria . Succeeded James I. Executed aged 48 .
Robert , Duke of Kintyre ( 18 January 1602 – 27 May 1602 ) . Died aged 4 months .
Mary ( 8 April 1605 – 16 December 1607 ) . Died aged 2 .
Sophia ( June 1607 ) . Died within 48 hours of birth .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Family tree = = =
= = List of writings = =
The Essayes of a Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie , ( also called Some Reulis and Cautelis ) , 1584
His Majesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres , 1591
Lepanto , poem
Daemonologie , 1597
Newes from Scotland , 1591
The True Law of Free Monarchies , 1598
Basilikon Doron , 1599
A Counterblaste to Tobacco , 1604
An Apologie for the Oath of Allegiance , 1608
A Premonition to All Most Mightie Monarches , 1609
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= Jahanpanah =
Jahanpanah ( Persian : جهان پناه ) was the fourth medieval city of Delhi established in 1326 – 1327 by Muhammad bin Tughlaq ( 1321 – 51 ) , of the Delhi Sultanate . To address the constant threat of the Mongols , Tughlaq built the fortified city of Jahanpanah ( meaning in Persian : “ Refuge of the World ” ) subsuming the Adilabad fort that had been built in the 14th century and also all the establishments lying between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri Fort . Neither the city nor the fort has survived . Many reasons have been offered for such a situation . One of which is stated as the idiosyncratic rule of Mohammed bin Tughlaq when inexplicably he shifted the capital to Daulatabad in the Deccan and came back to Delhi soon after .
The ruins of the city ’ s walls are even now discerned in the road between Siri to Qutub Minar and also in isolated patches behind the Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) , in Begumpur , Khirki Masjid near Khirki village , Satpula and many other nearby locations ; at some sections , as seen at Satpula , the fort walls were large enough to have few in built store rooms to stack provisions and armory . The mystery of the city ’ s precincts ( complex ) has unfolded over the years with later day excavations revealing a large number of monuments in the villages and colonies of South Delhi . Due to compulsions of urban expansion of the Capital City of Delhi , Jahanpanah is now part of the upscale urban development of South Delhi . The village and the wealth of ruins scattered all around are now enclosed by South Delhi suburbs of Panchshil Park South , Malviya Nagar , Adchini , the Aurobindo Ashram , Delhi branch and other smaller housing colony developments . It is hemmed in the North – South direction between the Outer Ring Road and the Qutb Complex and on the east – west direction by the Mehrauli road and the Chirag Delhi road , with Indian Institute of Technology located on the other side of the Mehrauli road as an important landmark .
= = Etymology = =
Jahanpanah ’ s etymology consists of two Persian words , جهان ‘ Jahan ’ , “ the world ” , and پناه ‘ panah ’ , “ shelter ” , thus “ Refuge of the World ”
= = History = =
Mohammed bin Tughlaq , son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq who built Tughlaqabad , constructed his new city of Jahanpanah between 1326 and 1327 by encircling the earlier cities of Siri and Lal Kot with 13 gates . But what remains of the city and Adilabad fort are large ruins , which leave much ambiguity and conjectures regarding its physical status as to why and when it was built by Tughlaq . Some of the structures which have survived partially are the Bijay Mandal ( that is inferred to have housed the Hazar Sutan Palace , now destroyed ) , Begumpur Mosque , Serai Shaji Mahal , Lal Gumbad , Baradari with other nearby structures and scattered swathes of rubble masonry walls . From Ibn Batuta ’ s chronicle of the period ( he lived in Delhi from 1333 – 41 ) it is inferred that Lal Kot ( Qutb complex ) was then the urban area , Siri was the military cantonment and the remaining area consisted of his palace ( Bijaymandal ) and other structures like mosques , etc .
Ibn Batuta has reasoned that Muhammad Shah wished to see a unified city comprising Old Delhi , Siri , Jahanpanah and Tughlaqabad with one contiguous fortification encompassing them but cost considerations forced him to abandon the plan halfway . In his chronicle , Batuta also stated that the Hazar Sutan Palace ( 1000 pillared palace ) , built outside the Siri fort limits but within the Jahanpanah city area , was the residence of the Tughlaq .
Hazar Sutan Palace was located within the fortified area of the Jahnapanah in Bijaya Mandal ( literal meaning in Hindi : ' victory platform ' ) . The grand palace with its audience hall of beautifully painted wooden canopy and columns is vividly described but it does no longer exists . The Fort acted as a safe haven for the people living between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri . Tughalqabad continued to act as Tughlaq ’ s centre of government until , for strange and inexplicable reasons , he shifted his capital to Daulatabad , however he returned after a short period .
= = = Adilabad = = =
Adilabad , a fort of modest size , built on the hills to the south of Tughlaqabad was provided with protective massive ramparts on its boundary around the city of Jahanpanah . The fort was much smaller than its predecessor fort , Tughlaqabad fort , but of similar design . Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) in its evaluation of the status of the fort for conservation has recorded that two gates ,
one with barbicans between two bastions on the south @-@ east and another on the south @-@ west . Inside , it , separated by a bailey , is a citadel consisting of walls , bastions and gates within which lay the palaces .
The fort was also known as ‘ Muhammadabad ’ , but inferred as a later day development . The two gates on the southeast and southwest of Adilabad fort had chambers at the lower level while the east and west gates had grain bins and courtyards at the upper floors . The fortifications built , linking with the other two city walls , was 12 m ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) in thickness and extended to a length of 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Another smaller fortress , called the Nai @-@ ka @-@ kot was also built at a distance of about 700 m ( 2 @,@ 296 @.@ 6 ft ) from Adilabad , with citadel and army camps , which are now seen only in ruins .
Tughlaq ’ s primary attention to infrastructure , particularly of water supply to the city , was also well thought out . A structure ( weir or tank ) with seven sluices ( Urdu : Satpula ) was built on a stream that flowed through the city . This structure called the Satpula is still existing ( though non – functional ) near Khirki village on the boundary walls of Jahanpanah . Similar structures had also been built at Tughlaqabad and Delhi in Hauz Khas Complex , thus covering the water supply needs of entire population of Jahanpanah .
= = = Begampur Mosque = = =
Now , remnants of the city lie scattered in Begumpur village , as a mute reminder of its ancient glory . The Begumpur Mosque , a vestige of the old city , of overall layout plan of 90 m × 94 m ( 295 @.@ 3 ft × 308 @.@ 4 ft ) size with the inner courtyard measuring 75 m × 80 m ( 246 @.@ 1 ft × 262 @.@ 5 ft ) , is said to be patterned on an Iranian design planned by the Iranian architect Zahir al @-@ Din al @-@ Jayush . A majestic building in the heart of the city with a pride of place played a pivotal role of serving as a madrasa , an administrative centre with the treasury and a mosque of large proportions serving as a social community hub surrounded by a market area . It has an unusual layout with three arch covered passages with a " three by eight " deep nine bay prayer hall on the west . Construction of this mosque is credited to two sources . One view is that it was built by Khan @-@ i @-@ Jahan Maqbul Tilangani , Prime Minister during Feroz Shah Tughlaq ’ s rule , who was also builder of six more masjids ( two of them in the close vicinity ) . The other view is that it was built by Tughlaq because of its proximity to Bijay Mandal and could probably be dated to 1351 A.D. , the year Tughlaq died here . In support of the second view , it is said that Ibn Batuta , the chronicler of the period ( till his departure from Delhi in 1341 A.D. ) had not recorded this monument . The Mosque considered an architectural masterpiece ( see pictures in gallery ) has three gates , one in each of the three covered passages , in North , East ( main gate ) and South directions . The west wall which has the Mihrab , has Toghluqi style tapering minarets flanking the central high opening covered by a big dome . The entire passageway of the west wall has twenty @-@ five arched openings . The Mihrab wall depicts five projections . The prayer hall has modest decorative carvings but the columns and walls are bland . The eastern gate approach is from the road level up a flight of steps to negotiate the raised plinth on which this unique mosque has been built with a four Iwan layout . Stone chajjas or eaves can also be seen on all the four arcades . The Northern entry with 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) raised entrance , probably linked the Mosque to the Bijayamandal Palace . The stucco plastering work on the mosque walls have lasted for centuries and even now show some tiles fixed on them at a few locations . The mosque was under occupation during Jahanpanah 's existence till the 17th century . In the later period , encroachers had occupied the mosque but were cleared by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) in 1921 . A shuttered by lane entry from the north has been interpreted as an approach that was used by the womenfolk of the Sultan 's family for attending prayers in the mosque .
= = = Bijay Mandal = = =
Bijay Mandal is a building with a layout plan of 74 m ( 242 @.@ 8 ft ) x82 m ( 269 @.@ 0 ft ) dimensions , with a well proportioned square dome . It cannot be categorized as a tower or a palace . It is a typical Toghlaqi structure with an octagonal plan built in rubble masonry ( with massive battered sloping walls on east , west and southern directions ) on a raised platform with door ways in each cardinal direction . The purpose of this unusual structure and the ruins of the Sar Dara Palace was described by Ibn Battuta as the palace with multiple chambers and the large public audience hall as the famed Hazar Sutan Palace . It was also interpreted as serving as an observation tower to monitor the activities of his troops . The ambience of the place presented it as place to relax and enjoy the scenic view of the environs . The inclined path around the monument was a walkway leading to the apartments of the Sultan . Two large openings in the living rooms of the floor were inferred as leading to the vaults or the treasury . On the level platform , outside the building in front of the apartment rooms , small holes equally spaced are seen , which have been inferred to be holes used to fix wooden pillars to hold a temporary shamiana ( pavilion ) or cover . The process of ushering people into the presence of the Sultan was devious and formal involving entry through semi – public places to private chambers to the audience hall . The debate on whether the Hazara Sutan Palace cited as existing during Allauddin Khilji reign and also during Togluq 's time are one and the same palace , has not been conclusive . A plausible hypothesis is that the stone hall of the palace was built by Allauddin Khilji while the tower adjoining the stone buildings was surely built by Mohammed bin Toghluq .
Archaeological excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed treasures from the vaults in the buildings , which date the occupation of this monument during Feruz Shah ’ s reign and also by Sheikh Hasan Tahir ( a saint ) during Sikander Lodi ’ s rule at the beginning of the 16th century . Also , excavations done in 1934 have revealed wooden pillar bases attributed to the Hazar Sutan Palace . Within the close precincts of the Bijaymandal , a domed building is seen which has a unique architectural façade of two openings on each of its three sides , interpreted as an annex to another building ( based on underground passages seen in the adjoining structure ) . However , the purpose for which this dome was built is not known .
Kalusarai Masjid
Kalusarai Masjid is located 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 @.@ 4 ft ) to the north of the Bijaymandal but it is in a highly dilapidated state ( pictured ) needing urgent attention for restoration in view of its heritage monument status . At present , it is occupied as a residential complex by a few families . The Masjid was built by the famous builder of Mosques Khan @-@ i @-@ Jahan Maqbul Tilangani , Prime Minister during Feroz Shah Tughlaq ’ s reign , as one of his seven mosques ; built in the same architectural style as the other six built by him . But even now the visible decorations of the mihrab appear to be more intricate than in his other mosques . When built with rubble masonry and plastered , the mosque had seven arched openings as the frontage , three bays depth wise and crowned by a sequence of low domes in typical Toghluqi architectural style .
= = = Serai Shaji Mahal = = =
Further to the east of Begumpur Masjid , in the Serai Shahji village , Mughal period buildings are seen of which the Serai Shaji Mahal is a distinguishing monument . The area surrounding this is scattered with decrepit gates , graves and a large slum area . A little distance from this place is the tomb of Shiekh Farid Murtaza Khan , who during Emperor Akbar ’ s period , was credited with building a number of Serai 's , a mosque and Faridabad village , which is now the present – day large city in Haryana .
= = Other notable structures = =
Other notable structures in the Jahanpanah ’ s ambit of 20 ha ( 49 @.@ 4 acres ) area in close vicinity of the present day Panchshila Public School are the following :
The Lal Gumbad , was built as a tomb for Shaikh Kabbiruddin Auliya ( 1397 ) , a sufi saint who lived in the 14th century as a disciple of Sufi saint Shaikh Raushan Chiragh – i – Delhi . The dome tomb was built with red sandstone . It is considered to be a small size replica of the Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ’ s Tomb in Tughlaqabad . The gateway to the tomb has a pointed arch with marble bands . It is also called the Rakabwala Gumbad because dacoits had stolen the finial on the roof of the tomb by climbing up over the iron rungs ( called ' Rakab ' ) on its western wall . Apart from these structures , the four walls of a mosque also are within the compound wall of the tomb .
The Sadhana Enclave are features Baradari an arched hall . Thought to have been built in the 14th century or 15th century , it is in a fairly well preserved condition . A Lodi period tomb is also seen nearby .
Further away from the Sadhana enclave on its opposite side , in Shiekh Serai , three tombs are noted of which only one is well preserved , the squared domed tomb of Sheikh Alauddin ( 1541 – 42 ) . The tomb building is raised on twelve columns with perforated screens on the façade has a large dome , creating a drum with sixteen faces . The ceiling of the tomb is well decorated with medallions in plaster on the spandrel of arches and within the parapets a merlon design .
= = Conservation measures = =
Archaeological excavations were done by ASI in part of the fort walls at its junction with the eastern wall of Qila Rai Pithora . The excavations revealed rough and small stones in the foundations followed by an ashlar face in the exterior wall above ground . The ASI is presently involved in conservation activities of the wall , providing railings , environmental improvements and lighting of the area , at a cost of Rs 15 lakhs ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Modern location = =
Jahanpanah 's ruins are mostly concentrated in South Delhi in the present suburbs of Kalu Sarai , Bijaymandal , Adchini , Begumpur village , IIT , Delhi crossing , Aurobindo Marg , Malviya Nagar , Panchsheel Enclave South , Sadhana Enclave , Press Enclave road , in the urban village of Chirag Delhi , Tuhghlaqabad and Qutub Minar . The ancient city walls are seen at a few locations , such as east of Khirki village near Satpula . The main approach road from Connaught Place to Qutub Minar complex passes through the IIT crossing at a distance of 14 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) . The Outer Ring Road also crosses this road at IIT crossing . From this crossing , all the locations can be reached from the Aurobindo Marg diversion road next to the Essex Farms ( opposite to IIT , Delhi ) .
= = Gallery = =
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= Roon @-@ class cruiser =
The Roon class was a pair of armored cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy after the turn of the 20th century . The class comprised Roon and Yorck , which closely resembled the earlier Prinz Adalbert @-@ class ships , but incorporated slight incremental improvements . The ships were easily distinguished from their predecessors by the addition of a fourth funnel . Like all of the armored cruisers built by Germany , they were intended to serve as station ships in Germany 's overseas possessions . The ships did not compare well with their British rivals .
The two ships served with the High Seas Fleet in the reconnaissance squadrons after they joined the fleet in 1905 – 1906 . At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , the ships served alongside the more powerful battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . While returning to port after a raid of the English coast on 16 December 1914 , Yorck struck German mines and sank with heavy loss of life . Roon was disarmed in 1916 and intended to be converted into a seaplane carrier , though this was never carried out . The ship was eventually broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Design work on Roon and her sister ship Yorck was completed in 1901 . The design for the Roon class can be traced back to the first German armored cruiser , Fürst Bismarck , built between 1896 – 1900 , and the preceding Victoria Louise class of protected cruisers that came before it . The German armored cruisers were designed for overseas service , specifically to serve as station ships in the German colonies in Africa , Asia , and the Pacific .
Roon and her sister Yorck were improved versions of the preceding Prinz Adalbert class . The two ships were slightly larger and faster than the Prinz Adalbert class and had a slightly different armor layout ; the Roon class ships had thinner armor on the turret faces , and slightly thinner armored decks . They shared many of the same layout characteristics as the contemporary German pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , including a smaller main armament but heavier secondary battery than their foreign equivalents . As a result , they compared unfavorably with their British contemporaries . Taylor describes the ships as " poorly protected and not a successful class in service . "
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Roon class were 127 @.@ 3 meters ( 418 ft ) long at the waterline and 127 @.@ 8 m ( 419 ft ) overall . They had a beam of 20 @.@ 2 m ( 66 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 76 m ( 25 @.@ 5 ft ) . Roon and Yorck displaced 9 @,@ 533 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 382 long tons ; 10 @,@ 508 short tons ) normally , and 10 @,@ 266 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 104 long tons ; 11 @,@ 316 short tons ) at full load . Their hulls were constructed from transverse and longitudinal steel frames that formed a structure over which the steel hull plates were riveted . The hulls contained 12 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 60 percent of the length of the ship .
Like the preceding Prinz Adalbert @-@ class ships , Roon and Yorck were good sea boats ; when the fuel bunkers were full they had a gentle motion . They also maneuvered well and were responsive to the helm . With the rudder hard over , the ships lost up to 60 percent speed . The ships ' casemates were placed too low , and as a result they were exceedingly wet ; the casemate guns were impossible to use in heavy seas . They had a metacentric height of 1 @.@ 04 m ( 3 @.@ 4 ft ) . The ships ' standard complements numbered some 35 officers and 598 enlisted men . While serving as a squadron flagship the crew was augmented by 13 officers and 62 men , and as a second command ship by 9 officers and 44 sailors .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Roon and Yorck were powered by the same engine system as the preceding class , three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines , each of which drove one of the ships ' three screws . The central screw was 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) in diameter , and the outer screws were 4 @.@ 8 m ( 16 ft ) . Steam was provided to the engines by 16 boilers built by Düsseldorf @-@ Ratinger Röhrenkesselfabrik ( Dürr ) . Each boiler had 4 fireboxes apiece for a total of 48 . The propulsion system produced 19 @,@ 000 ihp ( 14 @,@ 200 kW ) , which delivered a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ) . The ships had four turbo generators , which provided 260 kilowatts at 110 volts . The ships had a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' primary armament consisted of four 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) SK L / 40 guns mounted in two twin turrets , one fore and one aft . These guns fired a 108 @-@ kilogram ( 238 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell at a muzzle velocity of 780 meters ( 2 @,@ 560 ft ) per second , for a maximum range of 12 @,@ 300 m ( 13 @,@ 500 yd ) with their original maximum elevation of 16 degrees . The guns were later improved to 30 degrees , which extended the maximum range to 16 @,@ 200 m ( 17 @,@ 700 yd ) .
Secondary armament included ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in single turrets and casemates and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns , also casemated . The 15 cm guns fired a 40 kg ( 88 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) per second . The guns could be elevated to 30 degrees , which provided a maximum range of 13 @,@ 900 m ( 15 @,@ 200 yd ) . The 8 @.@ 8 cm guns fired a 7 kg ( 15 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 770 m ( 2 @,@ 530 ft ) per second . These guns had a maximum elevation of 25 degrees and a range of 9 @,@ 100 m ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships were also equipped with four 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
This armament was identical to that on the preceding Prinz Adalbert class , with the exception of ammunition stores . The Roon @-@ class ships carried 380 shells for the main battery , 1 @,@ 600 rounds for the 15 cm guns , and 2 @,@ 100 shells for the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns . The planned conversion for Roon to a seaplane carrier called for six 15 cm L / 45 guns and six 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak guns , with 2 @,@ 400 rounds , though this was never carried out .
= = = Armor = = =
Roon and Yorck were protected by Krupp cemented steel armor . At the waterline , their armored belt was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships where the ships ' vitals were located . This was decreased slightly to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section of the belt . The belt was backed by 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of teak planking . At the casemate deck the side armor was also 100 mm thick . The armored deck ranged in thickness from 40 – 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) and was connected to the belt by sloped armor that was 40 – 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
The forward conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick roof . The rear conning tower was less well @-@ protected ; its sides were only 80 mm thick and its roof was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick . The main battery gun turrets were armored with 150 mm thick steel plates on the sides and 30 mm thick roofs . The 15 cm turrets were protected by 100 mm thick sides and 80 mm thick gun shields .
= = Construction = =
Roon was laid down in 1902 at the Kiel Navy dockyard . She was launched on 27 June 1903 and completed on 5 April 1906 , at the cost of 15 @,@ 345 @,@ 000 marks . Yorck was laid down in February 1903 , at Blohm & Voss shipyard . Yorck was launched on 14 May 1904 and completed on 21 November 1905 at a cost of 16 @,@ 241 @,@ 000 marks . Roon was laid down as Ersatz Kaiser , as a replacement for the old armored frigate Kaiser , which had been renamed Uranus and used as a harbor ship . Yorck was ordered as Ersatz Deutschland to replace Deutschland , the sistership to Kaiser , which had renamed Jupiter and converted into a target ship .
= = Service history = =
= = = SMS Roon = = =
After commissioning into the fleet , Roon was assigned to the I Scouting Group . In 1908 , she served as the flagship for Rear Admiral Jacobsen in the second division . Roon served here until 1912 when she was replaced by the new battlecruiser Moltke .
At the start of World War I , Roon was serving as the flagship of the III Scouting Group . The ship participated in several actions during World War I , including the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , during which she served in the cruiser screen for the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet . Roon also conducted operations against Russian forces in the Baltic Sea , including bombardments against the Russian positions at Libau in support of the army in May 1915 . The Battle of the Åland Islands took place between Roon and several other German cruisers and Russian forces led by the powerful cruiser Rurik. in July 1915 . In August Roon and Prinz Heinrich bombarded Russian positions in the Baltic and briefly engaged several Russian destroyers .
After 1916 , Roon was disarmed and used as a guard ship and floating barracks in Kiel until the end of the war . Design work commenced in 1916 to convert the ship into a seaplane carrier ; work was planned to last from 1917 to 1918 during a period of 20 months . The ship was struck from the naval register on 25 November 1920 and scrapped the following year at Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
= = = SMS Yorck = = =
Yorck also served in the I Scouting Group with her sister ship , in the second division . In 1908 , the ship won the annual " Kaiser 's Challenge Cups for Prize Firing " for the reconnaissance squadron . In 1911 , the ship came under the command of Franz von Hipper , who would go on to command the I Scouting Group during the war . Hipper held this position aboard Yorck from 1 October 1911 to 26 January 1912 . In early 1912 the ship was decommissioned and her crew was transferred to the new battlecruiser Seydlitz .
The ship had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of war , Yorck was brought out of the reserve fleet and joined her sistership Roon in the III Scouting Group . After the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , the ship made a navigational error upon returning to the Jadebusen , and accidentally sailed into a German defensive minefield . The ship sank quickly and only 127 men of her complement of 629 were rescued . The wreck was cleared over several periods between 1929 and the mid @-@ 1980s . The first period of work lasted from 1929 – 30 ; work commenced briefly in 1965 . The final work on removing the ship began in 1982 .
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= Haymarket affair =
The Haymarket affair ( also known as the Haymarket massacre or Haymarket riot ) was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4 , 1886 , at Haymarket Square in Chicago . It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight @-@ hour day and in reaction to the killing of several workers the previous day by the police . An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting . The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians ; scores of others were wounded .
In the internationally publicized legal proceedings that followed , eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy . The evidence was that one of the defendants may have built the bomb , but none of those on trial had thrown it . Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison . The death sentences of two of the defendants were commuted by Illinois governor Richard J. Oglesby to terms of life in prison , and another committed suicide in jail rather than face the gallows . The other four were hanged on November 11 , 1887 . In 1893 , Illinois ' new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the remaining defendants and criticized the trial .
The Haymarket affair is generally considered significant as the origin of international May Day observances for workers . The site of the incident was designated a Chicago Landmark in 1992 , and a public sculpture was dedicated there in 2004 . In addition , the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument at the defendants ' burial site in nearby Forest Park was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997 .
" No single event has influenced the history of labor in Illinois , the United States , and even the world , more than the Chicago Haymarket Affair . It began with a rally on May 4 , 1886 , but the consequences are still being felt today . Although the rally is included in American history textbooks , very few present the event accurately or point out its significance , " according to labor studies professor William J. Adelman .
= = Background = =
Following the Civil War , particularly following the Depression of 1873 – 79 , there was a rapid expansion of industrial production in the United States . Chicago was a major industrial center and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about $ 1 @.@ 50 a day . American workers worked on average slightly over 60 hours , during a six @-@ day work week . The city became a center for many attempts to organize labor 's demands for better working conditions . Employers responded with anti @-@ union measures , such as firing and blacklisting union members , locking out workers , recruiting strikebreakers ; employing spies , thugs , and private security forces and exacerbating ethnic tensions in order to divide the workers . Mainstream newspapers supported business interests , and were opposed by the labor and immigrant press . During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886 , socialist and anarchist organizations were active . Membership of the Knights of Labor , which rejected socialism and radicalism , but supported the 8 @-@ hour work day , grew from 70 @,@ 000 in 1884 to over 700 @,@ 000 by 1886 . In Chicago , the anarchist movement of several thousand , mostly immigrant , workers centered about the German @-@ language newspaper Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung ( " Workers ' Times " ) , edited by August Spies . Other anarchists operated a militant revolutionary force with an armed section that was equipped with guns and explosives . Its revolutionary strategy centered around the belief that successful operations against the police and the seizure of major industrial centers would result in massive public support by workers , revolution , destroy capitalism , and establish a socialist economy .
= = = May Day parade and strikes = = =
In October 1884 , a convention held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1 , 1886 , as the date by which the eight @-@ hour work day would become standard . As the chosen date approached , U.S. labor unions prepared for a general strike in support of the eight @-@ hour day .
On Saturday , May 1 , thousands of workers went on strike and rallies were held throughout the United States , with the cry , " Eight @-@ hour day with no cut in pay . " Estimates of the number of striking workers across the U.S. range from 300 @,@ 000 to half a million . In New York City the number of demonstrators was estimated at 10 @,@ 000 and in Detroit at 11 @,@ 000 . In Milwaukee , Wisconsin , some 10 @,@ 000 workers turned out . In Chicago , the movement 's center , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 @-@ to @-@ 40 @,@ 000 workers had gone on strike and there were perhaps twice as many people out on the streets participating in various demonstrations and marches , as , for example , a march by 10 @,@ 000 men employed in the Chicago lumber yards . Though participants in these events added up to 80 @,@ 000 , it is disputed whether there was a march of that number down Michigan Avenue led by anarchist Albert Parsons , founder of the International Working People 's Association [ IWPA ] and his wife Lucy and their children .
On May 3 , striking workers in Chicago met near the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company plant . Union molders at the plant had been locked out since early February and the predominantly Irish @-@ American workers at McCormick had come under attack from Pinkerton guards during an earlier strike action in 1885 . This event , along with the eight @-@ hour militancy of McCormick workers , had gained the strikers some respect and notoriety around the city . By the time of the 1886 general strike , strikebreakers entering the McCormick plant were under protection from a garrison of 400 police officers . Although half of the replacement workers defected to the general strike on May 1 , McCormick workers continued to harass strikebreakers as they crossed the picket lines .
Speaking to a rally outside the plant on May 3 , August Spies advised the striking workers to " hold together , to stand by their union , or they would not succeed . " Well @-@ planned and coordinated , the general strike to this point had remained largely nonviolent . When the end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ workday bell sounded , however , a group of workers surged to the gates to confront the strikebreakers . Despite calls for calm by Spies , the police fired on the crowd . Two McCormick workers were killed ( although some newspaper accounts said there were six fatalities ) . Spies would later testify , " I was very indignant . I knew from experience of the past that this butchering of people was done for the express purpose of defeating the eight @-@ hour movement . "
Outraged by this act of police violence , local anarchists quickly printed and distributed fliers calling for a rally the following day at Haymarket Square ( also called the Haymarket ) , which was then a bustling commercial center near the corner of Randolph Street and Desplaines Street . Printed in German and English , the fliers claimed that the police had murdered the strikers on behalf of business interests and urged workers to seek justice . The first batch of fliers contain the words Workingmen Arm Yourselves and Appear in Full Force ! When Spies saw the line , he said he would not speak at the rally unless the words were removed from the flier . All but a few hundred of the fliers were destroyed , and new fliers were printed without the offending words . More than 20 @,@ 000 copies of the revised flier were distributed .
= = = Rally at Haymarket Square = = =
The rally began peacefully under a light rain on the evening of May 4 . August Spies , Albert Parsons , and Samuel Fielden spoke to a crowd estimated variously between 600 and 3 @,@ 000 while standing in an open wagon adjacent to the square on Des Plaines Street . A large number of on @-@ duty police officers watched from nearby .
Paul Avrich , a historian specializing in the study of anarchism , quotes Spies as saying :
There seems to prevail the opinion in some quarters that this meeting has been called for the purpose of inaugurating a riot , hence these warlike preparations on the part of so @-@ called ' law and order . ' However , let me tell you at the beginning that this meeting has not been called for any such purpose . The object of this meeting is to explain the general situation of the eight @-@ hour movement and to throw light upon various incidents in connection with it .
Following Spies ' speech , the crowd was addressed by Parsons , the Alabama @-@ born editor of the radical English @-@ language weekly The Alarm . The crowd was so calm that Mayor Carter Harrison , Sr. , who had stopped by to watch , walked home early . Parsons spoke for almost an hour before standing down in favor of the last speaker of the evening , the British socialist Samuel Fielden , who delivered a brief ten @-@ minute address . Many of the crowd had already left as the weather was deteriorating .
A New York Times article , with the dateline May 4 , and headlined " Rioting and Bloodshed in the Streets of Chicago ... Twelve Policemen Dead or Dying " , reported that Fielden spoke for 20 minutes , alleging that his words grew " wilder and more violent as he proceeded " . Another New York Times article , headlined " Anarchy ’ s Red Hand " and dated May 6 , opens with : " The villainous teachings of the Anarchists bore bloody fruit in Chicago tonight and before daylight at least a dozen stalwart men will have laid down their lives as a tribute to the doctrine of Herr Johann Most . " It refers to the strikers as a " mob " and uses quotation marks around the term " workingmen " .
= = = = Bombing and gunfire = = = =
At about 10 : 30 pm , just as Fielden was finishing his speech , police arrived en masse , marching in formation towards the speakers ' wagon , and ordered the rally to disperse . Fielden insisted that the meeting was peaceful . Police Inspector John Bonfield , proclaimed :
I command you [ addressing the speaker ] in the name of the law to desist and you [ addressing the crowd ] to disperse .
A home @-@ made bomb with a brittle metal casing filled with dynamite and ignited by a fuse , was thrown into the path of the advancing police . Its fuse briefly sputtered , then the bomb exploded , killing policeman Mathias J. Degan with flying metal fragments and mortally wounding six other officers .
Witnesses maintained that immediately after the bomb blast there was an exchange of gunshots between police and demonstrators . Accounts vary widely as to who fired first and whether any of the crowd fired at the police . Historian Paul Avrich maintains that the police fired on the fleeing demonstrators , reloaded and then fired again , killing four and wounding as many as 70 people . What is not disputed is that in less than five minutes the square was empty except for the casualties . According to the May 4 New York Times demonstrators began firing at the police , who then returned fire . In his report on the incident , Inspector Bonfield wrote that he " gave the order to cease firing , fearing that some of our men , in the darkness might fire into each other " . An anonymous police official told the Chicago Tribune , " A very large number of the police were wounded by each other 's revolvers . ... It was every man for himself , and while some got two or three squares away , the rest emptied their revolvers , mainly into each other . "
In all , seven policemen and at least four workers were killed . Another policeman died two years after the incident from complications related to injuries received on that day . About 60 policemen were wounded in the incident . They were carried , along with some other wounded people , into a nearby police station . Police captain Michael Schaack later wrote that the number of wounded workers was " largely in excess of that on the side of the police " . The Chicago Herald described a scene of " wild carnage " and estimated at least fifty dead or wounded civilians lay in the streets . It is unclear how many civilians were wounded since many were afraid to seek medical attention , fearing arrest . They found aid where they could .
= = = Aftermath and red scare = = =
A harsh anti @-@ union clampdown followed the Haymarket incident . There was a massive outpouring of community and business support for the police and many thousands of dollars were donated to funds for their medical care and to assist their efforts . The entire labor and immigrant community , particularly Germans and Bohemians , came under suspicion . Police raids were carried out on homes and offices of suspected anarchists . Scores of suspects , many only remotely related to the Haymarket affair , were arrested . Casting legal requirements such as search warrants aside , Chicago police squads subjected the labor activists of Chicago to an eight @-@ week shakedown , ransacking their meeting halls and places of business . The emphasis was on the speakers at the Haymarket rally and the newspaper , Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung . A small group of anarchists were discovered to have been engaged in making bombs on the same day as the incident , including round ones like the one used in Haymarket Square .
Newspaper reports declared that anarchist agitators were to blame for the " riot " , a view adopted by an alarmed public . As time passed , press reports and illustrations of the incident became more elaborate . Coverage was national , then international . Among property owners , the press , and other elements of society , a consensus developed that suppression of anarchist agitation was necessary . While for their part , union organizations such as The Knights of Labor and craft unions were quick to disassociate themselves from the anarchist movement and to repudiate violent tactics as self @-@ defeating . Many workers , on the other hand , believed that men of the Pinkerton agency were responsible because of the agency 's tactic of secretly infiltrating labor groups and its sometimes violent methods of strike breaking .
= = Legal proceedings = =
= = = Investigation = = =
The police assumed that an anarchist had thrown the bomb as part of a planned conspiracy ; their problem was how to prove it . On the morning of May 5 , they raided the offices of the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung , arresting its editor August Spies , and his brother ( who was not charged ) . Also arrested were editorial assistant Michael Schwab and Adolph Fischer , a typesetter . A search of the premises resulted in the discovery of the " Revenge Poster " and other evidence considered incriminating by the prosecution .
On May 7 police searched the premises of Louis Lingg where they found a number of bombs and bomb @-@ making materials . Lingg 's landlord William Seliger was also arrested but cooperated with police and identified Lingg as a bomb maker and was not charged . An associate of Spies , Balthazar Rau , suspected as the bomber , was traced to Omaha and brought back to Chicago . After interrogation , Rau offered to cooperate with police . He alleged that the defendants had experimented with dynamite bombs and accused them of having published what he said was a code word , " Ruhe " ( " peace " ) , in the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung as a call to arms at Haymarket Square .
= = = The defendants = = =
Rudolf Schnaubelt , the police ’ s lead suspect as the bomb thrower , was arrested twice early on and released . By May 14 , when it became apparent he had played a significant role in the event , he had fled the country . William Seliger , who had turned state 's evidence and testified for the prosecution , was not charged . On June 4 , 1886 , seven other suspects , however , were indicted by the grand jury and stood trial for being accessories to the murder of Degan . Of these , only two had been present when the bomb exploded . Newspaper editor August Spies and Samuel Fielden had spoken at the peaceful rally and were stepping down from the speaker 's wagon in compliance with police orders to disperse just before the bomb went off . Two others had been present at the beginning of the rally but had left and were at Zepf 's Hall , an anarchist rendezvous , at the time of the explosion . They were : Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung typesetter Adolph Fischer and the well @-@ known activist Albert Parsons , who had spoken for an hour at the Haymarket rally before going to Zepf 's . Parsons , who believed that the evidence against them all was weak , subsequently voluntarily turned himself in , in solidarity with the accused . A third man , Spies 's assistant editor Michael Schwab ( who was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Schnaubelt ) was arrested since he was speaking at another rally at the time of the bombing ( he was also later pardoned ) . Not directly tied to the Haymarket rally , but arrested because they were notorious for their militant radicalism were George Engel ( who was at home playing cards on that day ) , and Louis Lingg , the hot @-@ headed bomb maker denounced by his associate , Seliger . Another defendant who had not been present that day was Oscar Neebe , an American @-@ born citizen of German descent who was associated with the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung and had attempted to revive it in the aftermath of the Haymarket riot .
Of the eight defendants , five – Spies , Fischer , Engel , Lingg and Schwab – were German @-@ born immigrants ; a sixth , Neebe , was a U.S.-born citizen of German descent . Only the remaining two , Parsons and Fielden , born in the U.S. and England , respectively , were of British heritage .
= = = Trial = = =
The trial , Illinois vs. August Spies et al . , began on June 21 , 1886 , and went on until August 11 . The trial was conducted in an atmosphere of extreme prejudice by both public and media toward the defendants . It was presided over by Judge Joseph Gary . Judge Gary displayed open hostility to the defendants , consistently ruled for the prosecution , and failed to maintain decorum . A motion to try the defendants separately was denied . The defense counsel included Sigmund Zeisler , William Perkins Black , William Foster , and Moses Salomon . Selection of the jury was extraordinarily difficult , lasting three weeks , and nearly one thousand people called . All union members and anyone who expressed sympathy toward socialism were dismissed . In the end a jury of 12 was seated , most of whom confessed prejudice towards the defendants . Despite their professions of prejudice Judge Gary seated those who declared that despite their prejudices they would acquit if the evidence supported it , refusing to dismiss for prejudice . Eventually the peremptory challenges of the defense were exhausted . Frustrated by the hundreds of jurors who were being dismissed , a bailiff was appointed who selected jurors rather than calling them at random . The bailiff proved prejudiced himself and selected jurors who seemed likely to convict based on their social position and attitudes toward the defendants . The prosecution , led by Julius Grinnell , argued that since the defendants had not actively discouraged the person who had thrown the bomb , they were therefore equally responsible as conspirators . The jury heard the testimony of 118 people , including 54 members of the Chicago Police Department and the defendants Fielden , Schwab , Spies and Parsons . Albert Parsons ' brother claimed there was evidence linking the Pinkertons to the bomb . This reflected a widespread belief among the strikers .
Police investigators under Captain Michael Schaack had a lead fragment removed from a policeman 's wounds chemically analyzed . They reported that the lead used in the casing matched the casings of bombs found in Lingg 's home . A metal nut and fragments of the casing taken from the wound also roughly matched bombs made by Lingg . Schaack concluded , on the basis of interviews , that the anarchists had been experimenting for years with dynamite and other explosives , refining the design of their bombs before coming up with the effective one used at the Haymarket .
At the last minute , when it was discovered that instructions for manslaughter had not been included in the submitted instructions , the jury was called back , and the instructions were given .
= = = Verdict and contemporary reactions = = =
The jury returned guilty verdicts for all eight defendants . Before being sentenced , Neebe told the court that Schaack 's officers were among the city 's worst gangs , ransacking houses and stealing money and watches . Schaack laughed and Neebe retorted , " You need not laugh about it , Captain Schaack . You are one of them . You are an anarchist , as you understand it . You are all anarchists , in this sense of the word , I must say . " Judge Gary sentenced seven of the defendants to death by hanging and Neebe to 15 years in prison . The sentencing provoked outrage from labor and workers ' movements and their supporters , resulting in protests around the world , and elevating the defendants to the status of martyrs , especially abroad . Portrayals of the anarchists as bloodthirsty foreign fanatics in the press along with the 1889 publication of Captain Schaack 's sensational account , Anarchy and Anarchism , on the other hand , inspired widespread public fear and revulsion against the strikers and general anti @-@ immigrant feeling , polarizing public opinion .
In an article datelined May 4 , entitled " Anarchy ’ s Red Hand " , The New York Times had described the incident as the " bloody fruit " of " the villainous teachings of the Anarchists . " The Chicago Times described the defendants as " arch counselors of riot , pillage , incendiarism and murder " ; other reporters described them as " bloody brutes " , " red ruffians " , " dynamarchists " , " bloody monsters " , " cowards " , " cutthroats " , " thieves " , " assassins " , and " fiends " . The journalist George Frederic Parsons wrote a piece for The Atlantic Monthly in which he identified the fears of middle @-@ class Americans concerning labor radicalism , and asserted that the workers had only themselves to blame for their troubles . Edward Aveling remarked , " If these men are ultimately hanged , it will be the Chicago Tribune that has done it . " Schaack , who had led the investigation , was dismissed from the police force for allegedly having fabricated evidence in the case but was reinstated in 1892 .
= = = Appeals = = =
The case was appealed in 1887 to the Supreme Court of Illinois , then to the United States Supreme Court where the defendants were represented by John Randolph Tucker , Roger Atkinson Pryor , General Benjamin F. Butler and William P. Black . The petition for certiorari was denied .
= = = Commutations and suicide = = =
After the appeals had been exhausted , Illinois Governor Richard James Oglesby commuted Fielden 's and Schwab 's sentences to life in prison on November 10 , 1887 . On the eve of his scheduled execution , Lingg committed suicide in his cell with a smuggled blasting cap which he reportedly held in his mouth like a cigar ( the blast blew off half his face and he survived in agony for six hours ) .
= = = Executions = = =
The next day ( November 11 , 1887 ) four defendants — Engel , Fischer , Parsons , and Spies — were taken to the gallows in white robes and hoods . They sang the Marseillaise , then the anthem of the international revolutionary movement . Family members including Lucy Parsons , who attempted to see them for the last time , were arrested and searched for bombs ( none were found ) . According to witnesses , in the moments before the men were hanged , Spies shouted , " The time will come when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today . " In their last words , Engel and Fischer called out , " Hurrah for anarchism ! " Parsons then requested to speak , but he was cut off when the signal was given to open the trap door . Witnesses reported that the condemned men did not die immediately when they dropped , but strangled to death slowly , a sight which left the spectators visibly shaken .
= = = Identity of the bomber = = =
Notwithstanding the convictions for conspiracy , no actual bomber was ever brought to trial , " and no lawyerly explanation could ever make a conspiracy trial without the main perpetrator in the conspiracy seem completely legitimate . " Historians such as James Joll and Timothy Messer @-@ Kruse say the evidence points to Rudolph Schnaubelt , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Schwab , as the likely perpetrator . Howard Zinn , in A People 's History of the United States also pointed towards Schnaubelt , suggesting he was a provocateur , posing as an anarchist , who threw the bomb so police would have a pretext to arrest leaders of Chicago 's anarchist movement . However , Paul Avrich disputes this claim as being " sheer speculation and utterly without foundation . " Avrich argues that Schnaubelt 's appearance did not match the description of the bomber and that his behavior was inconsistent with either being the culprit or a mole .
= = = Documents = = =
An extensive collection of documents relating to the Haymarket affair and the legal proceedings related to it , The Haymarket Affair Digital Collection , has been created by the Chicago Historical Society
= = Pardon and historical characterization = =
Among supporters of the labor movement in the United States and abroad and others , the trial was widely believed to have been unfair , and even a serious miscarriage of justice . Prominent people such as novelist William Dean Howells ; celebrated attorney Clarence Darrow ; poet and playwright Oscar Wilde ; and playwright George Bernard Shaw strongly condemned it . On June 26 , 1893 , Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld , the progressive governor of Illinois , himself a German immigrant , signed pardons for Fielden , Neebe , and Schwab , calling them victims of " hysteria , packed juries , and a biased judge " and noting that the state " has never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policeman , and the evidence does not show any connection whatsoever between the defendants and the man who threw it . " Altgeld also faulted the city of Chicago for failing to hold Pinkerton guards responsible for repeated use of lethal violence against striking workers . Altgeld 's actions concerning labor were used to defeat his reelection .
Soon after the trial , anarchist Dyer Lum wrote a history of the trial critical of the prosecution . In 1888 , George McLean , and in 1889 , police captain Michael Shack , wrote accounts from the opposite perspective . Awaiting sentencing , each of the defendants wrote their own autobiographies ( edited and published by Philip Foner in 1969 ) , and later activist Lucy Parsons published a biography of her condemned husband Albert Parsons . Fifty years after the event , Henry Davis , wrote a history , which was superseded in another scholarly treatment by Paul Avrich in 1984 , and a " social history " of the era by Bruce C. Nelson in 1988 . In 2006 , labor historian , James Green , wrote a popular history .
Christopher Thale writes in the Encyclopedia of Chicago that lacking credible evidence regarding the bombing , " ... the prosecution focused on the writings and speeches of the defendants . " He further notes that the conspiracy charge was legally unprecedented , the Judge was " partisan , " and all the jurors admitted prejudice against the defendants . Historian Carl Smith writes , " The visceral feelings of fear and anger surrounding the trial ruled out anything but the pretense of justice right from the outset . " Smith notes that scholars have long considered the trial a " notorious " " miscarriage of justice . " In a review somewhat more critical of the defendants , historian Jon Teaford concludes that " [ t ] he tragedy of Haymarket is the American justice system did not protect the damn fools who most needed that protection ... It is the damn fools who talk too much and too wildly who are most in need of protection from the state . " In 2011 , labor historian Timothy Messer @-@ Kruse published a history . Based on his examination of the trial transcripts and other archival material , he concludes there is abundant evidence connecting defendants to advocacy of violence and preparations for it . He argues that Chicago 's anarchists were indeed " part of an international terrorist network and did hatch a conspiracy to attack police with bombs and guns that May Day weekend " ; and he calls the evidence establishing the guilt of " most of the defendants " " overwhelming . " Moreover , Messer @-@ Kruse opines that the trial was fair " by the standards of the age " and the jury representative . According to him , " The tragic end of the story was the product not of prosecutorial eagerness to see the anarchists hang , but largely due to a combination of the incompetence of the defendant 's lawyers and their willingness to use the trial to vindicate anarchism rather than to save the necks of their clients . "
During the late 20th century , scholars doing research into the Haymarket affair were surprised to learn that much of the primary source documentation relating to the incident ( beside materials concerning the trial ) was not in Chicago , but had been transferred to then @-@ communist East Berlin .
= = Effects on the labor movement and May Day = =
The Haymarket affair was a setback for the American labor movement and its fight for the eight @-@ hour day . Yet it also can be seen as strengthening its resistance , especially in Chicago , where , as historian Nathan Fine points out , trade union activities continued to show signs of growth and vitality , culminating later in 1886 with the establishment of the Labor Party of Chicago .
Fine observes :
[ T ] he fact is that despite police repression , newspaper incitement to hysteria , and organization of the possessing classes , which followed the throwing of the bomb on May 4 , the Chicago wage earners only united their forces and stiffened their resistance . The conservative and radical central bodies – there were two each of the trade unions and two also of the Knights of Labor — the socialists and the anarchists , the single taxers and the reformers , the native born ... and the foreign born Germans , Bohemians , and Scandinavians , all got together for the first time on the political field in the summer following the Haymarket affair .... [ T ] he Knights of Labor doubled its membership , reaching 40 @,@ 000 in the fall of 1886 . On Labor Day the number of Chicago workers in parade led the country .
On the first anniversary of the event , May 4 , 1887 , the New @-@ York Tribune published an interview with Senator Leland Stanford , in which he addressed the consensus that " the conflict between capital and labor is intensifying " and articulated the vision advocated by the Knights of Labor for an industrial system of worker @-@ owned co @-@ operatives , another among the strategies pursued to advance the conditions of laborers . The interview was republished as a pamphlet to include the bill Stanford introduced in the Senate to foster co @-@ operatives .
Popular pressure continued for the establishment of the 8 @-@ hour day . At the convention of the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) in 1888 , the union decided to campaign for the shorter workday again . May 1 , 1890 , was agreed upon as the date on which workers would strike for an eight @-@ hour work day .
In 1889 , AFL president Samuel Gompers wrote to the first congress of the Second International , which was meeting in Paris . He informed the world 's socialists of the AFL 's plans and proposed an international fight for a universal eight @-@ hour work day . In response to Gompers 's letter , the Second International adopted a resolution calling for " a great international demonstration " on a single date so workers everywhere could demand the eight @-@ hour work day . In light of the Americans ' plan , the International adopted May 1 , 1890 as the date for this demonstration .
A secondary purpose behind the adoption of the resolution by the Second International was to honor the memory of the Haymarket martyrs and other workers who had been killed in association with the strikes on May 1 , 1886 . Historian Philip Foner writes " [ t ] here is little doubt that everyone associated with the resolution passed by the Paris Congress knew of the May 1 demonstrations and strikes for the eight @-@ hour day in 1886 in the United States ... and the events associated with the Haymarket tragedy . "
The first international May Day was a spectacular success . The front page of the New York World on May 2 , 1890 , was devoted to coverage of the event . Two of its headlines were " Parade of Jubilant Workingmen in All the Trade Centers of the Civilized World " and " Everywhere the Workmen Join in Demands for a Normal Day . " The Times of London listed two dozen European cities in which demonstrations had taken place , noting there had been rallies in Cuba , Peru and Chile . Commemoration of May Day became an annual event the following year .
The association of May Day with the Haymarket martyrs has remained strong in Mexico . Mary Harris " Mother " Jones was in Mexico on May 1 , 1921 , and wrote of the " day of ' fiestas ' " that marked " the killing of the workers in Chicago for demanding the eight @-@ hour day " . In 1929 The New York Times referred to the May Day parade in Mexico City as " the annual demonstration glorifying the memory of those who were killed in Chicago in 1887 . " The New York Times described the 1936 demonstration as a commemoration of " the death of the martyrs in Chicago . " In 1939 Oscar Neebe 's grandson attended the May Day parade in Mexico City and was shown , as his host told him , " how the world shows respect to your grandfather " .
The influence of the Haymarket affair was not limited to the celebration of May Day . Emma Goldman , the activist and political theorist , was attracted to anarchism after reading about the incident and the executions , which she later described as " the events that had inspired my spiritual birth and growth . " She considered the Haymarket martyrs to be " the most decisive influence in my existence " . Her associate , Alexander Berkman also described the Haymarket anarchists as " a potent and vital inspiration . " Others whose commitment to anarchism crystallized as a result of the Haymarket affair included Voltairine de Cleyre and " Big Bill " Haywood , a founding member of the Industrial Workers of the World . Goldman wrote to historian Max Nettlau that the Haymarket affair had awakened the social consciousness of " hundreds , perhaps thousands , of people " .
= = Suspected bombers = =
While admitting none of the defendants were involved in the bombing , the prosecution made the argument that Lingg had built the bomb and two prosecution witnesses ( Harry Gilmer and Malvern Thompson ) tried to imply the bomb thrower was helped by Spies , Fischer and Schwab . The defendants claimed they had no knowledge of the bomber at all .
Several activists , including Dyer Lum ( a close associate of the defendants who wrote an account of the case in 1891 ) , Voltairine de Cleyre and Robert Reitzel , later hinted they knew who the bomber was . Writers and other commentators have speculated about many possible suspects :
Rudolph Schnaubelt ( 1863 – 1901 ) was an activist and the brother @-@ in law of Michael Schwab . He was at the Haymarket when the bomb exploded . Schnaubelt was indicted with the other defendants but fled the city and later the country before he could be brought to trial . He was the detectives ' lead suspect , and state witness Gilmer testified he saw Schnaubelt throw the bomb , identifying him from a photograph in court . Schnaubelt later sent two letters from London disclaiming all responsibility , writing , " If I had really thrown this bomb , surely I would have nothing to be ashamed of , but in truth I never once thought of it . " He is the most generally accepted and widely known suspect and figured as the bomb thrower in The Bomb , Frank Harris 's 1908 fictionalization of the tragedy . Written from Schnaubelt 's point of view , the story opens with him confessing on his deathbed . However , Harris 's description was fictional and those who knew Schnaubelt vehemently criticized the book .
George Schwab was a German shoemaker who died in 1924 . German anarchist Carl Nold claimed he learned Schwab was the bomber through correspondence with other activists but no proof ever emerged . Historian Paul Avrich also suspected him but noted that while Schwab was in Chicago , he had only arrived days before . This contradicted statements by others that the bomber was a well @-@ known figure in Chicago .
George Meng ( b. around 1840 ) was a German anarchist and teamster who owned a small farm outside of Chicago where he had settled in 1883 after emigrating from Bavaria . Like Parsons and Spies , he was a delegate at the Pittsburgh Congress and a member of the IWPA . Meng 's granddaughter , Adah Maurer , wrote Paul Avrich a letter in which she said that her mother , who was 15 at the time of the bombing , told her that her father was the bomber . Meng died sometime before 1907 in a saloon fire . Based on his correspondence with Maurer , Avrich concluded that there was a " strong possibility " that the little @-@ known Meng may have been the bomber .
An agent provocateur was suggested by some members of the anarchist movement . Albert Parsons believed the bomber was a member of the police or the Pinkertons trying to undermine the labor movement . However , this contradicts the statements of several activists who said the bomber was one of their own . Lucy Parsons and Johann Most rejected this notion . Dyer Lum said it was " puerile " to ascribe " the Haymarket bomb to a Pinkerton . "
A disgruntled worker was widely suspected . When Adolph Fischer was asked if he knew who threw the bomb , he answered , " I suppose it was some excited workingman . " Oscar Neebe said it was a " crank . " Governor Altgeld speculated the bomb thrower might have been a disgruntled worker who was not associated with the defendants or the anarchist movement but had a personal grudge against the police . In his pardoning statement , Altgeld said the record of police brutality towards the workers had invited revenge adding , " Capt. Bonfield is the man who is really responsible for the deaths of the police officers . "
Klemana Schuetz was identified as the bomber by Franz Mayhoff , a New York anarchist and fraudster , who claimed in an affidavit that Schuetz had once admitted throwing the Haymarket bomb . August Wagener , Mayhoff 's attorney , sent a telegram from New York to defense attorney Captain William Black the day before the executions claiming knowledge of the bomber 's identity . Black tried to delay the execution with this telegram but Governor Oglesby refused . It was later learned that Schuetz was the primary witness against Mayhoff at his trial for insurance fraud , so Mayhoff 's affidavit has never been regarded as credible by historians .
Thomas Owen was a carpenter from Pennsylvania . Severely injured in an accident a week before the executions , Owen reportedly confessed to the bombing on his deathbed by saying , " I was at the Haymarket riot and am an anarchist and say that I threw a bomb in that riot . " He was an anarchist and apparently had been in Chicago at the time but other accounts note that long before his accident he had said he was at the Haymarket and saw the bomb thrower . Owen may have been trying to save the condemned men .
Reinold " Big " Krueger was killed by police either in the melee after the bombing or in a separate disturbance the next day and has been named as a suspect but there is no supporting evidence .
A mysterious outsider was reported by John Philip Deluse , a saloon keeper in Indianapolis who claimed he encountered a stranger in his saloon the day before the bombing . The man was carrying a satchel and on his way from New York to Chicago . According to Deluse , the stranger was interested in the labor situation in Chicago , repeatedly pointed to his satchel and said , " You will hear of some trouble there very soon . " Parsons used Deluse 's testimony to suggest the bomb thrower was sent by eastern capitalists . Nothing more was ever learned about Deluse 's claim .
= = Burial and monument = =
Lingg , Spies , Fischer , Engel , and Parsons were buried at the German Waldheim Cemetery ( later merged with Forest Home Cemetery ) in Forest Park , Illinois , a suburb of Chicago . Schwab and Neebe were also buried at Waldheim when they died , reuniting the " Martyrs . " In 1893 , the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument by sculptor Albert Weinert was raised at Waldheim . Over a century later , it was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior .
Throughout the 20th century , activists such as Emma Goldman chose to be buried near the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument graves .
= = Haymarket memorials = =
In 1889 , a commemorative nine @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 meter ) bronze statue of a Chicago policeman by sculptor Johannes Gelert was erected in the middle of Haymarket Square with private funds raised by the Union League Club of Chicago . The statue was unveiled on May 30 , 1889 , by Frank Degan , the son of Officer Mathias Degan . On May 4 , 1927 , the 41st anniversary of the Haymarket affair , a streetcar jumped its tracks and crashed into the monument . The motorman said he was " sick of seeing that policeman with his arm raised " . The city restored the statue in 1928 and moved it to Union Park . During the 1950s , construction of the Kennedy Expressway erased about half of the old , run @-@ down market square , and in 1956 , the statue was moved to a special platform built for it overlooking the freeway , near its original location .
The Haymarket statue was vandalized with black paint on May 4 , 1968 , the 82nd anniversary of the Haymarket affair , following a confrontation between police and demonstrators at a protest against the Vietnam War . On October 6 , 1969 , shortly before the " Days of Rage " protests , the statue was destroyed when a bomb was placed between its legs . Weatherman took credit for the blast , which broke nearly 100 windows in the neighborhood and scattered pieces of the statue onto the Kennedy Expressway below . The statue was rebuilt and unveiled on May 4 , 1970 , to be blown up yet again by Weatherman on October 6 , 1970 . The statue was rebuilt , again , and Mayor Richard J. Daley posted a 24 ‑ hour police guard at the statue . This guard cost $ 67 @,@ 440 per year . In 1972 , it was moved to the lobby of the Central Police Headquarters , and in 1976 to the enclosed courtyard of the Chicago police academy . For another three decades the statue 's empty , graffiti @-@ marked pedestal stood on its platform in the run @-@ down remains of Haymarket Square where it was known as an anarchist landmark . On June 1 , 2007 , the statue was rededicated at Chicago Police Headquarters with a new pedestal , unveiled by Geraldine Doceka , Officer Mathias Degan 's great @-@ granddaughter .
In 1992 , the site of the speakers ' wagon was marked by a bronze plaque set into the sidewalk , reading :
" A decade of strife between labor and industry culminated here in a confrontation that resulted in the tragic death of both workers and policemen . On May 4 , 1886 , spectators at a labor rally had gathered around the mouth of Crane 's Alley . A contingent of police approaching on Des Plaines Street were met by a bomb thrown from just south of the alley . The resultant trial of eight activists gained worldwide attention for the labor movement , and initiated the tradition of ' May Day ' labor rallies in many cities . "
Designated on March 25 , 1992
Richard M. Daley , Mayor
On September 14 , 2004 , Daley and union leaders — including the president of Chicago 's police union — unveiled a monument by Chicago artist Mary Brogger , a fifteen @-@ foot speakers ' wagon sculpture echoing the wagon on which the labor leaders stood in Haymarket Square to champion the eight @-@ hour day . The bronze sculpture , intended to be the centerpiece of a proposed " Labor Park " , is meant to symbolize both the rally at Haymarket and free speech . The planned site was to include an international commemoration wall , sidewalk plaques , a cultural pylon , a seating area , and banners , but construction has not yet begun .
As of 2014 , a feature motion picture is being produced about the Haymarket affair , the events leading up to it , and its aftermath .
= = = Encyclopedia of Chicago = = =
Haymarket and May Day
Haymarket Riot Monument , 1889
Haymarket Monument , Waldheim Cemetery
Haymarket Memorial , 2005
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= M @-@ 185 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 185 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan that circles Mackinac Island , a popular tourist destination on the Lake Huron side of the Straits of Mackinac , along the island 's shoreline . A narrow paved road of 8 @.@ 004 miles ( 12 @.@ 881 km ) , it offers scenic views of the straits that divide the Upper and the Lower peninsulas of Michigan and Lakes Huron and Michigan . It has no connection to any other Michigan state trunkline highways — as it is on an island — and is accessible only by passenger ferry . The City of Mackinac Island , which shares jurisdiction over the island with the Mackinac Island State Park Commission ( MISPC ) , calls the highway Main Street within the built @-@ up area on the island 's southeast quadrant , and Lake Shore Road elsewhere . M @-@ 185 passes by several important sites within Mackinac Island State Park , including Fort Mackinac , Arch Rock , British Landing , and Devil 's Kitchen . Lake Shore Road carries the highway next to the Lake Huron shoreline , running between the water 's edge and woodlands outside the downtown area .
According to the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , M @-@ 185 is " the only state highway in the nation where motor vehicles are banned " . Traffic on it is by foot , on horse , by horse @-@ drawn vehicle , or by bicycle . Restrictions on automobiles date back to the 1890s , and since the ban , only a few vehicles have been permitted on the island other than the city 's emergency vehicles . The highway was built during the first decade of the 20th century by the state and designated as a state highway in 1933 . The highway was paved in the 1950s , and portions were rebuilt to deal with shoreline erosion in the 1980s . Until 2005 , it was the only state highway without any automobile accidents .
= = Route description = =
As a circular highway , M @-@ 185 has no specific termini ; the generally accepted starting point is at the mile 0 marker placed in front of the Mackinac Island State Park Visitor Center . The highway uses wooden markers to measure miles instead of the common metal signage ; these signs are erected by the MISPC , as MDOT does not install the standard state highway reassurance markers along this roadway . M @-@ 185 is one of only three state trunkline highways in Michigan on islands ; the others are M @-@ 134 on Drummond Island and M @-@ 154 on Harsens Island . No part of M @-@ 185 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . Over a half million people travel along the trunkline in a year .
Mackinac Island has been a tourist destination since the late 19th century . The island was the country 's second national park , after Yellowstone , until the land was given to Michigan in 1895 to become its first state park . M @-@ 185 has been recognized in the press for its unique role as the only state highway without car traffic in the United States by such publications as The Kansas City Star , the Chicago Tribune , the Toronto Star , and The Saturday Evening Post . In 2003 , it was named the " best scenic drive " in the state by The Detroit News . In 2008 , USA Today named the island one of the " 10 great places to get your feet back on the ground " as a car @-@ free destination , highlighting the unique status of M @-@ 185 in the process . The magazine Paraplegia News , in an article encouraging its readers to visit Mackinac Island , called the trek around the island on M @-@ 185 a " high priority " for visitors . The trip around the island " provides a photo opportunity at every bend in the path " , according to the PSA Journal , the official magazine of the Photographic Society of America .
= = = Along the harbor = = =
The beginning and ending of M @-@ 185 is marked at the intersection of Main and Fort streets next to the visitor center . That building is operated by the MISPC , but it was originally a US Coast Guard station . From its starting point , M @-@ 185 heads east between Marquette Park , at the base of Fort Mackinac , and the marina at Haldimand Bay . The roadway passes the Indian Dormitory ( Mackinac Art Center ) , as well as various hotels , bed and breakfast establishments , private residences and landmarks such as Sainte Anne 's Catholic Church , Mission Church and the Mission House . Main Street then turns northeasterly , passing Mission Point Resort ( the former Mackinac College ) , after which the road name changes to Lake Shore Road . Along this section of the trunkline , Shoreline Trail departs to the south and follows the water 's edge before returning to M @-@ 185 at the city 's water filtration plant .
= = = Around the island = = =
After rounding Mission Point , M @-@ 185 continues north @-@ northwesterly along the eastern shore of Mackinac Island , first passing Dwightwood Spring then the Arch Rock viewing area just beyond the mile 1 marker . The next two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of M @-@ 185 are relatively isolated and devoid of major landmarks as the highway rounds Hennepin Point and runs along Voyageur 's Bay . Other than a few picnic tables , the only feature between Arch Rock and mile 3 is the Lake Shore Nature Trail , a short interpretive trail on the inland side of the road . Just beyond mile 3 , Scott 's Shore Road , a short gravel @-@ surfaced connecting roadway between Lake Shore Road and Scott 's Road , departs inland near Point St. Clair . M @-@ 185 is bounded by the interior woods on one side and the beaches and rocky shores on the other through this area .
Mile 4 is situated at Point aux Pins at the northernmost point of the island . Here , M @-@ 185 turns southerly , passing the state boat dock and a nature center before coming to British Landing at the intersection with British Landing Road . The area is a popular stopping point for tourists biking or walking M @-@ 185 ; it is the location where British troops came ashore during the Battle of Mackinac Island during the War of 1812 . Located around British Landing are various amenities including restrooms , picnic tables , and a concession stand . M @-@ 185 continues along Maniboajo Bay and passes the mile 5 marker near Radisson Point .
The next area along M @-@ 185 is also sparsely developed as it passes along Griffin Cove . Other than a few newer residential developments , the sights are limited to Brown 's Brook , which features a picnic area and interpretive nature trail , and the views of the Mackinac Bridge as the trunkline rounds both Heriot and Perrot points . Between the markers for miles 6 and 7 is the Devil 's Kitchen , another popular tourist stopping point , at Jacker Point . Near mile 7 is the West Bluff Stairs leading up the bluff to Pontiac 's Lookout . Further along , there is a marker commemorating the filming of a scene from Somewhere in Time as well as views of the Grand Hotel . The building 's 660 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 200 m ) front porch is promoted as the " longest in the world " . Visible to the east of the hotel is Michigan 's second Governor 's Mansion , which is used as a summer retreat for the state 's chief executive . At this point , M @-@ 185 transitions back to the more developed portion of the island and the road name for the trunkline changes back to Main Street . Next to the roadway , a boardwalk runs from here into the downtown business district .
= = = Entering downtown = = =
The first landmark as the highway approaches downtown Mackinac Island is the island 's public school building . As it passes the island 's public library on the shoreline side of the street , Main Street makes a sweeping curve to the north at Windermere , or Biddle 's , Point to run through the downtown district . Other than the library , most of the city 's public buildings are actually situated along Market Street , one block behind Main Street . Three streets and a city park allow for connections between Main and Market streets . M @-@ 185 through downtown Mackinac Island passes through the major business district , featuring dozens of shops , restaurants and lodging establishments ; nearly a dozen of these outlets , feature the authentic Mackinac Island fudge made fresh daily during tourist season . The passenger ferry docks are all situated along Main Street in the downtown area . At the northeastern end of the downtown district , Main Street intersects Fort Street at the state park visitor center to complete its circuit of Mackinac Island .
= = History = =
The first city ordinances banning all motorized vehicles from the island were passed on July 6 , 1898 , with similar state park rules coming in 1901 . The residents complained after a doctor 's car scared their horses and caused carriage accidents , and these complaints prompted the ban . As such , other than a handful of emergency and utility vehicles as well as others by special , limited @-@ time permit , no cars or trucks are allowed on the island and no motorized vehicles appear on M @-@ 185 . Traffic on this highway is by foot , on horse , by horse @-@ drawn vehicle , or by bicycle ; M @-@ 185 is the only such state highway in the country " that allows no automobiles " . As a result , the roadside litter is picked up using a horse @-@ drawn wagon .
Lake Shore Road around the island was built between 1900 and 1910 by the state , and the M @-@ 185 designation was first assigned on July 12 , 1933 . The roadway was purpose @-@ built for non @-@ motorized use ; it is narrower than other state highways . During the 1950s , the state paved the road in asphalt . Since the 1970s , the MISPC has allowed snowmobiles to operate on Mackinac Island during the winter .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , rising water levels in Lake Huron endangered M @-@ 185 and bicyclists . The roadway was overwashed by waves from the lake during a storm on May 31 , 1985 ; the waves littered the road with gravel and dirt and raised fears of erosion . MDOT spent around $ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 153 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) to install 2 @,@ 500 short tons ( 2 @,@ 200 long tons ; 2 @,@ 300 t ) of rock and filter cloth designed to prevent erosion . The expectation at the time was that Lake Huron could rise another 4 – 5 inches ( 10 – 13 cm ) that summer . Such a lake level increase prompted worries that the waves would wash away sections of the road . The lake had already washed away shoreline near Arch Rock ; there was at least 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of berm between the road and shoreline in the 1970s and by 1985 some sections had been reduced to just 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) . Storms later that year washed away sections of M @-@ 185 , removing huge chunks of asphalt . MDOT closed those stretches on July 7 , 1986 , after the Independence Day weekend , to fix the damage . Repairs were budgeted to replace the missing sections of roadway at a cost of $ 894 @,@ 366 ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 62 million in 2015 ) ; tourists were detoured inland , and uphill , to access the island 's various tourist attractions .
In 1979 , while filming Somewhere in Time , a car was brought on the island for Christopher Reeve 's character to drive . The next time that a vehicle was permitted on the island was on July 6 , 1998 , to commemorate the original ordinance that prohibited cars from Mackinac Island . A 1901 Geneva steam @-@ powered car toured the island and was exhibited in Marquette Park before being towed by horse back to British Landing .
MDOT obtained a $ 242 @,@ 000 grant ( equivalent to $ 354 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) from the Federal Highway Administration in 2002 to purchase conservation easements along M @-@ 185 . The land adjacent to the highway on the east side of the island is publicly owned while along the west it is mostly private . The grant allowed the MISPC and MDOT to either purchase the development rights to adjacent properties along Lake Shore Road , or the adjacent properties themselves .
The only known motor vehicle collision on Mackinac Island occurred on M @-@ 185 at the head of the Shepler passenger ferry dock on May 13 , 2005 , when the island 's fire truck slightly damaged the door on the island 's ambulance ; both vehicles were responding to a report from the ferryboat that an injured passenger required medical attention . Before this incident , it was the only state highway that " never had an automobile accident " according to the Toronto Star .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is on Mackinac Island , which is located in Mackinac County . Milemarkers are posted in a counterclockwise fashion .
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= Learie Constantine =
Learie Nicholas Constantine , Baron Constantine , ( 21 September 1901 – 1 July 1971 ) was a West Indian cricketer , lawyer and politician who served as Trinidad 's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and became the UK 's first black peer . He played 18 Test matches before the Second World War and took the West Indies ' first wicket in Test cricket . An advocate against racial discrimination , in later life he was influential in the passing of the 1965 Race Relations Act in Britain . He was knighted in 1962 and made a life peer in 1969 .
Born in Trinidad , Constantine established an early reputation as a promising cricketer , and was a member of the West Indies teams that toured England in 1923 and 1928 . Unhappy at the lack of opportunities for black people in Trinidad , he decided to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England , and during the 1928 tour was awarded a contract with the Lancashire League club Nelson . He played for the club with distinction between 1929 and 1938 , while continuing as a member of the West Indies Test team in tours of England and Australia . Although his record as a Test cricketer was less impressive than in other cricket he helped to establish a uniquely West Indian style of play . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1939 .
During the Second World War , Constantine worked for the Ministry of Labour and National Service as a Welfare Officer responsible for West Indians employed in English factories . In 1943 , the manager of a London hotel refused to accommodate Constantine and his family on the grounds of their race ; Constantine successfully sued the hotel company . Commentators recognise the case as a milestone in British Racial Equality . Constantine qualified as a barrister in 1954 , while also establishing himself as a journalist and broadcaster . He returned to Trinidad in 1954 , entered politics and became a founding member of the People 's National Movement , subsequently entering the Trinidad government as minister of communications . From 1961 to 1964 , he served as Trinidad 's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and , controversially , became involved in issues relating to racial discrimination , including the Bristol Bus Boycott . In his final years , he served on the Race Relations Board , the Sports Council and the Board of Governors of the BBC . Failing health reduced his effectiveness in some of these roles , and he faced criticism for becoming a part of the British Establishment . He died of a heart attack on 1 July 1971 , aged 69 .
= = Early life = =
Constantine was born in Petit Valley , a village close to Diego Martin in north @-@ west Trinidad , on 21 September 1901 , the second child of the family and the eldest of three brothers . His father , Lebrun Constantine , was the grandchild of slaves ; Lebrun rose to the position of overseer on a cocoa estate in Cascade , near Maraval , where the family moved in 1906 . Lebrun was famous on the island as a cricketer who represented Trinidad in first @-@ class cricket and toured England twice with a West Indian team . Constantine 's mother , Anaise Pascall , was the daughter of slaves , and her brother Victor , was also a Trinidad and West Indian first @-@ class cricketer ; a third family member , Constantine 's brother Elias , later represented Trinidad . Constantine wrote that although the family was not wealthy , his childhood was happy . He spent a lot of time playing in the hills near his home or on the estates where his father and grandfather worked . He enjoyed cricket from an early age ; the family regularly practised together under the supervision of Lebrun and Victor Pascall .
Constantine first went to the St Ann 's Government School in Port of Spain , then attended St Ann 's Roman Catholic School until 1917 . He displayed little enthusiasm for learning and never reached a high academic standard , but showed prowess at several sports and was respected for his cricketing lineage . He played for the school cricket team , which he captained in his last two years , by which time he was developing a reputation as an attacking batsman , a good fast @-@ medium bowler and an excellent fielder . His father prohibited him from playing competitive club cricket until 1920 for fear of premature exposure to top @-@ class opposition while too young ; in addition , he first wanted his son to establish a professional career . Upon leaving school Constantine joined Jonathan Ryan , a firm of solicitors in Port of Spain , as a clerk . This was a possible route into the legal profession ; however , as a member of the black lower @-@ middle class , he was unlikely to progress far . Few black Trinidadians at this time became solicitors , and he faced many social restrictions owing to his colour .
= = Cricket career = =
= = = Cricket in Trinidad = = =
In 1916 , before his father imposed a ban on competitive cricket , Constantine had played briefly for Shannon Cricket Club ; he returned to the club in 1920 . Initially , he appeared in the second team , but after scoring 50 runs in an hour during his third game , was promoted to the first eleven . Cricket in Trinidad at the time was divided along racial lines ; Shannon was mainly for black lower middle @-@ class players such as teachers or clerks . The club was competitive and highly motivated , partly as a reaction to the racial discrimination that its players and supporters encountered in their daily lives . Constantine 's cricket thrived in this atmosphere , and the club helped to form some of his political views . He particularly noticed that in Trinidadian and West Indian cricket , white and light @-@ skinned players were often favoured over black players of greater ability .
Constantine 's reputation continued to grow . An innings for Shannon in 1921 against renowned fast bowler George John received great local publicity , but according to the cricket writer and social historian C. L. R. James , this was the only time prior to 1928 that Constantine played in such an effective way . Constantine 's father , still a formidable player , did not put himself forward for selection into the Trinidad team in 1921 , in the hope that his son would replace him . The white captain of the Trinidad team , Major Bertie Harragin , recognised the younger Constantine 's promise , and selected him to play in Trinidad 's Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament match against British Guiana . Unfortunately , Constantine arrived late after a newspaper advertised the wrong starting time , and did not play . However , he made his first @-@ class debut in the following match , the final of the tournament , against Barbados on 21 September 1921 . He scored a duck in his first innings , batting at number eight in the batting order . After taking two wickets at a cost of 44 runs in Barbados ' only innings , he scored 24 in his second innings , batting at number three .
Constantine played for Trinidad in the next Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , in British Guiana in 1922 . Although in two games he scored only 45 runs and took four wickets , commentators considered his fielding in the covers to be exceptional , and he retained his place in the team largely as a fielder . Although Trinidad lost to Barbados in the final , the Barbados captain Harold Austin , who was also captain of the West Indies team , was impressed by Constantine . Mainly on the strength of his fielding , Austin secured Constantine 's selection for the 1923 West Indian tour of England ; it was a surprising choice , as there were other candidates who appeared to have stronger claims . By this time Constantine was working for Llewellyn Roberts , a larger solicitors ' practice which paid better . As his new employer 's longer working hours restricted Constantine 's cricket practice , when he was selected for the West Indies tour he resigned his position .
= = = Tour of England in 1923 = = =
The 1923 West Indies touring team played 21 first @-@ class matches in England , of which six were won , seven lost and the others drawn . The team 's relative success , and particularly the performance of leading batsman George Challenor , persuaded English critics that West Indies cricket was stronger than previously supposed ; this was instrumental in the promotion of the team to Test match status in 1928 . Challenor was the biggest individual success of the tour , but Constantine impressed English critics , through his style of play more than his statistical achievements . He played 20 first @-@ class matches on the tour , scoring 425 runs at an average of 15 @.@ 74 and taking 37 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 86 . Against Oxford University , he scored 77 , his maiden first @-@ class fifty ; his only other half century came against Derbyshire . He also took five wickets in an innings for the first time , in the match against Kent .
Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack recorded that his batting , while highly unorthodox in technique , could be very effective when he was in form . Wisden also noted that his bowling was fast . Several English players , including Jack Hobbs , singled out Constantine as an unusually talented cricketer on the strength of his performances in 1923 . Pelham Warner , a former England captain and influential journalist and administrator , described Constantine after the tour as the best fielder in the world ; his fielding was also praised by the press and in the pages of Wisden . James later wrote : " He is a success , but he has not set the Thames on fire , and , what is more , he hasn 't tried to . "
= = = Mid @-@ 1920s career = = =
John Arlott later commented that , on his first tour of England , Constantine " learnt much that he never forgot , by no means all of it about cricket : and he recognised the game as his only possible ladder to the kind of life he wanted . " When Constantine returned to Trinidad , he had no permanent job and little prospect of advancement in any suitable profession . He took several temporary jobs but was often forced to rely financially upon his family . However , his success had inspired him to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England , and he began to practise to reach the required standard . Although he scored 167 for Shannon in 1924 , and took eight for 38 for Trinidad against Barbados , Constantine 's cricket was steady but not consistently successful . He was initially dropped from the West Indies team to face the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) touring team during 1926 , though he was recalled for the second match , once again at the insistence of Austin , who wanted a good cover fielder in the team . In the match Constantine was involved in an incident over short @-@ pitched bowling . The MCC fast bowlers had bowled short at the 49 @-@ year @-@ old Austin ; in retaliation , Constantine bounced the MCC captain , Freddie Calthorpe , and only stopped after James pointed out the diplomatic row which would follow if Calthorpe , a respected figure in the British establishment , was hit by the ball . Once more , Constantine 's performances were not statistically exceptional , but his style impressed critics and spectators , and he came top of the West Indies bowling averages .
A new , permanent job with Trinidad Leaseholds allowed Constantine to devote more time to cricket . Constantine realised that to succeed as a professional cricketer , he needed to improve ; his bowling lacked true speed and , when batting , he was often dismissed playing shots which were too adventurous . After his relative failure in 1926 , he increased his level of practice , improved his fitness and trained to become a slip fielder to conserve his energies for genuine fast bowling . In the trial matches before the 1928 tour of England , Constantine secured his place on the tour by taking five for 32 and scoring 63 . He left behind his wife Norma , whom he had married in 1927 , and his newly @-@ born daughter .
= = = Tour of England in 1928 = = =
Constantine 's main objective on the 1928 tour was to secure a contract to play cricket professionally in England . James wrote that Constantine " had revolted against the revolting contrast between his first @-@ class status as a cricketer and his third @-@ class status as a man ... The restraints imposed upon him by social conditions in the West Indies had become intolerable and he decided to stand them no longer . " According to James , Constantine would never have left Trinidad had he been able to live with " honour [ and ] a little profit " . In the tour 's opening first @-@ class match , against Derbyshire , Constantine began his second innings when the West Indians needed 40 runs to win ; in seven scoring shots , Constantine hit 31 runs and took the team to a two @-@ wicket victory . In the following match he scored his maiden first @-@ class century , 130 in 90 minutes , against Essex .
As the tour proceeded , Constantine continued his success ; the Middlesex game at Lord 's brought his name to the widest notice in cricket circles . Although struggling for fitness , he chose to play knowing that he was a star attraction in this high profile game . Middlesex batted first , and reached 352 before declaring the innings closed — Constantine bowled little owing to his injury — and the West Indies were struggling at 79 for five when Constantine came in to bat . He scored 50 in 18 minutes and reached 86 in under an hour , to avert his side 's follow @-@ on . In Middlesex 's second innings , Constantine took seven for 57 in a spell of extremely fast bowling and the county were dismissed for 136 . The West Indies needed 259 to win ; they looked likely to lose when Constantine returned to bat with the score 121 for five . He scored 103 in 60 minutes , hitting two sixes and 12 fours and guiding the West Indies to a three @-@ wicket victory . For players and spectators this was the defining match of Constantine 's career ; many years later , cricket writer E. W. Swanton suggested that there were few all @-@ round performances in the history of cricket to match it . Shortly after the game , Nelson , a cricket club in the Lancashire League , offered Constantine a professional contract .
The rest of Constantine 's 1928 tour was generally successful ; only in the three Test matches , the first played by the West Indies , was he less effective . Although he took the West Indies ' first wicket in Test cricket , dismissing Charlie Hallows , and finished with innings figures of four for 82 , he took only one more wicket during the remainder of the series and ended with five wickets at an average of 52 @.@ 40 ; with the bat , he scored 89 runs in six innings at 14 @.@ 83 . Even so , Jack Hobbs said that Constantine 's opening overs to him in the first Test were among the fastest he ever faced , Constantine believed his captain , Karl Nunes , over @-@ bowled him ; the pair did not get along well . When the tour ended , Constantine had scored more runs and taken more wickets and catches in first @-@ class games than any other tourist . He was second in the team 's batting averages with 1 @,@ 381 runs at 34 @.@ 52 , and led the bowling averages with 107 wickets at 22 @.@ 95 . It was the manner in which Constantine played which set him apart from the restrained form of cricket generally played in England at the time : his style , aggression and entertainment value made a big impression on the crowds . According to Peter Mason in his biography of Constantine , he established a unique style of West Indian cricket and possibly established the template for West Indian cricketers for years to come .
= = = Series against England and Australia = = =
At the end of the 1928 tour Constantine returned home and helped Trinidad to win the Intercolonial Tournament . He took 16 wickets in the two games and scored 133 in the final against Barbados , the highest score of his career and a record for Trinidad at the time . These were his last matches in the tournament , as the rules did not permit professional cricketers ( which he became when he signed for Nelson ) to take part . In 1929 Constantine played one match in Jamaica for a West Indies team against an English touring team and then travelled to Nelson to begin his professional career .
Constantine returned to the West Indies to face England ( represented by the MCC as was usual in those days ) in a four @-@ match Test series early in 1930 . The first Test was drawn ; Constantine scored few runs , but bowled for a long time and fielded well . After the game , he was awarded a bat for his contribution . Calthorpe , the MCC captain , criticised his use of short @-@ pitched bowling to a leg side field ; one such ball struck Andy Sandham , but Constantine only reverted to more conventional tactics after a request from the MCC manager . During the second Test Constantine scored a rapid 58 and took six wickets , but the West Indies lost by 167 runs . In the following match the West Indies recorded their first win in Test matches ; after centuries from George Headley and Clifford Roach , Constantine took four for 35 and five for 87 to secure the victory . Constantine was omitted from the final match in Jamaica , because inter @-@ island politics meant that selectors tended to pick players from the island hosting the Test . In the series , 29 players represented the West Indies and the team had a different captain in each match . In the three matches in which he played , Constantine scored 144 runs at 14 @.@ 40 and took 18 wickets at 27 @.@ 61 .
After his second season at Nelson , Constantine joined the first West Indies team to tour Australia in the 1930 – 31 season . The side felt some trepidation over how the black members of the side would be received , but the tour passed off without incident ; Constantine later praised the reception the team was accorded . The West Indians were captained by Jackie Grant , a white man who had played for Cambridge University but was unfamiliar with his team . Constantine considered this unsatisfactory , and felt it affected the team 's performances . The West Indies were heavily defeated in the five @-@ Test series , losing the first four matches before winning the last . Constantine achieved little in the series , scoring 72 runs at 7 @.@ 20 and taking eight wickets at 50 @.@ 87 . In other first @-@ class games , he was more successful and , although Headley performed very well , it was Constantine who proved most popular with spectators . Even before the Tests began , his fielding drew praise from the press and he was described in The Sydney Mail as the fastest bowler seen in Australia for years . Monty Noble , a former Australian captain , writing in the Sydney Sun described one innings of 59 runs as " sensational " and one of the best played in Australia since the war . Constantine scored a century in 52 minutes against Tasmania , played five other innings over fifty and took three five @-@ wicket returns . In 1950 Donald Bradman , who played against Constantine that season , described him as the greatest fielder he had seen . In all first @-@ class matches , Constantine scored 708 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 78 and took 47 wickets at 20 @.@ 21 ; he led the team 's bowling averages and came fourth in batting .
= = = Test series against England in 1933 and 1934 – 35 = = =
By now living in Nelson and barred from the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , Constantine played no first @-@ class cricket for two years . His contract with Nelson made him unavailable for much of the 1933 West Indies ' tour of England under Grant . Constantine never challenged Nelson over this ; some critics suggested he was swayed by the greater financial rewards the club provided . He appeared once for the tourists in May , scoring 57 in 27 minutes and taking four wickets in a victory over an MCC team at Lord 's . The West Indian board unsuccessfully tried to secure his release for the first Test match , which the West Indies lost heavily . After he took nine wickets in the tourists ' game against Yorkshire , Nelson gave him permission to appear in the second Test at Manchester .
During the previous winter , England had played Australia in the controversial Bodyline series in which the English bowlers were accused of bowling the ball on the line of leg stump . The deliveries were often short @-@ pitched with four or five fielders close by on the leg side waiting to catch deflections off the bat . The tactics were difficult for batsmen to counter and were designed to be intimidatory . In the 1933 English season , Bodyline was a sensitive subject . There had already been controversy in the tourists ' match against the MCC , during which Constantine and Manny Martindale , another West Indian fast bowler , were criticised in the press for bowling short . Frustrated by a slow pitch which he believed was intended to neutralise his fast bowlers , Grant had ordered Constantine to bowl Bodyline against Yorkshire , and decided to repeat the tactics in the second Test . The West Indies scored 375 , of which Constantine made 31 . When England replied , several batsmen were discomfited by the Bodyline bowling ; Wally Hammond was struck on the chin and retired hurt . Constantine and Martindale bowled up to four short deliveries each over so that the ball rose to head height ; occasionally they bowled around the wicket .
Although not as fast as he had been on the previous tour , Constantine was still capable of short bursts of very fast bowling . However , the slowness of the pitch reduced the effectiveness of the Bodyline tactics , and Constantine took one for 55 ; England 's captain Douglas Jardine , who had implemented the Bodyline tactics in Australia , batted for five hours to score his only Test century . The public disapproval expressed during and after the match was instrumental in turning English attitudes against Bodyline , something Constantine considered hypocritical . In the West Indies ' second innings Constantine 's innings of 64 in an hour ensured that the match was drawn . Nelson initially agreed to release him for the third Test , with Essex all @-@ rounder Stan Nichols to be Constantine 's substitute for the club team . When Jardine heard , he convinced the England selectors to include Nichols in the England team for the Test , the deal collapsed and Constantine did not play . Most critics believed that the West Indies underachieved in the Test series ; Constantine believed that one cause was the inadequacy of Grant as captain . In all first @-@ class games on the tour Constantine scored 181 runs at 20 @.@ 11 and took 14 wickets at 22 @.@ 14 .
Constantine worked in India as a cricket coach during 1934 , playing two matches in the Moin @-@ ud @-@ Dowlah Gold Cup Tournament . He was invited to play in the 1935 Test series against England in the West Indies , and although he arrived too late for the first Test , won by England , he played in the remaining three games of the series . In a match for Trinidad before the second Test , he and his brother Elias appeared together for the only time in a first @-@ class match , and shared a partnership of 93 . In the next Test Constantine scored 90 , his highest Test score . England needed 325 to win in the fourth innings , but lost early wickets . In the final stages of the match Constantine was warned by the umpire for bowling Bodyline , and Grant withdrew him from the bowling attack . After the crowd protested , Constantine returned to bowl ; with two balls of the match left , took the final English wicket . The West Indies won by 217 runs , with Constantine taking three for 11 ; in the match as a whole he scored 121 runs and took five wickets . The third Test was drawn , leaving the final Test to decide the series . After making a large total , the West Indies bowled England out twice to win by an innings and record their first Test series victory . As well as taking six wickets in the game , Constantine captained the team to victory after Grant injured an ankle on the last morning and asked Constantine to assume the leadership . Peter Mason writes : " Given the measures that the West Indian authorities had taken to ensure that no black man would ever captain a regional side , it was a great irony and a huge source of delight to Constantine that he should be the man to lead the team at the moment of their greatest achievement so far . " Once more , the press praised Constantine and hailed his achievements . In the series , he scored 169 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 80 and took 15 wickets at 13 @.@ 13 .
= = = Tour of England in 1939 = = =
Apart from one guest appearance for Barbados in a friendly match early in 1939 , Constantine did not play first @-@ class cricket after 1935 until the West Indies toured England in 1939 . Constantine had deliberately not signed a league contract in 1939 , to be available for the tour . However , he was unhappy with the playing strength of the touring team and the £ 600 he was offered in wages . He believed that the captain , Rolph Grant ( younger brother of Jackie ) , was unqualified for the job and had been appointed only because he was white . Constantine captained the side in one match , but was reprimanded by the West Indies board for not pursuing a win . The West Indies lost the three @-@ match Test series 1 – 0 against a very strong England side , although critics judged the overall playing record of the team to be good . In the three Tests , Constantine scored 110 runs at 27 @.@ 50 and took 11 wickets at 29 @.@ 81 , including five for 75 in the final Test .
By this time Constantine bowled generally at medium pace from a short run @-@ up . To compensate for his reduced pace he mixed up his bowling style , spinning the ball and bowling at speeds varying from slow to very fast . He bowled more overs than any other member of the team , and was the side 's leading wicket @-@ taker with 103 wickets in the season . His bowling average of 17 @.@ 77 placed him first in the team 's bowling averages and seventh in the English national averages . With the bat , Constantine scored 614 runs at 21 @.@ 17 ; Preston wrote that Constantine " often electrified onlookers with his almost impudent zest for runs " . His highest innings came in the final Test match when he scored 79 in an hour and hit 11 fours . Wisden commented : " Constantine , in the mood suggesting his work in Saturday afternoon League cricket , brought a welcome air of gaiety to the Test arena . He revolutionised all the recognised features of cricket and , surpass [ ed ] Bradman in his amazing stroke play . " For his all @-@ round performances during the season he was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year .
The third Test match , after which the tour was abandoned owing to the imminent outbreak of the Second World War , was Constantine 's last . In 18 Test matches between 1928 and 1939 he scored 635 runs at an average of 19 @.@ 24 , took 58 wickets at 30 @.@ 10 and held 28 catches . He played one more first @-@ class match when , in 1945 , he captained a team representing the " Dominions " against England at Lord 's . The match was narrowly won by the Dominions . Constantine , in the second innings , shared a partnership of 117 in 45 minutes with Keith Miller . He bowled very little , but ran out a batsman at a key point in the final innings . In all first @-@ class cricket , Constantine scored 4 @,@ 475 runs at 24 @.@ 05 and took 439 wickets at 20 @.@ 48 .
= = = Lancashire League cricketer = = =
In 1928 Constantine had signed an initial three @-@ year contract with Nelson , to play in the Lancashire League . The contract was worth £ 500 per season , plus performance bonuses and travelling expenses . He remained there until 1937 , an unusually long time for a professional to remain with one club . Constantine 's appearances boosted attendances and gate receipts for all Nelson 's matches , and was of great financial benefit to both the club and the League as a whole . In Constantine 's nine seasons at the club , Nelson never finished lower than second , won the league competition seven times and the knockout cup twice . In 1931 Constantine renewed his contract for £ 650 per season ; when in 1935 a rival league attempted to sign him , all the Lancashire League clubs contributed to his wage , which rose to £ 750 per year between 1935 and 1937 . This was far more than the then maximum wage for a professional footballer of £ 386 , or the £ 500 per season that a top county cricketer could potentially earn , and possibly made Constantine the best @-@ paid sportsman in the country . Consequently , he and his family enjoyed a good standard of living for the first time in their lives .
As Nelson 's professional , Constantine was immediately successful . Although he produced better figures in subsequent years , he considered his first season at Nelson the most enjoyable of his life , owing to the freedom and excitement of the cricket . In nine years at the club he scored 6 @,@ 363 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 65 and took 776 wickets at 9 @.@ 50 . His highest score was 192 , and his best bowling figures were ten wickets for ten runs . In each season except for 1932 , he averaged over 30 with the bat and in 1933 he scored 1 @,@ 000 runs at an average of over 50 . He took over 70 wickets every season and his bowling average never rose above 11 @.@ 30 ; in five seasons , he averaged under ten runs per wicket . In 1933 he took 96 wickets , his highest seasonal aggregate , and had he not missed two games to play for the West Indies touring team , would likely have completed the cricketer 's double ( 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets ) , an unprecedented feat in the league .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , representatives from Lancashire County Cricket Club twice approached Constantine with a view to him joining the club — his time in Nelson meant that he qualified to play for Lancashire , having lived in the county for the required time . There was a precedent for such a course , as the Australian Ted McDonald had joined Lancashire after playing as Nelson 's professional in the 1920s . In the case of Constantine nothing happened , as members of the Lancashire Board and , later , players in the team opposed the idea of a black man playing for the county . In any case Constantine preferred league cricket to what he perceived was the negativity and dullness of county cricket . He found the standard of play very high , stating : " Never in my life have I played harder than in Lancashire . " In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley writes that league cricket at this time was intense and unrelenting , but : " it was in this special atmosphere of League cricket that Constantine was supreme . "
For the 1938 season , Constantine played for Rochdale in the Central Lancashire Cricket League , although he continued to live in Nelson . He received £ 812 for the season , and performed successfully , but did not enjoy the experience . The nature of the pitches was different in his new league ; furthermore , some of the players seemed resentful of his high earnings . There was also an incident of racial abuse which Constantine believed the Central Lancashire League committee effectively covered up . This season ended Constantine 's career in the Lancashire Leagues , although during the war he returned to play for Nelson as an amateur .
= = = Style and technique = = =
Swanton believed that Constantine was the first West Indian cricketer to make an impression on the British public : " he ... personified West Indian cricket from the first faltering entry in the Test arena in 1928 until the post @-@ war emergence of the trinity of Worrell , Weekes and Walcott . " Swanton continued : " There have been many all @-@ rounders with better records ... but it is hard to think of one who made a more sensational impact [ and ] impossible to imagine his superior as a fielder anywhere . " In 1934 Neville Cardus described Constantine as a " genius " and the " most original cricketer of recent years " . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow called Constantine the most exciting cricketer to watch of all his contemporaries . This was partly because his style of cricket meant that he could alter the course of a match in a short space of time , although he developed his technique to minimise risk .
Constantine 's batting was based on good eyesight , quick reflexes and natural ability . He used his wrists to adjust the angle of the bat at the last second , allowing him to counter unexpected late movement of the ball . He batted by instinct and , according to Manley , " his every stroke [ owed ] more to energy than calculation " . He was capable of scoring rapidly against any standard of bowling , but rarely survived for long periods because he chose not to defend . His best shots were the cut , pull and hook . Critics believed that Constantine 's batting reached its peak once he became an accomplished league cricketer . By setting himself to master the variety of pitch conditions he encountered , and adopting a style of fast @-@ scoring and occasionally unorthodox batting , he became an adaptable and effective batsman in all forms of cricket , improvising where necessary to prevent bowlers getting on top .
As a cover @-@ point fielder Constantine was , according to Manley , " athletic , panther @-@ quick , sure handed and with an arm that could rifle the ball into the wicket @-@ keeper 's gloves like a bullet even from the deepest boundary " . Many critics considered him to be one of the best fielders of all time . As a bowler , Constantine accelerated from a relatively short run into what Manley calls an " explosive " delivery . James believes he reached his best form as a bowler in 1939 , using what he had learned in the leagues . By this time his varieties of spin , pace and flight made him effective even when conditions favoured the batsmen . Although Constantine 's Test bowling record was modest , this may to some extent reflect the poor standard of fielding in the early West Indies teams , in particular their propensity to drop catches .
Manley writes that wherever Constantine played he brought " style and humour : that aggressiveness that is somehow good @-@ natured and which is the distinctively West Indian quality in all sport . Constantine 's extrovert exuberance was , of course , more particularly Trinidadian than generally West Indian . Perhaps it is this last characteristic that gave him that special quality of panache which sets him apart from all other West Indian cricketers . "
= = Life in England = =
= = = Nelson = = =
During his time in Nelson , Constantine made a deep impression and remained a celebrity there even after leaving the town ; his general community involvement was such that a regional historian described him as a " local champion " . He appreciated the greater freedom he enjoyed in Nelson as compared with Trinidad , where racial issues predominated . Although Nelson suffered from the effects of the Depression , Constantine 's high earnings were never a source of resentment ; of his time in Nelson he wrote : " If I had not come ... I could not have been the person I am today ... I am a better citizen for the time I have spent in Nelson . "
Constantine 's first season was difficult ; both he and the residents of the town were at that stage uncertain of each other . Few black people had been seen in Nelson , and although some residents wrote welcoming letters , the Constantines also received racist and abusive ones . He quickly established boundaries over what he considered acceptable , permitting and even sharing small jokes over skin colour but protesting strongly at outright racism . John Arlott wrote : " [ Constantine ] fought discrimination against his people with a dignity firm but free of acrimony . " Although Constantine later attributed some of the initial uneasiness to ignorance , at the time he seriously considered returning to Trinidad after the first season . His wife persuaded him otherwise , pointing out the benefits from remaining to complete his contract . From 1930 Constantine found life more comfortable ; the family began to develop friendships and to engage in the social life of the town . They continued to visit Trinidad in the English winters , but Nelson became the family 's permanent home .
In 1931 the Constantines settled in a fairly prosperous , middle @-@ class area of Nelson , where they were to live until 1949 . During 1932 , they took C. L. R. James — who knew Constantine through having played cricket against him in Trinidad — as a lodger ; James had come to London but had run out of money . James was at the forefront of a growing West Indian nationalist movement , though Constantine had until then consciously avoided politics . Through James ' influence , Constantine realised that his position gave him opportunities to further the cause of racial equality and Trinidadian independence . He joined the League of Coloured Peoples , an organisation aiming to achieve racial equality for black people in Britain . He helped James to get a job with the Manchester Guardian , and in return , James helped Constantine to write his first book , Cricket and I , which was published in 1933 . Later commentators have identified Constantine 's book as an important step in West Indian nationalism , and an encouragement to future authors . At that time , James wrote , few active cricketers wrote books and " no one in the West Indies that I knew , cricketer or not , was writing books at all ; certainly none was being printed abroad . " Constantine and James drifted apart once the latter returned to London ; they remained in contact but did not always agree politically or morally . Mason believes , however that without Constantine 's assistance James may not have later established himself as a celebrated political writer .
= = = Career during the war = = =
During the war , Constantine continued his cricket career as a league professional ; also , as a popular player who could boost crowd attendances , he appeared in many wartime charity games . However , the war ended his career in top @-@ class cricket and signalled a change in his life 's priorities . Remaining in Nelson when the war started , he initially served as an Air Raid Precautions equipment officer , and as a billeting officer for incoming evacuees . After applying for a job with the Ministry of Labour , Constantine was offered a senior position as Welfare Officer by the Ministry of Labour and National Service .
Using his familiarity with life in England , and his high profile and status as a cricketer , Constantine became responsible for the many West Indians who had been recruited to work in factories in the north @-@ west of England for the duration of the war . Working mainly from Liverpool , he helped these men to adapt to their unfamiliar environment and to deal with the severe racism and discrimination which many of them faced . Constantine also worked closely with trade unions in an attempt to ease the fears and suspicions of white workers . He used his influence with the Ministry of Labour to pressurise companies who refused to employ West Indians , but generally preferred negotiation to confrontation , an approach that was often successful . Constantine 's wartime experiences caused him to increase his involvement in the League of Coloured Peoples , sometimes referring cases to them . He particularly took up the cause of the children of white women and black overseas servicemen ; these children were often abandoned by their parents . However , plans to create a children 's home for them came to nothing , leaving Constantine frustrated . He remained in his post until the summer of 1946 , latterly concerned with the repatriation of the West Indian workers at the end of the war . For his wartime work he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in 1947 .
During the war , at the request of the British government , Constantine made radio broadcasts to the West Indies , reporting on the involvement of West Indians in the war effort . As a result , he was often asked to speak on BBC radio about his life in England . His radio performances met with critical acclaim , and he became a frequent guest on radio panel shows ; he also took part in a film documentary , West Indies calling , in 1943 .
= = = Constantine v Imperial London Hotels = = =
In August 1943 Constantine played in a charity cricket match at Lord 's and had booked rooms for himself , his wife and daughter at the Imperial Hotel , London for four nights . He had been specifically told that his colour would not be an issue at the hotel . When he arrived on 30 July , he was told that they could only stay for one night because their presence might offend other guests . When Arnold Watson , a colleague of Constantine at the Ministry of Labour , arrived and attempted to intervene , he was told by the manager : " We are not going to have these niggers in our hotel , " and that his presence might offend American guests . Watson argued , to no avail , that not only was Constantine a British subject , he worked for the government . Eventually Watson persuaded Constantine to leave and stay at another hotel which , owned by the same company as the Imperial , proved to be welcoming . The Imperial Hotel incident affected Constantine deeply , both because of the involvement of his family and also because he was due to play cricket for a team representing the British Empire and Commonwealth .
In September questions were asked in the House of Commons about the incident , by which time Constantine had decided to take legal action . In June 1944 Constantine v Imperial London Hotels was heard in the High Court . Although there was no law against racial discrimination in Britain at the time , Constantine argued that the hotel had breached its contract with him . Constantine informed the court that the attitude of the hotel changed between his booking and arrival , owing to the presence of white American servicemen . The defence argued that they had met their contract by accommodating Constantine in another hotel and that he had left the Imperial voluntarily . The managing director of the hotel denied that racist language had been used . After two days of evidence , the judge found in Constantine 's favour , rejecting the defence 's arguments and praising the way Constantine had handled the situation . Although the law limited the award of damages against the hotel to five guineas , Constantine was vindicated . He did not pursue the case any further as he believed he had sufficiently raised the issue of racism in the public eye ; the case was widely reported in the press , and Constantine received great support from both the public and the government .
Although racial discrimination continued in England , this case was the first to challenge such practices in court . Critics regard it as a milestone in British racial equality in demonstrating that black people had legal recourse against some forms of racism . According to Mason , it " was one of the key milestones along the road to the creation of the Race Relations Act of 1965 . "
= = = Legal studies = = =
While living and playing cricket in Nelson before the war , Constantine had made plans for a future legal career . James helped him with his studies for a short time , and he later worked in a local solicitors ' office . In 1944 he enrolled as a student in the Middle Temple , London . To finance his studies , he continued his professional cricket career in Bradford until 1948 , and supplemented his income by coaching : at Trinity College , Dublin , in 1946 and in Ceylon in 1953 . Constantine also extended his work in journalism and broadcasting , as a cricket reporter and as a radio commentator when the West Indies toured England in 1950 . He also wrote several cricket books , probably with the help of a ghostwriter . Cricket in the Sun ( 1947 ) covered his career but also discussed the racism he had encountered and suggested then @-@ radical ideas for the future of cricket , such as a one @-@ day " world cup " . Cricketers ' Carnival ( 1948 ) , Cricket Crackers , Cricketers ' Cricket ( both 1949 ) and How To Play Cricket ( 1951 ) were more traditional cricket books , which included coaching tips and opinions .
In 1947 Constantine became chairman of the League of Coloured Peoples , a position he held until the League was discontinued in 1951 . In 1948 he was elected president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour , and between 1947 and 1950 was a member of the Colonial Office 's Colonial Social Welfare Advisory Committee . Also in 1950 , he became involved in a controversy over the interracial marriage of Seretse Khama , the future president of Botswana . Constantine lobbied the government on Khama 's behalf , organised meetings and even approached the United Nations . Little was achieved , and Constantine disapproved of the approach of the Labour government and its Prime Minister , Clement Attlee , but declined an opportunity to become a Liberal parliamentary candidate .
Constantine neither enjoyed his legal studies , nor found the work easy , but was determined to prove he could succeed . His wife kept him motivated , restricted visitors to avoid distractions and forced him to study , making him continue when he was several times tempted to give up . The family moved to London in 1949 ; between 1950 and 1954 , Constantine passed the required series of examinations , and in 1954 he was called to the bar by the Middle Temple .
Having turned down an offer in 1947 to return to his old employer , Trinidad Leaseholds , in 1954 Constantine agreed to join the same company as an assistant legal advisor . Uncertain about going back to Trinidad after living for 25 years in England , he nevertheless believed it was a good time to return , particularly as his daughter was moving there to marry . Before leaving England , he published his book Colour Bar ( 1954 ) , which addressed race relations in Britain and the racism he had experienced . It also discussed world @-@ wide racial oppression and how the lives of black people could be improved . At the time , according to Peter Mason , this was " an explosive , challenging , hard hitting tome , the more so because it came not from a known black militant but from someone who seemed so charming , so unruffled , so suited to British society " . Although not viewed as radical by black audiences , it was aimed at white British readers . The British press gave it mixed reviews and criticised him for unfairness in parts of the book ; other critics accused him of communist sympathies .
= = Return to Trinidad = =
When Constantine returned to Trinidad in late 1954 , he found a growing desire for independence from Britain . At Trinidad Leaseholds he felt isolated from other , mainly white , senior staff ; this drew him towards political involvement . Eric Williams , leader of the newly founded People 's National Movement ( PNM ) , was aware of Constantine 's popular appeal and recruited him . By January 1956 Constantine , with the full co @-@ operation and blessing of his employers , was party chairman and a member of its executive committee . Feeling that the PNM 's policies were in harmony with his views on improving the lives of black people , and encouraged by his wife , Constantine stood for election in the parliamentary constituency of Tunapuna in 1956 . He won a narrow victory , which his colleagues believed few in the party could have done , and resigned from Trinidad Leaseholds . The PNM formed a government , in which Constantine became the Minister of Communications , Works and Utilities .
In his ministerial role , Constantine promoted development of Trinidad 's road , rail , water and electricity infrastructure . However , in late 1958 he was accused of corruption , over a ship leasing deal . His angry response to the charge , in the Legislative Council , created a perception of arrogance among his colleagues , and suggested that he had not sufficiently adapted to parliamentary politics . According to Mason , the speech was a miscalculation which made the public , perhaps already sceptical of his commitment to Trinidad after so many years away , question his fitness for a ministerial role , a view increasingly held by commentators .
In the later 1950s , Constantine supported the campaign , led by James , to appoint West Indies cricket 's first black captain ; the success of black people like Constantine in attaining government positions while not permitted to captain the cricket team was a key factor in an ultimately successful campaign . While in government , Constantine assisted in the development of the West Indies Federation , as a step towards the independence of the islands , and his fame and familiarity with Britain played some part in the negotiations which led to Trinidad 's independence in 1962 . After he decided not to stand for re @-@ election in 1961 , Williams appointed him as Trinidad and Tobago 's first High Commissioner in London .
Peter Mason writes that Constantine 's political career in Trinidad was a success : he was efficient , active , respected and popular . Mason concedes that he was not a natural politician , often sensitive to criticism and that his experience abroad was a cause for mistrust in Trinidad , rather than seen as an advantage . Gerald Howat believes that Constantine 's political career , while not without successes , was undermined by several factors : his age , his over @-@ frequent references to his English experience , his rejection of political theorising and lack of debating skills . However , his personal popularity undoubtedly attracted support to the PNM .
= = Back to England = =
= = = High Commissioner = = =
Constantine began his role as High Commissioner in June 1961 . In the New Year 's Honours list for 1962 , he was knighted and became Sir Learie Constantine ; among other accolades he received at this time was the freedom of the town of Nelson . Mason notes that Constantine had now " passed firmly into the consciousness as a British treasure " . However , his tenure as High Commissioner ended in controversy . Constantine felt that his high profile required him to speak out on racial issues affecting all West Indian immigrants , not just Trinidadians . In April 1963 , when a Bristol bus company was refusing to employ black staff , Constantine visited the city and spoke to the press about the issue . His intervention assisted in a speedy resolution of the affair which , according to Mason , was crucial in persuading the British government of the need for a Race Relations Act . However , politicians in both Trinidad and Britain felt a senior diplomat should not be so closely involved in British domestic affairs , particularly as he acted without consulting his government . Williams effectively withdrew his support from Constantine , who decided not to continue as High Commissioner when his term expired in February 1964 .
Although as High Commissioner Constantine looked after his staff and was respected by other diplomats , Howat observes there is limited evidence that he was successful in the post : " In the one area in which he acted positively , he blundered — the Bristol affair . In the language of the game he loved ... his timing was wrong though he was full of good intentions " . Howat adds that he did not increase his stature or reputation during his term of office . Mason believes that " there was too much of the welfare officer about him and not enough of the government focused diplomat . "
= = = Final years = = =
For the remainder of his life , Constantine lived in London . He returned to legal practice and was elected an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1963 , despite his limited experience . He also resumed work in journalism : he wrote and broadcast on cricket , race and the Commonwealth , and produced two more books : a coaching book The Young Cricketers Companion ( 1964 ) , and The Changing Face of Cricket ( 1966 ) which included his thoughts on modern cricket . He made his debut as a television cricket commentator , although his failing health and talkative style meant he was less successful than on the radio .
In 1965 Constantine became a founding member of the Sports Council , which aimed to develop sport in Britain . Two years later , he was appointed to the three @-@ person Race Relations Board , formed through the Race Relations Act , to investigate cases of racial discrimination . In this role he spoke out against the Commonwealth Immigrants Act , a stance that led to an offer from the Liberal Party , which he declined , to stand as parliamentary candidate for Nelson . Later , he was involved in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate the release , after a military coup , of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa , the overthrown Prime Minister of Nigeria . Constantine was appointed to the BBC 's General Advisory Committee in 1966 and became a BBC Governor two years later , although declining health restricted his involvement . The following year the students of St Andrews University elected Constantine as Rector , but again his health prevented him performing effectively in this role . In his last years , Constantine was criticised for becoming part of the Establishment ; Private Eye mocked him , while the new generation of West Indian immigrants believed he was out of touch . More radical black spokesmen disapproved of his conciliatory approach to racist incidents .
Constantine was awarded a life peerage in 1969 , becoming the first black man to sit in the House of Lords ; there were rumours that Trinidad had prevented earlier attempts to ennoble him . He took the title of Baron Constantine of Maraval in Trinidad and Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster . His investiture attracted widespread media attention ; Constantine stated : " I think it must have been for what I have endeavoured to do to make it possible for people of different colour to know each other better and live well together . " He sat as a crossbencher in the House , but was well enough to make only one speech in his time there .
Although Constantine was reluctant to leave England , his poor health necessitated a return to Trinidad , but before he could do so he died of a heart attack , probably brought about by bronchitis , on 1 July 1971 . His body was flown to Trinidad , where he received a state funeral before being buried in Arouca . He was posthumously awarded Trinidad 's highest honour , the Trinity Cross . Later in the month , a memorial service was held in London in Westminster Abbey .
= = Family life = =
Constantine met his future wife , Norma Agatha Cox , in 1921 . She had little interest in cricket and , although their relationship developed during the early 1920s , she resented that he gave more time to cricket than he did to her . However , the relationship lasted and she began to take more of an interest in his sporting achievements . They were married on 25 July 1927 ; their only child , Gloria , was born in April 1928 . Throughout their marriage , his wife motivated him to continue his efforts to further his career and they remained close . Norma died two months after her husband in 1971 .
= = Personality = =
John Arlott describes Constantine as a man of " easy humour and essential patience ... His outlook was that of a compassionate radical and he maintained his high moral standards unswervingly . " E. W. Swanton writes : " None could call Lord Constantine a modest man , but gifts of warmth and friendliness as well as a shrewd brain and a ready tongue helped to make him one of the personalities of his time . " He did not get along with everyone ; he and England cricketer Wally Hammond feuded for nearly ten years over what Constantine perceived as a slight in 1925 – 26 . Subsequently , Constantine continually bowled short when he encountered Hammond on the field , until the pair made peace in the Old Trafford Test match of 1933 . After this , they pursued a more good @-@ natured rivalry and became quite friendly ; Hammond publicly expressed sympathy towards Constantine and other black West Indians for the discrimination that they faced .
In his earlier years , acquaintances believed Constantine was too conscious of colour . James wrote : " Many doors in England were open to him . That doors were closed to other West Indians seemed more important to him . " Michael Manley describes him as an extrovert who displayed great self @-@ belief in everything he did . He also notes that " Constantine was too long in England and perhaps too slight in Test @-@ match performance to make the impact on the Caribbean that he did on England . But he enchanted England . " Howat writes : " Cricket apart ... Constantine 's reputation must rest on his contribution to racial tolerance , his benevolent view of empire and Commonwealth , and his personal acceptance within the British ' establishment ' . In the end he was more English than Trinidadian and he needed that wider platform . "
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= Ucu Agustin =
This is an Indonesian name which does not have a family name . The subject should be referred to as Ucu
Ucu Agustin ( born 19 August 1976 in Sukabumi , Indonesia ) is an Indonesian journalist , writer , and documentary filmmaker .
Educated in an Islamic boarding school , Ucu became interested in journalism after realising that there were many prostitutes from her hometown . Beginning in the print media , she moved to making documentaries after she saw a lack of opportunities for human interest pieces in newspapers . One of her first documentaries , Death in Jakarta , was produced with the help of funds from the Jakarta International Film Festival . Other documentaries include Ragat 'e Anak and Konspirasi Hening . She has also written several children 's books and short stories .
Ucu has been described as " one of Indonesia 's top documentary filmmakers " and often deals with social issues in her work . Ragat 'e Anak was screened at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2009 .
= = Early life , education and early career = =
Ucu was born in Sukabumi , West Java , on 19 August 1976 to a strict Muslim family . As a child , she studied in the Darunnajah Islamic boarding school in Jakarta for six years ; removed from the outside world , she felt shocked when she learned that many of the women in her hometown worked as prostitutes . This discovery led her to become more critical of the world around her and made her interested in journalism . Ucu later attended the Jakarta Islamic State University .
After graduation , Ucu began working with print media , contributing to Pantau magazine after publishing several short stories and articles elsewhere . Dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities for writing pieces dealing with social issues she later switched to audio @-@ visual media ; she has also cited the intense amount of editing that her works went through as a reason for the change , noting that there " always seemed to be a wide space between the reality that happened and the ' reality ' that was reported " .
Ucu also became active in writing . She published five Islamic @-@ themed children 's books in 2003 , insisting on receiving royalties rather than the standard flat rate . She has also written a short story , entitled " Lelaki yang Menetas di Tubuhku " ( " The Man That Hatched Inside My Body " ) , for inclusion in the lesbian @-@ themed short story collection Un Soir du Paris ( An Evening in Paris ) . The book also included stories by Clara Ng , Seno Gumira Ajidarma , and Agus Noor .
= = Filmmaking = =
Ucu 's first documentary was Pramoedya : Last Chapter . In 2005 , Ucu made the 28 @-@ minute documentary Death in Jakarta . This film , dealing with the experiences of poor people after a loved one dies in Jakarta , was inspired by her observations when passing Utan Kayu Public Cemetery in Utan Kayu , East Jakarta . It was produced after becoming one of four finalists in the Jakarta International Film Festival Script Development Competition . Ucu received Rp . 25 million ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) in prize money and was lent a camera by the competition ; it was her first time using a professional @-@ grade camera . In April of that year she released Kalau Kanakar ( If Kalakar ? ) , a short story collection .
Her next film , Ragat 'e Anak ( For The Sake of Children ) , dealt with the lives of two part @-@ time prostitutes in a cemetery in Tulungagung , East Java . The documentary was included in Pertaruhan ( At Stake ) , a compilation of works produced by the Kalyana Shira Foundation . In August 2006 , Ucu released a short story compilation , Dunia di Kepala Alice ( The World in Alice 's Head ) , and a novel , Being Ing . On 4 June 2009 , the Tulungagung government shut down the prostitution district as a result of the documentary ; in response , Ucu said that she regretted the decision .
Her next documentary , Konspirasi Hening ( Conspiracy of Silence ) was produced by Nia Dinata . It drew its title from a statement by Kartono Mohamad , former head of the Indonesian Doctors Association , that a " conspiracy of silence " had led to rules about healthcare being essentially unenforceable . The feature @-@ length film , Ucu 's first , explored healthcare issues in Indonesia by following the lives of three people , two who had suffered from malpractice and a poor man without access to healthcare .
In 2011 Ucu collaborated with Dinata again on Batik : Our Love Story , a documentary on the traditional textile batik . Dinata directed , while Ucu served as screenwriter . As of September 2011 , Ucu is working on three documentaries : Knocking The Door , about the Indonesian Bill for Public Information ; Thank You for Loving Me , about deforestation in Indonesia ; and Where Did You Go My Love , about kidnap victims .
Through the Cipta Media Bersama program , run by the Ford Foundation in collaboration with several other groups , in November 2011 Ucu received a Rp.700 million ( US $ 100 @,@ 000 ) grant to produce a new film . The film , entitled Tidak Bermula [ dan Tidak Berakhir ] dengan Berita ( Not Starting [ and Not Ending ] With News ) will compare the habits of the press during the death of former president Soeharto and the media in 2012 ; it is hoped to shed light on issues faced by the press in both periods and promote media literacy .
= = Themes = =
Ucu 's Islamic children 's books take a moderate stance .
Ika Krismantari , writing for The Jakarta Post , notes that Ucu tends to deal with " challenging " themes such as social injustice , healthcare , and gender inequality in her documentaries ; gender issues are present in most of her works . Ucu considers social justice and human rights other key themes of her works .
Ucu has noted that she hopes that viewers are influenced by the hard lives faced by the subjects , whom she calls " inspiring " . In September 2011 , she stated that she was most pleased with Death in Jakarta , Ragat 'e Anak , and Konspirasi Hening . Many of her documentaries are distributed online .
= = Reception = =
Krismantari describes Ucu as " one of Indonesia ’ s top documentary filmmakers " .
Ucu was one of the winners of the 2005 Jakarta International Film Festival Script Development Competition , which led to her being able to make Death in Jakarta . Pertaruhan , containing her documentary Ragat 'e Anak , was shown in the Panorama section of the Berlin International Film Festival in 2009 ; together with Laskar Pelangi ( also shown that year ) , it was the first Indonesian film shown in Panorama . Ucu went to Berlin with Dinata to attend the showing .
= = Personal life = =
Krismantari describes Ucu as being " a petite woman who can pack a fair punch " , in reference to Ucu 's 1 @.@ 55 m ( 5 ft 1 in ) frame and strong mind .
= = Filmography = =
Pramoedya : Last Chapter ( 2006 )
Death in Jakarta ( 2006 )
Nine Lives of A Women ( 2007 )
Women Behind the Cut ( 2008 )
An Unfinished One ( 2008 )
Ragat 'e Anak ( For The Sake of Children ; 2008 )
Waktu itu , Januari 2008 : Sebuah Catatan Kaki ( That Time , January 2008 : A Footnote ; 2009 )
Konspirasi Hening ( Conspiracy of Silence ; 2010 )
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= Hurricane Howard ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Howard was a powerful Category 4 hurricane which produced large swells along the coasts of the Baja California Peninsula and southern California . The eighth named storm of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Howard originated out of a tropical wave off the coast of Mexico on August 30 . Traveling towards the northwest , the storm gradually strengthened , becoming a hurricane on September 1 and reaching its peak intensity the following day with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . Decreasing sea surface temperatures then caused the storm to weaken . By September 4 , Howard was downgraded to a tropical storm . The next day , it degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area which persisted for another five days before dissipating over open waters .
Although the storm never made landfall , the fringe effects of the storm produced significant flooding across the Baja California Peninsula which damaged agricultural land and dozens of homes . Howard also produced large swells which reached 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 4 m ) along the Baja coastline and 10 ft ( 3 m ) along the California coastline . About 1 @,@ 000 lifeguard rescues took place in California due to the waves . Moisture from the storm also enhanced rainfall in parts of Arizona , leading to minor accumulations .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Howard began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 18 . The wave moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with little associated convection . By August 26 , the wave produced disorganized convection as it moved through the western Caribbean , across Central America , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Paralleling the southern coast of Mexico , the wave became increasingly organized and it was estimated that the tropical wave spawned a tropical depression around 1200 UTC on August 30 about 400 mi ( 645 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Classified as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E , the system tracked west @-@ northwestward under the steering currents of a weak mid @-@ level ridge . In the hours after formation , the depression lacked a concentration of deep convection near the center . However , conditions favored eventual development , including warm sea surface temperatures and low amounts of wind shear .
Based on increased organization and the formation of banding features , it was estimated that the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Howard at 0000 UTC on August 31 . A mid @-@ level anticyclone located over southern California was steering the storm towards the northwest . Early on September 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that Howard had an 80 percent chance of undergoing rapid intensification based on further development of the storm and a highly favorable environment around the cyclone . Based on the formation of an eye feature , the NHC upgraded Howard to a hurricane early on September 1 while the storm was located about 420 mi ( 675 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . Later that day , the eye of Howard became apparent on satellite imagery , which organized into a pinhole eye surrounded by a ring of symmetric , deep convection . At 0600 UTC on September 2 , Howard was upgraded to a major hurricane — a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher . Shortly after , the cyclone reached its peak intensity as a low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) while located about 410 mi ( 660 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur .
Not long after reaching peak intensity , the storm moved over cooler waters , causing the eyewall to deteriorate and cloud tops to warm . The next day , the eye of Howard disappeared from satellite imagery , leading to the cyclone being downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane . Continued deterioration of the system caused rapid weakening , with Howard being downgraded to a tropical storm by 1200 UTC on September 4 . Convection associated with the storm was separated from the center later that day . Early on September 5 , Howard was further downgraded to a tropical depression and later degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area about 265 mi ( 425 km ) west @-@ southwest of Punta Eugenia , Mexico . The remnants of the hurricane continued towards the northwest before turning towards the southwest the following day as it tracked along the southeast side of a ridge of high pressure . The low continued in this general direction until it dissipated on September 10 about 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Because Howard remained away from land no tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued . One ship , the Strong Virginian , reported sustained winds 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 4 . Along the Baja California Peninsula , 16 – 18 ft ( 4 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 4 m ) swells were reported . All ships were required to remain at port due to the rough seas . Heavy rains in the mountainous and Pacific coastal areas of Baja California produced flooding which washed out several roads in San José del Cabo . The rains did help increase water levels in some reservoirs in Baja California . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 hectares of agricultural land was damaged by the storm and 48 households were damaged throughout four communities . State and federal authorities purchased temporary homes for those who needed shelter in the affected areas . The State Civil Protection in Mexico provided rehabilitation for a total of 393 homes affected by Howard .
Large swells produced by the storm resulted in about 1 @,@ 000 lifeguard rescues in Orange County , California . High temperatures in southern California , exceeding 100 ° F ( 37 @.@ 7 ° C ) in places , and cool ocean temperatures led to an estimated 575 @,@ 000 people going to beaches during the Labor Day weekend . One incident required 25 rescues as dozens of people were overwhelmed by 8 – 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 m ) waves . Officials in San Bernardino County advised residents to take precautions for the possibility of flooding as a result of moisture from the remnants of Howard . Following wildfires in 2003 , foothills were highly susceptible to flooding . Residents were advised to have sandbags ready , ensure their emergency supplies were stocked and have an evacuation plan . Despite all the preparations undertaken , Howard did not produced any rainfall in California . The moisture also enhanced rainfall across portions of Arizona . This led to minor rainfall accumulations throughout the state .
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= Irving Gottesman =
Irving Isadore Gottesman ( December 29 , 1930 – June 29 , 2016 ) was an American professor of psychology who devoted most of his career to the study of the genetics of schizophrenia . He has written 17 books and more than 290 other publications , mostly on schizophrenia and behavioral genetics , and created the first academic program on behavioral genetics in the United States . He has won awards such as the Hofheimer Prize for Research , the highest award from the American Psychiatric Association for psychiatric research . Lastly , Gottesman was a professor in the psychology department at the University of Minnesota , where he received his Ph.D.
A native of Ohio , Gottesman studied psychology for his undergraduate and graduate degrees , became a faculty member at various universities , and spent most of his career at the University of Virginia and the University of Minnesota . He is known for researching schizophrenia in identical twins to document the contributions of genetics and the family , social , cultural , and economic environment to the onset , progress , and inter @-@ generational transmission of the disorder . Gottesman has worked with researchers to analyze hospital records and conduct follow @-@ up interviews of twins where one or both were schizophrenic . He has also researched the effects of genetics and the environment on human violence and variations in human intelligence . Gottesman and co @-@ researcher James Shields introduced the word epigenetics — the control of genes by biochemical signals modified by the environment from other parts of the genome — to the field of psychiatric genetics .
Gottesman has written and co @-@ written a series of books which summarize his work . These publications include raw data from various studies , their statistical interpretation , and possible conclusions presented with necessary background material . The books also include first @-@ hand accounts of schizophrenic patients and relatives tending to them , giving an insight into jumbled thoughts , the disorder 's primary symptom . Gottesman and Shields have built models to explain the cause , transmission , and progression of the disorder , which is controlled by many genes acting in concert with the environment , with no cause sufficient by itself .
= = Background = =
Gottesman was born in Cleveland , Ohio , in 1930 , to Bernard and Virginia Gottesman ( née Weitzner ) , who were Hungarian – Romanian Jewish immigrants . He was educated at Miles Standish Elementary and a public school in Cleveland 's Shaker Heights . After leaving school , Gottesman joined the United States Navy , where he was given a scholarship and the rank of midshipman , and was assigned to the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago . He first specialized in physics but changed to psychology , receiving his B.S. degree in 1953 .
Gottesman did his graduate work at the University of Minnesota , which then patterned its clinical psychology program on the Boulder model , which emphasized research theory and clinical practice . He joined the graduate program in 1956 after three years with the Navy , supported by the Korean War G.I. Bill . He began investigating personality traits in identical and fraternal twins who had filled out the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ( MMPI ) . His Ph.D. thesis , submitted to Psychological Monographs , was rejected before a review on the grounds that the nature – nurture issue it addressed had already been settled in favor of nurture . On appeal , the thesis was reviewed and accepted for publication .
Gottesman began his career at Harvard University as a social relations and psychology lecturer . This non @-@ tenure @-@ track position ended after three years . Then he worked with researcher James Shields at the Maudsley – Bethlem hospital complex in London , using its twin registry to analyze traits of identical and fraternal twins at the lab of Eliot Slater , whom Gottesman met in Rome at the Second International Congress on Human Genetics in 1961 . After his return to the University of Minnesota in 1966 , Gottesman created a program on behavioral genetics , the first in the U.S. In 1972 – 1973 he received a Guggenheim fellowship to work with K.O. Christiansen in Denmark . In 1980 he left to join the Washington University School of Medicine , then moved to the University of Virginia in 1985 , where he started the clinical psychology training program . Gottesman continued vising London and collaborating with Shields , with whom he co @-@ wrote a series of books.After spending 16 years at the University of Virginia , Gottesman retired from an active role after 41 years of research , but continues research part @-@ time in psychology and psychiatry .
From 2011 till his death , Gottesman was a professor with an endowed chair in adult psychiatry and a senior fellow in psychology at the University of Minnesota ; a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Academy of Clinical Psychology , and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University ; a Guggenheim Fellow for 1972 – 1973 at the University of Copenhagen ; an emeritus in psychology with a chair endowment at the University of Virginia ; and an honorary fellow at the London Royal College of Psychiatrists . He has advised 35 graduate students , and an annual lecture on behavior and neurogenetics has been established in his name by the University of Virginia . Gottesman was married to Carol Applen , whom he wed on December 23 , 1970 ; they had two sons . Gottesman died June 29 , 2016 .
= = Scientific contributions = =
= = = Studies on schizophrenia and psychopathology = = =
Gottesman first studied the genetics of schizophrenia on a large scale using the Maudsley – Bethlem register of twin admissions for 16 years . Later he worked on psychiatric genetics and genomics . In his Twin Cities MMPI study , part of his Ph.D. thesis , Gottesman found high levels of inheritance in the scales related to schizophrenia , depression , anti @-@ social personality disorder , and social introversion . Genes strongly influenced social introversion and aggressive tendencies . This led to further studies on personality traits of identical twins such as the Minnesota Study of Identical Twins Reared Apart .
Analyzing the results of the Maudsley – Bethlem study , Gottesman and Shields devised the multi @-@ element , polygenic causation model for schizophrenia by modeling schizophrenia diagnoses using the recently introduced liability @-@ threshold model . The book that summarized and expanded on the study , Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point , argued that schizophrenia is a product of several genes acting together , and introduced the techniques of precise analysis in the field of behavioral genetics.Gottesman and Shields introduced terms such as " reaction ranges / surface " , " endophenotype " and " epigenetic puzzle " into the behavioral sciences . The threshold model hypothesized that both genetic and environmental risks combined to produce schizophrenia , and pushed an individual into a diagnosable condition when their influence grew strong enough . The reaction range concept is the idea that the genes and the environment control behavior , but with separate upper and lower limits on the strength of that control in each case , a concept now part of basic psychology . Before the study , the prevailing opinion was that schizophrenia originated from bad parental relationships . The researchers showed identical twins were more likely to either have or not have schizophrenia together , concluding the disorder was the " outcome of a genetically determined developmental predisposition " .
The Maudsley – Bethlem study also hypothesized that schizophrenia was caused by a mixture of many small traits working together . These endophenotypes could be used for diagnosis . Endophenotypes have been interpreted as a link between genes and the final behavior , acted on by the environment and chance elements , with biochemical and epigenetic influences changing the genome but not being passed on to children . Molecular @-@ biological studies in genetics have referred to endophenotypes to explain genetic causes of psychopathology . The researchers also examined how schizoids , those with mild , schizophrenia @-@ like personality disorders , were linked to schizophrenics . Gottesman and Shields extended the term to classes of mild psychological disorders in twins and relatives of schizophrenics . The researchers had hypothesized that schizoida in a twin was how a schizophrenia carrier gene , one in a non @-@ schizophrenic still passing on a genetic risk , expressed itself . The twin study did not confirm this .
In the Denmark study , the researchers evaluated the extent to which genes underpin psychopathology . Their twin studies of criminality found that a genetic disposition to poor self @-@ control caused both identical twins to become felons , or to not become felons . They also studied identical twins who were discordant for schizophrenia , where one twin was schizophrenic and the other not , and found children of such twins had equal genetic vulnerability to the disease . A later study in the mid @-@ 1980s , resulting in a paper awarded the Kurt Schneider Prize , concluded that children of identical twins were at higher risk than those of fraternal twins , indicating the non @-@ schizophrenic identical twin passed on a latent genetic disposition , even if it had not been expressed through schizoida . The Denmark study introduced the concepts of " unexpressed genotypes " — the latent genetic risk , and " epigenetic control " — the biochemical regulation of how genes work , into the new field of behavioral genetics .
= = = Studies on delinquency and violence = = =
In a 1989 review of the research on juvenile delinquency and violence , Lisabeth DiLalla and Gottesman found delinquency could be transitory or continuous , and genes contributed more to the continuous type . In 1991 the same authors published a critique of the then @-@ prevalent idea of antisocialism being transmitted through generations by child abuse alone in antisocial families . They stated that a review by Cathy Spatz Widom and the studies she cited had missed an element : children maltreated in families might have been targets because their genes might have influenced them into committing antisocial acts and attracting such treatment from parents .
Gottesman was one of the presenters at the 1995 conference at the Aspen Institute in Maryland on how strongly genes controlled a person 's leaning toward violence and crime . Gottesman presented results from studies on the influence of genes in criminality , stating that identical twins separated at birth were likely to show similar levels of criminal behavior . This concordance indicated that genes influenced such behavior . He did point out that behavioral patterns were strongly influenced by the environment and not set by genes alone . The conference , funded by the National Institutes of Health , was contentious , with detractors arguing that such studies would lead to minority groups , more likely to be criminals because they had lower social status or were poor , being targeted with gene therapy for violence . Protesters disrupted the conference and swarmed into the auditorium . Gottesman reasserted his belief that scientists should proceed with the research , not waiting for humanity to become ethical enough not to misuse it .
= = = Work on IQ = = =
In 1972 , Gottesman was called before the United States Senate by senator Walter Mondale to discuss the then 15 @-@ point IQ gap separating African Americans and white Americans . Gottesman testified that genes influenced IQ , but only in conjunction with elements such as schooling , money , and nutritious food from childhood onwards . In 2003 , he and colleagues published a study showing that heritability was higher for IQ differences within high socioeconomic status ( SES ) people than among low SES people . Genes influenced differences in test scores more in high SES children than in low SES children . Gottesman said that this was because genes have a weaker influence than poverty .
= = = Humanistic views = = =
Gottesman has researched and published about the abuse of genetic research in Nazi Germany , and has provided expert testimony in a Chinese human rights case involving schizophrenia in the family . His scholarly books on schizophrenia have also focused on the human costs of the disorder . In Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness , he provided chapters in which patients describe their experiences of the disease , and those of their families . Gottesman has emphasized that genetics influences patients ' behavior in concert with the family , social , economic , and cultural contexts . According to him , random events are the third element determining behavior and destiny , and the interaction between these elements is known only at the level of probabilities , and not as fixed and precise quantities .
= = Books = =
Gottesman has authored nine books , all related to schizophrenia and psychiatric genetics .
= = = Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point = = =
Gottesman and Shields published Schizophrenia and Genetics to document their twin @-@ study research at the Maudsley Hospital in London , the work that in part earned them the Hofheimer Prize for Research , the highest award for psychiatric research from the American Psychiatric Association . The study expanded on an earlier one by Eliot Slater at the same hospital , covering 24 identical and 33 fraternal twins , with at least one from every pair a schizophrenic being treated at the hospital between 1948 and 1964 . This study was one of eleven such in the contemporary literature , and the book detailed the methodology and analytic detail differentiating it from the others .
Chapters on methodology comprise a third of the book 's core . Identical and fraternal twins were classified using fingerprints and blood groups . Follow @-@ up interviews were recorded to monitor the progress of their patients ( the probands ) and their twins , some schizophrenic and others not . Two psychological tests — the MMPI and the Object Sorting Test ( Goldstein Scheerer Test of Concept Formation ) — were used to measure mental traits and functioning . Case summaries were prepared by the Scandinavian psychiatrist Erick Essen @-@ Moller , and these were sent , with data on identical @-@ or @-@ fraternal @-@ twin status and diagnosis @-@ of @-@ schizophrenia removed , to six judges from the U.S. , U.K. and Japan . The judges independently evaluated whether the patients were schizophrenic .
Results of studies comprise another third of the core of Schizophrenia and Genetics . The data showed that genes made a person likely to develop schizophrenia under environmental pressures . The study was not designed to find the genes responsible , but the authors hypothesized there would be several acting in tandem.Contextual elements responsible could not be identified , though some , such as an overly protective mother , birth order , natal weight , and social and economic elements were ruled out . Gottesman and Shields found roughly half of identical twins had a shared schizophrenic or non @-@ schizophrenic status , but only one @-@ eleventh of fraternal twins had such a shared diagnosis . MMPI scales coincided among identical twin pairs but not among fraternal twin pairs . The Object Sorting Test showed no useful relations . Those meeker than their twins were more liable to develop schizophrenia where their genes already put them at risk .
The book presents case histories of all the twin @-@ pairs studied and the raw data from the analyses . Its last chapters put the results in the context of existing studies , and presented a new theory and model to explain the causes and continuance of the disorder . The environmental aspects the researchers checked drew on existing literature , and multiple judgments were pooled to both compare and mutually cancel differing criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia . The theory in the book was that many genes work together to dispose a person to the disorder under certain environmental pressures . The model provided no specific therapeutic insight , but was useful as a guideline for further study .
= = = Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle = = =
Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle outlined the approaches , conclusions and models Gottesman used in his study of schizophrenia . He co @-@ wrote the book with James Shields , who died before it was published . The book introduces methods for diagnosing schizophrenia in a research setting , taking into account national differences in how the disorder was defined , debunked myths such as the mother transmitting schizophrenia , and introduced the concepts of the threshold model and the reaction range .
The book provided a tutorial on genetics to make the material self @-@ contained . Family , adoption and twin studies were investigated to determine the ways vulnerability to the disorder changed with genetic similarity to the patient . Together they supported the presence of a genetic contribution to the cause and the progress of schizophrenia . Contextual elements such as birth problems and stressful incidents were also analyzed to help the authors build a combined model to explain the disorder . The researchers analyzed populations to determine the role of genes using simplified mathematical models of the influence of genes and the environment on each other , and with no biochemical signal of the disorder to guide them . Rue L. Cromwell , writing in PsycCRITIQUES , wrote that this approach lacked rigor . The role of genes was less emphasized in the results , with a heritability of 70 % , than in earlier studies by Kallman . The researchers investigated neuroanatomy , and specifically the neurotransmitter dopamine , as a possible route by which genes influence the functioning of the brain to produce the symptoms of the disorder .
The authors investigated autism and psychiatric disorders among children , but found little relation to adult schizophrenia or genetic influence . They also covered the social implications of the disease , concluding that most schizophrenics were poor because the disorder eroded their resources and abilities . A chapter was devoted to social issues , violence , illnesses , death rates , sexual aspects , and the ability to father or bear children affecting schizophrenics . The authors provided data on the chance of relapse after an episode of the disorder . The book covered new methods and new models for studying schizophrenia . Because the disorder had no unanimously accepted diagnostic criteria , the researchers asked six clinicians and three colleagues to provide their analyses on the reports on 120 twins , and found an agreement of 86 % among the clinicians . Averaging the criteria of the clinicians produced a set close to that of Manfred Bleuler , who had adapted it from Emil Kraepelin .
= = = Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness = = =
Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness , written in 1991 , won the William James award from the American Psychological Association . It extensively reviewed how science has looked at schizophrenia . The book presented a vulnerability / diathesis – stress model to explain the causes of the disorder and a many @-@ cause , many @-@ gene model to explain how it is passed from parents to children . The book has been translated into Japanese and German . Schizophrenia Genesis was written for both the lay person and the clinical professional , and provides data , methods of interpreting the data , and an introduction to genetic analysis as used to analyze role of inheritance in behavior . The book also contains accounts of schizophrenics , with an artist depicting own suffering , saying , " I know ... it is craziness when every laugh is about me ... newspapers suddenly contain cures ... sparkles of light are demon eyes . "
Schizophrenia Genesis starts with the history of schizophrenia . Gottesman takes the view that schizophrenia is a disease of the industrial world. because it is not mentioned in the Bible , by the ancient Greeks , the ancient physicians , or authors including Shakespeare . He saw it first mentioned by physicians in 1809 and by Balzac in a short story in 1832 , showing minimally the disorder had by then been recognized as such . In 1896 , Kraepelin defined its symptoms , and his student Ernst Rüdin began a genetic study of its transmission in 1916 . } The book noted that schizophrenia existed across cultures and its rates had stayed steady for fifty years .
A chapter was devoted to criteria for determining schizophrenia , with Gottesman preferring those developed by Bleuler to those in the American Psychiatric Association ’ s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( version III @-@ R ) , the International Classification of Diseases ( ICD @-@ 9 ) and Kurt Schneider ’ s method . Diagnosis was based on the ways a person spoke and acted , and the standard measures were hallucinations , delusions , emotional apathy , jumbled thought , and sudden changes in a person . Gottesman mentioned a disparity in schizophrenia diagnosis after World War II across the Atlantic , when U.S. psychiatric diagnoses quadrupled those of British psychiatrists .
Family studies on schizophrenia were reviewed . That the disorder runs in families did not suggest it was genetically inherited , since cultural transmission occurs from parents to children . Twin and adoption studies were presented as the standard methods to disentangle contributions from genes and the environment . Gottesman used a computer @-@ based method for calculating the odds of becoming schizophrenic based on the many causes . The book examines the problems caused by schizophrenia for relatives of patients and for society at large , larger @-@ scale ones exemplified by the eugenics policies of states such as Nazi Germany . Two final chapters cover molecular biology and neuroanatomy briefly . Newer methods of behavioral genetics being researched at the time of publication , such as linkage analysis which used the likelihood of neighboring genes being inherited together , were not covered .
= = Committees and organizations = =
Gottesman is or has been :
an attendee at the Society for the Study of Social Biology 1967 conference at Princeton University which laid the groundwork for the Behavior Genetics Association ( BGA ) ;
president @-@ elect and program chair of the BGA in 1976 ;
American Psychological Association ( APA ) member from 1958 , and a fellow since 1975 ;
a fellow of the American Psychiatric Association ;
a fellow of the American Psychological Society ;
the vice @-@ president of the Society for the Study of Social Biology for 1976 – 1980 ;
the president of the Behavior Genetics Association in 1976 – 1977 ;
member of the American Society of Human Genetics ;
the president of the Society for Research in Psychopathology in 1993 ; and
a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
= = Awards = =
Gottesman has been recognized by professional organizations in the United States , Britain , and Japan . He has received the following awards :
Hofheimer Prize for Research in 1973 from the American Psychiatric Association ;
Dobzhansky Lifetime Achievement Award in 1990 from the Behavior Genetics Association ;
William James Book Award in 1991 from the APA Division of General Psychology ;
Kurt Schneider Prize from the University of Bonn ( Germany ) ( the first non @-@ German to win the prize ) ;
Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award in 2001 from the APA , is highest honor ( previous honorees include Jean Piaget and B.F. Skinner ;
Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Science of Psychology in 2007 from the American Psychological Foundation ;
Outstanding Achievement for Research on Mental Health Disorders NARSAD ( National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders ) Award in 2008 from the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation and
University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Psychology 2013
James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award from the Association for Psychological Science .
= = Books = =
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Erlenmeyer @-@ Kimling , L. ( 1970 ) . Differential Reproduction in Individuals with Mental and Physical Disorders : Conference Sponsored by the American Eugenics Society and the Biomedical Division of the Population Council Held at the Rockefeller University , Nov. 13 – 14 , 1970 . Chicago University Press. p . 136 .
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1972 ) . Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point . Boston : Academic Press. p . 433 . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 293450 @-@ 4 .
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1973 ) . Schizophrenia and Genetics ( Personality and psychopathology ) . Boston : Academic Press. p . 433 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0122934506 .
— — ( 1982 ) . Schizophrenia . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. p . 249 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0521295598 .
Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1982 ) . Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. p . 258 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29559 @-@ 9 .
— — ( 1991 ) . Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness . San Francisco : Freeman. p . 296 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 2147 @-@ 3 .
Shields , James T. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 1971 ) . Man , Mind , and Heredity : Selected Papers of Eliot Slater on Psychiatry and Genetics . The Johns Hopkins University Press. p . 432 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0801811180 .
Fuller , Torrey E. ; Bowler , Ann E. ; Taylor , Edward H. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 1995 ) . Schizophrenia and manic @-@ depressive disorder : The biological roots of mental illness as revealed by the landmark study of identical twins . Basic Books. p . 304 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0465072859 .
McGuffin , Peter ; Owen , Michael , J. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 2004 ) . Psychiatric Genetics and Genomics . Oxford University Press. p . 502 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0198564867 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
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= Third Amendment to the United States Constitution =
The Third Amendment ( Amendment III ) to the United States Constitution places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner 's consent , forbidding the practice in peacetime . The amendment is a response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the buildup to the American Revolutionary War , which had allowed the British Army to lodge soldiers in private residences .
The Third Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by James Madison as a part of the United States Bill of Rights , in response to Anti @-@ Federalist objections to the new Constitution . Congress proposed the amendment to the states on September 28 , 1789 , and by December 15 , 1791 , the necessary three @-@ quarters of the states had ratified it . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the amendment on March 1 , 1792 .
The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution and is rarely litigated , with the American Bar Association calling it the " runt piglet " of the U.S. Constitution . As of 2016 , it has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision .
= = Text = =
The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows :
No Soldier shall , in time of peace be quartered in any house , without the consent of the Owner , nor in time of war , but in a manner to be prescribed by law .
= = Background = =
In 1765 , the British parliament enacted the first of the Quartering Acts , requiring the American colonies to pay the costs of British soldiers serving in the colonies , and requiring that if the local barracks provided insufficient space , that the colonists lodge the troops in alehouses , inns , and livery stables . After the Boston Tea Party , the Quartering Act of 1774 was enacted . One of the Intolerable Acts that pushed the colonies toward revolution , it authorized British troops to be housed wherever necessary , including in private homes . The quartering of troops was cited as one of the colonists ' grievances in the United States Declaration of Independence .
= = Adoption = =
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation , a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17 , 1787 , featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes . George Mason , a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights , proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties be included . Other delegates — including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison — disagreed , arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other , unnamed rights were unprotected . After a brief debate , Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations .
For the constitution to be ratified , however , nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions . Opposition to ratification ( " Anti @-@ Federalism " ) was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties . Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification ( including Virginia , Massachusetts , and New York ) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights . Several state conventions specifically proposed a provision against the quartering of troops in private homes . At the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention , Patrick Henry stated , " One of our first complaints , under the former government , was the quartering of troops among us . This was one of the principal reasons for dissolving the connection with Great Britain . Here we may have troops in time of peace . They may be billeted in any manner — to tyrannize , oppress , and crush us . "
= = = Proposal and ratification = = =
In the 1st United States Congress , following the state legislatures ' request , James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the Bill of Rights 1689 ; one of these was a prohibition against quartering troops in private homes . Several revisions to the future Third Amendment were proposed in Congress , which chiefly differed in the way in which peace and war were distinguished ( including the possibility of a situation , such as unrest , which was neither peace nor war ) , and whether the executive or the legislature would have the authority to authorize quartering . However , the amendment ultimately passed Congress almost unchanged and by unanimous vote . Congress reduced Madison 's proposed twenty amendments to twelve , and these were submitted to the states for ratification on September 25 , 1789 .
By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification , opinions had shifted in both parties . Many Federalists , who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights , now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti @-@ Federalists ' most effective criticism . Many Anti @-@ Federalists , in contrast , now opposed it , realizing that the Bill 's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention , which they desired . Anti @-@ Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution , such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation , intact .
On November 20 , 1789 , New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments , rejecting Article II , which regulated Congressional pay raises . On December 19 and 22 , respectively , Maryland and North Carolina ratified all twelve amendments . On January 19 , 25 , and 28 , 1790 , respectively , South Carolina , New Hampshire , and Delaware ratified the Bill , though New Hampshire rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises , and Delaware rejected Article I , which regulated the size of the House . This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten , but the process stalled in other states : Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify , while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments , but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so .
In February through June of 1790 , New York , Pennsylvania , and Rhode Island ratified eleven of the amendments , though all three rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises . Virginia initially postponed its debate , but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791 , the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven . Vermont ratified on November 3 , 1791 , approving all twelve amendments , and Virginia finally followed on December 15 , 1791 . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1 , 1792 .
= = Judicial interpretation = =
The Third Amendment is among the least cited sections of the U.S. Constitution . In the words of Encyclopedia Britannica , " as the history of the country progressed with little conflict on American soil , the amendment has had little occasion to be invoked . " As of 2015 , no major Supreme Court decision has used the amendment as its primary basis .
The Third Amendment has been invoked in a few instances as helping establish an implicit right to privacy in the Constitution . Justice William O. Douglas used the amendment along with others in the Bill of Rights as a partial basis for the majority decision in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) , which cited the Third Amendment as implying a belief that an individual 's home should be free from agents of the state .
In one of the seven opinions in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer ( 1952 ) , Justice Robert H. Jackson cited the Third Amendment as providing evidence of the Framers ' intent to constrain executive power even during wartime :
" [ t ] hat military powers of the Commander in Chief were not to supersede representative government of internal affairs seems obvious from the Constitution and from elementary American history . Time out of mind , and even now in many parts of the world , a military commander can seize private housing to shelter his troops . Not so , however , in the United States , for the Third Amendment says ... [ E ] ven in war time , his seizure of needed military housing must be authorized by Congress . "
One of the few times a federal court was asked to invalidate a law or action on Third Amendment grounds was in Engblom v. Carey ( 1982 ) . In 1979 , prison officials in New York organized a strike ; they were evicted from their prison facility residences , which were reassigned to members of the National Guard who had temporarily taken their place as prison guards . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled : ( 1 ) that the term owner in the Third Amendment includes tenants ( paralleling similar cases regarding the Fourth Amendment , governing search and seizure ) , ( 2 ) National Guard troops count as soldiers for the purposes of the Third Amendment , and ( 3 ) that the Third Amendment is incorporated ( that is , that it applies to the states ) by virtue of the Fourteenth Amendment . The case was remanded to the district court , which dismissed the case on the grounds that state officials could not have been aware of this interpretation .
In the most recent Third Amendment decision handed down by a federal court , on February 2 , 2015 , the United States District Court for the District of Nevada held in Mitchell v. City of Henderson that the Third Amendment does not apply to intrusions by municipal police officers since they are not soldiers .
In an earlier case , United States v. Valenzuela ( 1951 ) , the defendant asked that a federal rent @-@ control law be struck down because it was " the incubator and hatchery of swarms of bureaucrats to be quartered as storm troopers upon the people in violation of Amendment III of the United States Constitution . " The court declined his request . Later , in Jones v. United States Secretary of Defense ( 1972 ) , Army reservists unsuccessfully cited the Third Amendment as justification for refusing to march in a parade . Similar arguments in a variety of contexts have been denied in other cases .
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= Psittacosaurus =
Psittacosaurus ( / ˌsɪtəkəˈsɔːrəs / SIT @-@ ə @-@ kə @-@ SOR @-@ əs ; " parrot lizard " ) is a genus of extinct ceratopsian dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of what is now Asia , existing between 123 @.@ 2 and 100 million years ago . It is notable for being the most species @-@ rich dinosaur genus . Up to 11 species are known , from across Mongolia , Siberia , China , and possibly Thailand . The species of Psittacosaurus were obligate bipeds at adulthood , with a high skull and a robust beak . One individual was found preserved with long filaments on the tail , similar to those of Tianyulong , and scales across the rest of the animal . Psittacosaurus probably had complex behaviours , based on the proportions and relative size of the brain . It may have been active for short periods of time during the day and night , and had well @-@ developed senses of smell and vision .
Psittacosaurus was one of the earliest ceratopsians , but closer to Triceratops than Yinlong . Once in its own family , Psittacosauridae , with other genera like Hongshanosaurus , it is now considered to be senior synonym of the latter and an early offshoot of the branch that led to more derived forms . The genera closely related to Psittacosaurus are all from Asia , with the exception of Aquilops , from North America . The first species was either P. lujiatunensis or closely related , and it may have given rise to later forms of Psittacosaurus .
Psittacosaurus is one of the most completely known dinosaur genera . Fossils of hundreds of individuals have been collected so far , including many complete skeletons . Most age classes are represented , from hatchling through to adult , which has allowed several detailed studies of Psittacosaurus growth rates and reproductive biology . The abundance of this dinosaur in the fossil record has led to the labelling of Lower Cretaceous sediments of east Asia the Psittacosaurus biochron .
= = Description = =
The species of Psittacosaurus vary in size and specific features of the skull and skeleton , but share the same overall body shape . The best @-@ known — P. mongoliensis — can reach 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in length . The maximum adult body weight was most likely over 20 kilogrammes ( 44 lb ) in P. mongoliensis . Several species approach P. mongoliensis in size ( P. lujiatunensis , P. neimongoliensis , P. xinjiangensis ) , while others are somewhat smaller ( P. sinensis , P. meileyingensis ) . The smallest known species , P. ordosensis , is 30 % smaller than P. mongoliensis . The largest are P. lujiatunensis and P. sibiricus , although neither is significantly larger than P. mongoliensis . Psittacosaurus postcranial skeletons are more typical of a ' generic ' bipedal ornithischian . There are only four digits on the manus ( ' hand ' ) , as opposed to the five found in most other ornithischians ( including all other ceratopsians ) , while the four @-@ toed hindfoot is very similar to many other small ornithischians .
The skull of Psittacosaurus is highly modified compared to other ornithischian dinosaurs of its time . Extremely tall in height and short in length , the skull has an almost round profile in some species . The portion in front of the orbit ( eye socket ) is only 40 % of total skull length , shorter than any other known ornithischian . The lower jaws of psittacosaurs are characterised by a bulbous vertical ridge down the centre of each tooth . Both upper and lower jaws sport a pronounced beak , formed from the rostral and predentary bones , respectively . The bony core of the beak may have been sheathed in keratin to provide a sharp cutting surface for cropping plant material . As the generic name suggests , the short skull and beak superficially resemble those of modern parrots . Psittacosaurus skulls share several adaptations with more derived ceratopsians , such as the unique rostral bone at the tip of the upper jaw , and the flared jugal ( cheek ) bones . There is still no sign of the bony neck frill or prominent facial horns which would develop in later ceratopsians . Bony horns protrude from the skull of P. sibiricus , but these are thought to be an example of convergent evolution .
= = = Species characteristics = = =
Skulls of P. mongoliensis are flat on top , especially over the back of the skull , with a triangular depression , the antorbital fossa , on the outside surface of the maxilla ( an upper jaw bone ) . A flange is present on the lower edge of the dentary ( the tooth @-@ bearing bone of the lower jaw ) , although it is not as prominent as in P. meileyingensis or P. major ( = P. lujiatunensis ) . P. mongoliensis is among the largest known species . The skull of the type specimen , which is probably a juvenile , is 15 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 6 in ) long , and the associated femur is 16 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) in length . Other specimens are larger , with the largest documented femur measuring about 21 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 25 in ) long .
P. sinensis is readily distinguished from all other species by numerous features of the skull . Adult skulls are smaller than those of P. mongoliensis and have less teeth . Uniquely , the premaxillary bone contacts the jugal ( cheek ) bone on the outside of the skull . The jugals flare out sideways , forming ' horns ' proportionally wider than in any other known Psittacosaurus species except P. sibiricus and P. lujiatunensis . Because of the flared cheeks , the skull is actually wider than it is long . A smaller ' horn ' is present behind the eye , at the contact of the jugal and postorbital bones , a feature also seen in P. sibiricus . The mandible ( lower jaw ) lacks the hollow opening , or fenestra , seen in other species , and the entire lower jaw is bowed outwards , giving the animal the appearance of an underbite . The skull of an adult P. sinensis can reach 11 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length .
P. sibiricus is the largest known species of Psittacosaurus . The skull of the type specimen is 20 @.@ 7 centimetres long ( 8 @.@ 25 in ) , and the femur is 22 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 75 in ) in length . It is also distinguished by its neck frill , which is longer than any other species , at 15 to 18 % of skull length . A very striking feature of P. sibiricus is the number of ' horns ' around the eyes , with three prominences on each postorbital , and one in front of each eye , on the palpebral bones . Similar horns found on the postorbital of P. sinensis are not as pronounced but may be homologous . The jugal has extremely prominent ' horns ' and may contact the premaxilla , both features also seen in the possibly related P. sinensis . There is a flange on the dentary of the lower jaw , similar to P. mongoliensis , P. meileyingensis , and P. sattayaraki . It can be told apart from the other species of Psittacosaurus by a combination of 32 anatomical features , including six that are unique to the species . Most of these are skull details , but one unusual feature is the presence of 23 vertebrae between the skull and pelvis , unlike the 21 or 22 in the other species where the vertebrae are known .
P. xinjiangensis is distinguished by a prominent jugal ' horn ' that is flattened on the front end , as well as some features of the teeth . The ilium , one of the three bones of the pelvis , also bears a characteristically long bony process behind the acetabulum ( hip socket ) . An adult femur has a published length of about 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) . P. meileyingensis has the shortest snout and neck frill of any species , making the skull nearly circular in profile . The orbit ( eye socket ) is roughly triangular , and there is a prominent flange on the lower edge of the dentary , a feature also seen in specimens of P. lujiatunensis , and to a lesser degree in P. mongoliensis , P. sattayaraki , and P. sibiricus . The complete type skull , probably adult , is 13 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long . The dentary of P. sattayaraki has a flange similar to that found in P. mongoliensis , P. sibiricus , P. lujiatunensis and P. meileyingensis , although it is less pronounced than in those species . The material appears to be roughly the same size as P. sinensis . The frontal bone of P. neimongoliensis is distinctly narrow compared to that of other species , resulting in a narrower skull overall . The ischium bone of the pelvis is also longer than the femur , which differs from other species in which these bones are known . The type specimen has a skull length of 13 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) and a femoral length of 13 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) , but is not fully grown . An adult P. neimongoliensis was probably smaller than P. mongoliensis , with a proportionately longer skull and tail . P. ordosensis can be distinguished by numerous features of the jugals , which have very prominent ' horns ' . It is also the smallest known species . One adult skull measures only 9 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 75 in ) in length .
The type skull of P. lujiatunensis measures 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) in length , while the largest known skull is 20 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 8 in ) long , so this species was similar in size to P. mongoliensis and P. sibiricus . There is a fossa in front of the eye , as in P. mongoliensis . The jugal bones flare outwards widely , making the skull wider than it is long , as seen in P. sinensis . Widely flared jugals are also found in P. sibiricus . Overall , this species is thought to exhibit several primitive characteristics compared to other species of Psittacosaurus , which is consistent with its greater geological age . P. gobiensis was small @-@ bodied ( 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long ) and differs from other species of Psittacosaurus by " significant , but structurally minor , details . " These include the presence of a pyramidal horn on the postorbital , a depression on the postorbital @-@ jugal contact , and enamel thickness . P. mongoliensis was a contemporary .
= = = Integument = = =
The integument , or body covering , of Psittacosaurus is known from a Chinese specimen , which most likely comes from the Yixian Formation of Liaoning Province , China . The specimen , which is not yet assigned to any particular species , was illegally exported from China , in violation of Chinese law , but was purchased by a German museum . It was described while awaiting repatriation .
Most of the body was covered in scales . Larger scales were arranged in irregular patterns , with numerous smaller scales occupying the spaces between them , similarly to skin impressions known from other ceratopsians , such as Chasmosaurus . A series of what appear to be hollow , tubular bristle @-@ like structures , approximately 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) long , were also preserved , arranged in a row down the dorsal ( upper ) surface of the tail . These were confirmed by the authors , as well as an independent scientist , to not represent plant material . The bristle @-@ like integumentary structures extend into the skin nearly to the vertebrae , and were likely circular or tubular before being preserved . Under ultraviolet light , they gave off the same fluorescence as scales , providing the possibility they were keratinized . As the authors of the study said , " At present , there is no convincing evidence which shows these structures to be homologous to the structurally different integumentary filaments of theropod dinosaurs " , however , they stated that all other feathery integument from the Yixian Formation is indeed feathers .
In 2008 , another study was published describing the integument and dermis of Psittacosaurus sp . , from two different specimens . The skin remains could be observed by a natural cross @-@ section to compare them to modern animals , showing that dinosaurian dermal layers evolved in parallel to those in many other large vertebrates . The collagen tissue fibres in Psittacosaurus are complex , virtually identical to all other vertebrates in structure but having an exceptional thickness of about forty layers . As the sections of dermis were collected from the abdomen , where the scales were eroded , the tissue may have assisted with the musculature of the stomach and intestines and offered protection against predators .
= = Paleobiology = =
The brain of P. lujiatunensis is well known ; a study on the anatomy and functionality of three specimens was published in 2007 . Until the study , it was generally thought the brain of Psittacosaurus would have been similar to other ceratopsians with low Encephalisation Quotients . Russell and Zhao ( 1996 ) believed " the small brain size of psittacosaurs implies a very restrictive behavioural repertoire relative to that of modern mammals of similar body size " . However , the 2007 study dispelled this theory when it found the brain to be more advanced . There is generally negative allometry for brain size with development in vertebrates , but this was shown not to be true in Psittacosaurus . The EQ score for P. lujiatunensis is 0 @.@ 31 , significantly higher than genera such as Triceratops . A higher EQ correlates with more complex behaviour , and various dinosaurs have high EQs , similar to birds , which range from 0 @.@ 36 to 2 @.@ 98 . Thus , Psittacosaurus behaviour could have been as complex as that in Tyrannosaurus , whose EQ ranges from 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 38 . Behaviours influenced by high EQs include nest @-@ building , parental care , and bird @-@ like sleeping , some of which have been shown to be present in Psittacosaurus .
The senses of Psittacosaurus can be inferred from the endocast . Large olfactory bulbs are present , indicating the genus had an acute sense of smell . The size of these bulbs are comparable to large predatory theropods , although they likely evolved to avoid predators instead of to seek out prey . The sclerotic rings in reptiles directly show the size of the eyeball . The rings are not well preserved in Psittacosaurus , with one individual preserving them likely contracted postmortem , but if they are similar to those of Protoceratops , Psittacosaurus would have had large eyes and acute vision . The curvature of the semicircular canals is related to the agility of reptiles , and the large curved canals in Psittacosaurus show that the genus was much more agile than later ceratopsians . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Psittacosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day and for short intervals at night .
Ford and Martin ( 2010 ) proposed that Psittacosaurus was semi @-@ aquatic , swimming with its tail like a crocodile , and paddling and kicking . They based their interpretation on evidence including : the lacustrine ( lake ) depositional setting of many specimens ; the position of the nostrils and eyes ; interpretations of the motions of the arms and legs ; tails with long chevrons ( and with the bristles on the tail interpreted as possibly skin @-@ covered , forming a fin ) , providing a propulsive surface ; and the presence of gastroliths , interpreted as ballast . They further suggested that some species of Psittacosaurus were more terrestrial than others .
= = = Diet = = =
Psittacosaurs had self @-@ sharpening teeth that would have been useful for cropping and slicing tough plant material . Unlike later ceratopsians , they did not have teeth suitable for grinding or chewing their food . Instead , they used gastroliths — stones swallowed to wear down food as it passed through the digestive system . Sometimes numbering more than fifty , these stones are occasionally found in the abdominal cavities of psittacosaurs , and may have been stored in a gizzard , as in modern birds .
Unlike many other dinosaurs , psittacosaurs had akinetic skulls : that is to say , the upper and lower jaws each behaved as a single unit , without internal joints . The only joint was the jaw joint itself , and psittacosaurs could slide their lower jaws forward and backward on the joint , permitting a shearing action . Unlike most ceratopsians , their beaks did not form curved tips , but were instead rounded and flattened . If the jaws were aligned , the beaks could be used to crop objects , but if the lower jaw was retracted so that the lower beak was inside the upper beak , the jaws may have served a nutcracking function . A nut- or seed @-@ rich diet would also match well with the gastroliths often seen in well @-@ preserved psittacosaur skeletons .
= = = Limb function = = =
Studies by Phil Senter in 2007 conducted on P. neimongoliensis and P. mongoliensis concluded that the forelimbs of these taxa ( and likely those of other Psittacosaurus species ) were too short ( only about 58 % as long as the hindlimbs ) to reach the ground , and their range of motion indicates they could neither be pronated nor generate propulsive force for locomotion , suggesting that Psittacosaurus was entirely bipedal . The forelimbs were also too short to be used in digging or bringing food to the mouth , and Senter suggested that if Psittacosaurus needed to dig depressions in the ground it may have used its hindlimbs instead . The forelimbs could be used for two @-@ handed grasping of objects or scratching the body , but due to their extremely limited flexibility and reach , they could have only been used to grasp objects very close to the belly or sides of the animal and could have scratched only the belly , flank and knees . Even though the hands could not reach the mouth , Psittacosaurus could have still used them to carry nesting material or food to a desired location .
However , Psittacosaurus may not have been entirely bipedal for its entire lifespan . Taking sections from the limb bones of 16 specimens of Psittacosaurus , ranging in age from less than a year old to ten @-@ year old adults , Qi Zhao from the University of Bristol found that Psittacosaurus was probably secondarily bipedal . The infants ' front limbs grew at faster rates than the hind limbs at between birth and three years of age . At the age of between four and six years , arm growth slowed and leg growth accelerated as the animal became mature . At this stage , Psittacosaurs would switch to a bipedal stance . These findings further reveal that the ancestor of Psittacosaurus was likely quadrupedal and eventually gained the ability to become bipedal as it evolved , with the young retaining the quadrupedal gait of the ancestor in question . These findings also lead to the hypothesis that many such dinosaur families may have evolved along this path at some point in their evolution .
= = = Growth rate = = =
Several juvenile Psittacosaurus have been found . The smallest is a P. mongoliensis hatchling conserved in the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) , which is only 11 to 13 centimetres ( 4 – 5 inches ) long , with a skull 2 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 1 in ) in length . Another hatchling skull at the AMNH is only 4 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 inches ) long . Both specimens are from Mongolia . Juveniles discovered in the Yixian Formation are approximately the same age as the larger AMNH specimen .
A histological examination of P. mongoliensis has determined the growth rate of these animals . The smallest specimens in the study were estimated at three years old and less than 1 kilogramme ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , while the largest were nine years old and weighed almost 20 kilogrammes ( 44 lb ) . This indicates relatively rapid growth compared to most reptiles and marsupial mammals , but slower than modern birds and placental mammals . An age determination study performed on the fossilized remains of P. mongoliensis by using growth ring counts suggest that the longevity of the basal ceratopsian was 10 to 11 years .
= = = Gregarious juveniles = = =
The find of a herd of six Psittacosaurus individuals killed and buried by a volcanic mudflow indicates the presence of at least two age groups from two distinct clutches gathered together . This find has been taken as evidence for group fidelity and gregariousness extending beyond the nest ; the earliest such evidence for any ceratopsian . Even very young psittacosaur teeth appear worn , indicating they chewed their own food and may have been precocial . Another juvenile @-@ only cluster shows that specimens of different ages grouped together . These juveniles may have associated together as a close knit , mixed @-@ age herd either for protection , to enhance their foraging , or as putative helpers at the parental nest . There is no evidence for parental care .
In 2004 , a specimen found in the Yixian Formation was claimed as evidence for parental care in dinosaurs . The specimen DNHM D2156 consists of 34 articulated juvenile Psittacosaurus skeletons , closely associated with the skull of an adult . The juveniles , all approximately the same age , are intertwined in a group underneath the adult , although all 34 skulls are positioned above the mass of bodies , as they would have been in life . This suggests that the animals were alive at the time of burial , which must have been extremely rapid , perhaps due to the collapse of a burrow . However , a 2013 paper pointed out that the adult specimen did not belong with the nest , its skull having no sedimentary connection to the main slab where the juveniles occurred , but had been glued onto it . This artificial association led to the inference that the skull belonged to an individual , possibly a " mother " , that was providing parental care for the 34 juveniles – a claim that is unfounded . Furthermore , the adult was also shown to be six years old , whereas histological studies have shown P. mongoliensis was unable to breed until it reached ten years of age . It is also unlikely that a single female would have so many offspring at one time .
A 2014 analysis of the same specimen concluded that the proximity of the six @-@ year @-@ old specimen to the post @-@ hatchlings may indicate post @-@ hatchling cooperation , making the six @-@ year @-@ old specimen a possible caretaker . Such behaviour is also found in cooperative breeding modern birds .
= = = Pathology = = =
Out of the hundreds of known Psittacosaurus specimens , only one has been described to possess any sort of pathology . The specimen in question , consisting of a complete adult skeleton and tentatively assigned to P. mongoliensis , was found in the lower beds of the Yixian Formation . There is no sign of a bone fracture , but very clear signs of an infection can be seen near the midpoint of the right fibula . The bone exhibits a large round pit , evidence of necrosis due to a lack of blood supply to the region . The pit is surrounded by a massive amount of swelling along the lower third of the bone . This large amount of bone deposited around the injury indicates that the animal survived for quite a while despite the injury and subsequent infection . As psittacosaurids were bipedal animals , a similar injury to a weight bearing bone in the leg would most likely have been fatal . Unlike the femur and tibia , the fibula is not a weight @-@ bearing bone , so this animal would still have been able to walk to some extent . The source of the injury remains unknown .
= = = Predation = = =
Another fossil from the Yixian Formation provides direct evidence of Psittacosaurus as a prey animal . One skeleton of Repenomamus robustus , a large triconodont mammal , is preserved with the remains of a juvenile Psittacosaurus in its abdominal cavity . Several of the juvenile 's bones are still articulated , indicating that the carnivorous mammal swallowed its prey in large chunks . This specimen is notable in that it is the first known example of Mesozoic mammals preying on live dinosaurs . Heavy predation on juvenile Psittacosaurus may have resulted in R @-@ selection , the production of more numerous offspring to counteract this loss .
= = Paleoecology = =
Psittacosaurus is known from hundreds of individual specimens , of which over 75 have been assigned to the type species , P. mongoliensis . All Psittacosaurus fossils discovered so far have been found in Early Cretaceous sediments in Asia , from southern Siberia to northern China , and possibly as far south as Thailand . The most common age of geologic formations bearing Psittacosaurus fossils is from the late Barremian through Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous , or approximately 123 to 100 mya ( million years ago ) . Many terrestrial sedimentary formations of this age in Mongolia and northern China have produced fossils of Psittacosaurus , leading to the definition of this time period in the region as the Psittacosaurus biochron .
The earliest known species is P. lujiatunensis , found in the lowest beds of the Yixian Formation . Over 200 specimens attributed to this genus have been recovered from these and other beds of the Yixian , the age of which is the subject of much debate . Although many early studies using radiometric dating put the Yixian in the Jurassic Period , tens of millions of years outside of the expected temporal range of Psittacosaurus , most recent work dates it to the Early Cretaceous . Using argon @-@ argon dating , a team of Chinese scientists dated the lowest beds in the formation to about 128 mya , and the highest to approximately 122 mya . A more recent Chinese study , using uranium @-@ lead dating , suggests that the lower beds are younger , approximately 123 @.@ 2 mya , while agreeing with an age of 122 mya for the upper beds .
= = History of discovery = =
Psittacosaurus was first described as a genus in 1923 , by Henry Fairfield Osborn . He named the type species P. mongoliensis , for the location of its discovery in Mongolia , placing it in the new family Psittacosauridae . Remains of this dinosaur were first discovered the year before , on the third American Museum of Natural History expedition to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia , when one of the expedition 's drivers found the type specimen ( AMNH 6254 ) , which preserves a nearly complete skull , as well as a post cranial skeleton lacking sections of the limbs . This same expedition turned up the remains of many other famous Mongolian dinosaurs , including Protoceratops , Oviraptor , and Velociraptor . Many later expeditions by various combinations of Mongolian , Russian , Chinese , American , Polish , Japanese , and Canadian paleontologists also recovered specimens from throughout Mongolia and northern China . In these areas , Psittacosaurus mongoliensis fossils are found in most sedimentary strata dating to the Aptian to Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous Period , or approximately 125 to 100 Ma ( million years ago ) . Fossil remains of over 75 individuals have been recovered , including nearly 20 complete skeletons with skulls . Individuals of all ages are known , from hatchlings less than 13 centimetres ( 5 in ) long , to very old adults reaching nearly 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in length .
When describing Psittacosaurus mongoliensis in 1923 , Osborn also gave the name Protiguanodon mongoliense to another skeleton found nearby , believing it to represent an ancestor of the ornithopod Iguanodon , in the new subfamily Protiguanodontinae . Protiguanodon mongoliense , AMNH 6523 , measured 1 @.@ 35 m ( 4 @.@ 4 ft ) long , and was known from much of the skeleton , although at the time of description the neck vertebrae were still covered by matrix . Osborn diagnosed his taxa on the basis of features of the teeth and snout . However , modern taxonomists find these features insignificant , instead placing Protiguanodon mongoliense within Psittacosaurus mongoliensis . When the skeleton was prepared further , it became clear that it was nearly identical to Psittacosaurus mongoliensis . In 1958 , Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian ( better known as C. C. Young ) renamed the skeleton Psittacosaurus protiguanodonensis . Today the specimen is generally referred to as the species Psittacosaurus mongoliensis and the names Protiguanodon mongoliense and Psittacosaurus protiguanodonensis are considered junior synonyms of the name Psittacosaurus mongoliensis , which was coined first .
In 1931 , C. C. Young named a new species of Psittacosaurus for a partial skull discovered in Inner Mongolia , China . The skull was named P. osborni after Henry Fairfield Osborn . The validity of this species is now considered equivocal . Sereno ( 1990 ) considered it a synonym of P. mongoliensis , which is found in nearby strata of the same age . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) listed it as valid in a table , but not in their text . In a 2010 review , Sereno again regarded P. osborni as a synonym of P. mongoliensis , but noted it was tentative because of the presence of multiple valid psittacosaur species in Inner Mongolia . Young also described the species P. tingi in the same 1931 report which contained P. osborni . It is based on several skull fragments . He later synonymised the two species under the name P. osborni . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) followed this in a table , but Sereno regarded both species as synonyms of P. mongoliensis ; a table in the latter reported P. tingi as a nomen dubium , however . The front half of a skull from Guyang County in Inner Mongolia was described as Psittacosaurus guyangensis in 1983 . Disarticulated postcranial remains representing multiple individuals were found at the same locality and were assigned to the species . While it differs from the type specimen of P. mongoliensis , it falls within the range of individual variation seen in other specimens of that species and is no longer recognised as a valid species . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) included P. guyangensis in a table of valid taxa , but did not include it as such in their text .
= = = Assigned species = = =
Seventeen species have been referred to the genus Psittacosaurus , although only nine to eleven are considered valid today . This is the highest number of valid species currently assigned to any single dinosaur genus ( not including birds ) . In contrast , most other dinosaur genera are monospecific , containing only a single known species . The difference is most likely due to artifacts of the fossilisation process . While Psittacosaurus is known from hundreds of fossil specimens , most other dinosaur species are known from far fewer , and many are represented by only a single specimen . With a very high sample size , the diversity of Psittacosaurus can be analysed more completely than that of most dinosaur genera , resulting in the recognition of more species . Most extant animal genera are represented by multiple species , suggesting that this may have been the case for extinct dinosaur genera as well , although most of these species may not have been preserved . In addition , most dinosaurs are known solely from bones and can only be evaluated from a morphological standpoint , whereas extant species often have very similar skeletal morphology but differ in other ways which would not normally be preserved in the fossil record , such as behaviour , or colouration . Therefore , actual species diversity may be much higher than currently recognised in this and other dinosaur genera . As some species are known only from skull material , species of Psittacosaurus are primarily distinguished by features of the skull and teeth . Several species can be recognised by features of the pelvis as well .
In the 1950s , a new Chinese species of Psittacosaurus was found in the Aptian @-@ Albian Qingshan Formation of Shandong Province , southeast of Beijing . C. C. Young called it P. sinensis to differentiate it from P. mongoliensis , which had originally been found in Mongolia . Fossils of more than twenty individuals have since been recovered , including several complete skulls and skeletons , making this the most well @-@ known species after P. mongoliensis . Chinese paleontologist Zhao Xijin named a new species after his mentor , C. C. Young , in 1962 . However , the type specimen of P. youngi ( a partial skeleton and skull ) was discovered in the same rocks as P. sinensis and appears to be very similar , so P. youngi is generally considered a junior synonym of that better @-@ known species . As with P. guyangensis and P. osborni , You and Dodson ( 2004 ) listed it as valid in a table , but not in their text .
In 1988 , Zhao and American paleontologist Paul Sereno described P. xinjiangensis , named after the Xinjiang Autonomous Region in which it was discovered . Several individuals of different ages were discovered in the early 1970s by Chinese paleontologists and described by Sereno and Zhao , although the holotype and most complete skeleton belonged to a juvenile . An adult skeleton was later discovered at a different locality in Xinjiang . These specimens come from the upper part of the Tugulu Group , which is regarded as Aptian @-@ Albian in age . A second species described in 1988 by Sereno and Zhao , along with two Chinese colleagues , was P. meileyingensis from the Jiufotang Formation , near the town of Meileyingzi , Liaoning Province , northeastern China . This species is known from four fossil skulls , one associated with some skeletal material , found in 1973 by Chinese scientists . The age of the Jiufotang in Liaoning is unknown , but in the neighbouring province of Inner Mongolia , it has been dated to about 110 Ma , in the Albian stage of the Early Cretaceous .
French paleontologist Eric Buffetaut and a Thai colleague , Varavudh Suteethorn , described a partial upper and lower jaw from the Aptian @-@ Albian Khok Kruat Formation of Thailand in 1992 , giving it the name Psittacosaurus sattayaraki . In 2000 , Sereno questioned the validity of this species , citing its eroded and fragmentary nature , and noted an absence of features characteristic of the genus Psittacosaurus . However , in 2002 the original authors published new images of the fossil which seem to show teeth in the lower jaw that exhibit the bulbous vertical ridge characteristic of psittacosaurs . Other authors have also defended its validity , while some continue to regard it as dubious . Sereno ( 2010 ) proposed that the best assignment for the type material may be Ceratopsia incertae sedis .
Two new species of Psittacosaurus were described by Canadian Dale Russell and Zhao in 1996 . The first was named P. neimongoliensis , after the Mandarin Chinese name for Inner Mongolia . It is based on a nearly complete fossil skeleton , including most of the skull , found in the Early Cretaceous Ejinhoro Formation with seven other individuals . Russell and Zhao also named P. ordosensis in 1996 , after the Ordos prefecture of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region . The type specimen is a nearly complete skeleton , including part of the skull . However , only the skull , lower jaw , and foot have been described . Three other specimens were referred to this species but remain undescribed . Like P. neimongoliensis , this species was discovered in the Eijnhoro Formation . Sereno ( 2010 ) found the species as described to be indistinguishable from P. sinensis , another small species , but suggested that additional study of P. ordosensis might reveal diagnostic features . He provisionally designated P. ordosensis a nomen dubium .
Xu Xing , another Chinese paleontologist , named a new species of Psittacosaurus in 1997 , based on a complete skull with associated vertebrae and a forelimb . This material was recovered in Gansu Province , near the border with Inner Mongolia . This species is named P. mazongshanensis after the nearby mountain called Mazongshan ( Horse Mane Mountain ) and has been described in a preliminary manner . Unfortunately , the skull was damaged while in the care of the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology ( IVPP ) , and several fragments have been lost , including all of the teeth . The remains were found in the Lower Xinminbao Formation , which have not been precisely dated , although there is some evidence that they were deposited in the late Barremian through Aptian stages . Sereno suggested in 2000 that P. mazongshanensis was a nomen dubium , with no unique features that separate it from any other species of Psittacosaurus . However , more recent authors have noted that it can be distinguished by its proportionally long snout compared to other species of Psittacosaurus , as well as a prominent bony protuberance , pointing outwards and downwards , on the maxilla of the upper jaw . The maxillary protuberance is also now missing . Other features originally used to distinguish the species have been recognised as the results of the deformation of the skull after fossilisation . Sereno ( 2010 ) remained unconvinced of its validity .
Beginning in the 1950s , Russian paleontologists began excavating Psittacosaurus remains at a locality near the village of Shestakovo in the oblast of Kemerovo in Siberia . Two other nearby localities were explored in the 1990s , one of which produced several complete skeletons . This species was named P. sibiricus in 2000 in a scientific paper written by five Russian paleontologists , but credit for the name is officially given to two of those authors , Alexei Voronkevich and Alexander Averianov . The remains were not completely described until 2006 . Two nearly complete , articulated skeletons and a variety of disarticulated material from other individuals of all ages are known from the Ilek Formation of Siberia , which ranges from the Aptian to Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous .
P. lujiatunensis , named in 2006 by Chinese paleontologist Zhou Chang @-@ Fu and three Chinese colleagues , is one of the oldest known species , based on four skulls from the lower beds of Yixian Formation , near the village of Lujiatun . While this bed has been dated differently by different authors , from 128 Ma in the Barremian stage , to 125 Ma in the earliest Aptian , revised dating methods have shown them to be about 123 million years old . P. lujiatunensis was contemporaneous with another psittacosaurid species , Hongshanosaurus houi , which was found in the same beds . It is potentially synonymous with H. houi ; Sereno ( 2010 ) , who proposed that Hongshanosaurus is a synonym of Psittacosaurus , opted to leave P. lujiatunensis and H. houi separate species due to the inadequacies of the latter 's type specimen . One nearly complete skeleton of P. lujiatunensis from the same lower beds of the Yixian Formation had previously been classified in its own species , Psittacosaurus major , named for the large size of its skull by Sereno , Zhao and two colleagues in 2007 . You and colleagues described an additional specimen and concurred that it was distinct from P. lujiatunensis . P. major was originally characterised by a proportionately large skull , which was 39 % of the length of its torso , compared to 30 % in P. mongoliensis , and other features . However , a 2013 study utilising morphometric analysis showed that the supposed differences between P. lujiatunensis and P. major were due to differences in preservation and crushing . The study concluded that both represented a single species .
A third species of Lujiatun psittacosaur , the first to be named , was described as Hongshanosaurus houi in 2003 . The generic name Hongshanosaurus was derived from the Mandarin Chinese words 紅 ( hóng : " red " ) and 山 ( shān : " hill " ) , as well as the Greek word sauros ( " lizard " ) . This name refers to the ancient Hongshan culture of northeastern China , who lived in the same general area in which the fossil skull of Hongshanosaurus was found . The type and only named species , H. houi , honours Hou Lianhai , a professor at the IVPP in Beijing , who curated the specimen . Genus and species were both named by Chinese paleontologists You Hailu , Xu Xing , and Wang Xiaolin in 2003 . Sereno ( 2010 ) regarded its distinct proportions as due to crushing and compression of the Hongshanosaurus skulls . He regarded Hongshanosaurus as a junior synonym of Psittacosaurus , and potentially the same as P. lujiatunensis . He did not synonymise the two species because of difficulties with the holotype skull of H. houi , instead considering new combination P. houi a nomen dubium within Psittacosaurus . Sereno 's hypothesis was supported by a morphometric study in 2013 , which found P. houi and P. lujiatunensis to be synonymous . While P. houi is the oldest available name , the researchers argued that because the type specimen of P. lujiatunensis was better preserved , the correct name for this species should be P. lujiatunensis rather than P. houi , which would normally have priority .
P. gobiensis is named for the region it was found in 2001 , and first described by Sereno , Zhao and Lin in 2010 . It is known from a skull and partial articulated skeleton with gastroliths . Many other specimens either cannot be determined to belong to any particular species , or have not yet been assigned to one . These specimens are generally all referred to as Psittacosaurus sp . , although it is not assumed that they belong to the same species . More than 200 specimens of Psittacosaurus have been found in the Yixian Formation , which is famous for its fossils of feathered dinosaurs . The vast majority of these have not been assigned to any published species , although many are very well preserved and some have already been partially described . Nearly 100 Psittacosaurus skeletons were excavated in Mongolia during the summers of 2005 and 2006 by a team led by Mongolian paleontologist Bolortsetseg Minjin and American Jack Horner from the Museum of the Rockies in Montana . Although only P. mongoliensis has been described from Mongolia so far , these specimens are still in preparation and have not yet been assigned to a species .
= = Classification = =
Psittacosaurus is the type genus of the family Psittacosauridae , which was also named by Osborn in 1923 . Psittacosaurids were basal to almost all known ceratopsians except Yinlong and perhaps the Chaoyangsauridae . While Psittacosauridae was an early branch of the ceratopsian family tree , Psittacosaurus itself was probably not directly ancestral to any other groups of ceratopsians . All other ceratopsians retained the fifth digit of the hand , a plesiomorphy or primitive trait , whereas all species of Psittacosaurus had only four digits on the hand . In addition , the antorbital fenestra , an opening in the skull between the eye socket and nostril , was lost during the evolution of Psittacosauridae , but is still found in most other ceratopsians and in fact most other archosaurs . It is considered highly unlikely that the fifth digit or antorbital fenestra would evolve a second time .
In 2014 , the describers of a new taxon of basal ceratopsian published a phylogenetic analysis encompassing Psittacosaurus . The below cladogram is from their analysis , placing the genus as one of the most primitive ceratopsians . The authors ( Farke et al . ) noted that all taxa outside of Leptoceratopsidae and Coronosauria with the exception of their genus Aquilops are from Asia , meaning the group likely originated there .
Although many species of Psittacosaurus have been named , their relationships to each other have not yet been fully explored and no scientific consensus exists on the subject . Several phylogenetic analyses have been published , with the most detailed being those by Alexander Averianov and colleagues in 2006 , Hai @-@ Lu You and colleagues in 2008 , and Paul Sereno in 2010 . The middle one is shown below .
In 2005 , Zhou and colleagues suggested that P. lujiatunensis is basal to all other species . This would be consistent with its earlier appearance in the fossil record .
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= Wait & See ( Risk ) =
" Wait & See ( Risk ) " ( stylized as Wait & See ~ リスク ~ ) is a song recorded by Japanese – American recording artist Utada Hikaru for her third studio and second Japanese language album , Distance ( 2000 ) . It premiered on April 19 , 2000 as the second single from the album in Japan . It was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada and American duo Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . The single also included the two B @-@ side track 's ; " Hayatochiri " and " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) , to which the former song appeared on the parent album . Musically , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " is an R & B song , influenced by dance @-@ pop and rock .
Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics highlighted the track as one of Utada 's best singles , and commended the production and composition . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number one on both the Oricon Singles Chart and Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV singles chart . It was certified million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units , and is amongst one of the best selling singles in Japan . An accompanying music video was shot by Wataru Takeishi ; it features Utada driving through Shibuya , Tokyo on a futuristic hover – cycle , with inter cut scenes of her dancing . It was performed on some of her concert tours , including the Bohemian Summer ( 2000 ) and Utada United tours ( 2006 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Wait & See ( Risk ) " was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada and American duo Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . It was the second time Utada worked with Jam and Lewis , and not with her father Teruzane Utada and Miyake Akira . The song included live instrumentation by Xavier Smith ( drum machine ) and Dave Barry ( bass and acoustic guitar ) , whilst Jam and Lewis incorporated synthesizers and keyboards . The song was recorded and mixed by Steve Hodge , Indoh Mitsuhiro , and Ugajin Masaaki in 2000 at Flyte Tyme Studios , Minneapolis , Minnesota , and mixed at Flyte Tyme , Edina , Minnesota . It premiered on April 19 , 2000 as the second single from Utada 's third studio and second Japanese language album , Distance ( 2001 ) in Japan . Since then , the song has been remastered and re @-@ released twice ; the first on April 1 , 2004 , and the second time on December 9 , 2014 for Utada 's first greatest hits album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) .
The single also included the two B @-@ side tracks ; " Hayatochiri " and " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " . The original version of " Hayatochiri " appears on the single , whilst a remixed version by Utada appeared on Distance . " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " is a cover version that was originally written and performed by Bart Howard and Kaye Ballard in 1954 ; a second cover version sung by Utada appeared eight years later on her single " Kiss & Cry " / " Beautiful World " . The maxi CD of the single contains all three new recordings , plus a remix by Baton Girl and instrumental version of " Wait & See ( Risk ) " . The cover artwork of the single featured four images of Utada in front of a brown backdrop , two of which are transparent . The DVD single was released on June 30 , 2000 , which included new artwork of Utada in the speed bike , and the music video and the behind the scenes video . Musically , " Wait & See " is an R & B song , influenced by rock and dance @-@ pop . Rock musician and music journalist David Bertrand Wilson had reviewed the parent album , and labelled it a " bouncy dance track " . Kano , editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine noted elements of R & B music through the song 's composition . When a staff editor from CD Journal reviewed Utada 's first greatest hits album , Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2004 ) , he labeled the composition as " urban " and " speedy " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " received positive reviews from most music critics . Nagasawa Tomonori from Barks.com selected the song as one of the album 's best tracks . Editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine Kano commended the " excellent " composition of the song , and the " innovative " production by Jam and Lewis . AllMusic 's Ian Martin praised Jam and Lewis ' involvement , saying that " providing a stark contrast to the cheap , tinny sound that characterized much Japanese pop of the previous decade , with " Wait & See " and " Addicted to You " both featuring the production talents of Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . " A staff reviewer from Yahoo ! GeoCities was positive in their review , whom highlighted the single as one of the best tracks on the album .
Conversely , rock musician and music journalist , David Bertrand Wilson , had reviewed the parent album with journalist John Alroy , and gave it a mixed review ; whilst they praised the composition , they felt its production was " distressingly drab " . A staff review from CD Journal discussed Utada 's compilation Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 , and said although the vocal delivery " floats " and is " basic " , it molded into one of Utada 's " masterpieces " . At the 15th Japan Gold Disc Awards , Utada won the Song of the Year award for " Wait & See ( Risk ) " ; she had also won two same awards that year for her singles " For You " and " Time Limit " . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " was ranked at number 10 with 40 votes in total .
= = Commercial response = =
Commercially , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " was a success in Japan . It became her third single to debut at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart , with over 804 @,@ 570 units sold in its first week . Its first week sales made it the 13th highest on Oricon Database , her second single behind " Addicted to You " with 1 @.@ 067 million first week units , and the only female artist to occupy the top twenty with three entries . It stayed at number one for a sole week , and spent a total of 21 weeks on that chart . By the end of 2000 , the single was ranked at number three on Oricon 's Annual 2000 chart ; it sold 1 @,@ 662 @,@ 060 units by the end of the year . This became Utada 's highest entry in that annual chart , the highest selling female recording artist based on single sales , and made " Wait & See ( Risk ) " the highest selling single of 2000 by a female recording artist . The single was certfieid million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units .
The single debuted at number one on Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV chart during the chart week of April 29 , 2000 , her fifth consecutive single to do so . The single stayed in the chart for 20 weeks , and was ranked at number four on their 2000 Annual Chart . The B @-@ side track , " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " , debuted at number 22 during the chart week of May 20 , 2000 . It slipped to number 87 the following week , and was present for two weeks . According to Oricon Style database , the single is Utada 's second highest selling single , and is currently ranked by Music TV Program as the fiftieth best selling single in Japanese music history , her third highest entry behind " Addicted to You " and " Automatic / Time Will Tell " .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi . The video opens with Utada entering a warehouse , and lifts a tarp off a hover cycle . As the camera pans away from the bike , Utada sits down and starts the bike . The first verse opens with Utada singing to the camera in a warehouse , whilst intercut scenes have her driving throughout Shibuya , Japan . As the verse progresses , two more clones of Utada appear and sing behind the original Utada . As the chorus starts , the hover cycle starts grinding against the road as she rides through small streets and corners . During the second verse , Utada stops through a city centre as shots of the clones appear on city billboards . She takes of her goggles , and stares at the moon , while close @-@ up of the clone 's faces are seen singing to the track .
The second chorus has the clones singing in different parts of the warehouse , with scenes of Utada driving through the subways in Shibuya . By the bridge section , the clones disappear and the original Utada is singing in the warehouse . She is then driving through tunnels at night , and stops at the warehouse she started from . She turns it off during the final scene of the video , puts the tarp back on , and walks outside of the warehouse . The music video and the " behind the scenes " video was included on her Single Clip Collection Vol . 2 ( 2000 ) .
= = Live performances and promotion = =
The single has been performed on majority of Utada 's concert tours . Its first performance was during her Bohemian Summer Tour in 2000 , which was included on the live release on December 9 , 2000 . It was then included on Utada 's exclusive MTV Unplugged concert , serving as the opening number . It was included on the live DVD , released on November 28 , 2001 . She later performed it in 2004 , during her Bokuhan concert tour . It appeared on the live DVD , which was released on July 28 , 2004 . It was included on Utada 's debut English concert tour named Utada United , which was later included on the live DVD , released on December 20 , 2006 . Since the track 's release , it has appeared on three compilation releases : Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) , it 's 2014 remastered version , and a special bundle of the compilation and the vol . 2 collection on a USB .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the single 's CD release .
Recording
Recorded at Flyte Tyme Studios , Minneapolis , Minnesota , and mixed at Flyte Tyme , Edina , Minnesota .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certification = =
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= Battle of Bonchurch =
The Battle of Bonchurch took place sometime in late July 1545 at Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight . No source of information states a specific date , although it could have happened on 21 July . The battle was a part of the wider Italian War of 1542 – 1546 , and took place during the 1545 French invasion of the Isle of Wight . Several landings were made by the French during the invasion of the Isle of Wight , including the one at Bonchurch . The two combatants were the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France . England won the battle , and the French advance across the Isle of Wight was halted .
The battle was fought between French regular soldiers , and English militiamen . The number of French soldiers involved is believed to be around 500 . The number of English militiamen is uncertain , with one source of information stating 300 , and another stating 2800 . English forces at the battle are understood to have been commanded by Captain Robert Fyssher , whilst French forces engaged were commanded by Le Seigneur de Tais . The battle was one of several that were fought between the English and the French on the Isle of Wight . The majority of sources of information regarding the battle state that the English won , although one source of information states that the French were victorious . The battle was fought because it was part of the French attempt to cause enough damage to the Isle of Wight to force the English ships standing off the coast of England to leave their defensive positions and attack in conditions favourable to the French . The landing at Bonchurch was one of several made by the French on the Isle of Wight , with others taking place at Sandown , Bembridge and St Helens .
= = Background = =
The Italian War of 1542 @-@ 1546 occurred because the disputes between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France had not been settled by the Italian War of 1535 @-@ 1538 , and those disputes resulted in a war between France , aided by the Ottoman Empire and Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg , and the Holy Roman Empire , aided by the Kingdom of England , Spain , Saxony , and Brandenburg . After two years of fighting Charles V , and Henry VIII of the Kingdom of England , invaded France . In September 1544 , English forces captured Boulogne . France attempted to re @-@ capture the city by force , but failed . Peace talks to end the fighting between England and France did not yield any positive results , partly because Henry VIII refused to consider returning Boulogne . As a result of the failure of diplomacy to get back Boulogne for France , Francis I decided to invade England , hoping that Henry VIII would return Boulogne to France in return for French forces leaving England . Thirty thousand French troops and a fleet of some 400 vessels were assembled . The fleet left Le Havre , in France , on 16 July .
On 18 July , the hostile engagement of French and English ships by the English coast marked the beginning of the Battle of the Solent . On that day , the outnumbered English ships withdrew . The English hoped to lure the French ships into the shallows and narrow channels of the Spithead , but the French wanted to attack the English in the more open waters of the eastern Spithead where the English ships could be encircled and annihilated . To entice the English ships to abandon their defensive position , and engage the numerically greater French ships , the French decided to invade the Isle of Wight , burning buildings and crops . France hoped that the residents of the Isle of Wight would support them , and rebel against England , and that the Isle of Wight could be used a base to challenge the English . French troops landed on the Isle of Wight , on 21 July . England would oppose this invasion of the Isle of Wight .
The Hundred Years War had resulted in the society which existed on the Isle of Wight being very militarised . Every male adult was obligated to fight when needed , and they participated in regular military training . The Captain of the Isle of Wight , Sir Richard Worsley of Appuldurcombe House , is considered to have been a “ capable and energetic commander ” . He was assisted by Sir Edward Bellingham , an officer in the regular English army , along with a headquarters staff . The English militiamen were equipped with " long pikes topped with a bill hook , and daggers , knives and clubs for close fighting " , as well as the Welsh longbow . The French soldiers were equipped with firearms , and steel blades . The militiamen had the advantage of superior morale , speed and agility .
The plan for the advance of the French soldiers at Bonchurch may have been to burn Wroxall and Appuldurcombe , capture and consolidate a position on the heights of St. Boniface Down , and then move towards Sandown to link up with a French landing there . The area around Bonchurch became important in its own right because Dunnose Point , near Bonchurch , offered a safe anchorage for French ships . There were also sources of fresh water nearby that could be used by the soldiers and sailors of the fleet .
= = Prelude = =
French troops were landed at three locations on the coast of the Isle of Wight , and the total number of French soldiers who were landed was 2000 . Bonchurch was one of the three places where French troops landed , and the number of soldiers who landed at Bonchurch is believed to be around 500 . The landing was unopposed and the French forces began to advance inland , up steep thickly wooded slopes . The Isle of Wight militia , however , learnt about the French invasion very quickly . 300 soldiers of the militia , under the command of Captain Robert Fyssher , were waiting at St. Boniface Down for the French to advance from Monks Bay .
= = Battle = =
Reports of the fighting are confused , and therefore no fully comprehensive account of the battle has been agreed upon . However , the battle could have taken place at dawn ( the day of the battle is unknown ) , and lasted until midday . Some records of the battle say that some women of the Isle of Wight participated in the battle by shooting arrows at the French .
= = = Did the French win the battle ? = = =
One source of information states that the French won the battle at Bonchurch . This source says that the English forces opposing the French were not local militiamen , but militiamen from Hampshire . The English forces took up a defensive position , a fact which is agreed upon by another account of the fighting , and were flanked by cliffs and screened by woods . According to this account , the number of English troops was 2 @,@ 800 . The first French attack was repelled but Le Seigneur de Tais , commander of the French forces involved in the battle , rallied his troops . A second French attack against the English forces was launched , with the French forces arranged into the ' array ' fighting formation . The account concludes its description of the fighting by saying that , after heavy casualties were sustained by both sides , the English line broke and the militia routed as a result of the second attack by the French . The account also states that Captain Robert Fyssher , which another source of information states commanded the English forces during the battle , is reported to have shouted out , as the militia routed , offering £ 100 for anyone who could bring him a horse , because he was too fat to run . A quote by Sir John Oglander is recorded , which reads that “ but none could be had even for a kingdom ” . The captain was never heard from again , and the account states that he was either killed , or captured and then buried at sea .
= = Aftermath = =
The casualties for both sides were heavy . The battle resulted in the French invasion of the Isle of Wight being stopped . Another skirmish took place at Bonchurch several days after the battle , when English forces engaged with French men who had disembarked from French ships retreating from Portsmouth looking for water . A senior French commander , Chevalier D 'Aux , was killed as a result of the engagement . The English victory at Bonchurch only had a marginal impact on the course of the Italian War of 1542 @-@ 1546 , because the battle only involved a very small number of men relative to the numbers of men that were engaged throughout the entirety of the war . The fact that it only had a marginal impact is also because , if the French had captured the Isle of Wight , it is unlikely that that capture would have drastically affected the course of the war , because there were more significant territories that were being contested . The Isle of Wight could have been used to support French operations against England had it been captured ; Claude d 'Annebault , commander of the French armada , recorded that “ having it [ the Isle of Wight ] under our control , we [ the French ] could then dominate Portsmouth ... and so put the enemy to extraordinary expense in maintaining a standing army and navy to contain us . ” Although some sources do state that the victory at Bonchurch was responsible for the French withdrawal from the Isle of Wight , the source of information which states that the French won the battle says that fighting at Bembridge was what drove the French from the island .
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= Tim Rogers ( journalist ) =
Tim Rogers ( born June 7 , 1979 ) is an American video game journalist and developer . In games journalism , he is known for his association with mid @-@ 2000s New Games Journalism , his verbose writing style , and his video game reviews website ActionButton.net. The Guardian cited his 2005 " Dreaming in an empty room : a defense of Metal Gear Solid 2 " as a core example of New Games Journalism , a style of video game journalism that emphasizes the author 's subjective and personal experiences in relation to the game world . Rogers has also written for Next Generation , GamesTM , Play , Game Developer , and Kotaku .
In game development , he is a co @-@ founder of Action Button Entertainment , where he designed games including Ziggurat and Videoball . The four @-@ person studio specializes in simple aesthetics and controls , following from Rogers 's own video game aesthetic and minimalist eSports interests . He compared the studio 's design philosophy to the spartan menu selections of Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares .
= = Early and personal life = =
Tim Rogers graduated from Indiana University Bloomington in 2001 with a degree in East Asian Languages and Cultures . He is a " self @-@ avowed messy guitar player " in his rock band , Large Prime Numbers . He has written that Mother 2 made him a vegetarian .
= = Video games journalism = =
Rogers is a video games journalist known for his verbosity . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com described him as " infamous " in New Games Journalism , a style of subjective video game journalism in which authors emphasize their personal experiences in relation to the game world . The Guardian cited Rogers as one of the " unmissable examples of New Games Journalism " in 2005 for his Insert Credit piece on Metal Gear Solid 2 , " Dreaming in an empty room : a defense of Metal Gear Solid 2 " . Gaming journalist Kieron Gillen called the article " highly discussed and fairly brilliant " . In 2006 , Simon Carless of GameSetWatch remarked that online communities were fascinated with Rogers as an originator of New Games Journalism , which Carless found at odds with their mistreatment of him , citing a Something Awful mock review of Sonic Riders . The next year , the same author cited Rogers ' 80 @,@ 000 @-@ word article , " the insertcredit.com fukubukuro 2006 : GAME OF THE YEAR EDITION " , in calling Rogers " the Lester Bangs of video games " for being the only person " disruptive and iconoclastic enough " for the title . In 2011 , Jim Rossignol of Rock , Paper , Shotgun recommended " Who Killed Videogames ? " , a new Rogers essay , as a standout work .
Rogers started ActionButton.net , a video games reviews website , in early 2007 as an outgrowth from Insert Credit and its forums , SelectButton . At the time of its launch , Simon Carless of GameSetWatch called the site " great writing " in a signature " self @-@ conscious metacommentary " style . GamesRadar called Tim Rogers " loquacious " and " a character " as profiled in Cara Ellison 's " Embed With ... " profile series , where they discussed " sticktion " as the role of " sticky friction " in Super Mario Bros. 3 and how it was used in Rogers ' own Ziggurat and Videoball . Edge described Rogers as a " polarising author of so much ' publish @-@ now @-@ edit @-@ never ' brain spew " . In 2013 , Rogers was selected to publish in the first round of digital books on games criticism published by Press Select . Rogers has also written for Insert Credit , Next Generation , GamesTM , Play , N @-@ Revolution , Kotaku , Atomix , and Game Developer magazine . As of June 2016 , Rock , Paper , Scissors reported ActionButton.net to be " dormant " .
= = Action Button Entertainment = =
Rogers is a co @-@ founder of Action Button Entertainment , a four @-@ person studio that consists of Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski , who together have built all of the studio 's four games from Ziggurat through Videoball . Their games are consistently simple in their aesthetics and controls , following from Rogers 's own video game aesthetic interests . Rogers became known for producing " infomercial @-@ style trailers " . Rogers interest in minimalist eSports and simple games parlays into his design philosophy , which he compared to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay advises failing restaurants to improve by trimming their menus to a spartan few great dishes . Rogers also felt simple games were " less work " .
Rogers has said that he aspires for Action Button Entertainment to make games that share his preferred gaming styles and his hobbies . In finding that the common link between his top 25 video games ( including Panzer Dragoon , Cave Story , Canabalt , and his favorite , Out of This World ) was minimalist aesthetics with no overt story to tell other than through game mechanics , Rogers wanted Ziggurat and future games to live up to those expectations and used his gut to fine @-@ tune design decisions . The games also reflect aspects of Rogers 's personality , such as in the " scream sound effect " on Ziggurat made and distorted from his guitar based on sounds made by eccentric Japanese musicians whose records he owned . He also called Ziggurat a descendant of his hobbies : the video game Ibara : Black Label and the Rubik 's Cube .
= = = Ziggurat = = =
Ziggurat is a retro @-@ style arcade shooter video game where the player fights off incoming aliens as the world 's last human from atop a ziggurat . The player uses simple touch controls to charge and shoot the enemies away , and dies if hit by an enemy . The game has 16 @-@ bit graphics style and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack .
Rogers co @-@ founded Action Button Entertainment while working on Ziggurat , which began with an idea Rogers had while playing Angry Birds about pushing back a swarm of bats by shooting projectiles at them . He decided that he could not make the game alone . Rogers put out a call for artists on Twitter with a submissions request of " fan art of the Japanese box art of Phantasy Star II " , and Action Button artist Brent Porter replied in under an hour with an entry Rogers called " incredible " . In mid 2011 , Rogers decided to work on an iPhone game for a few weeks as a break from a larger project . Rogers said the team was convinced by his design document — this game would become Ziggurat . Rogers contacted an Internet acquaintance who had previously mocked up a design idea from Rogers 's Kotaku column , programmer Michael Kerwin , who came through with a rough draft within a week . Andrew Toups converted a soundtrack created by Rogers 's rock band into an 8 @-@ bit soundtrack . After six months of hiatus and working at a social games company , Rogers rekindled development and the team finished the Ziggurat , which was released in February 2012 for iOS platforms .
Edge related the " unexpectedly poignant " red screen and sound effect that flashes upon the player 's death to Rogers 's personal interest in noise rock . They called it a " beguiling personal signature " .
= = = TNNS = = =
TNNS , pronounced " tennis " , is a brick @-@ breaking action game where players use a paddle along the screen 's left side to bounce a ball towards breakable objects on the right side of the screen , and to avoid getting the ball in their goal . It was released with little advanced notice in November 2012 for iOS as a universal app playable on iPhones , iPads , and iPods . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com compared it with Sidhe Interactive 's Shatter and VG247 called it a rendition of Breakout . Pocket Gamer likened it to both and further compared it with Alleyway , Arkanoid , and Super Hexagon with a " telekinetic power " to alter the ball 's direction apart from the panel ( as in Shatter ) .
= = = 10 × 8 = = =
Ten by Eight , stylized as 10 × 8 , is a puzzle video game where players match tiles . Players align similarly colored blocks and trace the path they create when aligned . Star blocks act as power @-@ ups that extend combos . Rogers produced an " infomercial @-@ style trailer " for the game , which VG247 called one of his signature moves and that IndieGames.com called " glorious " . It was released on July 31 , 2013 in North America for PlayStation Mobile — the PlayStation Vita and compatible devices . Around the same time , Rogers presented at the GDC 2013 Indie Soapbox , where he told the story of how he " went indie " .
= = = Videoball = = =
In Videoball , players use solely one analog stick and one button to control triangles that shoot projectiles to knock a circular ball into the opposing team 's endzone . The triangle shoots a projectile , which charges the longer the button is held , such that a charged " slam " shot can sail across the full screen . Rogers , the game 's designer , describes the game as " an abstract minimalist electronic sport " . Its development began as a dare from QWOP developer Bennett Foddy , Rogers 's friend , to make a " one @-@ button StarCraft " . Rogers compared the game 's design process to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay convinces failing restaurants to provide fewer menu options and to make those dishes well . Rogers noted the role of noted basketball @-@ like strategy in its playtests , and the difficulty in crafting a minimalist game with a high importance on nuanced detail . He livestreams prerelease sessions of Videoball via Twitch and broadcast gameplay from Twitch 's booth at PAX East 2014 with indie publisher Midnight City . The game is expected for release in 2015 with cross @-@ platform multiplayer and support for more than six simultaneous players .
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= Battle of Borgerhout =
The Battle of Borgerhout was a battle during the Eighty Years ' War , of the Spanish Army of Flanders led by Alexander Farnese , Prince of Parma , upon a fortified camp at the village of Borgerhout , near Antwerp , where several thousand French , English , Scottish and Walloon soldiers in service of the recently created Union of Utrecht were stationed . It took place during the reconquest by the armies of Philip II of Spain of the Burgundian Netherlands , whose different provinces had united in 1576 under the Pacification of Ghent to drive out the foreign troops out and to grant religious liberty to Protestants .
Despite the rebel victory at the Battle of Rijmenam in July 1578 , much of the Southern Netherlands were lost to the Spanish Army during the autumn ; Brussels was menaced , and the States General were moved to the safer Antwerp . Taking advantage of the Dutch rebel army 's indiscipline , Farnese decided at the beginning of 1579 to besiege Maastricht . As a feint to distract the Dutch rebels from his goal , but also aiming to scare Antwerp 's inhabitants , Farnese moved with his troops to surprise the village of Borgerhout , very close to Antwerp , where a part of the Dutch States Army had its quarters , namely 3 @,@ 000 or 4 @,@ 000 infantry which were the backbone of the rebel army and consisted of French Calvinists under François de la Noue , and English and Scottish troops under John Norrey 's orders .
On 2 March Farnese deployed elements of his army in a plain stretching between his position at the village of Ranst and the Dutch camp at Borgerhout , which Norreys and De la Noue had fortified with moats , palisades and earthworks . The assault was divided into three columns , each one provided with a mobile bridge to pass over the camp 's moat . After one of the attacks , undertaken by Walloon troops , succeeded in securing a bridge , the Spanish forces were able to attack the States @-@ General 's soldiers inside their camp . Norreys and De la Noue 's men opposed a strong defence , but Farnese , throwing his light cavalry to the battle , forced the Dutch troops to abandon Borgerhout and look for shelter under the artillery of Antwerp 's walls . William of Orange , leader of the Dutch revolt , and archduke Matthias of Habsburg , Governor @-@ General of the Netherlands appointed by the States General , witnessed the fight from Antwerp 's walls .
The battle meant the destruction of the villages of Borgerhout and Deurne and saw up to 1 @,@ 500 men killed between both armies . Farnese then proceeded to besiege Maastricht , which the Spanish Army invested less than a week after the battle and was taken by assault on 29 June of the same year . Farnese 's successful campaign opened the way to a nine @-@ year period of Spanish reconquest of much of the Netherlands .
= = Background = =
In 1566 the Burgundian Netherlands , Charles V of Habsburg 's original realm , which had passed to his son Philip II of Spain on his abdication in 1556 , were in disarray due to religious tensions between Protestants and Catholics and the nobility and cities ' unwillingnes of funding Philip 's wars and ceding its powers to the Royal administration . In 1567 Philip sent an army to the Netherlands under Fernando Álvarez de Toledo , Duke of Alba , to restore his authority , but Alba 's persecution of the religious and political dissenters led William of Orange , the leader of the nobility , to exile into Germany and prepare an invasion of the Netherlands to expel Alba . Orange invaded the Netherlands twice , in 1568 and 1572 , but in both occasions Alba defeated him . The second time , however , the revolt spread into the provinces of Holland and Zealand , and Alba was unable of quelling it . In 1576 , the lack of an authority due to the death of Alba 's successor Luis de Requesens , together with a Spanish general bankruptcy , led the Spanish mutinuous soldiers to sack several towns , including Antwerp . In reaction , the loyal and rebel provinces united to expel the foreign troops under the Pacification of Ghent .
John of Austria , the victor of Lepanto and replacement to Requesens , had no choice but to sign the Perpetual Edict in 1577 , accepting the Pacification of Ghent , but later , frustrated by the intransigence of Orange and his supporters , he seized the citadel of Namur and recalled his troops . John 's striking victory at the Battle of Gembloux in January 1578 , was followed by a tactical defeat at Rijmenam in July , and John himself died of plague in October . However , despite the Spanish failure to exploit militarily the victory of Gembloux , it rendered important political benefits to the royal cause in the Netherlands , as it shattered the unity of the Dutch rebels . As a consequence of the battle 's outcome , the leaders of the main families of the Southern provinces lost faith in Orange 's cause and the promises of aid made by the English queen Elizabeth I , which meant an important setback to Orange . Aiming to restore the military capability of the Dutch rebels , Elizabeth arranged with John Casimir , son to the Calvinist Elector Palatine , the raising of a German Army under English pay to assist the Dutch troops John Casimir brought to the Netherlands 11 @,@ 000 men , but instead of fighting the Spanish , he sided with the Calvinist extremists at Ghent and widened the gap between the Catholic and Protestant rebels . The States General also called for help Francis , Duke of Anjou , brother and heir of the King of France , who entered Mons in July 1578 , but was back in France in a short time .
The Catholic nobility and southern provinces ' defections , already started in the autumn 1578 , expanded further when the provinces of Hainaut and Artois concluded on 6 January 1579 , the Union of Arras , which the Walloon Flanders joined soon – the Catholic provinces of Namur , Luxembourg and Limburg were already controlled by the Spanish – . The Union of Arras opened talks in February with Alexander Farnese , who succeeded his uncle John of Austria as the Royal @-@ appointed Governor @-@ General of the Netherlands , to reconcile with Philip II . In response , a meeting took place in Utrecht shortly thereafter between deputies from the northern provinces of Holland , Zealand , Utrecht , Friesland , Gelderland and Ommelanden , which signed an alliance and union on 23 January . In the south , meanwhile , Farnese was planning the capture of Maastricht to use the city with its stone bridge over the Meuse as a base to conquer Brussels and Antwerp in the following campaigns . In November 1578 , the Spanish Army left Namur and crossed the Ardennes and Limburg . However , Farnese deemed too risky starting the siege of Maastrich at midwinter and with the John Casimir 's numerous cavalry on the countryside .
= = Campaign = =
For the 1579 campaign , Farnese planned two different movements . A portion of his army , under Cristóbal de Mondragón , was to clean the area between Maastricht and the German border from Dutch garrisons , while Farnese himself , ahead of the main army , decided to move against Atwerp with two objectives : to neutralize the Dutch field army , or primarily its German cavalry , before laying siege to Maastricht and to distract the Dutch from the campaign 's real objective . The first part of the plan was accomplished when Mondragón took the towns of Kerpen , Erkelenz and Straelen between 7 and 15 January . On 24 January , Farnese moved to attack the States General army , which was at Weert , east of Antwerp . Outnumbered , François de la Noue , who had taken to role of field commander of the States ' army after the Count of Bossu 's death , left some States ' troops in the Castle of Weert and withdrew to Antwerp with his unpaid men . They asked the city council to allow them to enter the city , but it was refused , and De la Noue had no choice but to entrench his army outside the walls , in the village of Borgerhout . This was a residential area for the wealthy inhabitants of Antwerp where they had country houses and gardens , among them Peeter van Coudenberghe 's botanical garden , which had more than 600 exotic plants .
In the meantime , Farnese entrusted to Count Hannibal d 'Altemps the capture of Weert and continued his advance upon the Dutch Army . D 'Altemps encircled Weert with 6 @,@ 000 men and breached its walls with a two @-@ cannon battery . The defenders of the castle surrendered at discretion but , on Farnese orders , were hanged on the windows , which the Count willingly did because his steward had lost an eye during the siege . Farnese , instead of following the Dutch Army to its quarters , lodged in Turnhout with his troops and his court to forage . Before moving to Antwerp he dealt with John Casimir 's German Army . Spanish troops attacked and defeated part of the German reiters near Eindhoven on 10 February . Moreover , while John Casimir himself was in England dealing with Elizabeth I , Farnese agreed with his lieutenant , Maurice of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , the withdrawal of the Calvinist Army , which the Spaniards allowed to leave the Netherlands freely . Once this matter was finished , Farnese advanced upon Borgerhout .
= = Order of battle = =
The Dutch States ' troops quartered in the village of Borgerhout numbered 25 or 40 infantry companies which comprised from 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 soldiers , plus 100 additional mounted troops . They were the backbone of the rebel army and William of Orange referred to them as " his braves " . Moreover , they were led by officers of renown such as François de la Noue and John Norreys . To confront the Spanish Army , they were detached along the village of Borgerhout , which they had fortified by digging a moat and building an earth rampart around the village , from the bridge of Deurne over the Groot Schijn stream , which flowed into the Scheldt , to the road of Voetweg , which ran parallel to the canal of Herentals . Orange deployed four additional French infantry regiments and Walloon troops from the nearby garrisons of Ath and Termonde behind Borgerhout and under the protection of Antwerp 's citadel and moat . The city 's civic guard , numbering 80 flags of armed and trained burghers , was ready to defend the city if necessary , but not willing to get out to join the battle nor to allow the regular troops to come within Antwerp . The Spanish soldier and chronicler Alonso Vázquez claimed that Orange 's army had , in all , 25 @,@ 000 men .
Farnese deployed a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ man vanguard , both infantry and cavalry , in the plain which separated his camp at Ranst from Borgerhout . Three small battalions , not surpassing 12 companies each one , but made up of chosen men , went in advance ; the right was taken by the Spanish tercio of Lope de Figueroa , the center by a Lower German regiment under Francisco de Valdés and the right by a Walloon regiment under Claude de Berlaymont , known as Haultpenne . Each formation was supported by a sleeve of 100 musketeers , a group of men armed with axes to cut the palissades and a wheeled bridge to cross the moat . A corps of light cavalry led by Antonio de Olivera followed the infantry at some distance with instructions to cover its withdrawal if the attack went bad , or to follow up the victory , if it took place . According to Alonso Vázquez , Farnese made the Walloon soldiers of the Spanish Army wear white shirts over their armors , a practise common in night attacks known as camisades , to distinguish themselves from the Walloons who fought for the Union of Utrecht . Thus the Walloons look , in his words , like " a very colorful procession of clerics and sacristans " .
In reserve , Farnese deployed a large battalion made up by the German regiments of Hannibal d 'Altemps and Georg von Frundsberg , flanked on its right by troops of reiters under Duke Francis of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , elder brother of Duke Maurice , John Casimir 's former lieutenant , and on its left by lancers under Pierre de Taxis . The remaining Spanish cavalry , led by Ottavio Gonzaga , covered the rear . Farnese led his troops personally , and before the battle was started , he scouted the Dutch position , having ordered his troops not to move until his return . On the Dutch side , while De la Noue and Norreys directed the men standing in Borgerhout , William of Orange witnessed the battle from the walls of Antwerp in company of archduke Matthias , brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , whom the States General had elected as Governor of the Netherlands in opposition to the deceased John of Austria .
= = Battle = =
The fight started with the three battalions of the Spanish first line advancing upon the Dutch camp , each one trying to be the first to laid its bridge over the moat . Haultpenne 's Wallons , headed by Sergeant @-@ Major Camille Sacchino , moved up to Deurne , crossing the Schijn river at the small village of Immerseel . Valdés ' Germans advanced frontally to Borgerhout across the Borsbeek road , and Figueroa 's Spaniards took the Voetweg road to assault the Dutch camp from the south . While the sleeves of musketeers from the Spanish and German units exchanged fire with the Dutch troops covered by the rampart , Sacchino 's Walloons drove the defenders of Deurne behind the Groot Schijn stream and took its bridge . De la Noue sent reinforcements there to content the assault , but they arrived too late to prevent the Walloons from laying their bridge over the moat and began to climb the rampart , starting a close combat with the Dutch troops . In the meantime , the Spanish and German troops , supported by two or three artillery pieces , breached the rampart , crossed the moat and also started to come inside Borgerhout , where De la Noue and Norreys ' men reorganized and stood on the barricaded streets .
Farnese , seeing that his attack was going well , ordered Olivera to advance with his cavalry to support the infantry 's push . While the light horsemen penetrated into Borgerhout across the breach opened by Figueroa 's men , Farnese himself took the command of Taxis ' lancers and did the same across Valdés ' path . The French and English soldiers offered a strong resistance , but after two hours of battle inside the quarters , De la Noue began to withdraw his forces to Antwerp to avoid destruction . The retreating troops set fire to their lodgements and looked for shelter under the coverage of Antwerp 's artillery . Many of the Spanish soldiers went in persecution , despite their officers ordered them to stay together , and chased the rebels until Antwerp 's moat . At William of Orange 's orders , the artillery of the city walls fired then sharpnel over the Spanish troops with different results , depending on the sources . The Spanish soldier Alonso Vázquez claimed that the shots were ineffective because the battlefield was covered of the smoke produced by the fire of Borgerhout . On the other hand , the Flemish official Guillaume Baudart claimed that it was precise and made " arms and legs fly on the air " .
By then , Farnese , unwilling of having for a longer time his troops close to Antwerp 's cannons , made drums and trumpets to call for withdrawal and gathered his men at Borgerhout . Meanwhile , people from Antwerp sallied to carry the wounded French , British and Walloon officers and soldiers into the city to receive treatment . The Spanish soldiery , once the fire of Borgerhout was finished , looted the basements of the burned buildings and had a meal before praying to thank God . After that , the Spanish Army marched across the roads of Lier and Herentals to Turnhout , where Farnese wanted to arrive the next day . Fearing a new attack , Antwerp 's civic guards spent the night at their posts .
= = Aftermath = =
The number of casualties endured by both armies differs according to the authors . The Italian Jesuit Famiano Strada noted that Farnese , in a letter to his father Ottavio , Duke of Parma , put the Dutch loss as 600 men killed and gave eight men killed and 40 wounded amongst his troops . Strada also mentions that other estimations pointed to 1 @,@ 040 men killed in the Dutch ranks . On the other hand , the Flemish author Guillaume Baudart set the Dutch loss as 200 men killed and claimed that the Spanish Army lost 500 men . The villages of Deurne and Borgerhout were seriously damaged by the fire during the battle : in 1580 Deurne had 133 standing buildings , while 146 had been destroyed by the fire ; in Borgerhout 206 buildings remained and 280 were ruined .
Farnese 's attack achieved his goal of distracting the Dutch States forces from Maastricht . After the battle , the Spanish Army moved quickly to Turnhout , taking the castle of Grobbendonk on its way and appearing before Masstricht on 8 March , just six days after the battle of Borgerhout . François de la Noue followed the Spanish till Herentals with some troops , but when he realized that Farnese was to lay siege to Maastricht , it was too late for him to reinforce the city 's garrison . Moreover , mutinies and defections hampered the Dutch efforts to save the city . The English soldiers under John Norrey 's orders , who remained out of Antwerp , kidnapped the abbot of St. Michael 's Abbey in demand for back pays , and William of Orange 's had to mediate to placate them . In political terms , the battle increased the Walloon defections from the States General to the Spanish party in the following months . Emanuel Philibert de Lalaing joined the Spanish Army with 5 @,@ 000 Walloon troops of the Dutch States army and expelled from Menen a garrison loyal to the States General .
Farnese besieged Maastricht in command of 15 @,@ 000 infantry , 4 @,@ 000 cavalry , 20 cannons and 4 @,@ 000 sappers , joined later by 5 @,@ 000 additional troops . In May , while the siege developed , peace talks were held at Cologne under the mediation of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf to preserve the unity of the Netherlands . However , divisions become more serious during the process . In Brussels , fight erupted in early June between Catholics headed by Philip of Egmont , son of Lamoral of Egmont , whom the Royalist authorities had executed in 1568 and Calvinists under Olivier van den Tympel , resulting in the expulsion of Egmont and his supporters . At Mechelen , the Catholic inhabitants forced the Dutch garrison to leave , while in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch an armed struggle resulted in the magistrates declaring support to the Royalist side . The revolt took a character of civil war , and as a result of the religious problem , the peace conference at Cologne failed . Henceforth , Farnese reconquered Flanders and the Brabant town after town , even forcing Antwerp to surrender after a long and exhausting siege in 1585 .
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= Lazarus W. Powell =
Lazarus Whitehead Powell ( October 6 , 1812 – July 3 , 1867 ) was the 19th Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1851 to 1855 . He was later elected to represent Kentucky in the U.S. Senate from 1859 to 1865 .
The reforms enacted during Powell 's term as governor gave Kentucky one of the top educational systems in the antebellum South . He also improved Kentucky 's transportation system and vetoed legislation that he felt would have created an overabundance of banks in the Commonwealth . Powell 's election as governor marked the end of Whig dominance in Kentucky . Powell 's predecessor , John J. Crittenden , was the last governor elected from the party of the Commonwealth 's favorite son , Henry Clay .
Following his term as governor , Powell was elected to the U.S. Senate . Before he could assume office , President James Buchanan dispatched Powell and Major Benjamin McCulloch to Utah to ease tensions with Brigham Young and the Mormons . Powell assumed his Senate seat on his return from Utah , just prior to the election of Abraham Lincoln as president . Powell became an outspoken critic of Lincoln 's administration , so much so that the Kentucky General Assembly asked for his resignation and some of his fellow senators tried to have him expelled from the body . Both groups later renounced their actions .
Powell died at his home near Henderson , Kentucky shortly following a failed bid to return to the Senate in 1867 .
= = Early life = =
Powell was born on October 6 , 1812 near Henderson , Kentucky , the third son of Lazarus and Ann McMahon [ a ] Powell . He attended the common schools of Henderson , and was tutored by George Gayle . He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Saint Joseph College in Bardstown , Kentucky in 1833 , and began studying law under John Rowan . He then enrolled in the Transylvania University School of Law , studying under Justice George Robertson and Judge Daniel Mayes . He was admitted to the bar in 1835 , and partnered with Archibald Dixon to start a law practice in Henderson . The two remained partners until 1839 .
On November 8 , 1837 , Powell married Harriet Ann Jennings . The couple had three sons [ b ] before Jennings died on July 30 , 1846 .
= = Political career = =
A Democrat in a Whig district , Powell 's political career began with an 1836 bid for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He campaigned vigorously while his opponent , John G. Holloway , relied largely on his party affiliation to carry the election . This proved a critical misstep for Holloway , as Powell secured the surprise victory . Holloway apparently learned from his mistake . Upon the completion of Powell 's term in 1838 , Holloway challenged Powell again , and defeated him by a considerable majority . Six year later , Powell was chosen as a presidential elector on the Democratic ticket , supporting James K. Polk .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
In 1848 , Kentucky Democrats nominated Linn Boyd for governor , but Boyd declined the nomination . Powell was chosen to replace Boyd on the ticket , largely due to the influence of James Guthrie . The Whig party nominated Senator John J. Crittenden , and the race was complicated by former Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson 's announcement that he would run as an independent Democratic candidate . Knowing the Democrats ' chances were dimmed by having two candidates in the race , Powell arranged a meeting with Johnson , following which the latter withdrew his candidacy and pledged his support to Powell . Nevertheless , Crittenden won the election .
In the gubernatorial election of 1851 , Powell was once again the Democratic Party nominee . The Whigs nominated Powell 's friend and law partner , Archibald Dixon . Powell and Dixon traveled the state together , eating at the same taverns , speaking from the same platforms , and generally showing cordiality and friendliness that was rare in Kentucky politics in those days . Powell 's margin of victory in the general election was a thin 850 votes , while Whig candidate John P. Thompson defeated the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor , Robert Wickliffe , by several thousand votes . A third candidate for governor , abolitionist Cassius M. Clay , received 3 @,@ 621 votes . Powell was the first Democrat elected to the office in almost twenty years . ( John L. Helm had ascended to the governorship on Crittenden 's resignation . )
The Whigs also maintained control of the General Assembly , and although Governor Powell was largely able to cooperate with his political opponents , some clashes did occur . As a result of the 1850 census , the General Assembly re @-@ apportioned the state into ten congressional districts . Powell vetoed the redistricting , noting that the districts had been gerrymandered to give the fading Whig party control over the state delegation . The legislature overrode the veto . The governor was successful , however , in vetoing legislation that he felt would have created an overabundance of banks in the Commonwealth .
Powell implemented the use of the state 's sinking fund to pay interest on school bonds , a measure which had passed over Governor Helm 's veto , but Helm refused to carry out . In 1855 , Kentucky 's voters passed by landslide a measure to raise the school tax from two cents per hundred dollars of taxable property to five cents per hundred dollars . The measure enjoyed the support of both Governor Powell and superintendent of public schools Robert Jefferson Breckinridge . Under the leadership of Powell and Breckinridge , Kentucky 's school system became among the strongest in the antebellum South .
Among Powell 's other successes as governor was his successful lobbying of the legislature to conduct a geological survey in 1854 . He also encouraged private investment in transportation in the state . During his term , the state went from having 78 miles ( 126 km ) of railroad track in operation to having 242 miles ( 389 km ) in operation .
= = = United States Senator = = =
In January 1858 , Powell was elected to the United States Senate . In April of that year , President James Buchanan appointed Powell and Major Benjamin McCulloch commissioners to negotiate settlements with the Mormons in Utah . On arriving in Utah , Powell and McCulloch issued a proclamation by President Buchanan offering clemency to Mormons who agreed to submit to Federal authority . The offer was accepted , and violence was averted .
Senator Powell favored Kentucky 's neutrality policy during the Civil War , but nationally , the conflict put him in a tenuous political situation . On one hand , he favored a strong national government and a strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution . On the other hand , he was an opponent of coercion , and due to Kentucky 's proximity to the Southern states , maintained a more sympathetic view of the southern cause than legislators from more northern states . During his term as governor , Powell had been critical of Northern states that refused to abide by the Fugitive Slave Act .
In 1861 , Senator Powell vigorously condemned President Lincoln 's decision to suspend the writ of habeas corpus . In 1862 , he denounced the arrest of some citizens of Delaware — officially , the arrests were called " resolutions of inquiry " — as a violation of constitutional rights . These stances led to calls for his resignation by the Kentucky General Assembly in 1861 , and some of his colleagues , led by Kentucky 's other senator , Garrett Davis , unsuccessfully attempted to have him expelled from the Senate . Before the end of the war , both the General Assembly and Davis admitted being wrong in their attempts to remove him .
Following his successful defense against calls for his removal , Powell continued speaking against what he saw as violations of constitutional rights . In 1864 , he condemned General Order No. 11 , an edict of Ulysses S. Grant that barred Jews from the Department of Tennessee , which included regions of Kentucky . In the same speech , he rebuked federal military interference with the elections in Kentucky . In 1864 , he opposed a constitutional amendment aimed at freeing the slaves .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Following his term in the Senate , he returned to Henderson and resumed his law practice . He was a delegate to the Union National Convention in 1866 . In 1867 , he was again nominated to the U.S. Senate , but after several ballots over several months , the General Assembly had not elected him . Powell believed that many of the legislators had been elected as a result of election interference by Northern forces , and that their intent was to prevent Kentucky from electing a senator at all , diminishing her influence nationally . In light of this belief , he urged the Democrats to withdraw his name and nominate someone more palatable to Union sympathizers . This they did , putting forth the name of Garrett Davis , who was subsequently elected .
Powell died in his home on July 3 , 1867 . The cause of death was apoplexy , apparently the result of the toll years of rheumatism had exacted on his nervous system . He is buried at the Fernwood Cemetery in Henderson , Kentucky . The state erected a 22 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) high marble monument over his grave in 1870 . Powell County , Kentucky , is named in honor of Governor Powell .
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= Gymnopilus maritimus =
Gymnopilus maritimus is a fungus species of the family Cortinariaceae first collected in northern Sardinia , Italy , in 2006 . The species produces moderately sized , sturdy mushrooms of a reddish @-@ orange colour . The cap , which can measure up to 70 millimetres ( 3 in ) across , is covered in orange fibrils , and sometimes has small scales . The yellowish stem measures up to 110 mm ( 4 in ) in length by 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in width , and sometimes shows remnants of the partial veil . The mushrooms have thick gills of a variable colour , ranging from yellow to rust but staining darker , and the yellow flesh has a mild taste . The mushrooms leave a rusty @-@ brown spore print , while the spores themselves measure from 7 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00030 – 0 @.@ 00045 in ) in length . The species is most similar in appearance to G. arenophilus and G. fulgens , but can be differentiated from both morphologically . Despite the similarities , it is not closely related to either , suggesting convergent evolution . Instead , within the genus Gymnopilus , it is most closely related to the spectabilis – imperialis clade . However , it is not particularly similar to any of its closest relatives .
The species has been found only on coastal sand dunes near Olbia , in Sardinia , where it was observed growing at the base of Juncus maritimus ( the sea rush ) , between the winter months of October and January . However , there is speculation that it may also grow elsewhere in Europe . Mushrooms were seen growing from both the sandy soil and decaying plants ; however , as a saprotrophic feeder , it is possible that the species would be able to grow on other substrates . The mushrooms grow in close groups or tight tufts .
= = Taxonomy = =
Gymnopilus maritimus was first described by mycologists Laura Guzmán @-@ Dávalos ( a specialist in Gymnopilus ) , Antonio Ortega , Marco Contu and Alfredo Vizzini in 2009 in an article in the journal Mycological Progress . The description was based on several specimens collected during field work by Contu in Sardinia between January 2006 and January 2007 ; the holotype was collected on 15 January 2006 . The discovery has contributed to Sardinia 's reputation as an area of mycological significance . The description was later published in Italian by Contu and Vizzini in the journal Micologia e Vegetazione Mediterranea , along with the description of G. purpuresquamulosus , because the original descriptions of both of these species were in English , and difficult for non @-@ specialists to obtain . The specific epithet maritimus refers to the typical habitat of coastal sand dunes , on sandy soil or decomposing Juncus maritimus . The holotype has been deposited in the University of Granada 's herbarium .
Within the genus Gymnopilus , it is located in the subgenus Gymnopilus and section Macrospori . The subgenus Gymnopilus was proposed by Henri Romagnesi as Cortinatae ( while the genus was known as Fulvidula ) in 1942 , though the name Gymnopilus was given later by Rolf Singer . The subgenus is characterised by mushrooms that feature either no veils , or veils that do not form rings . The section Macrospori , proposed by Guzmán @-@ Dávalos in 1995 , is made up of large @-@ spored species with ringless mushrooms . Molecular analysis revealed that G. maritimus forms a sister group to ( that is , shares an immediate common ancestor with ) the spectabilis – imperialis clade , a clade that includes G. imperialis , G. spectabilis , G. junonius ( often considered synonymous with G. spectabilis ) , G. pampeanus , and others . G. maritimus forms a more inclusive clade along with the members of spectabilis – imperialis ; while it produces the smallest fruit bodies , it shares with the other members strong , sturdy mushrooms , caps with fibrils ( sometimes with scales ) and large , warty spores that turn red in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's iodine .
= = Description = =
Gymnopilus maritimus mushrooms have a cap of between 15 and 70 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 and 3 in ) in width that is convex to flattened @-@ convex in shape . There is sometimes a broad umbo , and in older specimens , the cap is depressed in the centre . The margin of the cap is somewhat wavey . The cap surface is dry and dull , coloured red to red @-@ orange , and yellow towards the margin . It is covered in fibrils of an orange colour , and sometimes has minute scales . The dried cap turns blackish @-@ red when potassium hydroxide is applied . The stem is 35 to 110 mm ( 1 to 4 in ) in length by 4 to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 3 in ) in width . It is attached centrally to the cap , and is either completely cylindrical , with equal thickness throughout its length , or slightly narrower towards the base , where whitish or cream mycelia are sometimes visible . It is dry , with fibres and furrows . It is a yellowish colour , bruising reddish @-@ brown . Traces of the partial veil are sometimes visible on the stem , though it does not form a ring . The yellow ( brown at the bottom of the stem ) flesh can be up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick in the cap and does not bruise . It dries dark brown . There is no distinctive odour , and the taste is mild or slightly bitter . The thick gills can be adnate ( connected to the stem by the entire depth of the gill ) or sinuate ( wavy , with the gills becoming shallower then deeper ) . They are subdistant ( neither close nor distant ) and swollen in the middle . In colour , they are yellow in the youngest mushrooms , turning an ochre @-@ orange , while the oldest mushrooms they are rust . The gill edges are paler than the faces , and the gills stain orange @-@ brown or darker . No reference is made in the original description to the edibility of the mushrooms .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Gymnopilus maritimus leaves a rusty @-@ brown spore print . The basidiospores can measure 7 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00030 – 0 @.@ 00045 in ) in length , though the typical range is 8 – 10 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00031 – 0 @.@ 00041 in ) . In width , they typically measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00022 – 0 @.@ 00030 in ) , but they can be up to 8 μm wide . In shape , they are ellipsoid or sometimes broadly ellipsoid . The top of the spore ( the side where it was once attached to the sterigma , the connection between the basidium and the spore ) is rounded and blunt . The spores are covered with fairly large warts , measuring from 0 @.@ 5 – 2 micrometres ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 – 7 @.@ 9 × 10 − 5 in ) from the main spore in height . There is no germ pore or plage , and there is no clear depression around the hilum ( the area where the spore was attached to the sterigma ) . The spores turn an orange @-@ yellow to orange @-@ brown colour in potassium hydroxide , and turn reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent and in Lugol 's iodine , but they are not metachromatic .
The four @-@ spored basidia typically measure 24 – 35 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00094 – 0 @.@ 00138 in ) in length by 7 – 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00028 – 0 @.@ 00035 in ) in width , but can be as much as 10 @.@ 5 μm wide . They are club @-@ shaped , but narrower in the middle . They are hyaline ( translucent ) and yellow to yellowish @-@ brown . The sterigmata are between 1 @.@ 6 and 7 μm long . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gill ) are typically 30 to 42 ( though sometimes as much as 50 ) μm long by 6 – 10 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00024 – 0 @.@ 00041 in ) wide . They are shaped like a flask or wine @-@ skin . The top of the cell suddenly widens , and the cell as a whole is thin @-@ walled , hyaline and yellowish , and sometimes appears to contain small grains . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) can be found in tufts at the top of the stem , and measure from 24 – 60 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00094 – 0 @.@ 00236 in ) by 3 – 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00012 – 0 @.@ 00035 in ) . They are cylindrical , or narrowly flask @-@ shaped , sometimes with a long neck . They are , again , yellow and hyaline .
The yellowish hyphae are between 15 and 13 @.@ 5 μm wide with a wall of variable thickness . There are clamp connections at the septa ( the walls dividing individual hypha cells ) . The flesh in the cap is radial , and is made up of yellowish hyphae of between 2 @.@ 4 and 20 μm wide . The pileipellis , the outermost layer of hyphae , forms a cutis , and on older specimens ( and on the small scales ) forms a trichoderm .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are five species similar in appearance to G. maritimus : G. arenophilus , G. decipiens , G. flavus , G. fulgens and G. pseudofulgens . G. arenophilus and particularly G. fulgens are the most similar . Though G. maritimus and G. arenophilus show similarities in their biogeography and ecology , the typically slightly smaller G. arenophilus differs from G. maritimus morphologically . While G. maritimus has a cap covered in fibrils with small scales , G. arenophilus can sometimes be completely smooth , and spore ornamentation differs , with G. maritimus typically displaying larger warts . Like G. maritimus , G. fulgens has been recorded growing on sand @-@ dune heathland ; further , the spores are similar in appearance to those of G. maritimus . However , G. fulgens requires soil rich in peat and must grow among moss . Moreover , there are a number of morphological differences ; G. maritimus mushrooms are larger and thicker , there are never remains of the partial veil on G. fulgens stems , the shape of the top of the spores differs between the two species , and the cheilocystidia and caulocystidia are significantly larger on G. maritimus . G. fulgens var. luteicystis is even more distinct from G. maritimus than the nominate variety . Despite the similarities between the three species , the three have been shown to be in different clades within Gymnopilus , suggesting ecological convergence between G. arenophilus and G. maritimus , and morphological convergence between G. fulgens and G. maritimus .
Gymnopilus flavus , despite also appearing on land near the Mediterranean , can be differentiated from G. maritimus as it lives among grass , especially Dactylis glomerata , and it has distinctly smaller spores , typically measuring 5 to 6 by 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 2 μm . G. pseudofulgens , also collected in Italy , shows two major morphological differences : it produces smaller mushrooms , and spores that are of a different shape with smaller warts . G. decipiens , another species that grows on sandy soil , again has spores that are markedly different . The American species G. arenicola also favours sandy soil , but has significantly smaller spores than G. maritimus . Two other species of Gymnopilus found around the Mediterranean are G. corsicus and G. spadiceus . G. corsicus has no veil remnants on the stem , and spores that do not turn red in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's iodine , and so can easily be differentiated from G. maritimus . G. spadiceus shows several similarities to G. maritimus , but grows only on pine wood and has rectangular spores .
Gymnopils maritimus is clearly a different species from other members of its clade , despite their close relation . All other species in the clade grow upon dead wood and have well @-@ developed rings on their stems . The spores also differ ; in the case of G. junonius and G. spectabilis ( often considered synonymous ) , as well as G. pampeanus , they are narrower , and in the case of G. imperialis , they are wider . Of the other members of the clade , only G. junonius and G. spectabilis also grow in Europe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Gymnopilus maritimus is known only from a single site in Pittulongu , an area of Olbia , in Sardinia , Italy , which is the type locality . There , mushrooms were found growing in close groups and tufts on coastal sand dunes around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) from the high tide line . They were observed at the base of live Juncus maritimus ( sea rush ) plants , growing on sandy soil or decaying plants , where they were feeding as saprotrophs . As such , it is possible that the species would be able to grow on other substrates . They were observed growing from autumn to winter , between the end of October and January . In addition to the collections in Sardinia , Contu and Vizzini speculate that reports of G. fulgens growing in " sand @-@ dune heaths " on Great Britain , an unusual habitat for that species , may in fact show the presence of G. maritimus on the island .
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= Brooks & Dunn =
Brooks & Dunn is an American country music duo consisting of Kix Brooks and Ronnie Dunn , both vocalists and songwriters . The duo was founded in 1990 through the suggestion of Tim DuBois . Before the foundation , both members were solo recording artists . Brooks wrote number one singles for John Conlee , Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and Highway 101 ; both he and Dunn also charted two solo singles a piece in the 1980s , with Brooks also releasing an album for Capitol Records in 1989 . However , they began hitting the charts together in 1991 .
Signed to Arista Nashville in 1991 , the duo has recorded ten studio albums , one Christmas album , and three compilation albums for the label . They also have released fifty singles , of which twenty went to number one on the Hot Country Songs charts and nineteen more reached top ten . Two of these number @-@ one songs , " My Maria " ( a cover of the B.W. Stevenson song ) and " Ain 't Nothing ' Bout You " , were the top country songs of 1996 and 2001 , respectively , according to the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . The latter is also the duo 's longest @-@ lasting number one , at six weeks . Several of their songs have also reached the Billboard Hot 100 , with the number 25 peaks of " Ain 't Nothing ' bout You " and " Red Dirt Road " being their highest there . Brooks & Dunn also won the Country Music Association Vocal Duo of the Year award every year between 1992 and 2006 , except for 2000 . Two of their songs won the Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal : " Hard Workin ' Man " in 1994 and " My Maria " in 1996 . All but two of the duo 's studio albums are certified platinum or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America ; their highest @-@ certified is their 1991 debut Brand New Man , which is certified sextuple @-@ platinum for shipments of six million copies .
The duo 's material is known for containing influences of honky @-@ tonk , mainstream country , and rock , as well as the contrast between Brooks ' and Dunn 's singing voices and on @-@ stage personalities , although some of their music has also been criticized as formulaic . Their 1992 single " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " helped re @-@ popularize line dancing in the United States , and 2001 's " Only in America " was used by both George W. Bush and Barack Obama in their respective presidential campaigns . Brooks & Dunn has collaborated with several artists , including Reba McEntire , Vince Gill , Sheryl Crow , Mac Powell , Billy Gibbons , and Jerry Jeff Walker among others . Brooks and Dunn was deemed country music 's most successful duo .
After announcing their retirement in August 2009 , they performed their final concert on September 2 , 2010 at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville , Tennessee . Both Brooks and Dunn have continued to record for Arista Nashville as solo artists . Dunn released a self @-@ titled album in 2011 , which included the Top 10 country hit " Bleed Red " , while Brooks released New to This Town in September 2012 . The duo reunited in 2015 for a series of concerts with McEntire in Las Vegas , Nevada .
= = History = =
= = = Kix Brooks = = =
Leon Eric " Kix " Brooks III was born May 12 , 1955 in Shreveport , Louisiana and before moving to Nashville in 1979 , he played at various venues in Maine . He was also a neighbor of country singer Johnny Horton . Brooks worked as a songwriter in the 1980s , co @-@ writing the number @-@ one singles " I 'm Only in It for the Love " by John Conlee , " Modern Day Romance " by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and " Who 's Lonely Now " by Highway 101 , plus The Oak Ridge Boys ' top 20 hit " You Made a Rock of a Rolling Stone " , Nicolette Larson 's " Let Me Be the First " , and Keith Palmer 's " Don 't Throw Me in the Briarpatch " . Brooks also released several singles through the independent Avion label , charting at number 73 on Hot Country Songs in 1983 with " Baby , When Your Heart Breaks Down " . In 1989 , he released a self @-@ titled studio album through Capitol Records . This album included " Baby , When Your Heart Breaks Down " and the number 87 single " Sacred Ground " , which McBride & the Ride covered and took to number two on the country charts in 1992 . Brooks and Pam Tillis co @-@ wrote and sang on " Tomorrow 's World " , a multi @-@ artist single released on Warner Bros. Records in 1990 in honor of Earth Day , which peaked at number 74 on the country charts . Brooks also produced and co @-@ wrote " Backbone Job " , a Keith Whitley outtake that appeared on his compilation Kentucky Bluebird .
= = = Ronnie Dunn = = =
Ronnie Gene Dunn was born June 1 , 1953 in Coleman , Texas . He played bass guitar in local bands during high school and he briefly studied theology at Hardin @-@ Simmons University with the intention of becoming a Baptist preacher . Dunn was " kicked out " of the school because he played in bars . Between 1983 and 1984 , he recorded for the Churchill label , taking both " It 's Written All Over Your Face " and " She Put the Sad in All His Songs " to number 59 on the country charts . In 1989 , session drummer Jamie Oldaker entered Dunn in a talent contest sponsored by Marlboro , which he won . The grand prize in the competition included a recording session in Nashville . The producer of that session , Scott Hendricks , recommended Dunn 's recordings to Tim DuBois , then an executive of Arista Nashville . DuBois paired Brooks and Dunn because he thought that they would work well together as songwriters , and after the two recorded a demo , he suggested that they form a duo . During this timespan , Dunn also wrote " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " , which Asleep at the Wheel recorded on their 1990 album Keepin ' Me Up Nights .
= = Musical career = =
= = = Brand New Man = = =
Brooks & Dunn 's first single , " Brand New Man " , entered the Hot Country Songs charts in June 1991 and went to number one . It was the title track to the duo 's debut album , Brand New Man , which was released two months later . Brooks and Dunn wrote this song and several other cuts in collaboration with songwriter Don Cook , who co @-@ produced the album with Hendricks . It was also Cook 's first credit as a producer . The next three single releases from Brand New Man ( " My Next Broken Heart " , " Neon Moon " , and their own rendition of " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " ) all made number one on the country music charts as well , making for the first time in country music history that a duo or group had sent its first four singles to the top of the charts . A fifth single , " Lost and Found " , peaked at number six . " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " , which had previously been the B @-@ side to " My Next Broken Heart " , also made number 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and its commercial success led to a renewed interest in line dancing throughout the United States . Brand New Man was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in August 1992 for shipments of one million copies ; by 2002 , the album had been certified sextuple @-@ platinum for shipments of six million . It spent more than 190 weeks on the Top Country Albums charts . In 1992 , the duo won the Duo of the Year Award from the Country Music Association ( CMA ) , which also nominated them for that year 's Album of the Year and Horizon awards . Brooks & Dunn won the association 's Duo award for every year from then until 2006 , except for 2000 when the award went to Montgomery Gentry . After the album 's release , Brooks & Dunn began touring as well .
Brand New Man received a positive review from Allmusic , whose critic Daniel Gioffre thought that the album showed the duo 's diversity of musical influences . Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly was less positive , criticizing the duo 's sound for being " imitative " .
= = = Hard Workin ' Man and Waitin ' on Sundown = = =
Hard Workin ' Man was the title of Brooks & Dunn 's second album , which was released in 1993 . The title track , also its first single , peaked at number 4 on the country music charts . The album included two number @-@ one singles in its third and fifth releases : " She Used to Be Mine " and its B @-@ side , " That Ain 't No Way to Go " . " We 'll Burn That Bridge " and " Rock My World ( Little Country Girl ) " ( respectively the second and fourth releases ) both made Top 5 on Billboard , with the former reaching number one on Radio & Records . Also included on the album was a remix of " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " . In 1994 , " Hard Workin ' Man " won the duo a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , and the album was nominated for Best Country Album . Hard Workin ' Man earned its highest RIAA certification in 2002 , when it was certified quintuple platinum . Brian Mansfield gave a generally positive review in Allmusic , saying that its up @-@ tempo songs " rocked harder " than any of the songs from the first album .
By the end of 1994 , the duo released their third studio album , Waitin ' on Sundown . It also produced five charting singles , three of which made number one on the country charts : " She 's Not the Cheatin ' Kind " , " Little Miss Honky Tonk " and " You 're Gonna Miss Me When I 'm Gone " . The other two singles , " I 'll Never Forgive My Heart " and " Whiskey Under the Bridge " , both made top ten . Allmusic critic Thom Owens thought that the album 's singles were " solid " but that the rest of the songs were " filler " . A review of the single " She 's Not the Cheatin ' Kind " from the same site praised it for its " hard @-@ driving , honky @-@ tonk spirit " . Nash praised the honky @-@ tonk sound of " I 'll Never Forgive My Heart " , but thought that most of the other songs relied on " contrivance " . Randy Lewis of the Orlando Sentinel gave a generally positive review , saying that the " minidrama " of " A Few Good Rides Away " ( which Brooks co @-@ wrote ) was the strongest track on the album .
= = = Borderline = = =
The first single from Brooks & Dunn 's fourth album , Borderline , was a cover version of B.W. Stevenson 's 1972 single " My Maria " . Brooks & Dunn 's version of the song spent three weeks at number one in mid @-@ 1996 and peaked at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was also that year 's top country song according to the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . Dunn said that he was initially reluctant to record " My Maria " because the duo had not previously recorded any cover songs . The song won Brooks & Dunn its second Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Group or Duo , and the duo won the 1996 Entertainer of the Year award from both the Country Music Association and Academy of Country Music , making them the first duo to win that award from the former . In 1997 , Brooks & Dunn joined a double @-@ headliner tour with Reba McEntire . Borderline produced another number one in " A Man This Lonely " , along with the top ten hits " I Am That Man " and " Why Would I Say Goodbye " . " Mama Don 't Get Dressed Up for Nothing " , the third single and B @-@ side to " My Maria " , became their first release not to make the top ten .
Michael McCall of Allmusic and Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly both thought that the album 's material was " cliché " and that " My Maria " was the strongest song on it . A more positive review came from Larry Stephens of Country Standard Time , who thought that the album had " the right mix " of songs .
= = = The Greatest Hits Collection and If You See Her = = =
Their first greatest hits compilation was released on September 16 , 1997 . It comprised most of their singles to that point and three new songs : " Honky Tonk Truth " , " He 's Got You " , and " Days of Thunder " . The first two were released as singles , with respective peaks of three and two on the country charts . The Greatest Hits Collection was certified platinum in April 1998 , and double @-@ platinum in 2001 .
Brooks & Dunn collaborated with Reba McEntire to perform " If You See Him / If You See Her " , which was the lead @-@ off single to Brooks & Dunn 's If You See Her and McEntire 's If You See Him , both of which were released on the same day . Arista Nashville and MCA Nashville , the label to which McEntire was signed , both promoted the single . This cut went to number one , as did If You See Her 's next two singles : " How Long Gone " and a cover of Roger Miller 's " Husbands and Wives " , which also became the duo 's first top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . Dunn recorded the vocals for " Husbands and Wives " in one take . Also included on the album was " Born and Raised in Black and White " , the first song of the duo 's career in which they alternated on lead vocals . The album 's fourth single was " I Can 't Get Over You " , which was a top five country hit . Following it was " South of Santa Fe " , which peaked at number 41 on the country charts and thus became the duo 's lowest @-@ peaking single there . In 2001 , If You See Her reached double @-@ platinum certification in the United States .
Jana Pendragon , in her review for Allmusic , praised Dunn 's vocal performances on " Husbands and Wives " and " You 're My Angel " , but thought that a couple of the other cuts were " formula " . Country Standard Time writer Kevin Oliver criticized the album for having " wildly uneven " material , calling the McEntire collaboration a " snoozer " and " South of Santa Fe " " wretched " .
= = = Tight Rope = = =
Tight Rope ( 1999 ) , the duo 's sixth album , was also its least commercially successful release . It included three singles : a cover of John Waite 's " Missing You " , followed by " Beer Thirty " and " You 'll Always Be Loved By Me " . The former two failed to make Top 10 , while the latter peaked at number 5 in 2000 . Dunn co @-@ wrote some songs on this album with McBride & the Ride lead singer and bassist Terry McBride ( who would later join Brooks & Dunn 's road band ) , and Brooks collaborated with Bob DiPiero . The duo shared production duties with Byron Gallimore on all three singles and four other songs on the album , while retaining Cook as producer on the other six . While " Beer Thirty " was climbing , the album cut " Goin ' Under Gettin ' Over You " charted as high as number 60 based on unsolicited airplay . Tight Rope was certified gold for U.S. shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies , but did not receive any higher certification .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave this album a mixed review , referring to the " Missing You " cover as a " misstep " . Jon Weisberger thought that the album was " consistent " but added that it did not have any " surprises " . Brooks revealed in 2015 that the album 's poor performance almost led to the duo splitting up , as he felt that “ We weren ’ t really writing together anymore , and we were just kind of done " , but they ultimately stayed together at the suggestion of Joe Galante , then the head of their label .
= = = Steers & Stripes = = =
In addition to persuading the duo to stay together , Galante suggested that they record the song " Ain 't Nothing ' Bout You " , because he felt it had potential as a hit . The song served as the lead single from their seventh album , 2001 's Steers & Stripes . It became their longest @-@ lasting number 1 , with a six @-@ week stay at that position . This song was the second song of the duo 's career to be named the top single of the year according to Billboard Year @-@ End ; it was also their highest peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at the time , peaking at number 25 there . For this album , the duo worked with producer Mark Wright , who also produced for Lee Ann Womack and Gary Allan at the time .
The next two singles from Steers & Stripes both made number 1 as well : " Only in America " and " The Long Goodbye " , the latter of which was written by Irish pop singers Ronan Keating and Paul Brady . After it , the duo charted at number 5 with " My Heart Is Lost to You " and number 12 with a cover of Kim Richey 's " Every River " , featuring a backing vocal from Richey . All of these other singles also made the pop charts . " Only in America " was later used by George W. Bush in his 2004 re @-@ election campaign , and again in 2008 by Barack Obama in his campaign . Noting that the song was used by both a Republican and a Democrat candidate , Brooks ( who wrote the song with Cook and Ronnie Rogers ) said that it was " very flattering to know our song crossed parties and potentially inspires all Americans . "
This album was generally well received , with the reviews in Allmusic and Country Standard Time noting that the album was more consistent than the previous ones . Nash was less favorable , referring to the up @-@ tempos as " retreads " but praising Dunn 's voice .
= = = It Won 't Be Christmas Without You and Red Dirt Road = = =
Brooks & Dunn released a Christmas album in 2002 titled It Won 't Be Christmas Without You . Four of its cuts made the country music charts based on seasonal airplay : the title track , " Hangin ' ' round the Mistletoe " , " Rockin ' Little Christmas " and a rendition of " Winter Wonderland " . It was followed in early 2003 by the duo 's eighth studio album , Red Dirt Road , whose title track became the duo 's eighteenth number one on Billboard . Two more singles were released from it : " You Can 't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl " , which spent five weeks in the number three position , and " That 's What She Gets for Loving Me " at number six . On the Hot 100 , these songs respectively peaked at 25 , 39 and 53 . As with Steers & Stripes , Red Dirt Road was certified platinum .
Erlewine described Red Dirt Road as a concept album in his review of it , saying that its title track and other songs offered a " tribute to their roots and upbringing . " Nash gave the album an A @-@ minus rating , saying that Brooks & Dunn " dig even deeper " on the album ; she also referred to the title track as a " gutsy account of the terrible beauty of coming of age . " A less favorable review came from Country Standard Time , whose critic Jeffrey B. Remz called it " satisfactory , but not much more . " Both Nash and Remz compared " You Can 't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl " to the sound of The Rolling Stones .
= = = The Greatest Hits Collection II and Hillbilly Deluxe = = =
Arista Nashville released Brooks & Dunn 's second Greatest Hits package , The Greatest Hits Collection II , in October 2004 . The album included singles from If You See Her , Steers & Stripes and Red Dirt Road , and the previously unreleased " That 's What It 's All About " and " It 's Getting Better All the Time " . Respectively , these cuts peaked at numbers two and one on the country music charts , as well as 38 and 56 on the Hot 100 .
In August 2005 , the duo released the single " Play Something Country " . According to Dunn and co @-@ writer Terry McBride , it was inspired by Gretchen Wilson , who was touring with Brooks & Dunn and Big & Rich on the Deuces Wild tour at the time . " Play Something Country " was the lead @-@ off to their ninth studio album , Hillbilly Deluxe . Brooks & Dunn co @-@ produced with Tony Brown , with further production from Mark Wright on " My Heart 's Not a Hotel " . A month after the album 's release , " Play Something Country " became the duo 's twentieth and final number one on Hot Country Songs , and went to number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album 's second single , " Believe " , peaked at number eight , also winning the next year 's Single of the Year and Song of the Year awards from the Country Music Association . After it was " Building Bridges " , with guest vocals from Vince Gill and Sheryl Crow , which peaked at number four . Before the duo released this song , it had been released by co @-@ writer Larry Willoughby , a cousin of country singer Rodney Crowell , and later by Nicolette Larson . The final release from Hillbilly Deluxe was the title track , which peaked at number sixteen on Hot Country Songs . Erlewine gave this album a positive review , saying that it was not " quite as ambitious " as the previous two albums , but " just as satisfying " .
Brooks & Dunn began the Long Haul tour in mid @-@ 2006 , which featured Sugarland and Jack Ingram as opening acts . Of this tour , Brooks said , " They 've got a lot of shows under their belt , they 're really good at what they do , and they are great performers [ … ] We want everything about this show from opening act ' til the lights go down to be first class . "
= = = Cowboy Town = = =
Their tenth studio album , Cowboy Town , was released on October 2 , 2007 . Its lead @-@ off single " Proud of the House We Built " reached number 4 on the country charts and 57 on the Hot 100 . Following this song were " God Must Be Busy " at number 11 and " Put a Girl in It " at number 3 . After this song , the duo released " Cowgirls Don 't Cry " , which they later performed with Reba McEntire at the Country Music Association awards . Following this performance , the song was re @-@ released partway through its chart run with McEntire dubbed into the final chorus . In early 2009 , the song peaked at number two on the country charts . Although not released as a single , the title track spent three weeks on the charts and peaked at number 56 . Also included on the album is a collaboration with Jerry Jeff Walker on " The Ballad of Jerry Jeff Walker " . Cowboy Town was also the name of the duo 's 2009 tour , which featured Rodney Atkins and ZZ Top . The tour began on June 6 at the BamaJam festival in Enterprise , Alabama .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that " Brooks & Dunn have crafted these songs [ … ] with an eye on the middle of the road , and they do it well enough that this music will likely win them that audience yet again . " Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly rated it " B + " , saying that " even if the themes on their 11th studio CD are a bit predictable , their muscular riffs and handsome vocal harmonies give the material a boot @-@ scooting vibrancy " .
= = = Retirement and solo careers = = =
On August 10 , 2009 , Brooks & Dunn announced that they would be splitting up after a tour titled The Last Rodeo . According to Brooks , the decision to split was on good terms ; he told CMT that he and Dunn are " still good friends " , while Dunn said that " We 've ended up more like brothers . " The duo released its final compilation , # 1s … and Then Some , on September 8 of the same year . The album features 28 past hits and two new songs . Both of these new songs , " Indian Summer " and " Honky Tonk Stomp " ( featuring guest vocals from Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top ) , peaked at number 16 on the country music charts . On May 23 , 2010 , CBS aired a tribute show presented by the Academy of Country Music titled The Last Rodeo , on which various country music stars performed Brooks & Dunn songs while the duo received a Milestone Award . The academy donated proceeds from the concert to help victims of the 2010 Tennessee floods . Brooks & Dunn performed their last concert together at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville on September 2 , 2010 , with proceeds from the concert benefiting the Country Music Hall of Fame .
Both members stayed with Arista Nashville as solo artists after the split . Dunn released his self @-@ titled solo album in June 2011 , which produced the top 40 country hits " Bleed Red " , " Cost of Livin ' " and " Let the Cowboy Rock " . Dunn announced via Facebook on June 7 , 2012 that he had exited Arista Nashville . Restaurant chain Cracker Barrel re @-@ issued the album in late May with two bonus tracks ; proceeds from the re @-@ issue benefit the Wounded Warrior Project . In late 2013 , Dunn sang duet vocals with Kelly Clarkson on a cover of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " from her Christmas album Wrapped in Red . Dunn 's second solo album , Peace , Love , & Country Music , was released in 2014 . In 2015 , he signed to Valory Music Group 's NASH Icon .
In February 2012 , Brooks released the solo single " New to This Town " , which features Joe Walsh on slide guitar . Brooks ' first Arista album , also titled New to This Town , was released in September 2012 .
On December 3 , 2014 , it was announced that Brooks & Dunn will reunite and perform a series of concerts in Las Vegas , Nevada with Reba McEntire during throughout mid @-@ late 2015 .
= = = Other works = = =
Brooks & Dunn have also contributed to several soundtracks and compilation albums . In 1994 , they recorded " Ride ' em High , Ride ' em Low " for the soundtrack to the 1994 film 8 Seconds , and a cover of " Corrine , Corrina " in collaboration with Asleep at the Wheel for a tribute album to Bob Wills . Both of these cuts peaked at number 73 on the country charts while " Rock My World " was climbing . In early September 1994 , the duo collaborated with Johnny Cash on a rendition of his song " Folsom Prison Blues " for the album Red Hot + Country , a charity album made by the Red Hot Organization to benefit AIDS awareness . Also that year , they covered " Best of My Love " on the Eagles tribute album Common Thread : The Songs of the Eagles . They covered Bob Seger 's " Against the Wind " for the soundtrack to the cartoon King of the Hill ; this rendition charted at number 55 in late 1999 based on unsolicited airplay . They also recorded " Keep On Swinging " , which Brooks wrote with Five for Fighting , for the soundtrack to the 2006 animated film Everyone 's Hero . Finally , they collaborated with Mac Powell on " Over the Next Hill " from the soundtrack to the 2008 film Billy : The Early Years , and took the song to number 55 on the country charts .
Dunn has sung guest vocals on other artists ' songs , including Lee Roy Parnell 's mid @-@ 1994 cover of the Hank Williams song " Take These Chains from My Heart " ( from Parnell 's album On the Road ) , " Try Me " on Trisha Yearwood 's 2005 album Jasper County , " Raise the Barn " on Keith Urban 's 2006 album Love , Pain & the Whole Crazy Thing , and Ashley Monroe 's 2006 single " I Don 't Want To " , which reached number 37 on the country charts . He also sang duet vocals with Carlene Carter on a cover of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash 's " Jackson " for the 2007 tribute album Anchored in Love : A Tribute to June Carter Cash . In 2011 , he covered Gary Stewart 's " She 's Actin ' Single ( I 'm Drinkin ' Doubles ) " for the soundtrack of the film Country Strong , and contributed duet vocals to Cledus T. Judd 's parody of " God Must Be Busy " , titled " Garth Must Be Busy " .
Dunn and Dean Dillon co @-@ wrote Shenandoah 's 1994 single " Darned If I Don 't ( Danged If I Do ) " and the track " She Wants Me to Stay " on David Kersh 's debut album Goodnight Sweetheart . He also co @-@ wrote " Don 't Leave " on Toby Keith 's 2003 album Shock 'n Y 'all with Keith , and Reba McEntire 's 2010 single " I Keep On Loving You " with Terry McBride . Brooks & Dunn co @-@ wrote " Steady as She Goes " on Wade Hayes ' debut album Old Enough to Know Better and " Our Time Is Coming " ( originally an album cut from Hard Workin ' Man ) on his second album On a Good Night , while Dunn co @-@ produced his 2001 album Highways & Heartaches .
In January 2006 , Brooks succeeded Bob Kingsley as the host of the radio countdown show American Country Countdown , while Kingsley moved to his own show , Bob Kingsley 's Country Top 40 . Brooks received an Academy of Country Music nomination for National On @-@ Air Radio Personality in 2010 , and again in 2011 . Later that same year , he made his acting debut in an independent film called Thriftstore Cowboy . In 2011 , he starred in a second film , The Last Ride .
= = Musical style = =
Steve Huey of Allmusic contrasts Brooks ' and Dunn 's voices , saying that Dunn " was the quietly intense singer with the soulful voice , while Kix Brooks played the part of the high @-@ energy showman . " He also describes their sound as " a winning formula of rambunctious , rocked @-@ up honky tonk with punchy , danceable beats [ alternated with ] smooth , pop @-@ tinged ballads . " In the book The New Generation of County Music Stars , David Dicaire describes Dunn as " possess [ ing ] a soulful voice with a quiet intensity " and a " traditional country singer " , while calling Brooks " the opposite to Dunn 's musical personality , " " a high @-@ energy showman " and " the perfect accompaniment to his partner " . Brooks sang lead on " Lost and Found " , " Rock My World " , " You 're Gonna Miss Me When I 'm Gone " , " Mama Don 't Get Dressed Up for Nothing " , " Why Would I Say Goodbye " , and " South of Santa Fe " .
= = Slim & Howdy = =
In the liner notes to each of their studio albums , Brooks & Dunn wrote short stories about Slim & Howdy , fictionalized cowboy versions of themselves . The duo worked with Bill Fitzhugh in late 2008 and wrote a book titled The Adventures of Slim and Howdy .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
1991 : Brand New Man
1993 : Hard Workin ' Man
1994 : Waitin ' on Sundown
1996 : Borderline
1998 : If You See Her
1999 : Tight Rope
2001 : Steers & Stripes
2003 : Red Dirt Road
2005 : Hillbilly Deluxe
2007 : Cowboy Town
= = = Compilation albums = = =
1997 : The Greatest Hits Collection
1999 : Super Hits
2004 : The Greatest Hits Collection II
2008 : Playlist : The Very Best of Brooks & Dunn
2009 : # 1 's ... and Then Some
= = = Holiday album = = =
2002 : It Won 't Be Christmas Without You
= = Awards = =
Brooks & Dunn has 17 Country Music Association awards , 26 Academy of Country Music awards and 2 Grammy Awards .
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= E language =
E ( simplified Chinese : 诶话 ; traditional Chinese : 誒話 ; pinyin : Ē Huà ) or Wuse / Wusehua ( simplified Chinese : 五色话 ; traditional Chinese : 五色話 ; pinyin : Wŭsè Huà ; literally : " Colored Language " ) is a Tai – Chinese mixed language spoken primarily in Rongshui Miao Autonomous County , Guangxi , China . It contains features of both Tai and Chinese varieties , generally adopting Chinese vocabulary into Tai grammar . E is a tonal language — distinguishing between seven tones — and contains a few rare phonemes : voiceless versions of the more common nasal consonants and alveolar lateral approximant .
= = Etymology = =
The E language 's unusual pinyin @-@ transliterated name , which is also an autonym , consists of a single letter e . The character , which is written " 诶 " in Simplified Chinese and " 誒 " in Traditional Chinese , denotes an expression of affirmation . The language 's speakers also refer to their language as Kjang E. Wusehua is a derogatory name for E.
= = Geographical distribution = =
In 1992 , E was spoken by about 30 @,@ 000 people , but by 2008 this number had dwindled to 9 @,@ 000 . Most E speakers are classified as Zhuang by the Chinese government . E speakers live primarily in the Guangxi autonomous region of China , specifically in the Rongshui Miao county and border areas of Luocheng Mulao . Villages inhabited by E speakers include Xiatan , Simo , Xinglong , and the Yonglei district . Ethnologue classifies E as rank 6b ( Threatened ) . E speakers ' most commonly spoken other languages are Yue Chinese and the Guiliu variant of Southwestern Mandarin .
= = Phonology = =
E 's consonant and vowel inventories are mostly similar to those of its parent languages . However , it contains a few unusual consonants : the voiceless nasal consonants [ n ̥ ] , [ ŋ ̥ ] , [ m ̥ ] , and the voiceless alveolar lateral approximant [ l ̥ ] . All are voiceless versions of consonants that , in most languages , are always voiced . E allows syllabic consonants and diphthongs .
Like most Southeast Asian languages , including Tai and the varieties of Chinese , E is tonal . The language is described as having seven tones , with the seventh varying allophonically with the length of the vowel it is attached to . With numbers ranging from 1 to 5 , with 1 being the lowest tone and 5 the highest , the contours of the various tones in E are as follows .
= = Grammar and lexicon = =
E is usually classified as a mixed language deriving ultimately from the Tai @-@ Kadai and Sino @-@ Tibetan families , which both inhabit southern China and Southeast Asia . Some non @-@ Chinese scholars , however , consider it a Tai @-@ Kadai language with Chinese influence . Whatever its classification , the grammar resembles that of the Tai branch of Tai @-@ Kadai . Specifically , scholars consider E 's grammatical features a blend of Northern Zhuang , Mulam , and Kam . The Caolan language of Vietnam displays many similarities with E.
The vocabulary , however , is mostly Chinese , based on Guiliu and the Tuguai variant of Pinghua . Out of the 2 @,@ 000 most commonly used E words , only about 200 are of Tai @-@ Kadai origin . E also inherits elements of these Chinese dialects ' phonology and compound word formation . E morphology is primarily analytic , with concepts such as negation expressed with auxiliary words ( pat6 , m2 ) and no pronominal agreement .
In its pronouns , E distinguishes for person between first , second , and third ; in number between singular and plural ; and , in the case of the second @-@ person plural , between inclusive and exclusive we . E does not , however , make distinctions for grammatical gender .
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= Barlow Road =
The Barlow Road ( at inception , Mount Hood Road ) is a historic road in what is now the U.S. state of Oregon . It was built in 1846 by Sam Barlow and Philip Foster , with authorization of the Provisional Legislature of Oregon , and served as the last overland segment of the Oregon Trail . Its construction allowed covered wagons to cross the Cascade Range and reach the Willamette Valley , which had previously been nearly impossible . Even so , it was by far the most harrowing 100 miles ( 160 km ) of the nearly 2 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) Oregon Trail .
Before the opening of the Barlow Road , pioneers traveling by land from the east followed the Oregon Trail to Wascopam Mission ( now The Dalles ) and floated down the Columbia River to Fort Vancouver , then a perilous and expensive journey . It was also possible to drive livestock over Lolo Pass on the north side of Mount Hood , but that trail was too rugged for vehicles and unsuitable for wagons .
The Barlow Road begins at The Dalles and heads south to Tygh Valley ( some consider Tygh Valley to be the beginning ) , then turns west and roughly parallels the White River on the north and then west , crosses the south shoulder of Mount Hood at Barlow Pass , follows Camp Creek and the Sandy River for some way , and finally leads to Oregon City . The road was rendered largely irrelevant in the early 1900s by the construction of the Mount Hood Highway . It still exists as a dirt road in some places , while many other parts have been paved over by new modern streets and highways .
= = Planning and construction = =
When Sam Barlow arrived at The Dalles late September 1845 , as many as sixty families were waiting for river transport . The expected wait was more than ten days , and the transportation " exorbitantly " priced . Local inquiries turned up little information about traveling over the mountains except that water , timber , and grazing were plentiful . Barlow and H. M. Knighton set out to determine the feasibility of a route , seeking a more expedient and less expensive way to the Willamette Valley . Knighton decided it was impractical after 20 or 25 miles ( 30 – 40 km ) and returned . Barlow forged on with a train of seven wagons , intending to return for river transport if the mountain passage proved impractical .
On October 1 , 1845 , Barlow and three men scouted ahead of their company and entered Mount Hood 's foothills from the east near Tygh Creek , about 35 miles ( 56 km ) from the mouth of the Deschutes River . They came within perhaps 12 miles ( 19 km ) of Mount Hood . They thought they had glimpsed the Willamette Valley , and learned from the Indians of a trail leading to Oregon City , but returned to Tygh Creek about five days after their departure . There Joel Palmer was waiting for him with a 23 wagon party . Palmer had followed Barlow for a better route , and had just returned from exploring the same area . The combined company organized road clearing through the forest , mostly by burning .
The clearing party made it to the top of a ridge , now known as Barlow Pass , where they were effectively lost . Barlow , Palmer , and a man named Lock hiked the south face of Mount Hood west of Palmer Glacier to scout a westward route off the mountain . Palmer , in better physical condition than his companions , climbed high on the glacier ( likely Zigzag Glacier ) , and took detailed notes on the surrounding ridges and rivers . They returned to the group , arranged for guards for their wagons at a place they named Fort Deposit . Several families in wagons ill @-@ suited for travel through the wilderness remained at Fort Deposit , while the remainder returned to The Dalles . Barlow 's group followed the Sandy River west on foot . Palmer noted an intersection with a trail coming from The Dalles by way of Lolo Pass , around the north side of Mount Hood , which had previously been the only overland trail traversed by pioneers . Near the present @-@ day city of Sandy , they turned southwest to reach Eagle Creek and Philip Foster 's farm near present @-@ day Clackamas .
That autumn , Barlow considered the route over the mountains and petitioned the Provisional Legislature of Oregon for permission to build a road on December 9 , 1845 , claiming that his estimated cost of $ 4000 was lower than that of others familiar with the route . Permission was granted with a vote of 8 @-@ 2 on December 17 , 1845 , approved by Speaker pro @-@ tem Henry A. G. Lee , and signed into law by Governor George Abernethy .
The road 's toll was authorized for two years effective January 1 , 1846 and specified toll rates at five dollars ( about a week 's wages ) for each wagon and ten cents for each head of horse , mule , ass , or horned cattle . The grant named the route " Mount Hood Road " — but it was immediately known as the " Barlow Road . "
The road was built with the financial backing of Philip Foster and a crew of forty men . Five toll gates were eventually built along the route . Barlow 's estimate of $ 4000 had underestimated the number of trees to be cut down and forgotten the numerous challenging bridges that would have to be built over rivers such as the Sandy , Zigzag , White , and Salmon . The White River continues to challenge its bridges to this day .
In its first season of operation , Barlow recorded the passage of 152 wagons , 1300 sheep , 1559 mules , horses , and cattle . Despite ongoing maintenance , the general condition of the road was considered to vary from " rough to barely passable . "
= = Early use = =
The direction of travel was effectively one @-@ way until 1861 , when a better road was blasted through Laurel Hill . Despite the expense and difficulties of passage , the road was very popular , with more than a thousand immigrants and 145 wagons recorded in the first year of operation . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the pioneers entering the Willamette Valley traveled the Barlow Road , with most of the remainder choosing the Columbia River route .
Barlow 's concession expired in 1848 , and he and Foster terminated their largely unprofitable partnership on November 29 , 1848 . Others continued to operate the toll road , but weather and mountain conditions made this a financial struggle . By 1863 , the toll had decreased to $ 2 @.@ 50 per wagon and team .
In 1849 , a military wagon train destined for Oregon forts passed over the road . It carried 250 tons of munitions in more than 400 wagons pulled by 1700 mules . From the beginning of Barlow Road to the camp the soldiers made at what has been known since as Government Camp , they abandoned 45 wagons after dozens of mules died of starvation .
= = Later use and historic designations = =
Various owners operated the road until 1882 . Ownership then passed to the Mount Hood & Barlow Road Company . E. Henry Wemme purchased that company in 1912 , and made improvements to the road . Wemme 's attorney , George W. Joseph , became the owner upon Wemme 's death in 1914 , in a probate dispute so contentious that it shaped the 1930 race for Governor of Oregon . Joseph and his wife donated the road to the people of Oregon in 1919 .
The 1923 Oregon Legislative Assembly designated the path from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean as the " Old Oregon Trail " route and approved signage with a prairie schooner and oxen for modern travelers to navigate . In 1978 , the entire Oregon Trail , including the Barlow Road , was named a National Historic Trail by the U.S. Congress . In 1992 , the Barlow Road was placed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district . In 2005 , part of it was incorporated into the Mount Hood Scenic Byway .
The Oregon Trail , Barlow Road Segment is a small segment of an alternate route , near Wemme , that was separately listed on the National Register in 1974 . Also Rock Corral on the Barlow Road , a campsite on the Barlow Road near Brightwood , was also separately NRHP @-@ listed in 1974 .
= = Today = =
On the western side of the Cascades , U.S. Route 26 follows more or less the same route from Sandy to Government Camp ; south of Government Camp , US 26 follows a valley just west of the Barlow Road 's route along Barlow Creek . The route is concurrent with a few miles of the southern end of Oregon Route 35 , and much of the Mount Hood Highway .
The Barlow Road is intact as a dirt road in a roughly north – south stretch along Barlow Creek ; other portions are pristine ruts up to six feet deep . The easternmost part of the original Barlow Road in Wasco County traverses an unpopulated area within Mount Hood National Forest and follows small Forest Service roads and " Jeep trails " , then Rock Creek Dam Road , and finally Wamic Market Road , north of the White River , from the Cascades to Tygh Valley . The areas east of Mount Hood National Forest have always been sparsely populated . Good rut viewing is possible at Pioneer Woman 's Grave near Bennett Pass and in several other places . Much of the Clackamas County side is buried under US 26 . Overall , about twenty percent of the road is still visible today .
A roadside marker and trail at Laurel Hill ( just west of Government Camp ) provides history and access to the portion where a sixty percent grade was present in the early Barlow Road . Wagons were lowered down the hill winched by ropes wrapped around trees .
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= Barbados at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Barbados sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The island nation made its tenth appearance as an independent nation upon its arrival in Beijing . Eight athletes across three sports and ten events represented Barbados , marking the smallest delegation in its history up to the Beijing Games . Its runners and swimmers advanced past the first rounds in their events in four of their nine events , although none advanced to their events ' final rounds or medaled . The nation 's flagbearer during the Beijing Games was swimmer Bradley Ally .
= = Background = =
Barbados is the easternmost of the islands located within the Caribbean Sea . Home to 280 @,@ 000 residents , Barbados was first settled by the British in the 1620s . The nation remained a British colony until it declared total independence from the United Kingdom in 1966 . The very first appearance of a uniquely Barbadian delegation at the Olympic games came two years after it declared independence from the United Kingdom . At its debut , nine male athletes arrived to participated at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City . Previously , Barbados ( as a British colony ) constituted a major part of the West Indies Federation along with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago , which sent a delegation to participate at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome .
Between its 1968 debut and its appearance at the Beijing Olympics , Barbadian delegations appeared at every Summer Olympics except for the 1980 Summer Olympics , which took place in Moscow in the Soviet Union . With the exceptions of the 1968 and the 2008 Barbadian teams , every appearance by Barbados at the Olympics ( as of Beijing ) included at least ten athletes ; its smallest delegation arrived in 2008 , carrying only eight competitors . All the delegations except the one that arrived in 1968 have included female athletes . Prior to and including the 2008 Beijing Olympics , there had been one medalist from Barbados . Obadele Thompson won a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Australia , as part of Barbados ' most successful showing at any Olympic games as of 2008 .
In Beijing , eight athletes participated across three sports ( swimming , track and field , and sailing ) in ten distinct events . Gregory Douglas , the nation 's only sailor in Beijing , was the youngest participant from Barbados at 18 years old ; runner Jade Bailey , the only female athlete in the delegation , was the oldest , at 25 years old . There were no medalists from Barbados at Beijing . Swimmer Bradley Ally bore the flag of Barbados at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
In track and field events , there were two ways to qualify for later rounds . The first way , " qualifying by right " , involves ranking high enough in one 's heat . Athletes could also " qualify by result " ; if they did not rank high enough in their heats but were high enough in the event 's overall standings , they could also advance .
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Andrew Hinds participated for the Barbadian team at the Beijing Olympics , participating in the men 's 100 meters dash . Born in 1984 , he is the son of former Olympian Hadley Hinds , and has been affiliated in training with the MVP Track and Field Club in Kingston , Jamaica . Hinds participated in the Beijing Olympics at age 24 , and had not previously participated in any Olympic games prior to that . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 14 , Hinds participated in the third heat . He completed the race in 10 @.@ 35 seconds , placing fifth out of the heat 's eight athletes . Indonesia 's Suryo Agung Wibowo ranked behind him in sixth place ( 10 @.@ 46 seconds ) , while Ghana 's Aziz Zakari ranked ahead of him in fourth place ( 10 @.@ 34 seconds ) . Trinidad and Tobago 's Richard Thompson ( 10 @.@ 24 seconds ) and France 's Martial Mbandjock ( 10 @.@ 26 seconds ) led the Barbadian sprinter 's heat. of the 80 athletes participating in the event , Hinds tied Colombia 's Daniel Grueso and the Netherlands Antilles ' Churandy Martina for 27th place . He advanced to the quarterfinal round .
During the quarterfinal round , which took place on August 15 , Hinds was placed in the second heat . Eight athletes participated in the heat , and Hinds placed fifth with a time of 10 @.@ 25 seconds . Brazil 's Jose Carlos Moreira ranked directly behind him ( 10 @.@ 32 seconds ) , while Nigeria 's Olusoji Fasuba ranked directly ahead of him ( 10 @.@ 21 seconds ) . Hinds ' heat was led by Richard Thompson again ( 9 @.@ 99 seconds ) and the United States ' Tyson Gay ( 10 @.@ 09 seconds ) . Of the 40 athletes who advanced to quarterfinals in the event , Hinds tied Russia 's Andrey Epishin for 24th place . He did not advance to later rounds .
Ryan Brathwaite is a hurdler who competed for Barbados at the Beijing Olympics . Born in 1988 in the Barbadian capital city of Bridgetown , Brathwaite attended Barton County Community College in rural central Kansas , competing in the school 's athletic programs . He competed in Beijing at age 20 in a single track event , the men 's 110 meters hurdles . Brathwaite had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the qualification round of his event , which took place on August 17 , Brathwaite participated in the third heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 13 @.@ 38 seconds , placing second in the event ahead of the Czech Republic 's Petr Svoboda ( 13 @.@ 43 seconds ) and behind Colombia 's Paulo Villar ( 13 @.@ 37 seconds ) . 43 athletes competed in the qualification round of the event , and 40 finished their races ; of those , Brathwaite ranked third . He advanced to the quarterfinal round .
Brathwaite participated in the third heat of the quarterfinal round in the men 's 110 meters hurdles , which took place on August 19 . His heat included eight athletes , although one was disqualified and did not rank . With a time of 13 @.@ 44 seconds , Brathwaite ranked second in the event behind Jamaica 's Maurice Wignall ( 13 @.@ 36 seconds ) and ahead of Villar , who led Brathwaite 's qualification heat ( 13 @.@ 46 seconds ) . The quarterfinal round included 32 advancing athletes , and 30 of those competitors finished their races . Of those , Brathwaite ranked tenth . He again advanced , this time to the semifinal round .
Semifinals in the hurdling event took place on August 20 . Brathwaite competed in the eight @-@ person second heat . Running the race in 13 @.@ 59 seconds , Brathwaite finished in seventh place , defeating France 's Samuel Coco @-@ Villoin ( 13 @.@ 65 seconds ) but falling behind Dutch sprinter Marcel van der Westen ( 13 @.@ 45 seconds ) . The heat was led by the United States ' David Oliver ( 13 @.@ 31 seconds ) and Poland 's Artur Noga ( 13 @.@ 34 seconds ) . Of the 16 semifinalists , Brathwaite ranked 12th . He did not advance to the final round .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Jade Latoya Bailey participated at the Beijing Olympics in track and field events on Barbados ' behalf . Born in 1983 , Bailey was 25 at the time she entered the Beijing Olympics . She had not previously competed in any Olympic games or events . One of the events in which she participated was the women 's 100 meters dash . During the qualification round of the event , which occurred on August 15 , Bailey was placed in the ninth heat against eight other athletes . She ranked second in the heat after finishing the race in 11 @.@ 46 seconds , displacing Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson ( 11 @.@ 48 seconds ) and falling behind Russia 's Evgeniya Polyakova ( 11 @.@ 24 seconds ) . Of the 85 athletes who competed in and finished this round of the event , Bailey tied Tahesia Harrigan of the British Virgin Islands for 25th place . She advanced to the quarterfinal round .
The quarterfinal round of the women 's 100 meters took place on August 16 . Bailey competed in the first heat , which included eight athletes . Of those , Bailey placed last in the heat after finishing the race in 11 @.@ 67 seconds . Nigeria 's Franca Idoko ranked ahead of her ( 11 @.@ 66 seconds ) , while Cameroon 's Myriam Leonie Mani ranked ahead of Idoko ( 11 @.@ 65 seconds ) . The heat was led by Jamaica 's Shelly @-@ Ann Fraser ( 11 @.@ 06 seconds ) and Polyakova , who led Bailey 's previous heat ( 11 @.@ 13 seconds ) . 40 athletes advanced to the quarterfinal round . Of those , the Barbadian sprinter tied Brazil 's Lucimar Moura for 37th place . She did not advance to semifinals .
Jade Bailey also competed in the women 's 200 meters race . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 18 , Bailey was placed in the fourth heat , which included eight athletes . She finished in seventh place after finishing with a time of 23 @.@ 62 seconds , defeating Myanmar 's Lai Lai Win ( 24 @.@ 37 seconds ) but falling behind Uzbekistan 's Guzel Khubbieva ( 23 @.@ 44 seconds ) . Bailey 's heat was led by Bahraini sprinter Roqaya Al Ghasara ( 22 @.@ 81 seconds ) and Great Britain 's Emily Freeman ( 22 @.@ 95 seconds ) . 48 people competed in the qualification round , and 46 of those athletes finished the races . Bailey tied Slovenia 's Sabina Veit for 34th place overall . She did not advance to later rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Sailing = =
Then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Canada @-@ raised Gregory Douglas participated in the Beijing Olympics on behalf of Barbados . He was the only Barbadian sailor to participate in the Beijing Olympics . Douglas competed in the one person dinghy event , where he was assessed using a score derived from his participation in nine distinct races . In the first race , Douglas ranked 41st place out of 43 ; in the second , 43rd out of 43 ; in the third , 43rd out of 43 ; in the fourth , 34th out of 43 ; in the fifth , 33rd out of 43 ; in the sixth , 30th out of 43 ; in the seventh , 40th out of 43 ; in the eighth , 37th out of 43 ; and in the ninth , 41st out of 43 . His total final score was 342 , and his net final score was 299 . Overall , Douglas ranked 43rd out of 43 , falling behind 42nd place finalist Adil Mohammad of the United Arab Emirates by 27 points , and behind gold medalist Paul Goodison of Great Britain by 236 points .
Men
M |
= Medal race ; EL =
Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; CAN = Race cancelled ;
= = Swimming = =
Qualifiers for the latter rounds of swimming events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .
Bradley Ally was the only Barbadian swimmer at the Beijing Olympics who competed in multiple events . Born in Barbados in 1986 , Ally was involved in the Pine Crest Swim Team in Fort Lauderdale , a city in southern Florida . His first appearance at the Olympics was the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , when he represented Barbados in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke ; the men 's 200 meters breaststroke ; the men 's 200 meters individual medley ; and the men 's 400 meters individual medley . He was 17 years old at the time . Ally returned to the Olympics as a 21 @-@ year @-@ old . One of the events to which he returned was the men 's 200 meters individual medley . During the course of the men 's 200 meters IM , Ally was placed in the fourth heat of the August 13 preliminary round . He competed against seven other athletes in this heat . Completing the event in 1 : 58 @.@ 57 , Ally placed third ahead of British swimmer Liam Tancock ( 1 : 59 @.@ 79 ) and behind Japan 's Ken Takakuwa ( 1 : 58 @.@ 51 ) . The heat itself was led by Hungary 's László Cseh ( 1 : 58 @.@ 29 ) . Of the 46 athletes who finished their races in this round , Ally ranked fifth . He advanced to the next round .
The event 's semifinal round took place later on August 13 . Ally was placed in the second heat , which included seven other athletes again . During this race , he finished with a time of 1 : 59 @.@ 53 , placing fourth in the heat . Great Britain 's James Goddard ranked ahead ( 1 : 59 @.@ 63 ) , while Japan 's Takuro Fujii ( 1 : 59 @.@ 59 ) ranked behind . The heat 's headers included American swimmer Ryan Lochte ( 1 : 57 @.@ 69 ) and Brazil 's Thiago Pereira ( 1 : 58 @.@ 06 ) . 16 swimmers competed in the semifinal round ; Ally ranked ninth , falling one position short of advancing to the final round .
Bradley Ally also returned to compete in the men 's 400 meters individual medley , an event in which he had participated while at the Athens Olympics in 2004 . He competed in the preliminary round on August 9 , when he was placed in the second heat against seven other athletes . Ally finished the event in 4 : 14 @.@ 01 , placing third ; Italy 's Allesio Boggiatto placed ahead ( 4 : 10 @.@ 68 ) , while Israel 's Gal Nevo placed behind ( 4 : 14 @.@ 03 ) . László Cseh of Hungary led the heat ( 4 : 09 @.@ 26 ) . 29 competitors participated in this round of the event . Ally placed tenth , and did not advance to the final round , which occurred later that day .
Andrei Cross participated for Barbados as a swimmer while the nation participated in the Beijing Olympics . Born on Barbados , Cross was affiliated with TeamBath , the sports organization of England 's University of Bath . He was 24 years old when he participated at the Beijing Olympics in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke event . He had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the course of the August 9 preliminary round , Cross was placed in the third heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 1 : 04 @.@ 57 , ending up in seventh place ; he defeated Uzbekistan 's Ivan Demyanenko ( 1 : 05 @.@ 14 ) , but fell behind Argentina 's Sergio Andres Ferreyra ( 1 : 03 @.@ 65 ) . The heat was led by Puerto Rican swimmer Daniel Velez ( 1 : 01 @.@ 80 ) and India 's Sandeep Sejwal ( 1 : 02 @.@ 19 ) . 65 athletes participated in the preliminary round , and 63 finished their races . Cross ranked 55th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Martyn Forde also swam on Barbados ' behalf at the Beijing Olympics . Born in Canada in 1985 , Forde was 23 years old when he made his appearance at the Beijing Olympics . He participated in the men 's 50 meters freestyle , which marked the first time he ever participated in an Olympic games . The preliminary round of his event took place on August 14 . Forde was placed in the seventh heat against seven other athletes . Finishing the race in 23 @.@ 08 seconds , the Barbadian swimmer placed sixth ahead of Josh Laban of the United States Virgin Islands ( 23 @.@ 28 seconds ) but behind Kazakhstan 's Stanislav Kuzmin ( 22 @.@ 91 seconds ) . The heat was led by Chile 's Oliver Elliot ( 22 @.@ 75 seconds ) and Romania 's Norbert Trandafir ( 22 @.@ 80 seconds ) . 97 athletes participated in the preliminary round of the event , with Forde ranking 51st . He did not advance to later rounds .
Terrence Haynes represented Barbados in the men 's 100 meters freestyle while at the Beijing Olympics . He was born in Canada in 1984 , and first participated on Barbados ' behalf as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old in the Athens Olympics of 2004 . During the 2004 Olympics , Haynes raced in the men 's 50 meters freestyle and ranked 56th in the preliminary round . He returned to the Olympics as a 23 @-@ year @-@ old . During the preliminary round of the men 's 100 meters freestyle , which took place on August 12 , Haynes competed in the third heat against six other athletes . He finished the race in 50 @.@ 50 seconds , placing third . Alexandr Sklyar of Kazakhstan placed behind him ( 51 @.@ 24 seconds ) , while Latvia 's Romans Miloslavskis placed ahead ( 50 @.@ 40 seconds ) . India 's Virdhawal Khade led the heat ( 50 @.@ 07 seconds ) . Of the 64 athletes who finished the preliminary round races , Haynes ranked 47th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Men
Legend : Q - Qualified
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= 500 euro note =
The five hundred euro note ( € 500 ) is the highest @-@ value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . It is one of the highest value circulating banknotes in the world , worth around 551 USD , 3 @,@ 677 CNY , 58 @,@ 254 JPY , 543 CHF or 417 GBP . The note is used in the 23 countries which have the euro as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) , with a population of about 338 million .
It is the largest note measuring 160 × 82 mm and has a purple colour scheme . The five hundred euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in modern architecture ( around the late 20th century ) .
The five hundred euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that make counterfeiting very difficult . Initially the high denomination notes were introduced very rapidly so that in first 7 years ( by Dec 2008 ) there were 530 @,@ 064 @,@ 413 five hundred euro banknotes in circulation . Subsequently rate of increase was radically slowed . In January 2016 there were 611 @,@ 833 @,@ 416 in circulation .
The European Central Bank announced on 4 May 2016 that it would phase out the 500 euro note by the end of 2018 . “ Authorities increasingly suspect that they ( € 500 notes ) are being used for illegal purposes , an argument that we can no longer ignore , ” according to a high @-@ ranking bank official , Benoît Cœuré .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Luxembourgish franc .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 , Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania joined on 1 January 2015 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union . Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . The European Central Bank is currently introducing a new series of Euro @-@ banknotes . The 500 euro denomination , however , will not be included in the new series as it was decided to phase out issuance of 500 euro banknotes .
= = Design = =
The five hundred euro note measures at 160 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) × 82 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) with a purple colour scheme . All bank notes depict bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style ; the five hundred euro note shows Modern architecture ( around the 20th century ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below .
= = = Security features = = =
The five hundred euro note is protected by :
Colour changing ink used on the numeral located on the back of the note , that appears to change colour from purple to brown , when the note is tilted .
A see through number printed in the top corner of the note , on both sides , appear to combine perfectly to form the value numeral when held against the light .
A glossy stripe , situated at the back of the note , showing the value numeral and the euro symbol .
A hologram , used on the note which appears to see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , it appears to be rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation ; the EURion constellation is a pattern of symbols found on a number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996 . It is added to help software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image .
Watermarks , which appear when held up to the light .
Raised printing in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes will be raised .
Ultraviolet ink ; the paper itself does not glow , fibres embedded in the paper do appear , and be coloured red , blue and green , the EU flag is green and has orange stars , the ECB President 's , currently Mario Draghi 's , signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting , on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . The micro @-@ text is sharp , but not blurred .
A security thread , embedded in the banknote paper . The thread will appear as a dark stripe when held up to the light . The word " EURO " and the value is embedded in tiny letters on the thread .
Perforations in the hologram which will form the euro symbol . There are also small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface ; the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = Crime = =
The value of the note is several times greater than many of the largest circulating notes of other major currencies , such as the United States 100 dollar bill . Thus a large monetary value can be concentrated into a small volume of notes . This facilitates crimes that deal in cash , including money laundering , drug dealing , and tax evasion . There have been calls to withdraw the note for this reason . However , some of the currencies the Euro replaced had widely used high @-@ value notes , including the 10 @,@ 000 Belgian francs ( € 247 @.@ 89 ) , 5 @,@ 000 Austrian schillings ( € 363 @.@ 36 ) , and 1 @,@ 000 Dutch guilders ( € 453 @.@ 78 ) , although these did not exceed the value of the € 500 note . Two exceptions were the 1 @,@ 000 Deutsche Marks , which had an equivalent value of € 511 @.@ 29 , and 500 Latvian lats , which had an equivalent value of € 711 @.@ 44 . But while these national currency banknotes had similar face value , the numbers of banknotes circulated was considerably smaller . For instance approx 93 million of the German 1000 DEM banknotes was circulating in the year 2000 , far fewer than the over five hundred million 500 Euro banknotes circulating in less than 7 years after the Euro banknotes were introduced .
In particular , Spain had a quarter of all these high @-@ value bills within its borders in 2006 . This concentration of € 500 notes is far greater than expected for an economy of Spain 's size , as prior to Euro conversion the largest banknote was 10 @,@ 000 Spanish peseta worth ~ € 60 . These notes are rarely seen in every @-@ day commerce – they have been nicknamed " Bin Ladens " by the populace ( as the presence and appearance of the notes are well @-@ known , but the notes themselves are very difficult to find ) . British and Spanish police are using the bills to track money laundering .
As of 20 April 2010 , money exchange offices in the United Kingdom stopped selling € 500 notes due to their use in money laundering . The Serious Organised Crime Agency claimed that " 90 % of all € 500 notes sold in the UK are in the hands of organised crime " , revealed during an eight @-@ month analysis . The € 500 note is worth in the region of £ 400 , depending on exchange rates ( more than eight times the value of the Bank of England 's largest publicly circulated note ) , and had become the currency choice for gangs to hide their profits .
In fact , historical banknotes of the UK had higher values than the € 500 note , even up to £ 1000 in civil hands circulation . In the case of other banknotes , such as dollars ( which generally have lower value notes ) , it doesn 't prevent money laundering , as in the case of Mexico City , where a cash total of $ 207 million was found . Also , nowadays bank accounts and modern money laundering schemes show that removing cash from the market does not guarantee stopping crime altogether .
The EU directive 2005 / 06 / EC on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purpose of money laundering and terrorist financing tries to prevent such crime by requiring banks , real estate agents and many more companies to investigate and report usage of cash in excess of € 15 @,@ 000 .
= = Circulation = =
As of December 2015 , there were approximately 613 @,@ 559 @,@ 542 € 500 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone , therefore it is the second @-@ least circulated banknote in the Eurozone . That is approximately € 306 @,@ 779 @,@ 771 @,@ 000 worth of € 500 banknotes . The European Central Bank closely monitors the stock and circulation of euro notes and coins . It is the Eurosystem ’ s task to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
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= Tropical Storm Bret ( 1981 ) =
Tropical Storm Bret made a rare landfall on the Delmarva Peninsula in June 1981 . The fifth tropical cyclone and second named storm of the season , Bret developed as a subtropical storm from a large area of frontal clouds near Bermuda on June 29 . Moving westward , the subtropical storm intensified while producing deep convection , and was consequently reclassified as a tropical storm early on June 30 . Around that time , Bret peaked with sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The storm then began weakening and struck near Oyster , Virginia as a minimal tropical storm early on July 1 . Upon moving inland , Bret weakened to a tropical depression and subsequently accelerated prior to dissipating over northern Virginia that same day .
In its early stages , Bret dropped light rainfall on Bermuda , peaking at 3 @.@ 34 inches ( 85 mm ) . Impact in the United States was generally minor . In Virginia , the storm produced up to 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) of rain in Big Meadows section of Shenandoah National Park . Along the coast , minor beach erosion occurred due to tides up to 0 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 27 m ) above normal . In western Pennsylvania , locally heavy rainfall flooded some streets and basements . Elsewhere , Bret dropped 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation to several states . One fatality was confirmed after a woman was killed by rip currents at Nags Head , North Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large band of frontal clouds became situated over the northwestern Atlantic Ocean on June 27 . By the following day , satellite imagery indicated that a low @-@ pressure area began developing northwest of Bermuda , along the northwest periphery of the frontal cloud band . Substantial amounts of deep convection eventually formed north and west of the low center . Thus , the system was designated as a subtropical storm at 1200 UTC on June 29 , while centered approximately 575 miles ( 925 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The system continued to gain convection and intensify while tracking westward toward the Mid @-@ Atlantic states at a forward speed of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Early on June 30 , a well @-@ defined atmospheric circulation became apparent on infrared satellite imagery . As a result , subtropical storm transitioned into Tropical Storm Bret later that day at 0600 UTC .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone early on June 30 , Bret attained maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . About six hours later , at 1200 UTC , the storm also attained its minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Around 2200 UTC on June 30 , a reconnaissance aircraft flight observed hurricane @-@ force winds , though Bret was not upgraded to a hurricane because the minimum barometric pressure was considered too high . About an hour later , the National Hurricane Center noted that Bret was moving westward toward Virginia at 20 mph ( 25 km / h ) and entering a region of colder sea surface temperatures , causing further intensification to become unlikely . Subsequently , the storm curved west @-@ northwestward and rapidly weakened . At 0500 UTC on July 1 , Bret made landfall near Oyster , Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula as a minimal tropical storm . About an hour later , the storm emerged into the Chesapeake Bay and weakened to a tropical depression . Later on July 1 , Bret moved inland over mainland Virginia and continued to weaken , until dissipating over the northern portion of the state .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In its early stages , the subtropical precursor of Bret tracked north of Bermuda and dropped light rainfall on the island , peaking at 3 @.@ 34 inches ( 85 mm ) .
While Bret was approaching the East Coast of the United States , various National Weather Service offices issued gale warnings . At 2000 UTC on June 30 , a gale @-@ force warning was issued for a portion of the North Carolina coastline extending from Cape Hatteras northward , including Albemarle and Pamlico sounds . Simultaneously , another gale warning was issued for areas along the Chesapeake Bay south of the Patuxent River in Maryland and on the east coast from Ocean City , Maryland to Virginia Beach , Virginia . Around 0300 UTC on July 1 , all gale warnings were discontinued in North Carolina , while the remaining warnings in Maryland and Virginia were canceled about five hours later . Additionally , a small craft advisory was also posted for the North Carolina and Virginia coastlines . Officials in North Carolina closed off beaches at Nags Head , Kitty Hawk , and Kill Devil Hills from swimmers due to rip currents and tides . After Bret dissipated , the small craft warning remained in effect and mariners were told to remain in port until the weather calmed .
In Virginia , Bret produced relatively light rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) in Big Meadows , a section of Shenandoah National Park . At the time of Bret 's landfall , portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states were experiencing a strong drought , though the amounts of precipitation were not enough for farmers in Virginia to save their crops . In Virginia Beach , local street flooding and a brief tornado were reported . Minor beach erosion occurred in the area due to tides reaching about 0 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 27 m ) above normal . One fatality was confirmed in North Carolina when a woman was killed after getting stuck in rip currents at Nags Head . Offshore , two boats lost contact with the Coast Guard during the approach to land , one of which washed up at Cape May , New Jersey and the other on the Virginia coast . The Coast Guard began cleanup of an oil spill at Nags Head caused by Bret off the coast . About 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the shoreline was filled with oil , little of which polluted the water . Most of the oil was thin and easily cleanup private contractor . Locally heavy rainfall in western Pennsylvania flooded streets and basements in some areas . The town of Brookville was inundated with up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of water . Elsewhere , Bret dropped 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation in several states . Overall , no considerable damage was reported .
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= Operation Ironside =
Operation Ironside was a Second World War military deception undertaken by the Allies in 1944 . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic deception plan instigated by the Allies throughout the year to help cover the June 1944 invasion of Normandy . Ironside supported the overall deception by suggesting to the Germans that the Allies would subsequently land along the Bay of Biscay . It complemented efforts to deceive the Germans into believing that the Allies would also land in southern France at this time ( Operation Vendetta ) . Bordeaux was an important military port during the war and had already been a target of commando raids two years earlier . Ironside intended to play on German fears of an invasion in the region , with the aim of tying down defensive forces following Operation Overlord in June 1944 .
Planned by the London Controlling Section , Ironside was communicated to the Germans via double agents between May and June 1944 . Unlike other Bodyguard deceptions , the plan was put across entirely by double agents without support by physical deception . Agent Bronx took the lead with support from Tate , Rudloff and Garbo . Ironside 's story included an initial two @-@ division assault , using Overlord formations , staged out of the United Kingdom . This would then be followed up with six divisions sailing from the East Coast of the United States . Historians disagree on the impact of Ironside on German plans . There is no indication that the operation was successful in convincing the Germans of imminent Allied plans to invade the Bay of Biscay . On the other hand , Allied planners attributed the delay of a Panzer division moving to Normandy in part to the deception .
As Ironside was a marginal operation , and they were worried about exposing agents as false , the Twenty Committee for the most part utilised less important agents and added words of caution to the messages they sent , reducing the impact of the story . Allied landings around Bordeaux may also have seemed implausible because it was beyond air cover from the UK and lacked the normal physical elements ( such as Naval activities and dummy landing craft ) associated with an invasion .
After the operation closed , at the end of June 1944 , the threat of invasion from the US was informally kept alive . It was revisited as Ironside II in mid @-@ July as support for Operation Ferdinand . The invasion story was replaced with a supposed Allied plan to increase French resistance in the Bordeaux region to tie up German forces . Most of Ironside II was ignored by the Germans , whose interest had turned away from the Bordeaux region .
= = Background = =
Operation Ironside formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic military deception intended to confuse the Axis high command as to Allied intentions during the lead @-@ up to the Normandy landings . The overall aim of Bodyguard was to tie down German forces away from Normandy by threatening other targets . Ironside 's specific objective was to tie up the 17th SS and 11th Panzer divisions deployed in the south of France .
Overall planning for Bodyguard and Ironside rested with John Bevan and the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) . The LCS had been set up in 1942 following successes in deception in the Middle East by Dudley Clarke . After initial attempts at deception planning the department was tasked with bringing Bodyguard to fruition . One of their most useful deception channels was through double agents . During the early stages of the war , the Abwehr ( German intelligence ) had sent spies to Britain , but all of them either surrendered or were captured . Some , along with other volunteers , were used as an extensive misinformation network under the control of the Twenty Committee .
Bordeaux was an important port for the German war effort , receiving a great deal of cargo , mostly raw materials , from overseas . The Gironde estuary and Bordeaux had already been a target for the Allies . Operation Frankton was a 1942 commando raid targeting important shipping in the port . In January 1944 , the Allies intercepted communications indicating that German commanders were concerned by the possibility of landings in the Bay of Biscay region of France . The next month , German naval and air units undertook anti @-@ invasion exercises in the area . Ironside was intended to amplify these concerns .
According to the storyline for Ironside , ten days following D @-@ Day , Allied forces would land in the Bordeaux region . This force would spend around twelve days establishing a bridgehead before advancing to meet formations supposedly part of an invasion of the Mediterranean coast of France ( in reality these were fictional landings as well , part of another Bodyguard deception called Operation Vendetta ) . The supposed target of Ironside was the Gironde estuary ( on the river Garrone ) with landing sites at Royan and Accord .
At first , Bevan suggested that the fictional invasion force should stage from the American East Coast . Newman Smith , based out of New York and responsible for the US elements of the deception , felt this was an unrealistic story and suggested a large force from the US might conceivably reinforce a bridgehead established by units from the UK . Formations intended for Normandy could be " re @-@ purposed " for the initial invasion . The final plan earmarked two Overlord divisions for the assault with the supposed reinforcements consisting of six real divisions ( the 26th , 94th , 95th , and 104th Infantry , and the 10th and 11th Armored ) under the notional command of Lieutenant General Lloyd Fredendall .
= = Operation = =
Ironside began on 23 May 1944 with the aim of having the threat established by 29 May and continued until 28 June ( 22 days after the Normandy landings ) . It was implemented via double agents , in Britain and the United States , under the control of the Twenty Committee . The operation did not receive any resources from the Allied navies or airforce , so the deception had no physical element . This meant that Ironside had none of the traditional accompaniments to an invasion , including reconnaissance flights , bombardment , and naval operations . As a result , the Twenty Committee was cautious about using important agents to pass over the deception .
The lead was given to the less important Agent Bronx , a Peruvian socialite named Elvira Chaudoir , who communicated with her German handlers via letter . From April 1944 , she had also begun sending codes as telegrams , which were faster than letters in the event of an imminent invasion . Her code was based on a financial theme , assigning different amounts of money to possible invasion sites . Mentioning her doctor ( almost certain ) or dentist ( certain ) showed Chaudoir 's confidence in the information . Asking for the money " straight away " , " urgently " or " quickly " identified when the invasion would take place ( within a week , a fortnight or a month , respectively ) .
Agent Tate ( a Dane sent to England in 1941 and turned double shortly after ) opened the operation , on 23 May , in a message to his German handlers stating that a friend from the US had identified an expeditionary force , consisting of six divisions , preparing to sail . On 29 May , Bronx sent a telegram identifying an invasion targeted at the Bordeaux region within a month , using the code " dentist " to say she was certain of the information . She also sent a follow @-@ up letter explaining that the information came from a drunken British officer in the Four Hundred Club who had later sworn her to secrecy . According to Bronx , the officer had boasted about an airborne assault in the Bordeaux region that would be in the papers the following morning . The next day he had told her the operation had been delayed by a month .
Although many messages were sent by agents , the Twenty Committee considered that Ironside was quite unrealistic and as a result was cautious about promoting it too heavily . Most of the information was sent with words of caution or uncertainty to ensure that the agent would not be compromised . One of the most critical Bodyguard agents , Garbo , did become involved on 5 June , but only in forwarding the message of a fictional sub @-@ agent who he had already identified as unreliable ( MI5 hoped that this would cover for , in their opinion , the implausible nature of the story ) . The agent 's report explained that a US division based in Liverpool was preparing to head to Bordeaux .
Messages were also sent from the US . Rudloff , an agent based in the New York , sent four reports between 2 and 20 June . He identified the six divisions under Fredendall being sidelined for specialist training in bridge building but not amphibious assault and under heavy security . A last @-@ minute deception involved an MI6 transmitter in France . Known to be under German control , when the operator asked about routes to send escaped prisoners of war the handlers replied that they should , from 15 June , be sent toward Bordeaux .
= = Impact = =
German intelligence documents indicate that there was never strong belief that the Allies were ready to land in the Bordeaux region . Intercepted situation reports suggested that the Germans believed rumours of landings in the area to be " cover operations of small caliber " and part of the cover for a main Allied thrust at Calais ( in itself a deception called Operation Fortitude South ) . Axis commanders had considered the idea and conducted exercises in preparation , and training continued in the region after D @-@ Day . Following the Normandy invasion , the Allies had expected both German divisions in the Bordeaux area to mobilise . In the end , only the 17th SS Panzer Division moved north , and even they were delayed by several days , whilst the 11th Panzer Division remained to guard the region .
Historians are divided over whether the deception played a major role in the German response . Most , such as historian Ben McIntyre , agree that Ironside added to the general picture of confusion for the German commanders . McIntyre quotes senior Allied figures , such as John Masterman ( chair of the Twenty committee ) and Hugh Astor ( MI5 ) , who attributed the delayed German response in part to Ironside . Michael Howard dismisses the impact of the operation saying that there is " no evidence that anyone took them seriously " .
Part of the problem was that Bordeaux may not have appeared a plausible Allied target because it was out of range of fighter aircraft cover from the United Kingdom . Historian Terry Crowdy 's analysis is that Ironside may have suffered simply from lack of resources . In common with other , higher @-@ impact , Bodyguard deceptions it preyed on a concern that the Allies knew Hitler and the German High Command had discussed . Crowdy suggests that with physical deception , and more effort , Ironside could have succeeded in the same way as deceptions aimed against Calais , Normandy and the Mediterranean .
= = Ironside II = =
John Bevan had asked Newman Smith to retain the threat of a US invasion force beyond 28 June when the initial deception was supposed to have ended . Agent Rudloff sent messages on 10 , 12 and 18 July referring to the Ironside force . In mid @-@ July , the Allies began Operation Ferdinand , a cover deception for Operation Dragoon , the August 1944 invasion of southern France . The Ironside story was considered as an option in support of Ferdinand , but Noel Wild and Ops ( B ) , the SHAEF deception planners were worried about the impact of a theoretical US invasion force on the continuing Fortitude deception . It was decided that a new story would be presented to the Germans , suggesting that the Allies intended to bolster French resistance in the south of the country . The operation went largely unnoticed and German interest in the Bordeaux region dissipated .
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= Cody Ross =
Cody Joseph Ross ( born December 23 , 1980 ) , nicknamed " Toy Cannon " and " Ross the Boss , " is a former American professional baseball outfielder . He is 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) tall and weighs 195 pounds ( 88 kg ) . Ross has played in MLB for the Detroit Tigers ( 2003 ) , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2005 – 2006 ) , Cincinnati Reds ( 2006 ) , Florida Marlins ( 2006 – 2010 ) , San Francisco Giants ( 2010 – 2011 ) , Boston Red Sox ( 2012 ) , Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2013 – 2014 ) and Oakland Athletics ( 2015 ) . He is one of the few Major League players to bat right @-@ handed but throw left @-@ handed .
Following high school , Ross embarked on his professional career , getting selected by the Detroit Tigers in the fourth round of the 1999 Major League Baseball draft . He reached the Major Leagues in 2003 , but suffered a torn ACL which caused him to miss most of September . He was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers following spring training in 2004 , appearing in a handful of games with them in 2005 . In 2006 , he played for the Los Angeles Dodgers , the Cincinnati Reds , and the Florida Marlins . It was in Florida that he finally established himself , as he played with the Marlins through 2010 . He was used mainly as a reserve outfielder in 2006 and 2007 , but during the 2008 season he took over a starting role . He would be a starting outfielder for the rest of his Marlins career , playing centerfield or right field . In 2009 , he hit a career @-@ high 24 home runs and won the Marlins ' Charlie Hough Good Guy award .
During the 2010 season , the Marlins placed Ross on waivers , and he was claimed by the San Francisco Giants . Named their starting right fielder for the 2010 playoffs , he went on to win the National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award , hitting five home runs in the postseason while helping the Giants win the 2010 World Series . He re @-@ signed with San Francisco in 2011 , batting .240 during the year . In 2012 , he signed a one @-@ year contract with the Boston Red Sox , hitting 22 home runs while playing every day despite the fact that the Red Sox originally expected him to be a reserve player for them . The Arizona Diamondbacks signed him to a three @-@ year contract in December 2012 , but a season @-@ ending hip injury limited Ross to 94 games his first year with the team .
= = Early life = =
Ross was born in Portales , New Mexico . Ross 's father was a chiropractor and professional bull rider ; and as a youth , Ross wanted to become a rodeo clown . He used to attend his father 's bull @-@ riding matches in clown outfits , complete with makeup . He did not give up on the aspiration until his family moved to Dallas , Texas . The Ross 's eventually moved back to New Mexico , and Ross played high school baseball at Carlsbad High School . Ross also played football until ninth grade . During high school , he was a Baseball America All @-@ American selection . As a senior , he threw a five @-@ inning perfect game . He graduated in 1999 .
= = Minor League career = =
Ross was drafted by the Detroit Tigers in the fourth round of the 1999 Major League Baseball draft . He began his minor league career that year with the rookie Gulf Coast League Tigers , batting .218 with 31 hits , eight doubles , three triples , four home runs , and 18 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 42 games . In 2000 , he played for the A West Michigan Whitecaps of the Midwest League , getting named the Midwest League Player of the Week from June 18 – 24 after he scored four runs , had two doubles and a triple , drove in six runs , and batted .636 . In 122 games , he batted .267 with 116 hits , 17 doubles , nine triples , seven home runs , 68 RBI , and 11 stolen bases . His nine triples were tied for second in the league . After the season , Baseball America said he had the best outfield arm in the Detroit system .
Ross played for the A @-@ advanced Lakeland Tigers of the Florida State League in 2001 . He was the league 's player of the week from June 18 – 24 after stealing four bases and batting .516 with 11 runs scored , three doubles , two home runs , and five RBI . Then , he was named Player of the Week from August 13 to 19 after batting .385 . In 127 games ( 10th in the league ) , Ross batted .276 with 84 runs scored ( fifth ) , 133 hits ( eighth ) , 34 doubles ( second to Matt Padgett 's 37 ) , five triples ( tied with eight other players for seventh ) , 15 home runs ( tied with Jason Jones for eighth ) , 80 RBI ( seventh ) , and 28 stolen bases ( tied with Josh McKinley for eighth ) . After the season , Baseball America ranked him the ninth best Tigers ' prospect and again said he had the best outfield arm in the organization .
In 2002 , Ross played for the AA Erie SeaWolves of the Eastern League , getting named to both the regular season and postseason All @-@ Star teams for the league . He was named the Tigers ' Minor League Player of the Month in June after hitting .336 with 29 runs , 10 doubles , two triples , eight home runs , 30 RBI , and 10 stolen bases ; he earned the same honor from Topps . A broken toe forced him out of action from July 1 through August 2 and limited him to 105 games . He finished the year with 112 hits , 28 doubles , three triples , 72 RBI , and 16 stolen bases . His 19 home runs were tied with Andy Phillips and Aaron McNeal for ninth in the league . After the season , he played for the Mesa Solar Sox of the Arizona Fall League . For the third year in a row , Baseball America said he had the best outfield arm in the Tigers ' system .
Ross began 2003 with the AAA Toledo Mud Hens of the International League . On July 4 , he was called up by the Tigers . He made his Major League debut that day , going hitless in two at bats before exiting after getting hit by a pitch in the sixth inning as the Tigers lost 9 – 8 to the Kansas City Royals . He got his first hit on July 9 , an RBI single against Bartolo Colón in a 4 – 2 victory over the Chicago White Sox . After he had one hit in four games , he was optioned back to Toledo on July 16 to make room for Danny Patterson , who was returning from the disabled list . From July 27 to 29 , and again from August 17 to 18 , Ross homered in three consecutive games for the Mud Hens . In 124 games for the Mud Hens , Ross batted .287 with 135 hits , 35 doubles ( tied for sixth in the International League with Andy Abad and Luis Rodríguez ) , six triples ( tied for fourth with Ross Gload and Coco Crisp ) , 20 home runs ( tied for third with Brandon Larson behind Fernando Seguignol 's 28 and Ernie Young 's 21 ) , 61 RBI , and 15 stolen bases . He was recalled to the big leagues in September when rosters expanded . On September 2 , he hit a grand slam off Cliff Lee for his first Major League home run in an 8 – 6 victory over the Cleveland Indians , becoming the first Tiger since Milt Cuyler in 1991 to hit a grand slam for his first home run . In that same game , he tore his ACL running to first base , which required season @-@ ending surgery . In six games with the Tigers , Ross had four hits in 19 at bats , including five RBI . Ross was named the Tigers ' Minor League Player of the Year , and he was named to Baseball America 's postseason All @-@ Star team . For the final time , he was rated as having the best outfield arm in the Detroit organization .
In 2004 , Ross was supposed to begin the season in the minors for Detroit . However , with Detroit desperate for bullpen help , Ross was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers on April 1 for relief pitcher Steve Colyer . He was assigned to the AAA Las Vegas 51s of the Pacific Coast League , where he was teammates with Jayson Werth and Shane Victorino , whom he went on to face in the 2010 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . Injuries marred Ross 's 2004 campaign ; a knee injury kept him out for two weeks early in the season , he missed time from May 26 to July 15 after smashing his hand in a car door and breaking his finger , and he broke his wrist on August 25 which ended his season . In 60 games , he batted .273 with 65 hits , 17 doubles , 14 home runs , and 49 RBI . Ross spent most of 2005 with Las Vegas . From July 26 to August 11 , he hit 10 home runs and had 25 RBI in 17 games . In 115 games , he batted .267 with 105 hits , 21 doubles , 22 home runs , and 63 RBI .
= = Major League career = =
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers / Cincinnati Reds = = =
On July 24 , 2005 , Ross was recalled by the Dodgers to give them another bat during interleague play . He appeared in 14 games , batting .160 with four hits ( one double , no home runs ) and one RBI before getting sent back down on July 14 in favor of Steve Schmoll . He was not called up in September .
Ross was out of options in 2006 and made the Dodgers Opening Day roster as a backup outfielder only because of an injury to Kenny Lofton . On April 13 , he hit a tie @-@ breaking grand slam and a three run home run in a 13 – 5 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . He batted .500 in eight games for the Dodgers before getting designated for assignment on April 17 to make room for Óscar Robles on the roster . A week later , he was traded to the Cincinnati Reds for cash or a player to be named later ( Ben Kozlowski ) .
Ross broke his finger in his debut with the Reds on April 29 and went on the disabled list . He returned to the Reds on May 23 and appeared in one more game before getting traded to the Florida Marlins on May 26 for cash considerations .
= = = Florida Marlins = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Upon joining the Marlins in 2006 , Ross was forced to shave his beard , in order to comply with the Marlins ' no facial hair policy . Manager Joe Girardi quipped , " Maybe he can put it on top of his head . " He was used as a backup outfielder but got many starts at all three outfield positions throughout the year , especially from June 10 through 30 , July 21 through August 8 , and September 11 through the end of the season . On September 11 , Ross hit a three @-@ run home run against David Williams and a pair of two @-@ run home runs against Heath Bell and Royce Ring in a 16 – 5 win over the New York Mets . His three home runs and seven RBI in the game tied Marlins records . Ross 's five home runs and 14 RBI in September were more than he had in any other month that season . In 91 games ( 250 at bats ) with the Marlins in 2006 , Ross batted .212 with 53 hits , 11 doubles , 11 home runs , and 37 RBI .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Again a reserve outfielder in 2007 , Ross batted .673 before going on the disabled list with a strained left hamstring on May 6 . He returned on July 19 and continued to be used in a variety of roles for the Marlins . For much of the year , he platooned with Alfredo Amézaga in centerfield . On April 20 , he hit his first career pinch @-@ hit home run against Chad Cordero to tie the Marlins with the Washington Nationals in the ninth inning ; however , the Marlins went on to lose 6 – 5 in 14 innings . Four days later , he homered and had five RBI against Mark Redman in an 11 – 6 loss to the Atlanta Braves . He had another pinch @-@ hit home run on August 23 against Brad Thompson in an 11 – 3 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . In 66 games ( 173 at bats ) , Ross hit .335 with 58 hits , 19 doubles , 12 home runs , and 39 RBI .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Ross began 2008 platooning with Amézaga again in center field , though Amézaga was eventually replaced by Jacque Jones as Ross 's centerfield partner . Ross played against left @-@ handed pitchers as Amézaga and Jones faced right @-@ handers . Ross struggled in April , batting .159 with no home runs and two RBI . After receiving a text message from his father at the beginning of May saying he would improve , Ross declared that he was restarting his season and had 10 home runs and 18 RBI in the month . During the month , Ross had a stretch where nine out of 10 hits were home runs , becoming the first player to have a streak of that sort since Mark McGwire in 2001 . On May 14 , he hit a game @-@ tying three @-@ run ninth inning home run against Francisco Cordero in a 10 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 loss to the Reds . Then , on June 7 he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in the bottom of the ninth inning against Cordero to give the Marlins an 8 – 7 victory over the Reds . Jones was designated for assignment on June 11 , putting Ross in sole control of centerfield . In a four @-@ game series with the Colorado Rockies from July 3 through 6 , Ross had 15 RBI , becoming the first player to have that many in a four @-@ game series since Carlton Fisk in 1977 . Fourteen of those RBI came from July 4 through 6 , the most in a three @-@ game span since Sammy Sosa had 16 in 2002 . In 145 games ( 461 at bats ) , Ross hit .260 with 120 hits , 29 doubles , 22 home runs , and 73 RBI .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
For the first time in his career in 2009 , Ross was a starting outfielder for the entire season . He began the year as the right fielder for the Marlins , who wanted prospect Cameron Maybin to play centerfield . On April 26 , he pitched a scoreless ninth inning for the Marlins to finish a 13 – 2 loss to the Philadelphia Phillies . After Maybin batted only .202 , Ross moved back to centerfield on May 10 when he was sent down . On June 12 , he hit his third grand slam of the season against Brandon League to give the Marlins a 7 – 3 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays . The grand slam tied Bobby Bonilla 's and Jeff Conine 's record for grand slams in a season by a Marlin . Dan Uggla and he hit back @-@ to @-@ back solo home runs against Kevin Gregg in the ninth inning on August 2 to give the Marlins a 3 – 2 victory over the Chicago Cubs . On August 16 , he set a team record by notching six hits in a doubleheader against the Rockies . Ross returned to right field on August 31 when Maybin was recalled . He set career @-@ highs in most categories in 2009 . In 151 games ( 559 at bats ) , he batted .270 with 151 hits , 37 doubles , 24 home runs , and 90 RBI . In the daytime , he batted .349 , the fourth @-@ highest mark in the NL . Following the season , he was named the Marlins Charlie Hough Good Guy award winner .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Ross began 2010 in right field , but he moved to centerfield when Maybin was sent down on June 17 . He had four hits on April 7 in a 10 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 victory over the Mets . On May 10 , he stole home as part of a double steal with Maybin in a 4 – 2 victory over the Cubs , marking the first time a Marlin had stolen home since Reggie Abercrombie did so in 2006 . Six days later , he again had four hits in a 10 – 8 victory over the Mets . In his first 120 games ( 452 at bats ) , Ross batted .265 with 120 hits , 24 doubles , 11 home runs , and 58 RBI . After the Marlins fell out of contention in 2010 and with Ross due for a pay raise the following year , the Marlins put him on waivers in August in order save money and give their young players more playing time .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
On August 21 , 2010 , Ross was awarded to the San Francisco Giants on a waiver claim , partly to prevent him from being acquired by the San Diego Padres . He appeared in 33 regular season games for the Giants , batting .288 with three home runs . In 153 games combined with Florida and San Francisco ( 525 at bats ) , he batted .269 with 141 hits , 28 doubles , 14 home runs , and 65 RBI . The Giants went on to overtake the Padres late in the season to win the NL West Division title .
Ross was named the Giants ' starting right fielder for the playoffs because of a neck injury to José Guillén , according to Bruce Bochy at the start of the postseason . However , it was later revealed that Guillén had been left off the roster after a package of human growth hormone was intercepted as it was being shipped to his house . In the ensuing NL Division Series ( NLDS ) against the Atlanta Braves , Ross started all four games in right field , hit a home run to tie the deciding fourth game , and drove in the winning runs in two of the Giants ' three wins . Ross hit two home runs off of Roy Halladay in Game 1 in the following NLCS against the Phillies , and hit a solo home run against Roy Oswalt in Game 2 . Following the Giants ' Game 6 win of the NLCS , Ross was awarded the MVP award for the series , in which he hit .350 with three home runs , three doubles and recorded five RBI . Three of his five postseason home runs broke up no @-@ hitters . His home run off the Braves ' Derek Lowe was the Giants ' first hit in Game 4 of the NLDS . His first home run off Halladay in Game 1 of the NLCS , in addition to being the first hit off Halladay in the game , was the first hit off Halladay in 11 innings , as Halladay had thrown a no @-@ hitter in his previous start . Finally , his home run off Oswalt in Game 2 of the NLCS was the Giants ' first hit of the game . In Game 3 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers , he hit the first home run for the Giants off Colby Lewis ; however , the Giants went on to lose 4 – 2 . He won his first World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .
In 2011 Ross re @-@ signed with the Giants on a one @-@ year contract worth $ 6 @.@ 3 million . Henry Schulman of the San Francisco Chronicle called it a " mild surprise " that Ross did not sign at least a two @-@ year deal . He began the season on the disabled list with a sprained right calf , but he assumed the Giants ' right field job upon his return on April 20 . On May 10 , Ross had a game @-@ ending single against David Hernandez in a 1 – 0 victory over the Diamondbacks . After May 10 , Ross began playing left field most of the time when Pat Burrell was moved to the bench . On May 18 , Ross hit a three @-@ run home run with two outs in the ninth inning against Lance Cormier to give the Giants an 8 – 5 victory over the Dodgers . From August through the end of the year , Ross began moving around between all three outfield positions , only once making four straight starts at the same position . He hit the 100th home run of his career against Alex White on September 16 in a 9 – 1 victory over Colorado . In the same game , Ross pulled his right hamstring , forcing him to miss the rest of the season . In 121 games ( 405 at bats ) , Ross hit .240 with 97 hits , 25 doubles , 14 home runs , and 52 RBI . He led the Giants with a career @-@ high 49 walks .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
On January 26 , 2012 , Ross finalized a one @-@ year contract with the Boston Red Sox . He was supposed to provide depth off the bench , but injuries , particularly to Carl Crawford , led to him holding a starting role for the entire season . He started almost every day for Boston in all three outfield positions , but mainly right field . On April 14 , Ross hit his first home run in a Red Sox uniform , a two @-@ run shot off the Tampa Bay Rays 's Dane De La Rosa in a 13 – 5 Red Sox victory . The next day , Ross hit a three @-@ run homer in the bottom of the second inning off Matt Moore in a 6 – 4 victory over the Rays . On May 18 , 2012 , Ross suffered a fractured foot after fouling a ball off his foot . He was placed on the disabled list and expected to miss from six to eight weeks .
On June 19 , Ross was activated from the disabled list . His first game back , he hit a home run against Mark Buehrle over the Green Monster at Fenway Park in a 7 – 5 victory over the Miami Marlins . Five days later , he hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 9 – 4 victory over the Braves . He hit two consecutive three @-@ run home runs against Pedro Hernández of the White Sox on July 18 in a 10 – 1 Red Sox victory . The next day , he hit a three @-@ run home run against Addison Reed for a walk @-@ off win against the White Sox . For the season , he had a .267 average , 127 hits , 34 doubles , 22 home runs , and 81 RBI in 130 games ( 476 at bats ) .
= = = Arizona Diamondbacks = = =
On December 22 , 2012 , Ross agreed to a three @-@ year contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks worth a reported $ 26 million , with a club option and a $ 1 million buyout . An injured left calf caused him to miss the beginning of the season ; he made his return April 13 . He began the 2013 season playing right field , but in May through the rest of the season he split time between right and left field . On June 19 , he hit a pinch @-@ hit three @-@ run home run against Mike Dunn in a 3 – 1 victory over the Marlins . He hit a three @-@ run home run against Matt Harvey to put the Diamondbacks ahead 3 – 2 on July 3 ; the Diamondbacks would wind up defeating the Mets 5 – 2 . Three days later , he set a career high with five hits and added three runs scored in an 11 – 1 victory over Colorado . On August 2 , he had four hits , two doubles , and three RBI , including a game @-@ winning solo home run against Pedro Beato in a 7 – 6 victory over Boston . On August 11 , Ross dislocated his right hip while running to first base . He was placed on the disabled list and missed the rest of the season . In 94 games ( 317 at bats ) in 2013 , Ross batted .278 with 88 hits , 17 doubles , eight home runs , and 38 RBI .
On April 4 , 2015 , Ross was released by the Diamondbacks .
= = = Oakland Athletics = = =
On April 8 , 2015 , Ross signed a one @-@ year deal with the Oakland Athletics for the league minimum salary of $ 507 @,@ 500 , with the Diamondbacks paying the remainder of his salary with them . He was released on May 3 , 2015 .
= = Legacy = =
Ross has been a streaky player throughout his career . He described this in 2006 : " I have gotten in grooves before , and you try to stay in it as long as you can until it ends . And it does end . I 've been notorious for that my whole career , where I 'll hit five or six in a week , where it seems like I can 't miss the pitch and I feel good in the batter 's box . " The most famous of these came in 2010 , when Ross 's torrid hitting in the playoffs helped San Francisco win the 2010 World Series .
During his career , Ross has earned a reputation for bringing energy to his teams and being a positive influence to his teammates . He has been a fan favorite in his career , especially in Florida and San Francisco , where he earned the nicknames " Toy Cannon " and " Ross the Boss " , respectively .
Ross bats right @-@ handed and throws left @-@ handed ; one of the rarest dominant bats / throws combinations in the history of Major League baseball . The only position player in the Baseball Hall of Fame with this combination of " bats / throws " is Rickey Henderson , who , like Ross , also had stints with the Dodgers and Red Sox .
= = Personal life = =
Ross and his wife , Summer , live most of the year in Scottsdale , Arizona , with their two children : Hudson and Haven Leigh . His father , Kenny , played strong safety at the University of New Mexico but became a chiropractor and bull rider after undergoing three knee surgeries in college . Ross has a sister , Sarah , who was a long @-@ jumper and basketball player growing up .
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= Keith Houchen =
Keith Morton Houchen ( born 25 July 1960 ) is a former English professional footballer and football manager . A forward , he scored 184 goals in 687 league and cup games .
He started his professional career at Hartlepool United in February 1978 , after failing to win a contract at Chesterfield . He was coached by Billy Horner to become a strong centre @-@ forward , using his natural strength and power to retain possession in attacking positions . Financial difficulties forced the club to sell him on to Leyton Orient for £ 25 @,@ 000 in March 1982 . After failing to impress in his two years in London , he was moved on to York City for £ 15 @,@ 000 in March 1984 . He played seven games in the club 's Fourth Division title winning season in 1983 – 84 , before transferring to Scunthorpe United for £ 40 @,@ 000 in March 1986 . He did not settle at the club , but in the summer he was fortunate enough to win a £ 60 @,@ 000 move up through three tiers to First Division side Coventry City .
Though never a prolific player for the " Sky Blues " , he scored a spectacular headed goal in the 1987 FA Cup Final at Wembley , which earned him Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season award . He featured in the 1987 FA Charity Shield , but faded from the first team picture at Highfield Road , and in March 1989 he joined Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian for a fee of £ 325 @,@ 000 . He returned to England in August 1991 when he was sold to Port Vale for £ 100 @,@ 000 . After falling out with manager John Rudge he returned to Hartlepool on a free transfer in June 1993 . He was appointed as player @-@ manager in April 1995 , but endured a tough time at Victoria Park , and left the club in November 1996 . He later coached at the Middlesbrough Academy and entered the property market .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Keith Morton Houchen was born in Middlesbrough to Ken and Vernie Houchen , who both worked in social clubs , and grew up some five minutes from Ayresome Park . He grew up with three brothers ; Jimmy , Dennis , and Patrick , who all joined the Coldstream Guards ; and one sister , Jackie . He attended St Mary 's College as a youth . A promising athlete and gifted footballer , as a youngster he travelled to London for a trial with Crystal Palace along with John and Terry Fenwick , but was told he was too lightweight at the time . After an unsuccessful trial with Aston Villa , he became an apprentice at Chesterfield in 1977 .
= = = Hartlepool United = = =
He was not offered a professional contract at Chesterfield by manager Arthur Cox and so left the club without making a senior appearance at Saltergate . However he was soon spotted playing amateur football in Nunthorpe by Hartlepool United manager Billy Horner . Houchen joined the " Monkey Hangers " on non @-@ contract terms , before turning professional in February 1978 , signing a one @-@ year contract on £ 30 a week . When he arrived at the Victoria Park , Hartlepool were a struggling Fourth Division club . He made his debut in a 1 – 1 home draw with Crewe Alexandra . Though grateful for the opportunity and training , Houchen lamented that " we used to have a mad rush to the bank to cash our cheques . Only about six of them would go through and the rest would bounce . " He scored his first senior goal against Barnsley on 24 March 1978 . He scored further goals against Darlington , Rochdale and Newport County to end the 1977 – 78 campaign with four goals in 13 games . He played regular first team football in 1978 – 79 , and scored 13 goals in 42 games to become the club 's top scorer . He then went on to score 14 goals in 44 games in 1979 – 80 , as the club finished 19th , just two points above the re @-@ election zone . His goalscoring record attracted the attention of bigger clubs , however club chairman Vince Barker told Reading that even if Houchen was available then they would not be able to afford him . His exploits continued into the following season , and the club rejected bids of up to £ 80 @,@ 000 from Plymouth Argyle and Cardiff City . He scored 17 goals in 48 appearances in 1980 – 81 , yet again becoming the club 's top scorer , as Hartlepool were in the promotion hunt until a late spell of bad form sent them down the table to ninth . He hit 19 goals in 38 games in 1981 – 82 to become the club 's top @-@ scorer for a fourth consecutive season . However , having scored 65 goals in 170 league appearances , Houchen wanted a move to a bigger club at a higher division ; he regularly handed in transfer requests , but all were ignored by the club .
= = = Leyton Orient = = =
Hartlepool United were in dire financial straits by March 1982 , and were £ 60 @,@ 000 in debt to the Inland Revenue . This crisis at the club allowed Leyton Orient manager Ken Knighton to take Houchen to Brisbane Road for a bargain price of £ 25 @,@ 000 . He signed a four @-@ year contract on £ 225 a week with a £ 1 @,@ 000 signing on fee . He scored one goal against Chelsea in 14 appearances , as the " O 's " finished in last place and were relegated out of the Second Division in 1982 . He missed the start of the 1982 – 83 campaign due to injury , but managed to hit ten goals in 38 games by the end of the season . His ten goals included one against Sheffield United on the last day of the season , in a win which kept Orient in the Third Division . He scored ten goals in 34 games in 1983 – 84 , but was not highly rated by new boss Frank Clark . For his part , Houchen said that Clark " would shout , and rant and rave , and tactically he wasn 't particularly brilliant . " He handed in a transfer request , which was accepted .
= = = York City = = =
On 22 March 1984 , York City manager Denis Smith signed Houchen for a £ 15 @,@ 000 fee , later saying that " anybody who could score sixty @-@ five goals playing for Hartlepool must have something " . He signed a two @-@ year contract on £ 225 a week . He scored on his debut against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground , despite missing a penalty ; he replaced Steve Senior in the second half , who had broken his leg . The " Minstermen " went on to win the Fourth Division championship by a 16 @-@ point margin , with Houchen featuring mostly as a substitute in the final seven games . With John Byrne and Keith Walwyn forming an effective striking partnership , Houchen played as an attacking midfielder . He hit a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 1 thrashing of Gillingham at Bootham Crescent , and also converted a penalty that he had won to knock Arsenal out of the FA Cup at the Fourth Round . He scored a total of 18 goals in 45 appearances in 1984 – 85 to become the club 's top scorer . However injuries helped to limit him to eight goals in 38 games in 1985 – 86 , and he decided to accept a move back down to the Fourth Division .
= = = Scunthorpe United = = =
He was sold on to Scunthorpe United for £ 40 @,@ 000 in March 1986 , signing a contract of £ 250 a week and receiving a car and an ex gratia payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 . Houchen later said that " it was the only time I ever gave up ... it wasn 't the right club because it wasn 't going anywhere ... I said to Yvonne , ' I 'm just going to take the money ' " . In doing so he rejected moves to Preston North End and Third Division Bury . He quickly regretted the move , and despite getting along well with manager Frank Barlow he found himself hating everything at the club , from the supporters to the Old Showground itself .
= = = Coventry City = = =
After 97 days with the " Iron " he moved on to Coventry City for a £ 60 @,@ 000 fee , after impressing in a reserve team game between the two clubs . The management team of George Curtis and John Sillett offered Houchen £ 350 a week , £ 50 an appearance , a £ 10 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee , as well the chance to play First Division football . He struggled with injuries at the start of the 1986 – 87 campaign , but recovered to ensure his name went down in the club 's history for his exploits in the FA Cup . He bagged five goals in their 1986 – 87 cup @-@ winning run , the first being the winning goal away at Old Trafford against Alex Ferguson 's Manchester United . He then scored two against Sheffield Wednesday in the quarter @-@ finals , and one against Leeds United in the semi @-@ finals , both games being held at Hillsborough . The final and most famous goal of the run came in the 1987 FA Cup Final in front of 98 @,@ 000 spectators at Wembley Stadium in a 3 – 2 win over Tottenham Hotspur . However Houchen almost missed the match after catching food poisoning from a trout caught by reserve goalkeeper Jake Findlay . The goal came from a Dave Bennett cross and was an instinctive full @-@ stretch diving header that was impossible for Ray Clemence to save . It levelled the score at 2 – 2 on 63 minutes , and an own goal from Gary Mabbutt in extra time won the game for Coventry . As well as his FA Cup winning medal , Houchen 's header also earned him the BBC Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season award for the 1986 – 87 season . This was due to the acrobatic effort involved and partly due to the incredible run he had made from deep midfield to meet the crossed ball . It is generally considered as one of the most famous goals scored at Wembley , and certainly the best headed goal .
" I never took my eyes off the ball . I ran looking over my shoulder , watching the ball on the turn , running , running , so if it came , that was where I went ... I couldn 't honestly say to you that I was consciously thinking that if the ball comes in I can dive and head it – it 's all instinct . I think all football is instinct and the only way I could get on the end of the ball was to throw myself . It all finishes up as perfect timing – the perfect ball , the perfect run – but in a lot of ways it 's a fluke . When it is all perfect timing , it is like a dance – it all comes together . I do remember actually heading it . I knew I was getting it , I knew I was going to get a good head on it , and you do think in the split second , ' Don 't head it wide , don 't head it over , don 't miss @-@ head it . ' ... I headed right past him [ Clemence ] , right in the corner . It was past him before he could move , so it was just the perfect header . "
Ironically , manager John Sillett spent much of the money from Coventry 's FA Cup run ( £ 750 @,@ 000 ) on Chelsea striker David Speedie , who would replace Houchen in front of goal . Sillett 's one consolation to Houchen was that he would play him in the 1987 FA Charity Shield , which ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Everton . The 1987 – 88 season was poor for both club and player , as illness , injury and competition from Speedie , Gary Bannister and Cyrille Regis restricted Houchen to just three goals and 24 appearances . On 14 August 1988 , he was selected by Graham Taylor to represent the Football League in a game against Scunthorpe United to celebrate the opening of Glanford Park ; Houchen scored once in a 6 – 1 victory . He scored just twice in sixteen appearances in 1988 – 89 , though one of these goals was the winner against Midlands rivals Aston Villa in a 2 – 1 Boxing Day victory at Highfield Road . He also featured as a substitute in the infamous 2 – 1 defeat to Conference club Sutton United at Gander Green Lane . The result was all the more remarkable considering that Coventry went on to finish seventh in the league and that Houchen was one of ten Coventry players that day who had won the FA Cup less than two years previously .
= = = Hibernian = = =
In March 1989 , he took a £ 325 @,@ 000 transfer to Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian , banking a £ 65 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee . He had come close to signing for Queens Park Rangers , but was not willing to move to London following his experience with Orient . He scored on his debut , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Edinburgh rivals Hearts at Tynecastle . A further goal against Aberdeen gave him two goals in eight games at the end of the 1988 – 89 campaign . He hit 12 goals in 39 games to become the club 's top scorer in 1989 – 90 , including two in wins over Rangers at Easter Road and Ibrox , and one in Europe against Hungarian side Videoton . " Hibs " exited the UEFA Cup at the Second Round following defeat to Belgian club R.F.C. de Liège . Already riled by a telling off from manager Alex Miller , Houchen had a run in with his own supporters following a defeat to Raith Rovers at Stark 's Park . Following this confrontation he was singled out for abuse at Easter Road . He made his last appearance for the club in a Scottish Cup game against St Johnstone , during which he was sent off for kicking Tommy Turner . Houchen later said that he liked Scotland but did not enjoy Scottish football , and was particularly critical of the standard of refereeing ; referees were unwilling to punish fouls from defenders but quick to brandish cards for attackers who reacted poorly to being kicked .
= = = Port Vale = = =
In August 1991 he returned to England with a £ 100 @,@ 000 move to Port Vale ; he was one of three new arrivals , along with Peter Swan ( who took him in as a lodger ) and Martin Foyle . He scored a brace against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 3 September , but tore his hamstring later in the month . He finished 1991 – 92 with five goals in 24 games , and went on to help the " Valiants " to win the TNT Tournament in the summer . The club finished bottom of the Second Division , though the introduction of the Premier League meant that they were demoted to the Third Division , which was immediately re @-@ branded as the Second Division . He scored six goals in 28 league games in 1992 – 93 , and did not feature in the League Trophy final or the play @-@ off final . He fell out with manager John Rudge and the two stopped speaking to each other , and Houchen later admitted that " I should have knocked on the door and said , ' This is stupid ' " .
= = = Return to Hartlepool = = =
He left Vale Park on a free transfer in June 1993 and turned down a move to Cyprus outfit AC Omonia to return to former club Hartlepool United . Injury meant he did not play for the man who signed him , Viv Busby , and instead he made his second debut for the club under John MacPhail . Houchen went on to score eight goals in 37 games as Hartlepool were relegated into the bottom tier of the Football League in 1993 – 94 , finishing a massive 17 points behind Blackpool , who were one point above the relegation zone . MacPhail was quickly sacked and replaced by David McCreery ; MacPhail blamed the fact that the club was sometimes unable to pay the player 's wages as a reason for poor results on the field . Houchen was a coach at the club , but quickly fell out with temporary ' advisory coach ' Sandy Clark . Houchen scored a hat @-@ trick against Bury , though was later sent off in the match for allegedly swearing at referee Kevin Lynch ; at the time of the incident Houchen was receiving treatment for knee ligament damage which would keep him out of action for six weeks . McCreery resigned on 20 April 1995 , and chairman Harold Hornsey appointed Houchen as his replacement ; he became the 23rd manager at the club in 38 years . He appointed his former boss Billy Horner as youth team coach and also employed Brian Honour and Mick Tait . His first game in charge was a 4 – 0 home win over Hereford United , and a 3 – 0 defeat at Preston North End and a final day 3 – 2 victory over Mansfield Town ensured Hartlepool an 18th @-@ place finish . As a player , he was the club 's top scorer with 14 goals in 39 appearances in 1994 – 95 , and was voted Player of the Year by the club 's supporters .
The 1995 – 96 season was to be his only full season as a manager . He scored six goals in 41 games , leading " Pools " to a 20th @-@ place finish on a budget of £ 260 @,@ 000 a year . His team were beaten 8 – 0 by Arsenal over two legs in the League Cup and – more worryingly – were beaten 8 – 0 by Crewe Alexandra in the Football League Trophy . He sold Nicky Southall to Grimsby Town for £ 40 @,@ 000 and spent the same amount on striker Joe Allon . He proved a disappointment , and both Allon and Houchen were sent off against Gillingham on 28 October . Houchen 's final career goal came in a 3 – 0 win over Bury on New Year 's Day .
He released goalkeeper Brian Horne , who he described as a " fat slob " ; this proved to be an unpopular move with " a lot of nasty people who support Hartlepool ... who purport to support this club [ but ] would rather back fat professional players than people who really care about Hartlepool United " . As his replacement he signed Stephen Pears from Liverpool , as well as young defenders Glen Davies and Chris McDonald , teenage winger David Clegg , Exeter City midfielder Mark Cooper , and Blackpool midfielder Chris Beech . Hartlepool started the 1996 – 97 campaign with wins over Colchester United and Fulham , but his playing career came to an end after the fifth game of the season , against Wigan Athletic , when he retired due to a persistent knee injury . He continued to bemoan referring decisions which seemed to consistently go against Hartlepool . This in turn led to continued punishments from the FA over his use of foul language towards officials . With his team on a poor run of results at the foot of the table , he left the club by mutual consent on 4 November 1996 . His assistant Mick Tait led the club to a 20th @-@ place finish , and organised a benefit match for Houchen against Middlesbrough , which raised £ 23 @,@ 000 .
" I had to walk away from all that nonsense . I didn 't deserve it . I 'd put too much into the club to be treated like that . I 'd put in so many hours . I 'd tried and tried to get it going . I thought , ' I just can 't stand it . ' ... The whole ground was singing ' Houchen Out ' . I was standing behind the dug @-@ out and thinking , ' I don 't need this ' ... I felt very , very let down by the supporters of Hartlepool United Football Club ... There are a lot of shit people following every club . They are everywhere , that type , with brains the size of a pea . I wouldn 't keep the players they wanted , players who were patently not good enough and were really , really bad professionals ... the majority of them [ supporters ] are nasty people . There are more of them at Hartlepool than elsewhere – without a shadow of doubt . "
= = Style of play = =
Houchen was a big 6 ft 1 in ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) centre @-@ forward who had strength and power . Early in his career he broke his ribs and backbone , but learned the tricks of the trade , such as interlinking arms with opposition players to prevent them from jumping . Billy Horner compared him with Malcolm Poskett , and stated the only quality missing in Houchen 's game was aggression . Horner and his coaching team of George Smith and Willie Maddren taught Houchen how to protect himself from the highly physical centre @-@ halves that dominated the division , and the youngster learned how to hold the ball up and bring other players into the attack .
= = Personal life and post @-@ retirement = =
He married wife Yvonne on 17 July 1982 ; the couple had two children : Cara and Ross ( born 19 April 1987 ) . They now live in Thirsk , North Yorkshire . After retiring as a player , Houchen spent his time coaching at schools and at the Middlesbrough Academy , collecting football statistics for the Press Association , and renting out properties .
He was a supporter of Margaret Thatcher . He appeared as one of the players selected for the new Wembley Stadium 's ' Walk of Fame ' prior to the venue 's first FA Cup final in May 2007 . A 256 @-@ page biography of his footballing career entitled A Tenner and a Box of Kippers , written by Jonathan Strange , was published in 2006 . After reading the book , Houchen admitted that his comments about Hartlepool United came across as " a bit harsh " .
= = Career statistics = =
Source :
= = Managerial statistics = =
= = Honours = =
York City
Football League Fourth Division champion : 1983 – 84
Coventry City
FA Cup winner : 1987
FA Charity Shield runner @-@ up : 1987
Port Vale
TNT Tournament winner : 1992
Individual
Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season Award : 1986 – 87
Hartlepool United F.C. Player of the Year : 1994 – 95
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= Bad Elk v. United States =
John Bad Elk v. United States , 177 U.S. 529 ( 1900 ) , was a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that an individual had the right to use force to resist an unlawful arrest and was entitled to a jury instruction to that effect . In 1889 , a tribal police officer , John Bad Elk , shot and killed another tribal police officer who was attempting to arrest Bad Elk without a warrant , on a misdemeanor charge , for a crime allegedly committed outside of the presence of the arresting officer . The Supreme Court reversed his conviction , noting that a person had the right to resist an unlawful arrest , and in the case of a death , murder may be reduced to manslaughter . The Supreme Court held the arrest to be unlawful due , in part , to the lack of a valid warrant . This case has been widely cited on the internet , but is no longer considered good law in a growing number of jurisdictions . Most states have , either by statute or by case law , removed the unlawful arrest defense for resisting arrest . The case also received negative treatment in 532 U.S. 318 ( 2001 ) holding that an arrest without a warrant , even for a misdemeanor , is lawful .
= = Background = =
= = = Common law history = = =
The English common law has long recognized the right of an individual to resist with reasonable force an attempt of a police officer to make an unlawful arrest . This offered a complete defense if nonlethal force was used , and would reduce a murder charge to manslaughter if a death ensued . In Hopkin Huggett 's case , English officials illegally seized a man to serve in the King 's army . Huggett and others observed this and fought to free the man . In the course of the fight one of the King 's men , John Barry , was killed and Huggett was put on trial for murder . The English court ruled that since the officer was making an unlawful arrest , the most that could be charged was manslaughter . In 1709 , in Queen v. Tooley , the English court again found that when resisting an unlawful arrest , the death of an individual would result in a manslaughter charge instead of a murder charge . When the United States separated from England , the common law was adopted by the new American courts and the right to resist unlawful arrest was clearly recognized .
= = = Death of John Kills Back = = =
On March 8 , 1899 , John Bad Elk fired several shots from his pistol from or near his home on the Pine Ridge Reservation . At the time Bad Elk was employed as a tribal police officer for the Oglala Lakota Sioux tribe . Captain Gleason , who was in charge of that part of the reservation , heard the shots and asked Bad Elk to stop by his office to discuss the matter , but Bad Elk did not show up . Gleason then ordered several other tribal police officers to arrest Bad Elk and to take him to the Pine Ridge Agency , about 25 miles away . Three officers contacted Bad Elk , who refused to go with them , telling them that he would go in the morning . The officers then tried to arrest Bad Elk , who shot and killed John Kills Back . Bad Elk claimed that Kills Back had reached for his pistol and that Bad Elk fired in self @-@ defense . Kills Back and the other officers did not have an arrest warrant , nor was the offense one that they could arrest for without a warrant .
= = = Trial = = =
In April 1899 at Sioux Falls , Bad Elk was tried in the United States Circuit Court for the District of South Dakota for murder . At trial , Bad Elk requested a jury instruction allowing the jury to consider that he had a right to resist an unlawful arrest . Instead , the court gave a jury instruction that stated that Bad Elk did not have the right to resist an arrest and that Bad Elk only had the right to resist if the arresting officers used excessive force in making the arrest . The jury convicted Bad Elk and sentenced him to death . His execution date was set at June 16 , 1899 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Rufus Wheeler Peckham delivered the opinion of a unanimous court . Peckham noted that the prosecution 's case and the defendant 's case varied in their presentation of the facts . First he noted that the prosecution did not show and the court could not find a legal basis for the arrest , that at most the firing of the pistol was a misdemeanor if it were a crime at all . An officer could arrest for a felony without a warrant , but to arrest for a misdemeanor , the crime had to have occurred in the officer 's presence . They ruled that the captain also did not have the authority to order the arrest . The court noted that at common law , an individual had a right to use reasonable force to resist an unlawful arrest . Peckham said that the requested jury instruction was therefore material and that it was error for the trial court not to allow it . The court stated :
At common law , if a party resisted arrest by an officer without warrant and who had no right to arrest him , and if in the course of that resistance the officer was killed , the offense of the party resisting arrest would be reduced from what would have been murder if the officer had had the right to arrest , to manslaughter . What would be murder if the officer had the right to arrest might be reduced to manslaughter by the very fact that he had no such right . So an officer , at common law , was not authorized to make an arrest without a warrant , for a mere misdemeanor not committed in his presence .
The decision of the lower court was reversed and the case remanded for either a new trial or dismissal .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Scholarly response = = =
The first response to the common law rule appeared in 1924 , when it was questioned in a law review note which advocated abrogating the rule . In 1942 , Harvard Law professor Sam Bass Warner , in his support of the Uniform Arrest Act , proposed that a citizen had a duty to submit to arrest , legal or not , if he reasonably believed that the arresting individual was a peace officer . Warner 's explanations and reasoning appear to have been " accepted without question by subsequent courts ... " In 1969 , during the height of the Civil Rights Movement , Paul Chevigny of the New York branch of the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) responded that an unlawful arrest was a trespass against the person and was not consistent with Warner 's explanations .
= = = Common and statutory law = = =
In the 1960s , courts began to limit the right to resist an unlawful arrest , apparently influenced by Warner and by the Model Penal Code , which had eliminated the right . In 1965 , the first court struck down the right in New Jersey .
Although a few states adopted the Uniform Arrest Act , a majority of the states did not . The Model Penal Code in 1962 eliminated the right to resist an unlawful arrest on two grounds . First , there were better alternative means of resolving the issue ; second , resistance would likely result in greater injury to the citizen without preventing the arrest . By 2012 , only fourteen states allowed a citizen to resist an unlawful arrest .
= = = Internet meme and myths = = =
The case has also been cited on various internet sites as giving citizens the authority to resist unlawful arrest . This claim is normally put forth in connection with a misquoted version of Plummer v. State . The most commonly quoted version is :
" Citizens may resist unlawful arrest to the point of taking an arresting officer 's life if necessary . ” Plummer v. State , 136 Ind . 306 [ sic ] . This premise was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case : John Bad Elk v. U.S. , 177 U.S. 529 . The Court stated : “ Where the officer is killed in the course of the disorder which naturally accompanies an attempted arrest that is resisted , the law looks with very different eyes upon the transaction , when the officer had the right to make the arrest , from what it does if the officer had no right . What may be murder in the first case might be nothing more than manslaughter in the other , or the facts might show that no offense had been committed . "
Modern sources citing Plummer and Bad Elk have tended to discuss the issue as defense against unlawful force ; under contemporary law in most jurisdictions , a person may not use force to resist an unlawful arrest . The Plummer quote has been noted to be a fabrication , not appearing in the text of the opinion .
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= Ctenophora =
Ctenophora ( / tᵻˈnɒfərə / ; singular ctenophore , / ˈtɛnəfɔːr / or / ˈtiːnəfɔːr / ; from the Greek κτείς kteis ' comb ' and φέρω pherō ' carry ' ; commonly known as comb jellies ) is a phylum of invertebrate animals that live in marine waters worldwide . Their most distinctive feature is the ‘ combs ’ – groups of cilia which they use for swimming – they are the largest animals that swim by means of cilia . Adults of various species range from a few millimeters to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in size . Like cnidarians , their bodies consist of a mass of jelly , with one layer of cells on the outside and another lining the internal cavity . In ctenophores , these layers are two cells deep , while those in cnidarians are only one cell deep . Some authors combined ctenophores and cnidarians in one phylum , Coelenterata , as both groups rely on water flow through the body cavity for both digestion and respiration . Increasing awareness of the differences persuaded more recent authors to classify them as separate phyla .
Ctenophores also resemble cnidarians in having a decentralized nerve net rather than a brain . Genomic studies have suggested that the neurons of Ctenophora , which differ in many ways from other animal neurons , evolved independently from those of the other animals .
Almost all ctenophores are predators , taking prey ranging from microscopic larvae and rotifers to the adults of small crustaceans ; the exceptions are juveniles of two species , which live as parasites on the salps on which adults of their species feed . In favorable circumstances , ctenophores can eat ten times their own weight in a day . Only 100 – 150 species have been validated , and possibly another 25 have not been fully described and named . The textbook examples are cydippids with egg @-@ shaped bodies and a pair of retractable tentacles fringed with tentilla ( " little tentacles " ) that are covered with colloblasts , sticky cells that capture prey . The phylum has a wide range of body forms , including the flattened , deep @-@ sea platyctenids , in which the adults of most species lack combs , and the coastal beroids , which lack tentacles and prey on other ctenophores by using huge mouths armed with groups of large , stiffened cilia that act as teeth . These variations enable different species to build huge populations in the same area , because they specialize in different types of prey , which they capture by as wide a range of methods as spiders use .
Most species are hermaphrodites — a single animal can produce both eggs and sperm , meaning it can fertilize its own egg , not needing a mate . Some are simultaneous hermaphrodites , which can produce both eggs and sperm at the same time . Others are sequential hermaphrodites , in which the eggs and sperm mature at different times . Fertilization is generally external , although platyctenids ' eggs are fertilized inside their parents ' bodies and kept there until they hatch . The young are generally planktonic and in most species look like miniature cydippids , gradually changing into their adult shapes as they grow . The exceptions are the beroids , whose young are miniature beroids with large mouths and no tentacles , and the platyctenids , whose young live as cydippid @-@ like plankton until they reach near @-@ adult size , but then sink to the bottom and rapidly metamorphose into the adult form . In at least some species , juveniles are capable of reproduction before reaching the adult size and shape . The combination of hermaphroditism and early reproduction enables small populations to grow at an explosive rate .
Ctenophores may be abundant during the summer months in some coastal locations , but in other places they are uncommon and difficult to find . In bays where they occur in very high numbers , predation by ctenophores may control the populations of small zooplanktonic organisms such as copepods , which might otherwise wipe out the phytoplankton ( planktonic plants ) , which are a vital part of marine food chains . One ctenophore , Mnemiopsis , has accidentally been introduced into the Black Sea , where it is blamed for causing fish stocks to collapse by eating both fish larvae and organisms that would otherwise have fed the fish . The situation was aggravated by other factors , such as over @-@ fishing and long @-@ term environmental changes that promoted the growth of the Mnemiopsis population . The later accidental introduction of Beroe helped to mitigate the problem , as Beroe preys on other ctenophores .
Despite their soft , gelatinous bodies , fossils thought to represent ctenophores , apparently with no tentacles but many more comb @-@ rows than modern forms , have been found in lagerstätten as far back as the early Cambrian , about 515 million years ago . The position of the ctenophores in the evolutionary family tree of animals has long been debated , and the majority view at present , based on molecular phylogenetics , is that cnidarians and bilaterians are more closely related to each other than either is to ctenophores . A recent molecular phylogenetics analysis concluded that the common ancestor of all modern ctenophores was cydippid @-@ like , and that all the modern groups appeared relatively recently , probably after the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago . Evidence accumulating since the 1980s indicates that the " cydippids " are not monophyletic , in other words do not include all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor , because all the other traditional ctenophore groups are descendants of various cydippids .
= = Distinguishing features = =
Ctenophores form an animal phylum that is more complex than sponges , about as complex as cnidarians ( jellyfish , sea anemones , etc . ) , and less complex than bilaterians ( which include almost all other animals ) . Unlike sponges , both ctenophores and cnidarians have : cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and carpet @-@ like basement membranes ; muscles ; nervous systems ; and some have sensory organs . Ctenophores are distinguished from all other animals by having colloblasts , which are sticky and adhere to prey , although a few ctenophore species lack them .
Like sponges and cnidarians , ctenophores have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly @-@ like material , which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians and ctenophores ; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly @-@ like layer . Hence ctenophores and cnidarians have traditionally been labelled diploblastic , along with sponges . Both ctenophores and cnidarians have a type of muscle that , in more complex animals , arises from the middle cell layer , and as a result some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic , while others still regard them as diploblastic .
Ranging from about 1 millimeter ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in size , ctenophores are the largest non @-@ colonial animals that use cilia ( " hairs " ) as their main method of locomotion . Most species have eight strips , called comb rows , that run the length of their bodies and bear comb @-@ like bands of cilia , called " ctenes , " stacked along the comb rows so that when the cilia beat , those of each comb touch the comb below . The name " ctenophora " means " comb @-@ bearing " , from the Greek κτείς ( stem @-@ form κτεν- ) meaning " comb " and the Greek suffix -φορος meaning " carrying " .
= = Description = =
For a phylum with relatively few species , ctenophores have a wide range of body plans . Coastal species need to be tough enough to withstand waves and swirling sediment particles , while some oceanic species are so fragile that it is very difficult to capture them intact for study . In addition oceanic species do not preserve well , and are known mainly from photographs and from observers ' notes . Hence most attention has until recently concentrated on three coastal genera – Pleurobrachia , Beroe and Mnemiopsis . At least two textbooks base their descriptions of ctenophores on the cydippid Pleurobrachia .
Since the body of many species is almost radially symmetrical , the main axis is oral to aboral ( from the mouth to the opposite end ) . However , since only two of the canals near the statocyst terminate in anal pores , ctenophores have no mirror @-@ symmetry , although many have rotational symmetry , in other words if the animal rotates in a half @-@ circle it looks the same as when it started .
= = = Common features = = =
= = = = Body layers = = = =
Like those of cnidarians , ( jellyfish , sea anemones , etc . ) , ctenophores ' bodies consist of a relatively thick , jelly @-@ like mesoglea sandwiched between two epithelia , layers of cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and by a fibrous basement membrane that they secrete . The epithelia of ctenophores have two layers of cells rather than one , and some of the cells in the upper layer have several cilia per cell .
The outer layer of the epidermis ( outer skin ) consists of : sensory cells ; cells that secrete mucus , which protects the body ; and interstitial cells , which can transform into other types of cell . In specialized parts of the body the outer layer also contains colloblasts , found along the surface of tentacles and used in capturing prey , or cells bearing multiple large cilia , for locomotion . The inner layer of the epidermis contains a nerve net , and myoepithelial cells that act as muscles .
The internal cavity forms : a mouth that can usually be closed by muscles ; a pharynx ( " throat " ) ; a wider area in the center that acts as a stomach ; and a system of internal canals . These branch through the mesoglea to the most active parts of the animal : the mouth and pharynx ; the roots of the tentacles , if present ; all along the underside of each comb row ; and four branches round the sensory complex at the far end from the mouth – two of these four branches terminate in anal pores . The inner surface of the cavity is lined with an epithelium , the gastrodermis . The mouth and pharynx have both cilia and well @-@ developed muscles . In other parts of the canal system , the gastrodermis is different on the sides nearest to and furthest from the organ that it supplies . The nearer side is composed of tall nutritive cells that store nutrients in vacuoles ( internal compartments ) , germ cells that produce eggs or sperm , and photocytes that produce bioluminescence . The side furthest from the organ is covered with ciliated cells that circulate water through the canals , punctuated by ciliary rosettes , pores that are surrounded by double whorls of cilia and connect to the mesoglea .
= = = = Feeding , excretion and respiration = = = =
When prey is swallowed , it is liquefied in the pharynx by enzymes and by muscular contractions of the pharynx . The resulting slurry is wafted through the canal system by the beating of the cilia , and digested by the nutritive cells . The ciliary rosettes in the canals may help to transport nutrients to muscles in the mesoglea . The anal pores may eject unwanted small particles , but most unwanted matter is regurgitated via the mouth .
Little is known about how ctenophores get rid of waste products produced by the cells . The ciliary rosettes in the gastrodermis may help to remove wastes from the mesoglea , and may also help to adjust the animal 's buoyancy by pumping water into or out of the mesoglea .
= = = = Locomotion = = = =
The outer surface bears usually eight comb rows , called swimming @-@ plates , which are used for swimming . The rows are oriented to run from near the mouth ( the " oral pole " ) to the opposite end ( the " aboral pole " ) , and are spaced more or less evenly around the body , although spacing patterns vary by species and in most species the comb rows extend only part of the distance from the aboral pole towards the mouth . The " combs " ( also called " ctenes " or " comb plates " ) run across each row , and each consists of thousands of unusually long cilia , up to 2 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) . Unlike conventional cilia and flagella , which has a filament structure arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern , these cilia are arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern , where the extra compact filament is suspected to have a supporting function . These normally beat so that the propulsion stroke is away from the mouth , although they can also reverse direction . Hence ctenophores usually swim in the direction in which the mouth is eating , unlike jellyfish . When trying to escape predators , one species can accelerate to six times its normal speed ; some other species reverse direction as part of their escape behavior , by reversing the power stroke of the comb plate cilia .
It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy , but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to water of different densities . Their body fluids are normally as concentrated as seawater . If they enter less dense brackish water , the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the mesoglea to increase its bulk and decrease its density , to avoid sinking . Conversely if they move from brackish to full @-@ strength seawater , the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density .
= = = = Nervous system and senses = = = =
Ctenophores have no brain or central nervous system , but instead have a nerve net ( rather like a cobweb ) that forms a ring round the mouth and is densest near structures such as the comb rows , pharynx , tentacles ( if present ) and the sensory complex furthest from the mouth .
The largest single sensory feature is the aboral organ ( at the opposite end from the mouth ) . Its main component is a statocyst , a balance sensor consisting of a statolith , a tiny grain of calcium carbonate , supported on four bundles of cilia , called " balancers " , that sense its orientation . The statocyst is protected by a transparent dome made of long , immobile cilia . A ctenophore does not automatically try to keep the statolith resting equally on all the balancers . Instead its response is determined by the animal 's " mood " , in other words the overall state of the nervous system . For example , if a ctenophore with trailing tentacles captures prey , it will often put some comb rows into reverse , spinning the mouth towards the prey .
= = = Cydippids = = =
Cydippid ctenophores have bodies that are more or less rounded , sometimes nearly spherical and other times more cylindrical or egg @-@ shaped ; the common coastal " sea gooseberry , " Pleurobrachia , sometimes has an egg @-@ shaped body with the mouth at the narrow end , although some individuals are more uniformly round . From opposite sides of the body extends a pair of long , slender tentacles , each housed in a sheath into which it can be withdrawn . Some species of cydippids have bodies that are flattened to various extents , so that they are wider in the plane of the tentacles .
The tentacles of cydippid ctenophores are typically fringed with tentilla ( " little tentacles " ) , although a few genera have simple tentacles without these sidebranches . The tentacles and tentilla are densely covered with microscopic colloblasts that capture prey by sticking to it . Colloblasts are specialized mushroom @-@ shaped cells in the outer layer of the epidermis , and have three main components : a domed head with vesicles ( chambers ) that contain adhesive ; a stalk that anchors the cell in the lower layer of the epidermis or in the mesoglea ; and a spiral thread that coils round the stalk and is attached to the head and to the root of the stalk . The function of the spiral thread is uncertain , but it may absorb stress when prey tries to escape , and thus prevent the collobast from being torn apart . In addition to colloblasts , members of the genus Haeckelia , which feed mainly on jellyfish , incorporate their victims ' stinging nematocytes into their own tentacles – some cnidaria @-@ eating nudibranchs similarly incorporate nematocytes into their bodies for defense . The tentilla of Euplokamis differ significantly from those of other cydippids : they contain striated muscle , a cell type otherwise unknown in the phylum Ctenophora ; and they are coiled when relaxed , while the tentilla of all other known ctenophores elongate when relaxed . Euplokamis ' tentilla have three types of movement that are used in capturing prey : they may flick out very quickly ( in 40 to 60 milliseconds ) ; they can wriggle , which may lure prey by behaving like small planktonic worms ; and they coil round prey . The unique flicking is an uncoiling movement powered by contraction of the striated muscle . The wriggling motion is produced by smooth muscles , but of a highly specialized type . Coiling around prey is accomplished largely by the return of the tentilla to their inactive state , but the coils may be tightened by smooth muscle .
There are eight rows of combs that run from near the mouth to the opposite end , and are spaced evenly round the body . The " combs " beat in a metachronal rhythm rather like that of a Mexican wave . From each balancer in the statocyst a ciliary groove runs out under the dome and then splits to connect with two adjacent comb rows , and in some species runs all the way along the comb rows . This forms a mechanical system for transmitting the beat rhythm from the combs to the balancers , via water disturbances created by the cilia .
= = = Lobates = = =
The Lobata have a pair of lobes , which are muscular , cuplike extensions of the body that project beyond the mouth . Their inconspicuous tentacles originate from the corners of the mouth , running in convoluted grooves and spreading out over the inner surface of the lobes ( rather than trailing far behind , as in the Cydippida ) . Between the lobes on either side of the mouth , many species of lobates have four auricles , gelatinous projections edged with cilia that produce water currents that help direct microscopic prey toward the mouth . This combination of structures enables lobates to feed continuously on suspended planktonic prey .
Lobates have eight comb @-@ rows , originating at the aboral pole and usually not extending beyond the body to the lobes ; in species with ( four ) auricles , the cilia edging the auricles are extensions of cilia in four of the comb rows . Most lobates are quite passive when moving through the water , using the cilia on their comb rows for propulsion , although Leucothea has long and active auricles whose movements also contribute to propulsion . Members of the lobate genera Bathocyroe and Ocyropsis can escape from danger by clapping their lobes , so that the jet of expelled water drives them backwards very quickly . Unlike cydippids , the movements of lobates ' combs are coordinated by nerves rather than by water disturbances created by the cilia , yet combs on the same row beat in the same Mexican wave style as the mechanically coordinated comb rows of cydippids and beroids . This may have enabled lobates to grow larger than cydippids and to have shapes that are less egg @-@ like .
An unusual species first described in 2000 , Lobatolampea tetragona , has been classified as a lobate , although the lobes are " primitive " and the body is medusa @-@ like when floating and disk @-@ like when resting on the sea @-@ bed .
= = = Beroids = = =
The Beroida , also known as Nuda , have no feeding appendages , but their large pharynx , just inside the large mouth and filling most of the saclike body , bears " macrocilia " at the oral end . These fused bundles of several thousand large cilia are able to " bite " off pieces of prey that are too large to swallow whole – almost always other ctenophores . In front of the field of macrocilia , on the mouth " lips " in some species of Beroe , is a pair of narrow strips of adhesive epithelial cells on the stomach wall that " zip " the mouth shut when the animal is not feeding , by forming intercellular connections with the opposite adhesive strip . This tight closure streamlines the front of the animal when it is pursuing prey .
= = = Other body forms = = =
The Ganeshida have a pair of small oral lobes and a pair of tentacles . The body is circular rather than oval in cross @-@ section , and the pharynx extends over the inner surfaces of the lobes .
The Thalassocalycida , only discovered in 1978 and known from only one species , are medusa @-@ like , with bodies that are shortened in the oral @-@ aboral direction , and short comb @-@ rows on the surface furthest from the mouth , originating from near the aboral pole . They capture prey by movements of the bell and possibly by using two short tentacles .
The Cestida ( " belt animals " ) are ribbon @-@ shaped planktonic animals , with the mouth and aboral organ aligned in the middle of opposite edges of the ribbon . There is a pair of comb @-@ rows along each aboral edge , and tentilla emerging from a groove all along the oral edge , which stream back across most of the wing @-@ like body surface . Cestids can swim by undulating their bodies as well as by the beating of their comb @-@ rows . There are two known species , with worldwide distribution in warm , and warm @-@ temperate waters : Cestum veneris ( " Venus ' girdle " ) is among the largest ctenophores – up to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long , and can undulate slowly or quite rapidly . Velamen parallelum , which is typically less than 20 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 66 ft ) long , can move much faster in what has been described as a " darting motion " .
Most Platyctenida have oval bodies that are flattened in the oral @-@ aboral direction , with a pair of tentilla @-@ bearing tentacles on the aboral surface . They cling to and creep on surfaces by everting the pharynx and using it as a muscular " foot " . All but one of the known platyctenid species lack comb @-@ rows . Platyctenids are usually cryptically colored , live on rocks , algae , or the body surfaces of other invertebrates , and are often revealed by their long tentacles with many sidebranches , seen streaming off the back of the ctenophore into the current .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Adults of most species can regenerate tissues that are damaged or removed , although only platyctenids reproduce by cloning , splitting off from the edges of their flat bodies fragments that develop into new individuals .
Almost all species are hermaphrodites , in other words they function as both males and females at the same time – except that in two species of the genus Ocryopsis individuals remain of the same single sex all their lives . The gonads are located in the parts of the internal canal network under the comb rows , and eggs and sperm are released via pores in the epidermis . Fertilization is external in most species , but platyctenids use internal fertilization and keep the eggs in brood chambers until they hatch . Self @-@ fertilization has occasionally been seen in species of the genus Mnemiopsis , and it is thought that most of the hermaphroditic species are self @-@ fertile .
Development of the fertilized eggs is direct , in other words there is no distinctive larval form , and juveniles of all groups generally resemble miniature cydippid adults . In the genus Beroe the juveniles , like the adults , lack tentacles and tentacle sheaths . In most species the juveniles gradually develop the body forms of their parents . In some groups , such as the flat , bottom @-@ dwelling platyctenids , the juveniles behave more like true larvae , as they live among the plankton and thus occupy a different ecological niche from their parents and attain the adult form by a more radical metamorphosis , after dropping to the sea @-@ floor .
At least in some species , juvenile ctenophores appear capable of producing small quantities of eggs and sperm while they are well below adult size , and adults produce eggs and sperm for as long as they have sufficient food . If they run short of food , they first stop producing eggs and sperm , and then shrink in size . When the food supply improves , they grow back to normal size and then resume reproduction . These features make ctenophores capable of increasing their populations very quickly .
= = = Colors and bioluminescence = = =
Most ctenophores that live near the surface are mostly colorless and almost transparent . However some deeper @-@ living species are strongly pigmented , for example the species known as " Tortugas red " ( see illustration here ) , which has not yet been formally described . Platyctenids generally live attached to other sea @-@ bottom organisms , and often have similar colors to these host organisms . The gut of the deep @-@ sea genus Bathocyroe is red , which hides the bioluminescence of copepods it has swallowed .
The comb rows of most planktonic ctenophores produce a rainbow effect , which is not caused by bioluminescence but by the scattering of light as the combs move . Most species are also bioluminescent , but the light is usually blue or green and can only be seen in darkness . However some significant groups , including all known platyctenids and the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia , are incapable of bioluminescence .
When some species , including Bathyctena chuni , Euplokamis stationis and Eurhamphaea vexilligera , are disturbed , they produce secretions ( ink ) that luminesce at much the same wavelengths as their bodies . Juveniles will luminesce more brightly in relation to their body size than adults , whose luminescence is diffused over their bodies . Detailed statistical investigation has not suggested the function of ctenophores ' bioluminescence nor produced any correlation between its exact color and any aspect of the animals ' environments , such as depth or whether they live in coastal or mid @-@ ocean waters .
In ctenophores , bioluminescence is caused by the activation of calcium @-@ activated proteins named photoproteins in cells called photocytes , which are often confined to the meridional canals that underlie the eight comb rows . In the genome of Mnemiopsis leidyi ten genes encode photoproteins . These genes are co @-@ expressed with opsin genes in the developing photocytes of Mnemiopsis leidyi , raising the possibility that light production and light detection may be working together in these animals .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Ctenophores are found in most marine environments : from polar waters to the tropics ; near coasts and in mid @-@ ocean ; from the surface waters to the ocean depths . The best @-@ understood are the genera Pleurobrachia , Beroe and Mnemiopsis , as these planktonic coastal forms are among the most likely to be collected near shore . No ctenophores have been found in fresh water .
= = = Prey and predators = = =
Almost all ctenophores are predators – there are no vegetarians and only one genus that is partly parasitic . If food is plentiful , they can eat 10 times their own weight per day . While Beroe preys mainly on other ctenophores , other surface @-@ water species prey on zooplankton ( planktonic animals ) ranging in size from the microscopic , including mollusc and fish larvae , to small adult crustaceans such as copepods , amphipods , and even krill . Members of the genus Haeckelia prey on jellyfish and incorporate their prey 's nematocysts ( stinging cells ) into their own tentacles instead of colloblasts . Ctenophores have been compared to spiders in their wide range of techniques from capturing prey – some hang motionless in the water using their tentacles as " webs " , some are ambush predators like Salticid jumping spiders , and some dangle a sticky droplet at the end of a fine thread , as bolas spiders do . This variety explains the wide range of body forms in a phylum with rather few species . The two @-@ tentacled " cydippid " Lampea feeds exclusively on salps , close relatives of sea @-@ squirts that form large chain @-@ like floating colonies , and juveniles of Lampea attach themselves like parasites to salps that are too large for them to swallow . Members of the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia and the lobate Bolinopsis often reach high population densities at the same place and time because they specialize in different types of prey : Pleurobrachia 's long tentacles mainly capture relatively strong swimmers such as adult copepods , while Bolinopsis generally feeds on smaller , weaker swimmers such as rotifers and mollusc and crustacean larvae .
Ctenophores used to be regarded as " dead ends " in marine food chains because it was thought their low ratio of organic matter to salt and water made them a poor diet for other animals . It is also often difficult to identify the remains of ctenophores in the guts of possible predators , although the combs sometimes remain intact long enough to provide a clue . Detailed investigation of chum salmon , Oncorhynchus keta , showed that these fish digest ctenophores 20 times as fast as an equal weight of shrimps , and that ctenophores can provide a good diet if there are enough of them around . Beroids prey mainly on other ctenophores . Some jellyfish and turtles eat large quantities of ctenophores , and jellyfish may temporarily wipe out ctenophore populations . Since ctenophores and jellyfish often have large seasonal variations in population , most fish that prey on them are generalists , and may have a greater effect on populations than the specialist jelly @-@ eaters . This is underlined by an observation of herbivorous fishes deliberately feeding on gelatinous zooplankton during blooms in the Red Sea . The larvae of some sea anemones are parasites on ctenophores , as are the larvae of some flatworms that parasitize fish when they reach adulthood .
= = = Ecological impacts = = =
Ctenophores may balance marine ecosystems by preventing an over @-@ abundance of copepods from eating all the phytoplankton ( planktonic plants ) , which are the dominant marine producers of organic matter from non @-@ organic ingredients .
On the other hand , in the late 1980s the Western Atlantic ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was accidentally introduced into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov via the ballast tanks of ships , and has been blamed for causing sharp drops in fish catches by eating both fish larvae and small crustaceans that would otherwise feed the adult fish . Mnemiopsis is well equipped to invade new territories ( although this was not predicted until after it so successfully colonized the Black Sea ) , as it can breed very rapidly and tolerate a wide range of water temperatures and salinities . The impact was increased by chronic overfishing , and by eutrophication that gave the entire ecosystem a short @-@ term boost , causing the Mnemiopsis population to increase even faster than normal – and above all by the absence of efficient predators on these introduced ctenophores . Mnemiopsis populations in those areas were eventually brought under control by the accidental introduction of the Mnemiopsis @-@ eating North American ctenophore Beroe ovata , and by a cooling of the local climate from 1991 to 1993 , which significantly slowed the animal 's metabolism . However the abundance of plankton in the area seems unlikely to be restored to pre @-@ Mnemiopsis levels .
In the late 1990s Mnemiopsis appeared in the Caspian Sea . Beroe ovata arrived shortly after , and is expected to reduce but not eliminate the impact of Mnemiopsis there . Mnemiopsis also reached the eastern Mediterranean in the late 1990s and now appears to be thriving in the North Sea and Baltic Sea .
= = Classification = =
The number of known living ctenophore species is uncertain , since many of those named and formally described have turned out to be identical to species known under other scientific names . Claudia Mills estimates that there about 100 to 150 valid species that are not duplicates , and that at least another 25 , mostly deep @-@ sea forms , have been recognized as distinct but not yet analyzed in enough detail to support a formal description and naming .
The traditional classification divides ctenophores into two classes , those with tentacles ( Tentaculata ) and those without ( Nuda ) . The Nuda contains only one order ( Beroida ) and family ( Beroidae ) , and two genera , Beroe ( several species ) and Neis ( one species ) .
The Tentaculata are divided into the following eight orders :
Cydippida , egg @-@ shaped animals with long tentacles
Lobata , with paired thick lobes
Platyctenida , flattened animals that live on or near the sea @-@ bed ; most lack combs as adults , and use their pharynges as suckers to attach themselves to surfaces
Ganeshida , with a pair of small lobes round the mouth , but an extended pharynx like that of platyctenids
Cambojiida
Cryptolobiferida
Thalassocalycida , with short tentacles and a jellyfish @-@ like " umbrella "
Cestida , ribbon @-@ shaped and the largest ctenophores
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Because of their soft , gelatinous bodies , ctenophores are extremely rare as fossils , and fossils that have been interpreted as ctenophores have been found only in lagerstätten , places where the environment was exceptionally suited to preservation of soft tissue . Until the mid @-@ 1990s only two specimens good enough for analysis were known , both members of the crown group , from the early Devonian ( Emsian ) period . Three additional putative species were then found in the Burgess Shale and other Canadian rocks of similar age , about 505 million years ago in the mid @-@ Cambrian period . All three apparently lacked tentacles but had between 24 and 80 comb rows , far more than the 8 typical of living species . They also appear to have had internal organ @-@ like structures unlike anything found in living ctenophores . One of the fossil species first reported in 1996 had a large mouth , apparently surrounded by a folded edge that may have been muscular . Evidence from China a year later suggests that such ctenophores were widespread in the Cambrian , but perhaps very different from modern species – for example one fossil 's comb @-@ rows were mounted on prominent vanes . The Ediacaran Eoandromeda could putatively represent a comb jelly .
The early Cambrian sessile frond @-@ like fossil Stromatoveris , from China 's Chengjiang lagerstätte and dated to about 515 million years ago , is very similar to Vendobionta of the preceding Ediacaran period . De @-@ Gan Shu , Simon Conway Morris et al. found on its branches what they considered rows of cilia , used for filter feeding . They suggested that Stromatoveris was an evolutionary " aunt " of ctenophores , and that ctenophores originated from sessile animals whose descendants became swimmers and changed the cilia from a feeding mechanism to a propulsion system .
520 million years old Cambrian fossils also from Chengjiang in China show a now wholly extinct class of ctenophore , named " Scleroctenophora , " that had a complex internal skeleton with long spines .
= = = Relationship to other animal phyla = = =
The relationship of ctenophores to the rest of Metazoa is very important to our understanding of the early evolution of animals and the origin of multicellularity . It has been the focus of debate for many years . Ctenophores have been purported to be the sister lineage to the Bilateria , sister to the Cnidaria , sister to Cnidaria , Placozoa and Bilateria , and sister to all other animal phyla . A series of studies that looked at the presence and absence of members of gene families and signalling pathways ( e.g. , homeoboxes , nuclear receptors , the Wnt signaling pathway , and sodium channels ) showed evidence congruent with the latter two scenarios , that ctenophores are either sister to Cnidaria , Placozoa and Bilateria or sister to all other animal phyla . Several more recent studies comparing complete sequenced genomes of ctenophores with other sequenced animal genomes have also supported ctenophores as the sister lineage to all other animals . This position would suggest that neural and muscle cell types were either lost in major animal lineages ( e.g. , Porifera ) or that they evolved independently in the ctenophore lineage . However , other researchers have argued that the placement of Ctenophora as sister to all other animals is a statistical anomaly caused by the high rate of evolution in ctenophore genomes , and that Porifera ( sponges ) is the earliest @-@ diverging animal phylum instead . Ctenophores and sponges are also the only known animal phyla that lack any true hox genes .
= = = Relationships within Ctenophora = = =
Since all modern ctenophores except the beroids have cydippid @-@ like larvae , it has widely been assumed that their last common ancestor also resembled cydippids , having an egg @-@ shaped body and a pair of retractable tentacles . Richard Harbison 's purely morphological analysis in 1985 concluded that the cydippids are not monophyletic , in other words do not contain all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor that was itself a cydippid . Instead he found that various cydippid families were more similar to members of other ctenophore orders than to other cydippids . He also suggested that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was either cydippid @-@ like or beroid @-@ like . A molecular phylogeny analysis in 2001 , using 26 species , including 4 recently discovered ones , confirmed that the cydippids are not monophyletic and concluded that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was cydippid @-@ like . It also found that the genetic differences between these species were very small – so small that the relationships between the Lobata , Cestida and Thalassocalycida remained uncertain . This suggests that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was relatively recent , and perhaps was lucky enough to survive the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 65 @.@ 5 million years ago while other lineages perished . When the analysis was broadened to include representatives of other phyla , it concluded that cnidarians are probably more closely related to bilaterians than either group is to ctenophores but that this diagnosis is uncertain .
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= K @-@ 140 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 140 is a state highway in Ellsworth and Saline Counties in the U.S. state of Kansas . The highway travels 33 @.@ 224 miles ( 53 @.@ 469 km ) through mostly rural land between the cities of Ellsworth and Salina . In addition to connecting Ellsworth and Salina , K @-@ 140 travels through the communities of Carneiro , Brookville , and Bavaria . The highway has junctions with Kansas state highways K @-@ 14 , K @-@ 156 , K @-@ 111 , and K @-@ 141 , as well as Interstate 135 . The route was originally established as U.S. Route 40 and was redesignated K @-@ 140 after US @-@ 40 was made concurrent with Interstate 70 . K @-@ 140 is not a part of the United States National Highway System , and the entire route is paved with composite pavement . The western part of the highway is less traveled than the eastern part , with annual average daily traffic between 590 and 940 west of Brookville and between 700 and 1200 east of Brookville .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 140 begins at a junction with K @-@ 14 north of Ellsworth . It heads 0 @.@ 495 miles ( 0 @.@ 797 km ) due east from here to meet K @-@ 156 . It then travels a farther 3 @.@ 519 miles ( 5 @.@ 663 km ) through mostly rural land to a junction with K @-@ 111 north of Kanopolis . After the junction with K @-@ 111 , K @-@ 140 continues through rural areas before it goes through the small unincorporated community of Carneiro . Just after passing through Carneiro K @-@ 140 turns more northerly , again passing through mostly rural areas . It then serves as the northern terminus of K @-@ 141 before continuing eastward into Saline County . K @-@ 140 travels a total of 16 @.@ 455 miles ( 26 @.@ 482 km ) in Ellsworth County .
Entering Saline County K @-@ 140 travels in a general east @-@ northeast direction through rural land for 3 @.@ 246 miles ( 5 @.@ 224 km ) until entering Brookville . After traveling one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) through the city of Brookville , K @-@ 140 travels east then northeast to the unincorporated community of Bavaria . From there , the highway continues northeast through rural lands to its eastern terminus at Interstate 135 , with the road continuing east into the city of Salina as State Street . K @-@ 140 travels a total of 16 @.@ 769 miles ( 26 @.@ 987 km ) in Saline County . The total route length for K @-@ 140 is 33 @.@ 224 miles ( 53 @.@ 469 km ) .
The entire route is paved with composite pavement ( concrete which has been overlaid with asphaltic pavement ) . K @-@ 140 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The route connects to the National Highway System at its junctions with K @-@ 156 and Interstate 135 . From the eastern city limits of Ellsworth to the end of the first 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the route , K @-@ 140 has an annual average daily traffic of 781 . Between miles 1 and 5 ( kilometers 1 @.@ 6 and 8 @.@ 0 ) , the annual average daily traffic ranges from a low of 730 to a high of 745 . From mile 5 ( kilometer 8 @.@ 0 ) to mile 14 ( kilometer 23 ) the annual average daily traffic drops to between 590 and 650 . The amount of traffic then starts to rise as the highway crosses into Saline County , with annual average daily traffic ranging between 815 and 940 from mile 14 ( kilometer 23 ) to the western city limits of Brookville . From Brookville to mile 30 @.@ 445 ( kilometer 48 @.@ 996 ) the annual average daily traffic is higher , with a range between 1131 and 1200 . From there to the eastern terminus at Interstate 135 traffic levels vary widely , with annual average daily traffic ranging from 700 to 1193 .
= = History = =
K @-@ 140 's route was established in 1925 as U.S. Route 40S . By 1936 , the route had become the primary route of US @-@ 40 , with the old US @-@ 40N becoming U.S. Route 24 . By 1969 , after the majority of Interstate 70 had been completed , US @-@ 40 was rerouted to be concurrent with the newly constructed highway , and the old route of US @-@ 40 between Ellsworth and Salina was resigned as K @-@ 140 . The routing of K @-@ 140 has remained unchanged since . The K @-@ 140 route has been a paved road since at least 1932 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Ianto Jones =
Ianto Jones is a fictional character in the BBC television series Torchwood , played by Welsh actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . A series regular , Ianto appears in every episode of the programme 's first three seasons , as well as two crossover episodes of Torchwood 's parent show , Doctor Who . Additionally , Ianto appears in Expanded Universe material such as the Torchwood novels and audiobooks , comic books and radio plays . Within the narrative of the series , Ianto begins as general support officer for Torchwood Three , a team of alien hunters stationed in Cardiff , and develops into an active field agent . Initially the regular character with the least screen time , Ianto 's role expanded in response to growing cult appeal .
Reserved and efficient , Ianto was often used by writers to add humorous asides to the episodes ' scripts . The character becomes the main romantic interest of Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who is the lead male of the series . Established to have had heterosexual relationships prior to the series , Ianto 's story forms a part of the show 's ongoing exploration of human sexuality . Expanded Universe material develops on Ianto 's sexual orientation and the nature of the relationship with Jack , describing Ianto as bisexual and his feelings for Jack as genuine love . Additionally , writers have used these other media to explore Ianto 's characterisation ; for example , some stories elaborate on Ianto 's backstory , or provide insight into his feelings .
Beginning as a casual relationship , with little on @-@ screen definition given , Ianto and Jack 's relationship deepened over the first three seasons of the programme . The character 's creator Russell T Davies chose to kill off Ianto in the third television series . Professional critics by and large gave the story extremely positive reviews . A number of fans , however , were upset by the death of the character , particularly with regards to the romantic storyline 's abrupt ending . Artistically , Davies felt that the relationship 's unexplored potential maximised the viewer 's sense of grief . Subsequent to the departure , fans set up websites in the character 's honour , petitioning the writers to resurrect him in future episodes of the series , raising money for charity . Torchwood writers and actors have expressed an unwillingness to reduce the weight of the death scene by bringing the character back , though David @-@ Lloyd penned a Torchwood comic book wherein an alternative universe Ianto survives .
= = Depictions = =
= = = Television = = =
The character of Ianto Jones is introduced in the first episode of Torchwood , in 2006 . Introduced as a mild @-@ mannered and quiet administrator working for Torchwood Three , the first episode to focus on him was " Cyberwoman " , which dealt with both his backstory and motivations . In the episode , Ianto is revealed as a former employee of Torchwood One in London ( first seen in parent series Doctor Who ) , whose girlfriend Lisa ( Caroline Chikezie ) has been partially converted into a Cyberman , a cyborg species seen repeatedly in Doctor Who . Ianto has been keeping her alive , concealed in the basement of the Hub , but she eventually breaks loose and kills two civilians . Ianto is forced into confrontation with team leader Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who is later able to revive Ianto with a kiss when Lisa knocks him unconscious . Ultimately , the rest of Ianto 's team is forced to kill Lisa . Although Ianto 's thoughts continue to be concerned with Lisa , mid @-@ series he begins to develop a sexual relationship with Jack . By the penultimate episode of the series , Ianto is willing to shoot colleague Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to protect Jack , and refutes claims he is merely his " part time shag " . In the series finale , an image of what appears to be Lisa 's ghost is used to bring Ianto to mutiny against Jack , but still later when Jack ( who cannot stay dead ) returns to life , he and Ianto immediately kiss one another .
Torchwood 's second series ( 2008 ) begins with the team working without Jack , who departed the Hub at the end of series one to reunite with the mysterious " Doctor " from his past . Ianto 's role within the team now more frequently includes field missions , to accommodate Jack 's absence . When Jack returns in the series two premiere , having seen the end of the world , he attempts to formalise his romantic relationship with Ianto , successfully asking him on a date . Jack and Ianto 's relationship becomes more overt , and Ianto 's character becomes less burdened by secrets and happier , beginning to express a newfound confidence and dour sense of humour . The penultimate episode of the series , " Fragments " explores Ianto 's backstory , specifically how he was recruited into Torchwood Three two years prior ; Ianto is persistent that Jack hire him after the destruction of Torchwood One , but only succeeds once he is able to aid Jack in capturing a stray pterodactyl . In the second series finale , Ianto and the team face Jack 's 51st @-@ century ex Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) and younger brother Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , who has vengefully sought to destroy Jack 's world . After Gray kills his teammates Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) and Owen , the Torchwood team is left with a membership of only three . Following from this , Ianto makes his first crossover appearance in Doctor Who alongside Gwen ( Eve Myles ) and Jack in the two @-@ part finale of the 2008 series , where Torchwood is called on to help contact series protagonist the Doctor ( David Tennant ) during a Dalek invasion .
Torchwood 's third series ( 2009 ) is a five @-@ part miniseries broadcast over one week , called Children of Earth . In part one , Ianto starts to express insecurity to Jack about their status as couple . The audience are introduced to Ianto 's sister Rhiannon ( Katy Wix ) and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny Davies ( Rhodri Lewis ) , who confront Ianto about sightings of him on a date with Jack . Ianto eventually admits to being involved with Jack , but concedes that he is not sure where he stands . When aliens called the 456 return to Earth , John Frobisher ( Peter Capaldi ) puts a hit on Torchwood 's lives to cover a conspiracy . In part two , Ianto and Gwen survive a Hub explosion that obliterates Jack . Once regenerated , Jack is sealed in cement by agent Johnson ( Liz May Brice ) until Ianto rescues him with a forklift truck . In part three , the group watch helplessly as the 456 demand a tribute : 10 % of the Earth 's children ; the government appears willing to comply . In part four , Ianto and Jack storm the Thames House to confront the 456 . The pair refuse to sacrifice any lives to the alien demands . In response , the aliens release a fatal virus into the atmosphere . Thames House locks down , and Ianto dies in Jack 's arms , telling him that he loved him and begging Jack never to forget about him , to which Jack replies he never could .
= = = Literature = = =
Ianto appears in the first six of the Torchwood novels , published by BBC Books . The first wave , Another Life by Peter Anghelides , Border Princes by Dan Abnett , and Slow Decay by Andy Lane , were published in January 2007 . Published in March 2008 , and tying in with the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood , Ianto appears in the novels Trace Memory by David Llewellyn , The Twilight Streets by Gary Russell , and Something in the Water by Trevor Baxendale . October 2008 saw the release of three more Torchwood books by Peter Anghelides , series writer Phil Ford and writer for the Doctor Who and Torchwood websites , James Goss , the latter 's cover for Almost Perfect reflecting changes to the cast after the episode 2008 finale episode " Exit Wounds " . The character next appears in Into the Silence , Bay of the Dead and The House that Jack Built in June 2009 , and Risk Assessment , The Undertaker 's Gift and the short story anthology Consequences in October of that year .
First published in January 2008 , the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips , in which Ianto also appears . In 2010 , Shrouded is one such two @-@ part comic , written by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . The comic posits a " what @-@ if " scenario wherein Ianto , " who struggles with his feelings for Jack from the offset " , sees a face from the future and embarks on a mission that could change the course of his life ( from that of his eventual death in Children of Earth ) . David Lloyd comments that he " knows [ the ] character implicitly " . In the first part , Ianto ( originating from the timeframe of Season Two ) is approached by Rhys and Captain John , both post @-@ Children of Earth , who warn Ianto not to believe the offer made by a seductive , time @-@ travelling woman ; they do not tell him that their mission is to preserve the timeline in which he dies . In part two , the woman , Mairwyn , informs Ianto of the events of " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth , and of Jack 's departure . Ianto tearfully watches the scene where Jack learns of Gwen 's engagement , and sleeps with Mairwyn . After learning of the devastating consequences of assisting Mairwyn , he defeats her and later " retcons " himself . However , in a divergent timeline Ianto appears with Mairwyn , observing his funeral , saying " I can 't believe there 's a reality where I said no . " In 2010 , " Shrouded " was republished in Titan 's dedicated Torchwood comic book .
During series two , the Torchwood website , www.torchwood.org.uk also hosted an interactive online game written by series writer Phil Ford . Updated weekly with the airing of the new episodes , the website features specially shot footage with Gareth David @-@ Lloyd in character as Ianto debriefing and informing the ' player ' with regards to their mission . Throughout both series one and two , the interactive websites co @-@ written by James Goss featured electronic literature content ( such as fictitious internet messaging conversations and letters ) which depict aspects of Ianto and the other Torchwood characters ' work and personal lives . The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature in hardback form , along with new original material , some of which expands on what we know of Ianto . For example , it introduces his sister , Rhiannon and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny ; Rhiannon and Johnny later appear in 2009 's third televised series .
Spin @-@ off media has tried to fill in the gaps of Ianto 's character history from before he began working at Torchwood Three ; Ianto 's first week at Torchwood One is shown in a flashback in the novel Trace Memory . The segment also depicts his budding relationship with Lisa Hallett . Also expanding on Jones 's time living in London , the comic The Legacy of Torchwood One ! ( Torchwood # 1 ) shows how Ianto was taken under the wing of Rupert Howarth , a senior researcher , during his first few weeks at Torchwood One . Ianto 's characterisation is explored in The Twilight Streets , in which Ianto sheds some light on the difficulty he had " coming out " as a teenager ; Ianto 's mother tried to have a conversation with him about it , but he remarks " She didn 't work me out , Gwen . No one has . And if I ever do , I 'll let you know . " He then engages in a diatribe with Gwen about what it means to him to be bisexual after Gwen jokes to him that he has the " best of both worlds " . A scene in David @-@ Lloyd 's " Shrouded " , in which Ianto is emailing his sister , Owen is seen to wrestle control of the computer and tries to write to her that " I 've recently discovered that I 'm a Big Old Gay " ; Ianto rebukes him . In the storyline 's conclusion , an alternate timeline is created where Ianto did not die in the events of Children of Earth .
However , as with all Doctor Who and Torchwood spin @-@ off media , the canonicity in relation to the television series is unclear .
= = = Audio drama = = =
Ianto also appears in Torchwood audio books , the first two being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori , Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman , released February 2008 , and In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster , released in September 2008 . Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama , " Lost Souls " which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Freema Agyeman ( Martha ) . Set after the events of the 2008 series , Ianto and the team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva , as part of Radio 4 's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on . The special radio episode 's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider 's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite , as well as the team 's mourning of Toshiko and Owen 's recent deaths .
Three further BBC radio dramas were produced in 2009 for the Afternoon Play slot on Radio 4 , each of which feature Ianto Jones . Chronologically , these occur between the second and third televised series but after " Lost Souls " . Transmitted in July 2009 , the first drama is " Asylum " , the second is " Golden Age " , and the third is " The Dead Line " . " The Dead Line " in particular focuses on Ianto 's characterisation , particularly with respect to his relationship with Jack . AfterElton reviewers stated that the radio drama " delivers for Janto [ a portmanteau used by the shipping fandom ] fans " ; David @-@ Lloyd delivers a monologue as Ianto , verbalising his insecurities to a comatose Jack . When Jack awakens from his coma , he promises " You will never be just a blip in time , Ianto Jones . "
After his character was written out of the televised series , David @-@ Lloyd still lends his voice 2011 audio drama series The Lost Files , tying into the televised fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day . Of these , " The House of the Dead " by James Goss focuses the most on Ianto . Ianto encounters the spirit of his father , with the claim that he , Ianto 's mother , Owen , Toshiko and Lisa will all be resurrected if Ianto betrays Jack . Exploiting its radio format , the drama reveals that Ianto too is a spirit , and that the story is a Jack solo mission set after series three . Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time . Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto , but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff Rift forever with Jack 's device .
= = Characterisation = =
= = = Conception = = =
Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has revealed that his character was originally named Idris Hopper . This has led to speculation that he was the same Idris Hopper played by Aled Pedrick who appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " as Margaret Blaine 's ( Annette Badland ) personal assistant . Writer Stephen James Walker wonders if Russell T Davies intended Idris to become a major character on Torchwood in the same way as Toshiko Sato , who originated in Doctor Who 's " Aliens of London " . Idris Hopper has since appeared in Gary Russell 's Torchwood novel The Twilight Streets . Initially , Ianto is introduced as a quiet worker and the least active character in the supporting cast . David @-@ Lloyd started the role believing Ianto would be killed off at the end of the first series , and was surprised when they " worked the character to become more popular , and it started growing from there . "
When Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was cast in the role , the character was renamed Ianto Jones . This was inspired by the character of Yanto Jones , also played by David @-@ Lloyd , in Russell T Davies 's 2004 comedy @-@ drama Mine All Mine . Ianto shares the surname " Jones " with Doctor Who characters Martha Jones and family as well as Harriet Jones , Torchwood character Eugene Jones ( " Random Shoes " ) , and Stuart Allen Jones in Davies 's earlier Queer as Folk ; Davies states that reusing names ( such as Tyler , Smith , Harper , Harkness and Jones ) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page . In developing the character 's attire , costume designer Ray Holman comments : " Ianto has a very distinct look but his suits actually vary quite a lot . He started off with some nice but boring Marks and Spencers suits in series one , which were top @-@ end fitted ones but always very sober . Towards the end of series one , I also got him into a waistcoat , and everyone thought that looked really good .
= = = Development = = =
On how he views the character , David @-@ Lloyd says that " outwardly , he 's straight @-@ laced , but there 's a darker side to him and a very playful side too . " Initially , in series one , Ianto is a quiet and more reserved character . Throughout the first series , Ianto 's secrets are exposed to the team , particularly in " Cyberwoman " when his motives for joining Torchwood Three are exposed . David @-@ Lloyd was " bowled over " by the Ianto @-@ centric script for " Cyberwoman " and the " wide range of emotions " it allowed him to play . From this point , Ianto 's focus changes and he begins more and more to come out of his shell .
Appearing in series two , Ianto assists the team in field missions and is used by the writers as a vehicle for one @-@ liner jokes . Commenting on this , portrayer Gareth David @-@ Lloyd notes that " This season it 's much more relaxed and he 's not all about keeping secrets , he 's about Torchwood and Jack — he 's found his meaning and his place so his dry humour comes out a lot more and he 's happier . " The developments in Ianto 's character were also reflected in the wardrobe choice . " For series two , " comments Ray Holman , " we evolved the look quite a lot , and now his suits come from all over the place . It 's just a question of where I see something that looks right for Gareth , so I 've brought him a suit from Savile Row and suits from Zara and Next . We realised we could be a bit more flash with Ianto now he 's come out of the background and started to assert himself a bit more . So we moved him into coloured shirts and snazzier ties . He started off in white and grey shirts but we realised his skin tones can take the extra colour and now he 's evolving into something much sharper , which looks really good filmed in high definition . "
In Torchwood Magazine , actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd comments on some original character developments intended for Ianto . Originally , his character was the one supposed to die at the end of series two episode " Reset " . Davies 's plan had originally intended for Ianto to be revived , as Owen eventually was , in episode seven . From this point on , the character was intended to be " the Living Dead — pale , but still sexy " . The night before filming , however , Davies changed his mind and seven scripts began a process of being rewritten . New lines had to be handed to the actors on the day of filming . Davies also called a discussion with the actors involved to explain the change in the storyline . In the discussion with executive producer Russell T Davies and Burn Gorman , who portrays Owen , it was decided that Owen would experience the zombification storyline as he is a character who more overtly enjoys life , making it more interesting from a narrative perspective .
David @-@ Lloyd described the character 's development in the third series as " really exciting " . He felt that it was " great to be a fully @-@ fledged member of the team now rather than just the administration man . " He felt flattered to have the writer and producers put so much confidence in him . In this series , the writers also explore Jones 's background ; David @-@ Lloyd was happy with the execution of this backstory , through meeting Ianto 's sister , and commented that it was quite beautifully written . Through meeting his family , we discover that his father has died and that Ianto has grown very distant from his relatives as per the demands of his job . David @-@ Lloyd first concluded that Ianto was being killed off when his agent told him he was only needed for four out of five episodes . Although there was " a bit of disappointment " , he considers himself " lucky " for lasting so long on the series , especially since Ianto was supposed to die in series two . He believed the character 's death was justified by " the impact and the drama , and to keep the dangerous reality of Torchwood ever present " . Although it was " a tragedy that [ Ianto ] died " , David @-@ Lloyd felt that the series had " addressed everything about him that needed to be said " .
Creator Russell T Davies felt that killing off Ianto was necessary for Children of Earth ; it was his first decision to create a " horrible war casualty " for the story , because it would be unrealistic to have a great threat and have the main characters all come out unscathed . Ianto 's death also precedes the death of Captain Jack 's grandson Steven ( Bear McCausland ) , and for that scene to occur it necessitated making Jack " badly , badly damaged " . Ianto 's death caused " maximum damage " to Jack , and the loss of his lover ( and grandson ) makes Children of Earth a tale of retribution , as Jack had given away twelve children to the same aliens in 1965 . Davies has said that Ianto is " absolutely dead " . He explains his reasoning ; because it 's a " much more real world in Torchwood " , it wouldn 't work to " regenerate or go to a parallel universe . " Davies feels that Barrowman and David @-@ Lloyd would both be dismayed were that to happen . He stated " it would devalue the entire plot if we brought him back " . Wired magazine described Ianto 's arc , ending in the third series , as an " evolution from meek office assistant to heroic warrior " .
= = = Relationship with Jack = = =
Much of Ianto 's character development is centred on the character 's relationship with Captain Jack . On the character 's evolution from minor character to romantic interest , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has commented that " To have a storyline where you 're involved with the leading character for any actor is awesome . " On the character 's development , David @-@ Lloyd has said that through Jack 's relationship , " he 's found his meaning and ... he 's happier . " Asked what it is that Ianto receives from Jack , David @-@ Lloyd responds " Support , meaning . I think he lost meaning . He was tortured and Jack gave him that meaning back . And reliability that he 'll always be there , I think . " John Barrowman and Gareth David @-@ Lloyd have also opined that Jack 's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack 's empathy , and helped to ground him , with John Barrowman reported as saying that Ianto " brings out the ' human ' in him , it brings out more of the empathy because he 's actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody . So , it 's really great and I think that 's what makes him warm to other people . It makes him more approachable . " In the same interview , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that " I think Ianto 's always made him care and that is really the heart of the show . Ianto 's always bearing his emotional side and vulnerable side and keeping his feet on the ground . I think of all the characters , he 's the one who tries to keep everyone else 's feet on the ground . He brings everyone back to reality , often with a dry , witty remark or taking a dig at somebody just to sort of bring people back down . "
Comparing Jack 's relationship with Ianto to his romantic tension with Gwen , David @-@ Lloyd states " I think [ there are ] different sorts of love or lust , as it might be , and I think that 's an ongoing thing ... At the moment , I think there 's two different sorts of love going on there . " He also states that he feels that Ianto 's relationship with Jack is his first same @-@ sex relationship , and doesn 't feel that Ianto would be a " labelist " , but were he , he would identify as bisexual , but that he " wouldn 't regard himself the same way as Jack does because they 're from different times . " Author Stephen James Walker feels sorry for Ianto , perceiving his relationship with Jack as a one @-@ sided one . To him , Ianto views the relationship as " serious and committed " , as seen in " A Day in the Death " where he tells Owen that it is not just about sex . However , from dialogue in " Something Borrowed " , Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a " recreational activity " . Walker also notes how important it was for Ianto when he cut in to dance with Jack , as this is the first time that his relationship with Jack is presented before the rest of the crew . The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Gwen tries to clarify whether Ianto understands the nature of his relationship with Jack , saying " You do know he 's ... " , which Ianto finishes " Just a shag ? " before adding " Yes I know . I can 't help it , though . I 've never been much good at casual . " In radio play " The Dead Line " , set just prior to series three , Ianto expounds his insecurities to Jack , who refutes them , confirming that his feelings for Ianto are real . When asked if the relationship will continue in series three , executive producer Julie Gardner replied , " Yes , I like seeing them as a couple " , while director Euros Lyn stated that " the love story between Captain Jack and Ianto [ would continue ] to unfold " in the third series . While Gareth David @-@ Lloyd feels that the love story between Jack and Ianto was not fully resolved , which is " part of the tragedy " , the character and his relationship with Jack had been sufficiently explored in the third series for David @-@ Lloyd to be " happy to walk away from it . "
Ianto makes a post @-@ death appearance in 2011 audio drama " The House of the Dead " . Encountering Ianto 's spirit at a haunted location in Wales , Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye . Without Ianto in his life , Jack wishes to be swept up into the Rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide . Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead , however , despite the possibility of resurrection . As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the Rift , the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Awarding the character of Ianto the status of " Cult Spy Icon " , British entertainment news website Digital Spy describes him as a " cult legend " , citing his dour demeanour , one @-@ liners and " eye candy " label . Gay men 's website AfterElton placed Ianto as their seventh best gay and bisexual character in modern science fiction ( encompassing television , film and comic books ) , with Torchwood 's Jack , Ianto 's love interest , receiving first place . Wired magazine was impressed with the way Ianto 's romantic storyline was handled in the third series , and praised Davies 's writing for the " deft , sympathetic handling " of the Harkness @-@ Jones romance , compared with the " clumsiness " of the show 's homoerotic overtones in previous series . Because Ianto 's storyline grows out of the reality of the show , " it plays with such genuine sympathy and pathos that Jones 's eventual fate is easily the miniseries ' most powerful moment . " Wired describes David @-@ Lloyd 's performance as Jones as " a key element in the success of the five @-@ episode story arc . " One AfterElton contributor disliked the death scene partially for the loss of a " beloved gay character " , and because Ianto 's death was caused by Jack 's stupidity , goading on the aliens . They compared the death scene to that of Tara ( Amber Benson ) in Joss Whedon 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer which he felt was more satisfying , although " unbearably sad " because of its pivotal role in the character arc for Willow ( Alyson Hannigan ) , and as being " possibly the single most significant event in the whole seven @-@ season series . " He feels that both Joss Whedon and Russell T Davies toyed with their LGBT fans ' affections , and claim " neither Whedon nor Davies seem aware of the impact that these characters were having on viewers starved for such representations . " Later , AfterElton published an opposing view , which analysed the character 's death in view of the character 's earlier refusal to admit to his relationship with a man , and claimed that , instead of being an expression of homophobia , the death was a sign that the LGBT community was leaving behind its image of victimhood . In 2012 David Brown of the Radio Times described Ianto 's demise as one of televisions five most shocking death scenes and " surely [ Torchwood 's ] finest hour " .
The website Den of Geek praised Davies 's writing of Ianto 's death , and likened the tough story @-@ driven decision to those used in critically acclaimed shows The Sopranos , Battlestar Galactica and The Wire . Den of Geek felt the real tension of knowing any character could die , however popular , was " refreshing " in comparison to impossibly death @-@ defying characters such as 24 's Jack Bauer ( Kiefer Sutherland ) . In 2010 , Davies 's replacement as Doctor Who executive producer , Steven Moffat , commented saying " I thought his death scene was brilliant . " When the series screened in New Zealand , GayNZ compared the two contending perspectives , comparing those who viewed Ianto 's death from the perspective of " dramatic necessity " to those who disparaged it as the result of thoughtlessness on the part of the series creators about the relative absence of representations of enduring lesbian and gay couples within television series . Ianto 's death was compared to that of Tara as in the above critiques , but also contrasted to other television series where lesbian and gay couples were able to have enduring relationships , such as Six Feet Under 's David Fisher ( Michael C. Hall ) and Keith Charles ( Mathew St. Patrick ) and Bad Girls ' Nikki Wade ( Mandana Jones ) and Helen Stewart ( Simone Lahbib ) .
GayNZ writer Craig Young places Ianto , like Buffy 's Tara , in a larger literary tradition , commenting " just as Iphigenia 's sacrifice at the hands of Agamemnon was necessary to set in train the events of Aeschylus 's Oresteia ... just as Ophelia 's madness , suicide and accidental death led to the climatic duel between Hamlet and Laertes ... Ianto 's death can be argued to be a dramatic necessity which adds to character and narrative development . " The article acknowledged there being some validity in criticisms of modern TV dramas which uphold that it is frequently the gay relationships which " can never be seen to have long @-@ term , fulfilled relationships " . However , GayNZ questioned whether the pattern was solely gay , noting the equally tragic outcomes of homosexual and heterosexual relationships in American shows Buffy and Nip / Tuck . The website also took note of Ianto fans ' displeasure when Jack was introduced to a new romantic partner in Alonso Frame ( Russell Tovey ) in Doctor Who episode The End of Time ( 2010 ) , mirroring Willow 's romance with Kennedy ( Iyari Limon ) in Season Seven of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The article intentionally avoided making a definitive conclusion as to which " side " of the argument was correct . Young later compared Ianto 's death with the subsequent killing off of core heterosexual couples in two British shows , Misfits and Being Human . These latter deaths are described as even more heartbreaking than Ianto 's , and Young argues that these character deaths tell us more about transatlantic differences in storytelling than about portrayals of sexuality .
= = = Fan reaction to death = = =
Some fans expressed their displeasure following Ianto 's death in the third series . The website End of Show comments that " writer James Moran was so inundated with messages to his Twitter account that he posted a number of impassioned pleas to tone down the vitriol . " End of Show writer Kirsty Walker comments that fans on Twitter accused Moran of " deliberately egging on the ' shippers ' . " Moran noted in his blog that of the thousands of messages from viewers , the " vast majority " were extremely positive , managing to express that they were " upset , angry and shocked " without making personal attacks . Moran declared the response from other commentators to be unacceptable , describing their conduct as the spewing of insults and " passive aggressive nonsense " . He noted that fans had accused him of deliberately trying to " mislead " , " lie " and " hurt " them , said that he hated them , was " laughing at them " and " slapping [ them ] in the face " , and claimed that he had " killed the show " , had attempted to drive away existing fans to court newer and " cooler " viewers , and had deliberately hurt depressed people " with dark storylines . " In a poll conducted by Digital Spy shortly after Ianto 's death , 27 @.@ 4 % of voters claimed that they would no longer watch Torchwood . Responding to these results , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd thanked the fans for their dedication to the show and the character but urged them to have faith in the writers . On the show 's Facebook groups , fans expressed anger towards creator Russell T Davies and some claimed they would stop watching the show . Walker herself had felt that the end of Jack 's relationship with Ianto could " change the show beyond all recognition . "
io9 commented that fans on Moran 's blog accused him of homophobia ; one quoted fan likened it to 1950s @-@ style homophobia " where all the queer folks died ... and the straight people walk away completely unscathed . " io9 writer Charlie Jane Anders comments , however , that " as people have had a bit more time to consider the new series , more thoughtful discussions have arisen . " One such cited notes that it is unlikely that Children of Earth was intentionally homophobic since the writer ( Davies ) and lead actor ( John Barrowman ) are both openly gay . The same reviewer notes that however , " especially when viewed on its own , Children of Earth looks a lot like the same heteronormative , homophobic , biphobic and gratuitous tropes that appear in so many bad representations of queer people in popular culture . " In response to the accusations of " de @-@ gaying " Torchwood , Davies advised those people do some research into his career ( creator of Queer as Folk ) and " stop riding on a bandwagon that they actually don 't know anything about " . Asked to respond to viewers who felt " cheated " that Jack and Ianto 's relationship did not come to fruition , Davies said :
That 's the point actually . Both in fiction and in life . When someone dies you lose all that potential . You grieve over everything they could have been . Everything you hoped for them . Everything they might have achieved with their lives , everyone they could have loved . Every job they could have had . Every joy they could have had . It 's gone .
Soon after the death of Ianto Jones during Torchwood 's third series , a campaign to bring him back was started through networking sites such as LiveJournal , Twitter and Facebook . The resulting website , www.saveiantojones.com , has organised a protest which encourages fans to send coffee , along with postcards and letters of complaint , to the BBC , a reference to Ianto 's status as the " coffee boy " . Via the Save Ianto Jones website , fans are also campaigning to raise money for the BBC charity Children in Need in honour of the character . The fundraising site states that " Though we , his devoted fans , still hope that he 'll come back ... we mourn him . In the series , he died saving the children of Earth ; so it seems fitting to honour his memory by helping the Children in Need . " Torchwood Magazine reported that the site had raised nearly £ 4 @,@ 000 , with individual donations ranging from £ 2 to £ 50 . John Barrowman described the charity campaign as " a fun way to mourn Ianto " and stated that it was " the kind of thing that 's really appreciated " . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was flattered by the strong fan reaction , saying it is " satisfying in drama when you create such an emotional response , because that 's what you set out to do in the first place " . He praised the fan donations , claiming " So far , they 've raised about £ 3 @,@ 000 for Children in Need , and £ 1 @,@ 000 for Lluest Horse and Pony Trust in West Wales , which I 'm a patron of , so that 's got to be a good thing " . Coventry Telegraph records that by 21 July 2009 , £ 4 @,@ 172 had been donated in Ianto 's name .
In an interview with io9 on 28 July 2009 , creator Russell T Davies was asked about the controversy surrounding Ianto 's death and the fan reaction campaign . He replied " There 's a campaign , because he was a coffee boy . But do you know how many packets of coffee they 've received so far ? Nine . So I think people writing online might sound like thousands of people , but they are nine . " However , those involved in the movement believe that this number is much higher due to a post tallying the coffee sent within the community . When asked about the backlash in a separate interview with Michael Ausiello , Russell T Davies said " It 's not particularly a backlash . What 's actually happening is , well , nothing really to be honest . It 's a few people posting online and getting fans upset " . He also stated that the character was gone for good , and that his resurrection would devalue the " entire plot . " He recommended that fans who wish to stop watching the show should watch Supernatural " because those boys are beautiful " , or " look at poetry " if they " can 't handle drama " . Following these statements , the Save Ianto Jones website encouraged fans to contact BBC Wales rather than Davies , and temporarily presented on its front page the message " Mr Davies has made it clear in recent interviews that he views his fans with contempt , and as disposable , which saddens us " and asked not to be " abused " . At Comic @-@ Con 2009 , a fan claimed that Davies " hurt " a lot of internet fans with his decision to kill Ianto , which she called " out of line . " Davies replied that he would not change his mind regarding the decision , adding , " I 've got to be blunt about this , there have been campaigns to send packets of coffee to BBC Wales in protest . There have been nine packets sent . I 'm not taking the mickey , but that 's a very small number . " Executive producer Julie Gardner stated " We want people to be engaged , discuss and not always agree with us . At the end of the day , I make drama to support each author 's vision . It 's not a democracy . Whether people like it or not , it 's storytelling . " Simon Brew of Den of Geek has criticised the Internet campaigns to resurrect the character , citing that the show would " lose far more credibility " if he were brought back . Brew also expressed doubt that the fans stating they would boycott a fourth series will do so . He summarised : " Torchwood now needs to continue to have the courage of its convictions , and for that to happen , the reset switch simply isn 't an option . "
On 31 July 2009 , Digital Spy conducted a poll asking if it was " time to move on " from Ianto . However , a week later the website did not immediately publish the results , announcing " unfortunately it seems that this particular Poll was the subject of a campaign by diehard fans to distort the outcome " . Neil Wilkes opined that this action by the fans " suggests the answer to the question ' Have people overreacted to Ianto 's death ? ' is quite obvious " . Later , a footnote amendment noted that 31 @.@ 4 % said it was time to move on , " while the remainder demanded RTD 's head on a plate " , a reference to his own wording of the original poll , which gave readers the option of moving on from Ianto , or the executive producer 's head on a plate . James McCarthy of Wales Online described the reaction from some fans as " sickening " and quoted " crazed " fans on DeviantArt and Facebook who made explicit death threats against the Children of Earth writers . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd stated he was very disappointed in those fans , whose message board conduct he does not support at all and called " completely unacceptable " . David @-@ Lloyd added that he " would hope the writers would be able to ignore comments like that " . A number of fans were upset by the tone of the first Wales Online article , and their response prompted a follow up from McCarthy . In their comments , fans pointed out that his article disproportionately highlights what they called the " ill @-@ conceived , knee @-@ jerk reactions " of a few individuals , and stressed that these reactions in no way represent the movement to bring Ianto Jones back , which they hold as fundamentally respectful towards the show 's actors and writers . Fans have distanced themselves from the small minority of extremists , and have been keen to stress their peaceful activism , described as " thousands of fans who are raising money for charity , sending polite letters , and doing what we can to be supportive of the character and actor " . In 2010 , Doctor Who executive producer Steven Moffat told fans who contacted him that he wouldn 't want to resurrect Ianto even if he could : " Not reversing it . Stop asking . " In a 2011 poll published by the Liverpool Daily Post as part of a live Interview with writer John Fay , 70 % of respondents replied that the decision to kill Ianto had been the right one , with 19 % responding " indifferent " and only 11 % stating that it had been the wrong decision , contrasting with the initial fan response . In response to a question , Fay also stated that he had not been affected by the " scary " fan reaction , maintaining that " a universe in which fictional characters aren 't ' allowed ' to die is ridiculous and limiting " .
The public reaction to the death of Ianto has had a wider @-@ reaching impact than simply the Torchwood fan community . For example , comic book writer Peter David cited the reaction to Ianto Jones 's death when reflecting on where to go with the gay relationship between the Marvel Comics characters Rictor and Shatterstar in X @-@ Factor v. 3 . He opined that in " virtually any happy relationship " , one of the characters has to die to " provide angst " to the more major character . His concern was " being tagged as against gay people " , the way Russell T Davies was , even though Davies is himself gay .
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= Hurricane Iniki =
Hurricane Iniki ( / iːˈniːkiː / ee @-@ NEE @-@ kee ; Hawaiian : ʻiniki meaning " strong and piercing wind " ) was the most powerful hurricane to strike the U.S. state of Hawaii in recorded history . Forming on September 5 , 1992 , during the strong 1990 – 95 El Niño , Iniki was one of eleven Central Pacific tropical cyclones during that season . It attained tropical storm status on September 8 and further intensified into a hurricane the next day . After turning north , Iniki struck the island of Kauaʻi on September 11 at peak intensity ; it had winds of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) and reached Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . It was the first hurricane to hit the state since Hurricane Iwa in the 1982 season , and the first major hurricane since Hurricane Dot in 1959 . Iniki dissipated on September 13 about halfway between Hawaii and Alaska .
Iniki caused around $ 1 @.@ 8 billion ( 1992 USD ) of damage and six deaths . At the time , Iniki was among the costliest United States hurricanes , and it remains one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the eastern Pacific . The storm struck just weeks after Hurricane Andrew , the costliest tropical cyclone ever at the time , struck Florida .
The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) failed to issue tropical cyclone warnings and watches 24 hours in advance . Despite the lack of early warning , only six deaths ensued . Damage was greatest on Kauaʻi , where the hurricane destroyed more than 1 @,@ 400 houses and severely damaged more than 5 @,@ 000 . Though not directly in the path of the eye , Oʻahu experienced moderate damage from wind and storm surge .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origin of Iniki is unclear , but it possibly began as a tropical wave that exited the African coast on August 18 . It moved westward across the unfavorable Atlantic Ocean and crossed Central America into the Pacific on the August 28 . The wave continued rapidly westward and remained disorganized . Conditions slowly became more favorable , and , as the convection concentrated around a center , the wave was classified Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on September 5 . At this time , the wave was located 1700 miles ( 2700 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas or 1550 miles ( 2500 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hilo . Initially , the thunderstorm activity was not concentrated towards the center and thus the depression was not expected to intensify beyond minimal tropical storm strength . The depression continued quickly westward and remained weak until the September 8 , when it slowed enough to strengthen to a tropical storm .
Located at the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge , Iniki continued westward and strengthened over the unusually favorable central Pacific ; it reached hurricane status on September 9 while 470 miles ( 760 km ) south @-@ southeast of Hilo . The subtropical ridge , which typically keeps hurricanes well away from the Hawaiian Islands , weakened due to an approaching upper level @-@ trough and allowed Iniki to turn to the northwest . With very favorable upper @-@ level outflow and warm water temperatures , Iniki steadily intensified , and attained major hurricane status on September 10 while south @-@ southwest of the island chain .
As Iniki turned to the north , it continued to strengthen , reaching a peak of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) winds on September 11 while 170 miles ( 270 km ) south @-@ southwest of Poʻipū on the island of Kauaʻi . It continued rapidly to the north @-@ northeast , and made landfall on south @-@ central Kauai early on the 11th with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) , making Iniki a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The National Weather Service reported wind gusts of up to 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The highest recorded wind speed from Hurricane Iniki was a 227 mph ( 365 km / h ) reading from the Navy 's Makaha Ridge radar station . According to the Honolulu Advertiser , that remarkable figure was recorded at a digital weather station whose wind gauging equipment blew off after taking the measurement during the storm . After crossing the island , Iniki rapidly accelerated north @-@ northeastward , weakened rapidly , and was absorbed by a cold front as it lost tropical characteristics and became extratropical on September 13 about halfway between Alaska and Hawaiʻi .
= = Preparations = =
The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) failed to issue tropical cyclone warnings and watches for the hurricane well in advance . For several days prior to the disaster , the CPHC and the news media forecast Iniki to remain well south of the island chain , with the only effect being some high surf conditions . Some of the standard international computer models were indicating a northward turn towards the populated Hawaiian Islands , but these were rejected by the CPHC forecasters . As late as early September 11 , the CPHC suggested that Iniki would remain well to the south of the island group . It was not until a special bulletin was issued by the CPHC less than 24 hours before landfall — that any warning was given to the public .
A hurricane watch was issued for Kauaʻi early on September 11 and was upgraded to a hurricane warning later that day . Prior to Iniki 's arrival in Kauaʻi , 8 @,@ 000 people were housed in shelters , many of whom remembered Hurricane Iwa 10 years prior . Because schools were canceled , traffic was light during the evacuation , and streets were clear by mid @-@ morning . Rather than sending tourists to public shelters , two major hotels kept their occupants in the buildings during the storm 's passage .
The CPHC issued a tropical storm warning for Oʻahu on September 11 which was upgraded to a hurricane warning later that day . Though not hit by the hurricane , Iniki 's large wind field caused nearly 30 @,@ 000 people to evacuate to 110 public shelters in Oʻahu . Public school buildings acted as shelters , and were for refuge only , meaning they did not provide food , cots , blankets , medications or other comfort items . Roughly one @-@ third of Oʻahu 's population participated in the evacuation , though many others went to the house of a family member or friend for shelter . The execution of the evacuations went well , beginning with the vulnerable coastal area . For those in need , vans and buses gave emergency transportation , while police manned certain overused intersections . The two main problems that occurred during the evacuation were lack of parking at shelters and exit routes for the coastlines .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Iniki was the costliest hurricane to strike the state of Hawaiʻi , causing $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in damage . Most damage was on the island of Kauaʻi , where the storm destroyed thousands of homes and left a large amount of the island without power , although Oʻahu also suffered significant damage . Iniki also was responsible for six deaths .
The hurricane nearly struck the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu . Had it hit there , Iniki , along with Hurricane Andrew and Typhoon Omar , would have struck each of the three National Weather Service offices responsible for tropical cyclone warnings within a two @-@ month period .
= = = Kauaʻi = = =
Hurricane Iniki made landfall on the south @-@ central portion of Kauaʻi island , bringing its dangerous inner core to the entire island . Upon making landfall the hurricane produced storm tides of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) , with some portions of the coastlines having high @-@ water marks of up to 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . In addition , strong waves of up to 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) in height crashed along the southern coastline for several hours , causing a debris line of more than 800 feet ( 250 m ) inland . Because it moved quickly through the island , there were no reports of significant rainfall .
Hurricane Iniki 's making landfall during daylight hours , combined with the popularity of camcorders , led many Kauaʻi residents to record much of the damage as it was occurring . The footage was later used to create an hour @-@ long video documentary . Airline service was down .
Hurricane Iniki 's high winds caused extensive damage in Kauaʻi . 1 @,@ 421 houses were destroyed , and 63 were lost from the storm surge and wave action . A total of 5 @,@ 152 homes were severely damaged , while 7 @,@ 178 received minor damage . On the south coast , hotels and condominiums received severe damage as well . A few were restored quickly , though some took several years to be rebuilt . One hotel — the Coco Palms Resort famous for Elvis Presley 's Blue Hawaii — never reopened after the hurricane . Destroyed housing across the island left more than 7 @,@ 000 people homeless after the storm 's passage .
Iniki 's high winds also downed 26 @.@ 5 % of the island 's transmission poles , 37 % of its distribution poles , and 35 % of its 800 mile ( 1300 km ) distribution wire system . The entire island lacked electricity and television service for an extended period of time . Electric companies restored only 20 % of the island 's power service within four weeks of Iniki , while other areas were without power for up to three months . Also affected by the storm was the agricultural sector . Though much of the sugar cane was already harvested , what was left was severely damaged . The winds destroyed tender tropical plants like bananas and papayas and uprooted or damaged fruit and nut trees .
Most of Iniki 's damage occurred in Kauaʻi . On the island , one person died when struck by debris , while another lost her life when a portion of her house fell on her . Offshore , two Japanese nationals died when their boat capsized . The reduced death toll was likely due to well @-@ executed warnings and preparation . More than 100 injuries can be attributed to Iniki , though most occurred in the aftermath of the hurricane .
Among those on Kauaʻi was filmmaker Steven Spielberg , who was preparing for the final day of on @-@ location shooting of the film Jurassic Park . He and the 130 of his cast and crew remained safely in a hotel during Iniki 's passage . According to Spielberg , " every single structure was in shambles ; roofs and walls were torn away ; telephone poles and trees were down as far as the eye could see . " Members of the film 's crew helped to clear some of the debris off of nearby roads .
The U.S. Coast Guard station at Nawiliwili Harbor was hard hit by the storm , which fatally damaged the service 's 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) cutter stationed there . The Coast Guard promptly established a humanitarian response detachment , commanded by Lt. Kenneth Armstrong , which helped to provide medical supplies , food , ice , water , and cash grants to island residents , as well as making temporary repairs to public buildings . Under Armstrong 's command , the port was recertified to receive gasoline and diesel fuel , which helped to relieve a major fuel shortage caused by the widespread use of personal electrical generators . A larger DoD contingent , nicknamed " Operation Garden Sweep , " provided large scale relief in the form of tent cities , utility repairs , road clearings , and major medical operations .
= = = Oʻahu = = =
Upon passing by Oʻahu , Iniki produced tides of 1 @.@ 7 – 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 9 m ) above normal . Prolonged periods of high waves severely eroded and damaged the southwestern coast of Oʻahu , with the areas most affected being Barbers Point through Kaʻena . The Waiʻanae coastline experienced the most damage , with waves and storm surge flooding the second floor of beachside apartments . In all , Hurricane Iniki caused several million dollars in property damage , and two deaths on Oʻahu .
= = = Big Island = = =
Damage on the big island was minor . Seas of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) were reported , along with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds . In Kona Harbor , three or four sailboats were tossed onto the rocks and one trimaran at another harbor was sunk . The Napoʻopoʻo Beach , in the Kealakekua Bay lost some sand and to this day has never been the same .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after the storm , many were relieved to have survived the worst of the Category 4 hurricane ; their complacency turned to apprehensiveness due to lack of information , as every radio station was out and there was no news available for several days . Because Iniki knocked out electrical power for most of the island , communities held parties to necessarily consume perishable food from unpowered refrigerators and freezers . Though food markets allowed those affected to take what they needed , many Kauaʻi citizens insisted on paying . In addition , entertainers from all of Hawaiʻi , including Graham Nash ( who owns a home on the north shore of Kauaʻi ) and the Honolulu Symphony , provided free concerts to the victims .
Looting occurred in the aftermath of Iniki , though it was very minor . A group of Army Corps of Engineers , who experienced the looting of Hurricane Andrew just weeks before , were surprised at the overall calmness and lack of violence on the island . Although electrical power was restored to most of the island approximately six weeks following the hurricane , students returned to Kauaʻi public schools two weeks after the disaster . Kauaʻi citizens remained hopeful for monetary aid from the government or insurance companies , though after six months they felt annoyed with the lack of help . The military effectively provided aid for their immediate needs , though , and help arrived before local officials requested aid .
Amateur radio proved to be extremely helpful during the three weeks after the storm , with volunteers coming from the neighboring islands as well as from around the Pacific to assist in the recovery . There was support of local government communications in Lihue in the first week of recovery as well as a hastily organized effort by local operators to assist with the American Red Cross and their efforts to provide shelters and disaster relief centers across Kauaʻi .
In the months after the storm , many insurance companies left Hawaiʻi . To combat this , State Governor John D. Waihee III enacted the Hurricane Relief Fund in 1993 to help unprotected Hawaiʻi residents . The fund was never needed for another Hawaiʻi hurricane , and it was stopped in 2000 when insurance companies returned to the island .
It is thought that Hurricane Iniki blew apart many chicken coops , some possibly used to house fighting chickens ; this caused a dramatic increase in the numbers of wild chickens roaming Kauaʻi .
The name Iniki was retired due to this storm , and was replaced with Iolana within the Central North Pacific tropical storm list . Less than three days after Iniki struck , Hurricane Orlene struck the Big Island as a depression .
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= Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band =
The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band ( also known as the Noble Men of Kyle or just the Aggie Band ) is the official marching band of Texas A & M University . Composed of over 400 men and women from the school 's Corps of Cadets , it is the largest military marching band in the world . The band 's complex straight @-@ line marching maneuvers are performed exclusively to traditional marches .
Since its inception in 1894 , its members eat together , sleep in the same dormitories , and practice up to forty hours per week on top of a full academic schedule . The Aggie Band performs at all home football games , some away games , and university and Corps functions throughout the year . The band has also participated in inauguration parades for many United States Presidents and Texas Governors , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The Aggie Band owes its existence to Joseph Holick . In 1885 , Holick and his brother Louis boarded an empty boxcar bound for Orange , Texas so that they could gain employment in a lumber mill . En route , the two stopped in Bryan , Texas , near the campus of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas . The 22 @-@ year @-@ old Holick began to doubt his choice , stating , " I was a small boy and couldn 't do lumbering work " , and chose to remain in Bryan working under Raymond Blatherwick , owner of a prominent boot shop . Lawrence Sullivan Ross , the president of the nearby college and a former Governor of Texas , stopped into Blatherwick 's boot shop and noted how inconvenient it was for cadets to go to Bryan for their boots . Ross requested Holick be stationed at the new military college to perform cobbler duties .
Holick accepted the proposal and moved to work at Texas A & M. Shortly after his arrival , the Commandant 's staff discovered his musical talents . They requested him to play the bugle for Corps functions and for US $ 65 a month , he was assigned to play Reveille and Taps . Because the new job paid much more than his previous one , Holick wanted to give the school " more than just two tunes for its money and he asked the commandant for permission to start a cadet band " . The commandant agreed and named Holick its first bandmaster . Under his tutelage and the leadership of subsequent bandmasters , the band grew from 13 members at its inception in 1894 to 75 bandsmen in 1924 .
Early drum majors are credited with inspiring the band 's name . The first student drum major , H.A. " California " Morse , was asked to leave the college due to fighting . In addition , the early drum majors were chosen in physical combat ; insomuch that the candidates were placed in a locked room , with the best fighter / the one emerging victorious , being named to the coveted position . This tradition of aggressiveness and physical combat was noted by band members , who then took to calling themselves the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band .
= = = Dunn years = = =
In 1924 , Lieutenant Colonel Richard J. Dunn was appointed as bandmaster . As a former member of John Philip Sousa 's Marine Band and with 26 years of military band leadership experience , Dunn quickly instituted changes within the band . The first was to the position of bugler , whose duties had fallen to the bandmaster since 1894 . When informed that he was expected to fill the role , Dunn told college officials , " I have blown enough bugles . I am the Bandmaster . Someone else can blow the bugle calls . " From then on , the Corps Bugler was chosen from the ranks of the Aggie Band .
Dunn also instituted uniform changes which added white canvas to the band uniform , resulting in a " flash effect " every other step . Dunn tried , to no avail , to rid the band of the Senior Boots , but this tradition was too well @-@ established . Other additions included crossed white belts , later discarded in favor of a white Sam Browne belt , silver buckles , and the addition of a bugle rank to lead the band in its maneuvers . Changes in the drills included the " Block T " , the band 's signature , and such intricate designs which led to talk amongst fans about the band " always winning halftime " .
Under Dunn 's experience , the band instituted some traditions that the university uses to the present . In 1925 , Marvin H. Mimms wrote the lyrics for an alma mater for the school . Dunn , who found the Aggie War Hymn " inappropriate " for social functions and solemn occasions , wrote its accompanying music and presented it to the student body titled Spirit of Aggieland . In 1926 , the tradition of Elephant Walk began when two seniors in the band led a procession of seniors throughout the school grounds visiting all the important places on campus . All the seniors in one single file was " quite a site to behold " , and one junior commented that they looked like a bunch of old elephants wandering around trying to find some place to die . The name stuck and the tradition continues to the present .
Beginning in 1939 , the U.S. Army required all cadets to be in either infantry or field artillery units . Therefore , the band was split into two separate units at opposite ends of the campus dormitories and named Infantry and Artillery Bands . When the two units performed together , they formed the Combined Band . 1942 saw the band expand to 250 members , but the need for manpower for the war effort caused membership to plummet . By the end of the 1942 – 1943 school year , it dropped it to only 90 bandsmen . As " a crusty old army man " , Dunn understood the nation 's urgent need for troops , and he accepted the fact that the Aggie Band could only return after the war was over .
Along with conducting the Aggie Band , Dunn started his own orchestra with the newly built A & M Consolidated High School on the Texas A & M Campus , called the " Little Symphony Orchestra " . Dunn was also the founder of the famous A & M Consolidated High School Tiger Band in 1947 .
= = = Adams era = = =
Dunn once told then @-@ cadet Edward Vergne Adams , " One day I want you to direct this band . " Adams thought the Colonel was joking , but " went to music school after graduation just in case he wasn 't " . After music school , he joined the Army and put his musical skills to rest for the duration of the war , with one exception : while on regimental staff during the retreat ceremony at the end of the day , the assigned bugler had no experience and couldn 't play a single note , so Adams stepped out of formation , took the bugle from the bugler 's hands , blew the appropriate calls , handed the bugle back , and marched back into his spot in the formation .
This intolerance for incompetence served him well when he accepted the invitation of Dunn to be his replacement as director of the Aggie Band . Adams began his tenure with an undisciplined band devoid of experience and ravaged by years of war , but in his first year of leadership , the ranks of the band quickly swelled to 225 members . Infantry and field artillery associations were no longer required by the Army and Adams changed the units ' names to the Maroon and White Bands .
Adams began to make the drills far more intricate and precise than they had been in the past by adding a countermarch , maneuvers from the Army Drill Manual , and established a 30 inch ( 76 cm ) step , or six steps for every five yards ( 4.57m ) , as the band standard . Adams also added the criss @-@ cross maneuver . First performed November 27 , 1947 at the annual Thanksgiving Day game with the University of Texas , the criss @-@ cross maneuver and its later variations became the band 's most anticipated maneuver . Other band directors said it was impossible to do because it required two people to be in the same place at the same time ( indeed , to this day computer programs that chart band formations say that this maneuver cannot be performed ) . To accomplish this , band members step between each other 's feet . In later years , people who did not know that the maneuver was first done in 1947 claimed that the drill was designed by a computer . Adams explained , " It 's all a matter of mathematics . One man can take up only a certain amount of space at one time and moves in one direction at a predictable rate of speed . "
The band 's reputation spread and other bands had begun to have some apprehension about performing in the same halftime as the Aggie Band . One Southwest Conference band director stated , " I dread going against the Aggie Band .... What is so humiliating is to see the Aggie Band do things band directors talk about as being impossible , and do them perfectly . It takes two weeks to recover from the trauma . " In 1960 , " one band gave up without a fight " : the Trinity Tiger Band opted to sit instead of perform and gave the Aggie Band the entire halftime to perform .
During Adams ' tenure , the college acquired a new mascot , the first since the original Reveille died in 1944 . Reveille II , like the original Reveille , was cared for and attended to by band members . During halftime performances , the young dog was allowed to be on the field with the band without her leash . During these breaks where she could get out and run , she had a tendency to " do her business " on Kyle Field 's playing surface . This didn 't bother the band members much , as Reveille stayed away from the band , but Adams discovered a gambling scheme whereby cadets were taking bets on what yardline the dog would defecate . He quickly ended the practice and turned the responsibility of caring for Reveille over to Company E @-@ 2 , which has since been called the Mascot Company .
On October 7 , 1967 , the first meeting of the Aggie Band Association took place to support the band . The organization , composed of former members and supporters , continue to assist the band through fundraising , scholarships , instrument repair , and general welfare of the cadets in the band . In 1970 , Adams acquired funds and built a new band hall which was named in his honor .
= = = Modernization and expansion = = =
Colonel Joe T. Haney took over the band in 1973 . He felt his obligation was , " not to build up the band ... [ but ] to keep it at its already exceptional level " . During Haney 's years , the band expanded to include a concert band , a symphonic band , the Aggieland Orchestra , and a Drum and Bugle Corps , and the names of the two subunits reverted to their earlier designations of Infantry and Artillery Bands .
This simple philosophy was tested as Texas A & M transitioned from an all @-@ male military college to a coeducational research university . The addition of women to the Corps presented some challenges , including one high @-@ profile lawsuit and fierce resistance from former Corps and Band members . When women were finally admitted to the band under court order ( Fall Semester , 1985 ) ; the first three women had to be housed in a separate dorm until accommodations could be made within the band dorms . Reporters were relentless and Haney finally called an open press conference with the three young ladies . The female cadets refused pictures unless their fish buddies ( members of their freshman class in their unit ) were included in the photos . With a band dropout rate of 33 % the odds were against all of the female cadets succeeding , only Andrea Abat remained in the band through her senior year . Haney realized the separate living conditions were not conducive to good order and discipline and integrated the dorms , grouping females at one end of the dorm and designating one bathroom for exclusive female use .
Amidst these drastic changes , large proportions of the freshmen classes ( some as high as 30 % ) contained all @-@ state high school band members . As the band 's experience and musical talents grew , the quality of the music improved dramatically . Haney even rewrote the drills to include a portion where the band stopped moving and played to the audience . This innovation was well received and became a staple of the band 's repertoire . In 1975 , at a televised game versus the University of Arkansas , the Aggie Band was repeatedly asked to play music during lulls in the game . By the fourth quarter , the Aggie Band had played on TV during every break and Colonel Haney , trying his best to be fair , told the cameraman that they really should let the Razorback Band play a little too . The cameraman called up to the broadcast booth to get guidance and then replied , " The director doesn 't want to hear the Arkansas band , he wants to hear the Aggie Band . "
The drills became even more complicated as Haney added formations and maneuvers never before seen . The excellence shown on the field belied its heavy dependence on precision . On October 24 , 1981 the band suffered a serious misstep during the halftime show at Rice University when four members of a lead element turned early and , before anyone could make a correction , colliding band members ground the drill to a halt . With so many members doing exactly what the person in front of them does with mere inches of clearance , the cascade effect was unrecoverable and the band simply stopped and left the field . Although it was first rumored that the collision was intended to mock the Rice Marching Owl Band , and later that Rice students were using whistles to throw off the band 's response to drum major whistle commands , all of the rumors proved to be unsubstantiated . Thereafter the band performed all drills in Houston without whistle commands .
The following weekend the band attempted their most complicated drill and performed flawlessly . Each subsequent week , the drills became more complicated . The Bryan @-@ College Station Eagle 's editor opined , " A & M is probably the only school anywhere that throws in a free football game with its performance . One of these days , I fully expect the band to be invited to a bowl game — and to be told it can bring along its football team if it wants to . "
= = = Into a new millennium = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Ray E. Toler , a Texas Christian University graduate , replaced Haney when he stepped down in 1989 . As a veteran of many Air Force Bands and with a Grammy Award nomination under his belt , Toler was quick to realize the potential and traditions of the Aggie Band and quickly set about publicizing it . Under his direction , the Aggie Band began a weekly television show ( the " Texas Aggie Band Show " ) that showcased the band , the Corps of Cadets , and the daily life of a band member . As of 2007 , the Aggie Band is the only university or college band with its own weekly television show . The Aggie Band was recognized nationally as the 2001 recipient of the Louis Sudler Trophy for collegiate marching bands , administered by the John Philip Sousa Foundation . During Toler 's leadership of the Aggie Band , its presence was personally requested by President @-@ elect George W. Bush for his inauguration parade .
During Toler 's tenure , many of the Aggie drills and music were written by Dr. Timothy Rhea , who succeeded Toler as Director of Bands in 2002 . Rhea actively arranges and composes music , which has been published by TRN Music Publisher , RBC Music Publisher , and Arranger 's Publishing Company .
= = Cadet life = =
The members of the band are called BQs and , since the band 's inception , are part of the Corps of Cadets . All BQs are assigned to one of six units : A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company or C @-@ Company . C @-@ Company and C @-@ Battery were reactivated on August 23 , 2013 . The band is a major unit within the Corps , comparable in size to a Brigade or a Wing . Due to its status as a Senior Military College all cadets are required to take ROTC classes at least their first two years , though follow @-@ on military service is not required .
The Aggie Band is unique among college bands ; no other band eats and lives together as a military unit , even at the Service Academies and military colleges . Bandsmen wear their cadet uniforms to class , drill , meetings , and other functions on campus . As a requested component of football away games , they perform at more football games than any other band . As of 1993 , the band performed at 125 of the last 131 football games , including a streak of 42 straight from 1981 to 1984 . Demand is extremely high for the band and one person , upon finding out the Aggie Band would not be performing at the local football game versus A & M , returned and requested a refund for 40 tickets .
The Aggie Band performs a new show each week during the football season and does not generally repeat drills from week to week . During the fall semester , the Aggie Band practices one to three hours every weekday morning and on Saturdays every week with a football game . In addition , some components of the band also practice on Sunday afternoons and planning of the drills takes place throughout the fall semester . During weeks with complicated drills , extra practice and planning time is sometimes also done on weekday afternoons . All told , drills can take up to 40 hours per week on top of a full academic schedule and Corps / ROTC activities .
All seniors in the Corps of Cadets wear distinctive cavalry riding boots with their uniforms . These boots usually cost more than US $ 1 @,@ 000 and are generally made at Victor 's or Holick 's , formerly owned by the family of Joseph Holick , the first Band Director .
= = = Leadership = = =
Unlike many bands , the drum majors are not in charge of the band as a whole . Since the band is part of the Corps , it has its own unit commander , a Cadet Colonel . Due to necessity for military functions , the Band Commander is accorded the privilege of the first file in bugle rank ( the lead rank of the band ) . During formal military ceremonies , the commander carries a sabre instead of a bugle , as do all other commanders . Subordinate to the Band Commander are the commanders of the Artillery and Infantry bands , each a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel ; and the unit commanders of A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company , and C @-@ Company . The Batteries are called the Artillery Band and the Companies the Infantry Band . The two bands perform together for halftime shows , but are often split for minor performances such as local parades and functions where the entire band is not needed . Furthermore , the band is composed of three different ROTC programs and appoints commanders to manage and train the cadets within their respective ROTC affiliations .
On the field , the band is led by three drum majors and the twelve members of bugle rank . Each drum major carries a mace and directs the band based on its movements and whistle commands during a drill . The head drum major is a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel , while the two side drum majors , the Infantry Band Drum Major and the Artillery Band Drum Major , are Cadet Majors .
Bugle rank consists of the Band Commander and eleven other senior cadets who are well respected in the band and have impeccable marching abilities . Each bugle rank member carries a bugle with a banner , but are never played during a performance . Together , the drum majors and bugle rank lead the band through the maneuvers on the field . In addition to their primary functions within the band , the bugles and maces also serve a military ceremonial function and are used to salute commissioned officers , much as a rifleman would salute with a rifle or a commander would salute with a sabre .
= = = Composition = = =
The band has approximately 420 members with more than 90 trumpets and cornets , 70 trombones , 30 mellophones , 30 baritones , 45 bass horns , 50 drummers , and 80 assorted woodwinds , though the actual composition varies annually . There are no flutes in the Aggie Band , as their position while being played would hinder the intricate marching maneuvers . Piccolos are used instead . All members of the band must have high school marching experience , an audition during the spring semester leading into the first fall semester of attendance to include major scales and sight reading , and an individual interview with the band director . Prospective members are also encouraged to participate in the Spend the Night with the Corps program to better understand the rigors of life in the Corps of Cadets .
= = Marching = =
= = = Complex maneuvers = = =
The repertoire of the Aggie Band 's maneuvers is designed by the directors and drum majors and can include obliques , flanks , countermarches , and other Army marching maneuvers . The Band is generally led by the bugle rank with each person following the person in front of them , also known as follow @-@ the @-@ leader . Space between band members during countermarches is less than six inches ( 15 cm ) and during other maneuvers even less . This space is insufficient for the bass horns and some members must turn their horns to complete the maneuver . According to an article in The Battalion , " some of the Aggie band 's maneuvers are so complex that some drill @-@ charting software says that the drills are impossible because they require multiple people to be in the same place at the same time . " This is also discussed in a video by The Association of Former Students of Texas A & M University .
The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band has performed at inauguration parades for many Presidents of the United States in Washington , D.C. , including at the personal request of President @-@ elect George H. W. Bush . Other events in which the band has participated include inauguration parades for Governors of Texas , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
= = = Typical halftime drill = = =
The halftime drill always begins with the band running into place at the command of the drum major 's whistle . The announcer ( Lieutenant Colonel Jay Brewer ) then states , usually in unison with the crowd , " Now forming at the north end of Kyle Field , the nationally famous Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band . " A whoop and cheers come from the audience . The drum majors then march out in front of the band and the head drum major calls the band to attention and vocally gives directions to the band , referencing the composition of the Aggie War Hymn , by shouting , " Recall ! Step off on Hullabaloo ! " ( Recall is a traditional Army bugle call – the first 34 notes , and intro of the Aggie War Hymn . " Hullabaloo " is the first word sung in the Aggie War Hymn . ) These directions are not amplified in any way , but can be heard across the entire stadium . After another whoop , the drum majors signal for the horns to be lifted into playing position with two quick whistle blasts and the bugle rank does a flourish .
The drill then begins with the band playing the opening notes of the War Hymn and stepping off into the initial formation . At some point in the drill , the band converts from Spread formation to Block formation . With no cessation of the music until the band leaves the field , the drill continues and often stops with the band playing the last stanza in place in the center of the field before moving into the signature " Block T " or " Block ATM " . When done playing , the band runs off the field . Specific maneuvers in the drill can include :
The Criss Cross : the band files split into two halves and march through each other at 90 ° angles
The Four @-@ way Cross : The band splits into four groups of three files and march through each other from each of the corners of the field ( this maneuver is one of the more popular among fans , due to its difficulty )
Minstrel Turns : band members pass through each other by stepping between each other 's feet .
Spread @-@ to @-@ Block : the band moves from being 30 files wide ( i.e. , across the width of the football field ) by 12 ranks deep ( i.e. , along the length of the football field ) to 12 files wide by 30 ranks deep
Block @-@ to @-@ Spread : the opposite of Spread @-@ to @-@ Block
Continuous Countermarch : the bugle rank leads two successive countermarches following the back of the band through the maneuver
Wheel Turns ( also known as a Gate Turn ) : A turn of a block of the band where the people on the inside of the turn reduce their step size . This is only done during parades when going around corners .
= = Music = =
As a military marching band , the Aggie Band exclusively plays traditional marches . Among many other marches , its primary repertoire includes :
Fightin ' Texas Aggie War Hymn
Spirit of Aggieland : The school 's alma mater
The Noble Men of Kyle : The group 's signature march ; also a nickname for the band
Ballad of the Green Berets
The main theme from the movie Patton
When Johnny Comes Marching Home
Strategic Air Command March
The Aggie Band frequently performs a number of standard military and circus marches :
The Trombone King
Stars and Stripes Forever
Bravura
National Emblem
Them Basses
Washington Post
Many contemporary works are also commonly played by the band , several of them arranged by Dr. Rhea . These include movie marches ( Theme from 1941 , Parade of the Charioteers ) , concert marches ( The Sinfonians ) , and even symphonic and orchestral music ( " Cathedral Chorus " from Russian Christmas Music , Great Gate of Kiev ) .
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= Crucifixion darkness =
The Crucifixion darkness is an episode in three of the Canonical Gospels in which the sky becomes dark in daytime during the crucifixion of Jesus .
Ancient and medieval Christian writers treated this as a miracle , and believed it to be one of the few episodes from the New Testament which were confirmed by non @-@ Christian sources . Pagan commentators of the Roman era explained it as an eclipse , although Christian writers pointed out that an eclipse during Passover , when the crucifixion took place , would have been impossible ; a solar eclipse cannot occur during a full moon .
Modern scholarship , noting the way in which similar accounts were associated in ancient times with the deaths of notable figures , sees the phenomenon as a literary invention that attempts to convey a sense of the power of Jesus in the face of death , or a sign of God 's displeasure with the Jewish people . Scholars have also noted the ways in which this episode appears to draw on earlier biblical accounts of darkness from the Book of Amos and the Book of Exodus .
= = Biblical account = =
The oldest biblical reference to the crucifixion darkness is found in the Gospel of Mark , written around the year 70 . In its account of the crucifixion , on the eve of Passover , it says that after Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning , darkness fell over all the land , or all the world ( Greek : γῆν gēn can mean either ) from around noon ( " the sixth hour " ) until 3 o 'clock ( " the ninth hour " ) . It adds , immediately after the death of Jesus , that " the curtain of the temple was torn in two , from top to bottom " .
The Gospel of Matthew , written around the year 85 or 90 , and using Mark as a source , has an almost identical wording : " From noon on , darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon . " The author adds dramatic details , including an earthquake and the raising of the dead , which were stock motifs from Jewish apocalyptic literature : " The earth shook , and the rocks were split . The tombs also were opened , and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised . "
The Gospel of Luke , written around the year 90 and also using Mark as a source , has none of the details added in the Matthew version , moves the tearing of the temple veil to before the death of Jesus , and explains the darkness as a darkening of the sun :
It was now about noon , and darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon , while the sun 's light failed [ or , the sun was eclipsed ] ; and the curtain of the temple was torn in two .
It appears that the Luke Gospel originally explained the event as an eclipse . The majority of manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke have the Greek phrase " eskotisthe ho helios " ( " the sun was darkened " ) , but the earliest manuscripts say " tou heliou eklipontos " ( " the sun 's light failed " or " the sun was in eclipse " ) . This earlier version is likely to have been the original one , amended by later scribes to correct what they assumed was an error , since they knew that an eclipse was impossible during Passover . One early Christian commentator even suggested that the text had been deliberately corrupted by opponents of the Church to make it easier to attack .
The account of the crucifixion given in the Gospel of John is very different . It takes place on the day of Passover , the crucifixion does not take place until after noon , and there is no mention of darkness , the tearing of the veil , or the raising of the dead .
= = Later versions = =
= = = Apocryphal writers = = =
A number of accounts in apocryphal literature built on the accounts of the crucifixion darkness . The Gospel of Peter , probably from the second century , expanded on the canonical gospel accounts in creative ways . As one writer puts it , " accompanying miracles become more fabulous and the apocalyptic portents are more vivid " . In this version , the darkness which covers the whole of Judaea leads people to go about with lamps believing it to be night . The fourth century Gospel of Nicodemus describes how Pilate and his wife are disturbed by a report of what had happened , and the Judeans he has summoned tell him it was an ordinary solar eclipse . Another text from the fourth century , the purported Report of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius , claimed the darkness had started at the sixth hour , covered the whole world , and during the subsequent evening the full moon resembled blood for the entire night . In a fifth- or sixth @-@ century text by Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite , the author claims to have observed a solar eclipse from Heliopolis at the time of the crucifixion .
= = = Ancient historians = = =
No contemporary references to this darkness have been found outside of the New Testament . Later commentators speculated about a reference in a work by the chronicler Thallus . In the ninth century , the Byzantine historian George Syncellus quoted from the third @-@ century Christian historian Sextus Julius Africanus , who remarked that " Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse " . It is not known when Thallus lived , and it is unclear whether he himself made any reference to the crucifixion . Tertullian , in his Apologeticus , told the story of the crucifixion darkness and suggested that the evidence must still be held in the Roman archives .
Until the Enlightenment era , the crucifixion darkness story was often used by Christian apologists because they believed it was a rare example of the biblical account being supported by non @-@ Christian sources . When the pagan critic Celsus claimed that Jesus could hardly be a God because he had performed no great deeds , the third @-@ century Christian commentator Origen responded , in Against Celsus , by recounting the darkness , earthquake and opening of tombs . As proof that the incident had happened , he referred to a description by Phlegon of Tralles of an eclipse , accompanied by earthquakes felt in other parts of the Empire during the reign of Tiberius ( probably that of 29 CE ) .
In his Commentary on Matthew , however , Origen offered a different approach . Answering criticisms that there was no mention of this incident in any of the many non @-@ Christian sources , he insisted that it was local to Palestine , and therefore would have gone unnoticed outside . To suggestions it was merely an eclipse , Origen pointed out that this was impossible and suggested other explanations , such as heavy clouds , drawing only on the accounts given in Matthew and Mark , which make no mention of the sun .
= = Explanations = =
= = = Miracle = = =
Because it was known in ancient and medieval times that a solar eclipse could not take place during Passover ( solar eclipses require a new moon while Passover only takes place during a full moon ) it was considered a miraculous sign rather than a naturally occurring event . The astronomer Johannes de Sacrobosco wrote , in his The Sphere of the World , " the eclipse was not natural , but , rather , miraculous and contrary to nature " . Modern writers who regard this as a miraculous event tend either to see it as operating through a natural phenomenon — such as volcanic dust or heavy cloud cover — or avoid explanation completely . The Reformation Study Bible , for instance , simply states " This was a supernatural darkness . "
= = = Naturalistic explanations = = =
The Gospel of Luke account appears to describe the event as an eclipse , and some non @-@ Christian writers dismissed it in these terms . However , the biblical details do not accord with an eclipse : a solar eclipse could not have occurred on or near the Passover , when Jesus was crucified , and would have been too brief to account for three hours of darkness . The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse is seven minutes and 31 @.@ 1 seconds . The only total eclipse visible in Jerusalem in this era fell later in the year , on 24 November 29 CE at 11 : 05 AM . Around the Sea of Galilee , it would have been visible for just one minute and forty @-@ nine seconds , and would have been apparent only to those indoors .
In 1983 , Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington argued that the darkness could be accounted for by a partial lunar eclipse that had taken place on that day : lunar eclipses can last much longer than solar ones . Astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer , on the other hand , pointed out that the eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours . Humphreys and Waddington speculated that the reference in the Luke Gospel to a solar eclipse must have been the result of a scribe wrongly amending the text , a claim historian David Henige describes as " indefensible " .
Some writers have explained the crucifixion darkness in terms of sunstorms , heavy cloud cover , the aftermath of a volcanic eruption , or a khamsin dust storm that tends to occur from March to May . A popular work of the nineteenth century described it as an ' oppressive gloom ' and suggested this was a typical phenomenon related to earthquakes .
= = = Literary creation = = =
A common view in modern scholarship is that the account in the synoptic gospels is a literary creation of the gospel writers , intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event . Burton Mack describes it as a fabrication by the author of the Gospel of Mark , while G. B. Caird and Joseph Fitzmyer conclude that the author did not intend the description to be taken literally . W. D. Davies and Dale Allison similarly conclude " It is probable that , without any factual basis , darkness was added in order to wrap the cross in a rich symbol and / or assimilate Jesus to other worthies " .
The image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers as a cosmic sign , a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo , Dio Cassius , Virgil , Plutarch and Josephus . Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as " part of the Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord . It is to be treated as a literary rather than historical phenomenon notwithstanding naive scientists and over @-@ eager television documentary makers , tempted to interpret the account as a datable eclipse of the sun . They would be barking up the wrong tree " .
= = Interpretations = =
This sequence plays an important part in the gospel 's literary narrative . The author of Mark 's gospel has been described as operating here " at the peak of his rhetorical and theological powers " . One suggestion is that the darkness is a deliberate inversion of the transfiguration ; alternately , Jesus 's earlier discourse about a future tribulation mentions the sun being darkened , and can be seen as foreshadowing this scene . Striking details such as the darkening of the sky and the tearing of the temple veil may be a way of focusing the reader away from the shame and humiliation of the crucifixion ; one professor of biblical theology concluded , " it is clear that Jesus is not a humiliated criminal but a man of great significance . His death is therefore not a sign of his weakness but of his power . "
When considering the theological meaning of the event , some authors have interpreted the darkness as a period of mourning by the cosmos itself at the death of Jesus . Others have seen it as a sign of God 's judgement on the Jewish people , sometimes connecting it with the destruction of the city of Jerusalem in the year 70 ; or as symbolising shame , fear , or the mental suffering of Jesus . Fitzmyer compares the event to a contemporary description recorded in Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews , which recounts " unlawful acts against the gods , from which we believe the very sun turned away , as if it too were loath to look upon the foul deed " .
Many writers have adopted an intertextual approach , looking at earlier texts from which the author of the Mark Gospel may have drawn . In particular , parallels have often been noted between the darkness and the prediction in the Book of Amos of an earthquake in the reign of King Uzziah of Judah : " On that day , says the Lord God , I will make the sun go down at noon , and darken the earth in broad daylight " . Particularly in connection with this reference , read as a prophecy of the future , the darkness can be seen as portending the end times .
Another likely literary source is the plague narrative in the Book of Exodus , in which Egypt is covered by darkness for three days . It has been suggested that the author of the Matthew Gospel changed the Marcan text slightly to more closely match this source . Commentators have also drawn comparisons with the description of darkness in the Genesis creation narrative , with a prophecy regarding mid @-@ day darkness by Jeremiah , and with an end @-@ times prophecy in the Book of Zechariah .
Roman literary sources have also been postulated , namely those on the apotheosis of the mythical king Romulus , and about the death of Julius Caesar .
= = Iconography = =
In traditional artistic representations of the crucifixion , the sun and moon sometimes appear above and to either side of the cross , in allusion to the darkening of the skies .
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= Sleight of hand =
Sleight of hand ( also known as prestidigitation or legerdemain ) refers to fine motor skills when used by performing artists in different art forms to entertain or manipulate . It is closely associated with close @-@ up magic , card cheating , card flourishing and stealing .
Because of its heavy use and practice by magicians , sleight of hand is often confused as a branch of magic , but is in reality a separate genre of entertainment , as many artists practice sleight of hand without the slightest interest in magic .
Sleight of hand pioneers with worldwide acclaim include Dan and Dave , Ricky Jay , David Blaine , David Copperfield , Yann Frisch , Dai Vernon and Tony Slydini .
= = Etymology and history = =
The word sleight , meaning " the use of dexterity or cunning , especially so as to deceive " , comes from the Old Norse . The phrase sleight of hand means " quick fingers " or " trickster fingers " . Common synonyms from the Latin language include prestidigitation and legerdemain . Seneca the Younger , philosopher of the Silver Age of Latin literature , famously compared rhetoric techniques and illusionist techniques .
= = Association with close @-@ up magic = =
Sleight of hand is often used in close @-@ up magic , where the sleights are performed with the audience close to the magician , usually in physical contact or within 3 to 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) . This close contact eliminate theories of fake audience members and the use of gimmicks . It makes use of everyday items as props , such as cards , coins , rubber bands , paper , phones and even saltshakers . A well @-@ performed sleight looks like an ordinary , natural and completely innocent gesture , change in hand @-@ position or body posture . In addition to manual dexterity , sleight of hand in close @-@ up magic depends on the use of psychology , timing , misdirection , and natural choreography in accomplishing a magical effect .
= = Association with stage magic = =
Sleight of hand during stage magic performances is not common , as most magic events and stunts are performed with objects visible to a much larger audience , but is nevertheless done occasionally by many stage performers . The most common magic tricks performed with sleight of hand on stage are rope manipulations and card tricks , with the first typically being done with a member of the audience to rule out the possibility of stooges and the latter primarily being done on a table while a camera is live @-@ recording , allowing the rest of audience to see the performance on a big screen . Worldwide acclaimed stage magician David Copperfield often include illusions featuring sleight of hand in his stage shows .
= = Association with card cheating = =
Although being mostly used for entertainment and comedy purposes , sleight of hand is also notoriously used to cheat at casinos and gambling facilities throughout the world . Common ways to professionally cheat at card games using sleight of hand include palming , switching , ditching , and stealing cards from the table . Such techniques include extreme misdirection and years of practice . For these reasons , the term sleight of hand frequently carries negative associations of dishonesty and deceit at many gambling halls , and many magicians known around the world are publicly banned from casinos , such as British mentalist and close @-@ up magician Derren Brown , who is banned from every casino in Britain .
= = Association with cardistry = =
Unlike card tricks done on the streets or on stage and card cheating , cardistry is solely about impressing without illusions , deceit , misdirection and other elements commonly used in card tricks and card cheating . Cardistry , or card flourishes , are always intended to be visually impressive and appear extremely difficult to perform . Card flourishing is often associated with card tricks , but many sleight of hand artists perform flourishing without considering themselves magicians or having any real interest in card tricks .
= = Association with card throwing = =
The art of card throwing generally consist of throwing standard playing cards with excessively high speed and accuracy , powerful enough to slice fruits like carrots and even melons . Like flourishing , throwing cards are meant to be visibly impressive and does not include magic elements . Magician Ricky Jay popularized throwing cards within the sleight of hand industry with the release of his 1977 book entitled Cards as Weapons , which was met with large sales and critical acclaim . Some magic tricks , both close @-@ up and on stage , are heavily connected to throwing cards .
= = = Printed = = =
Henry , Hay ( 1975 ) . Cyclopedia of Magic . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 21808 @-@ 3 .
Hugard , Jean ; Braué , Frederick , eds . ( 2012 ) . The Royal Road to Card Magic . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486156682 .
Jones , Jessica ( 2007 ) . The Art of Cheating : A Nasty Little Book for Tricky Little Schemers and Their Helpless Victims . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 1416571384 .
Jay , Joshua ( 2008 ) . Magic : The Complete Course . Workman Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0761159681 .
Longe , Robert ( 2003 ) . Clever Close @-@ up Magic . Sterling Publishing Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1402700279 .
Ostovich , Helen ; Hopkins , Lisa , eds . ( 2014 ) . Magical Transformations on the Early Modern English Stage . Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1472432865 .
Scarne , John ( 2003 ) . Scarne 's Magic Tricks . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486427799 .
Tarr , William ( 1976 ) . Now You See It , Now You Don 't ! Lessons in Sleight of Hand . Vintage Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 72202 @-@ 7 .
Whaley , Barton ; Bell , John , eds . ( 1991 ) . Cheating and Deception . Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1412819435 .
= = = Online = = =
Jones , Finn @-@ Olaf ( 22 April 2006 ) . " Houdini in the Desert " . Forbes . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
Singer , Mark ( 5 April 1993 ) . " Ricky Jay 's Magical Secrets " . The New Yorker . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
" Sleight " . Oxford Dictionary . 2015 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
Wells , Dominic ( 26 January 2008 ) . " The Derren Brown Factor " . The Times . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .
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= Southern Rhodesia in World War I =
When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of World War I in August 1914 , settler society in Southern Rhodesia , then administered by the British South Africa Company , received the news with great patriotic enthusiasm . The Company administrator , Sir William Milton , wired the UK government , " All Rhodesia ... ready to do its duty " . Although it supported Britain , the Company was concerned about the possible financial implications for its chartered territory should it make direct commitments to the war effort , particularly at first , so most of the colony 's contribution to the war was made by Southern Rhodesians individually — not only those who volunteered to fight abroad , but also those who remained at home and raised funds to donate food , equipment and other supplies .
Starting immediately after the outbreak of war , parties of white Southern Rhodesians paid their own way to England to join the British Army . Most Southern Rhodesians who served in the war enlisted in this way and fought on the Western Front , taking part in many of the major battles with an assortment of British , South African and other colonial units , most commonly the King 's Royal Rifle Corps , which recruited hundreds of men from the colony , and created homogenous Rhodesian platoons . Troopers from Southern Rhodesia became renowned on the Western Front for their marksmanship , a result of their frontier lifestyle . Some of the colony 's men served in the Royal Flying Corps , one of the two predecessors of the Royal Air Force . The Rhodesia Regiment , the Rhodesia Native Regiment and the British South Africa Police served in the African theatre of the conflict , contributing to the South @-@ West African and East African campaigns .
Though it was one of the few combatant territories not to raise fighting men through conscription , proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia contributed more manpower to the British war effort than any other dominion or colony , and more than Britain itself . White troops numbered 5 @,@ 716 , about 40 % of white men in the colony , with 1 @,@ 720 of these serving as commissioned officers . The Rhodesia Native Regiment enlisted 2 @,@ 507 black soldiers , about 30 black recruits scouted for the Rhodesia Regiment , and around 350 served in British and South African units . Over 800 Southern Rhodesians of all races lost their lives on operational service during the war , with many more seriously wounded .
The territory 's contributions during the First World War became a major entry in many histories of the colony , and a great source of pride for the white community , as well as for some black Rhodesians . It played a part in the UK government 's decision to grant self @-@ government in 1923 , and remained prominent in the national consciousness for decades . When the colonial government unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 , it deliberately did so on Armistice Day , 11 November , and signed the proclamation at 11 : 00 local time . Since the territory 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , the modern government has removed many references to the war , such as memorial monuments and plaques , from public view , regarding them as unwelcome vestiges of white minority rule and colonialism . The Zimbabwean cultural memory has largely forgotten the First World War ; the country 's war dead today have no official commemoration , either there or overseas .
= = Background = =
At the time of World War I ( also known as the First World War or the Great War ) , Southern Rhodesia was administered by the British South Africa Company , which had controlled it and Northern Rhodesia since acquiring them through diplomacy and conquest during the 1890s . The white population in Southern Rhodesia stood at 23 @,@ 606 in 1911 ( a minority of 3 % ) , while Northern Rhodesia had about 3 @,@ 000 white settlers ( less than half of 1 % ) . With the Company 's charter due to expire in late 1914 , most Southern Rhodesian public attention was focused on this issue before the outbreak of war . The settlers were split between those who backed continued administration by the Chartered Company and those who advocated responsible government , which would make Southern Rhodesia a self @-@ governing colony within the British Empire . Still others favoured the integration of Southern Rhodesia into the Union of South Africa , which had been formed in 1910 . Following the intervention of the war , the charter was renewed for 10 years in early 1915 .
Before 1914 , Southern Rhodesia 's police force was the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , first raised in 1889 and reconstituted into a more permanent form in 1896 . This paramilitary , mounted infantry force was theoretically also the country 's standing army . Organised along military lines , it served in the First and Second Matabele Wars of the 1890s , operated on Britain 's side in the Anglo @-@ Boer War of 1899 – 1902 ( alongside the specially @-@ raised Rhodesia Regiment ) , and by 1914 comprised about 1 @,@ 150 men ( including officers ) . Reserves existed in the form of the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers , an all @-@ white amateur force with a paper strength of 2 @,@ 000 intended for mobilisation against local uprisings . Few doubted the Volunteers ' enthusiasm , but they were not extensively trained or equipped ; though perhaps useful in a Rhodesian bush skirmish , most observers agreed they would be no match for professional soldiers in a conventional war . In any case , the Volunteers ' enlistment contracts bound them for domestic service only .
= = Outbreak of war = =
= = = Announcement and reception = = =
When Britain declared war on Germany at 23 : 00 Greenwich Mean Time on 4 August 1914 , the British Empire 's dominions and colonies automatically became involved as well . Word of this reached the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury during the night . Early on 5 August , the Company administrator Sir William Milton wired Whitehall : " All Rhodesia united in devoted loyalty to King and Empire and ready to do its duty . " A few hours later he officially announced to the populace that Southern Rhodesia was at war . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers published special editions the same day to spread the news ; it took about half a week for word to reach the whole country , but jingoistic demonstrations began in the major towns almost immediately .
In the words of the historian Peter McLaughlin , the Southern Rhodesian settlers " seemed to out @-@ British the British " in their patriotic zeal , so it was to the frustration of many of them that the Company did not immediately commit to any martial action . While it sent supportive messages to Whitehall , the Company felt it could not raise any kind of expeditionary force without first considering the implications for its administrative operations ; as a commercial concern , it was possible for the Company to go bankrupt . Who would foot the bill for war expenditure , its hierarchy pondered : the Company itself , the Rhodesian taxpayers or the British government ?
As the local newspapers filled with letters from readers clamouring for Rhodesian troops to be mustered and despatched to Europe post @-@ haste , the administration limited its initial contribution to posting a section of BSAP troopers to the Victoria Falls Bridge to guard against possible German attack from South @-@ West Africa though the Caprivi Strip . In early September , an indignant letter to the Rhodesia Herald from Colonel Raleigh Grey , a major figure in local business , politics and military matters , accused the Company of bringing " a slur on a British country " by doing so little .
= = = Rhodesian Reserves = = =
A few days after the war began , the Chartered Company formed the Rhodesian Reserves , an amorphous entity intended to accommodate the many white men who were keen to put on uniform , as well as to make a start towards organising what might eventually become an expeditionary force . Eminent citizens and elected leaders formed their own platoons , each bringing 24 volunteers ; three or four of these 25 @-@ man troops made a company . Units representing the Caledonian Society , the Lancashire and Yorkshire Society , the Legion of Frontiersmen and other local organisations mirrored the Pals battalions in Britain . Volunteers could opt to serve overseas , within Rhodesia or only locally ; around 1 @,@ 000 had volunteered in all by 13 August .
The Company suggested to the UK government that it might despatch 500 troopers from the Rhodesian Reserves to Europe to act as an all @-@ Southern Rhodesian unit on the Western Front ( in Belgium and France ) , but the War Office in London replied that such an expeditionary force would be more practically deployed in Africa , within the South African forces . When the Company relayed this idea south , the South Africans said they were happy to take the Southern Rhodesians , but only if they enlisted independently in existing Union regiments . The Company found itself in the unusual position of having a prospective expeditionary force that nobody wanted . Unwilling to wait , some Southern Rhodesian would @-@ be soldiers made their own way to England to join the British Army directly , as individuals or in groups . By the end of October 1914 , about 300 were on their way .
= = Europe = =
= = = Western Front = = =
In terms of fighting manpower , Southern Rhodesia 's main contribution to World War I was in the trenches of the Western Front . As the white Southern Rhodesians in this theatre joined the British Army separately , at different times and under their own steam ( or were already connected to specific units as reservists ) , they were spread across dozens of regiments , including the Black Watch , the Coldstream Guards , the Grenadier Guards , the Royal Engineers and the Royal Marines , as well as many South African units and others . During the war 's opening months , Southern Rhodesian volunteers who could not afford to travel to England were assisted by a private fund set up by Ernest Lucas Guest , a Salisbury lawyer and Anglo @-@ Boer War veteran who also organised an accompanying recruitment campaign for European service . Guest stopped recruiting at the Company 's request after it created the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , an expeditionary force to South and South @-@ West Africa , in October 1914 .
A link developed during the war with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps ( KRRC ) , whose Southern Rhodesian contingent — numbering a few hundred , chiefly in its 2nd and 3rd Battalions — was the largest on the Western Front . The connection with this particular corps began as the result of a chance conversation aboard the ship that took the first batch of Southern Rhodesians from Cape Town to Southampton in late 1914 . The 16th Marquess of Winchester , who had links with Rhodesia dating back to the 1890s , was also aboard the ship , returning from a visit to the colony . Encountering Captain John Banks Brady , the officer of Irish origin who led the volunteers , the Marquess asked where his party was headed . Brady enthusiastically replied that they were going to war together in France . The Marquess suggested to Brady that since it might be difficult to prevent his men from being split up during the enlistment process , it might be a good idea for the Rhodesians to join the KRRC , where he could keep an eye on them through his connections with the Winchester @-@ based regiment . The Southern Rhodesian contingent duly mustered into the KRRC . A designated Rhodesian platoon , widely referred to thereafter as " the Rhodesian Platoon " , was formed under Brady at the KRRC training camp at Sheerness , on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent .
As a rule , the white Rhodesians overseas combined stridently pro @-@ British attitudes with an even stronger pride in Rhodesia . Many of them saw participation in the war , particularly in distinct " Rhodesian " formations , as a step towards forging a distinctive national identity , like those of Australia and the other more mature British dominions , and building a case for Southern Rhodesian self @-@ government . The existence of an explicitly Rhodesian Platoon in the KRRC endeared the regiment to the Southern Rhodesian public , and attracted many of the colony 's volunteers who arrived in England later in the war ; in time , the KRRC formed further Rhodesian platoons from additional personnel . While the average Rhodesian colonial , living on the frontier of the Empire , was at least casually acquainted with rifles , most Englishmen had never held one . At Sheerness , Brady 's Rhodesian Platoon won a reputation for fine sharpshooting , and set a regimental record score at the shooting range .
Once posted to France in December 1914 , the Rhodesian Platoon almost immediately began suffering regular heavy casualties . Southern Rhodesian volunteers continued to arrive piecemeal in England throughout the conflict , so Rhodesian formations on the Western Front received regular reinforcements in small batches , but because casualties were usually concentrated in far larger groups it often took a few months for a depleted Southern Rhodesian unit to return to full numerical strength . A cycle developed whereby Rhodesian platoons in Belgium and France were abruptly decimated and then gradually built up again only to suffer the same fate on returning to action . When the KRRC 's Rhodesian platoons took part in British offensives , they were easily recognised by a distinctive battle cry that their men shouted as they went over the top . Sometimes the British and German positions were so close that troopers on each front line could hear what was said in the opposite trench ; one group of Southern Rhodesians avoided being understood in this situation by speaking a mixture of Shona and Sindebele ( two African languages ) instead of English .
Trench warfare was a dreadful ordeal for soldiers , and the Southern Rhodesians , coming from the open veld of southern Africa , had a particularly difficult time getting used to the cold and the mud . Brady reported that some of his men had contracted frostbite within 48 hours of reaching the trenches . Despite this , the KRRC 's Rhodesians acquitted themselves well in the eyes of their superiors ; Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sir Edward Hutton , who wrote a history of the KRRC , commented that the Southern Rhodesian contingent " earned for itself great reputation for valour and good shooting " . Southern Rhodesians became especially valuable to the KRRC as designated snipers , grenadiers , Lewis Gunners and other specialists . While discussing a KRRC sniper section , Hutton singles its Southern Rhodesian members out for their fine marksmanship , commenting that " accustomed to big game shooting , [ they ] particularly excelled in this system of ' snipers ' , and inflicted continual losses upon the enemy " . In their 2008 history of sniping , Pat Farey and Mark Spicer highlight the prowess of South African and Rhodesian sharpshooters on the Western Front , and claim that one group of 24 southern African colonials collectively accounted for over 3 @,@ 000 German casualties and fatalities .
So many Southern Rhodesians were withdrawn from the trenches for officer training that in mid @-@ 1915 Brady appealed through the Salisbury and Bulawayo presses for more volunteers to replace those who had been commissioned . A platoon of Southern Rhodesians with the 2nd Battalion , KRRC took part in the " big push " of 1 July 1916 , the first day of the Battle of the Somme , charging German positions elsewhere on the line early that morning . There were 90 Rhodesians on the eve of the attack and only 10 alive and unwounded afterwards . On the Somme battlefield itself , Rhodesians were among those at Delville Wood , which began on 14 July . This was the South African 1st Infantry Brigade 's first engagement , and some of the colonials blacked up and imitated Zulu battle cries and war dances . Despite suffering casualties of catastrophic proportions — about 80 % of the brigade 's personnel were killed , wounded or captured — they took the Wood and held it as ordered until they were relieved on 20 July . By the time of its withdrawal , the South African Brigade , originally numbering 3 @,@ 155 ( 123 officers and 3 @,@ 032 other ranks ) , had been reduced to 19 officers and 600 men . Delville Wood was later described by Sir B H Liddell Hart as " the bloodiest battle hell of 1916 " . " God knows I never wish to see such horrible sights again , " a Southern Rhodesian veteran of the battle wrote home ; " at times I wished it would come fast , anything to get out of that terrible death @-@ trap and murderous place . "
German gas attacks were among the most traumatic experiences for the Southern Rhodesians in Europe . One Rhodesian survivor of a gas attack described the sensation as like " suffocation , [ or ] slow drowning " . The Germans used both disabling agents , such as tear gas and the more severe mustard gas , and lethal chemicals like chlorine and phosgene . Though generally not fatal , gas attacks caused extreme physical discomfort and pain , often to the point where soldiers lost consciousness . Mustard gas in particular caused blistering of the skin , vomiting and internal and external bleeding . The British Army issued gas masks , but according to Brady these did little to help the men . Injuries sustained to the eyes , lungs and nasal passages in gas attacks were often extremely debilitating and lasting , remaining with the men for years after the war .
In July 1917 , a KRRC Rhodesian platoon received lofty praise from a senior British officer , who described the colonials as " absolutely first @-@ class soldiers and great gentlemen , every bit as good as soldiers ... as our old Expeditionary Force " . Around the same time , a platoon of Southern Rhodesians in the KRRC took part in an engagement near Nieuwpoort in Flanders , where it and the Northamptonshire Regiment manned positions on the eastern banks of the river Yser . After a heavy artillery bombardment , German infantry and marines charged the British positions and surrounded the Rhodesian platoon . Brutal hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ensued in which most of the Southern Rhodesians were killed and some were taken prisoner . The Bulawayo Chronicle ran a eulogy for them soon after , comparing their last stand to that of Allan Wilson 's Shangani Patrol in 1893 . Later in 1917 , a Rhodesian platoon in the KRRC fought in the Battle of Passchendaele , near Ypres in western Flanders .
The Western Front continued to receive Southern Rhodesian troops right up to the end of the war , including veterans of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's campaign in East Africa . During the conflict 's latter stages , the British Army sent some of its Southern Rhodesian officers to the Western Front to promote the colony 's benefits , hoping to encourage emigration there by British servicemen after the war .
= = = Salonika = = =
The KRRC 's 3rd Battalion , including a platoon of 70 Rhodesians , was transferred from France to the Salonika Front in 1915 . On this comparatively quiet front , they were slowly whittled down over the course of the war : 26 of them remained in January 1917 , and by the end of the war so few were left that the platoon no longer existed . Most of the men had been killed in action , while others were prisoners of the Bulgarians .
= = = Aviators = = =
Some Southern Rhodesians mustered into the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , which merged with the Royal Naval Air Service in April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force . Towards the end of the war , the service of airmen from the dominions and colonies was observed by the issuing of shoulder patches denoting the wearer 's country of origin : from October 1918 , Southern Rhodesians received labels marked " rhodesia " . One of the territory 's first military aviators was Lieutenant Arthur R H Browne , a fighter pilot from Umvuma in the Southern Rhodesian Midlands , who was attached to No. 13 Squadron , RFC . He was killed in action in a dogfight on 5 December 1915 ; his aircraft , donated by the people of Gatooma in western Mashonaland , was Gatooma No. 2 , one of five aeroplanes purchased by Southern Rhodesian public donations . From Dryden Farm , near the south @-@ western border town of Plumtree , came Lieutenant Frank W H Thomas , an RFC combat pilot who won the Military Cross , as well as the French Croix de Guerre ( with palms ) , before he died on 5 January 1918 from wounds attained on operational service .
Lieutenant Daniel S " Pat " Judson , born in Bulawayo in 1898 , became the first Rhodesia @-@ born airman in history when he joined the RFC in April 1916 . He was severely wounded while bombing enemy positions in March 1918 , but recovered and remained in the unit until April 1919 . The first flying ace born in Rhodesia was Major George Lloyd , nicknamed " Zulu " , who joined No. 60 Squadron in April 1917 , and won four aerial victories before transferring to No. 40 Squadron in July 1917 , where he won four more . He received the Military Cross in March 1918 for " conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty " , and also won the Air Force Cross later that year . Second Lieutenant David " Tommy " Greswolde @-@ Lewis , a born and bred Bulawayan , was the 80th and final pilot defeated by Manfred von Richthofen , the German ace widely known as the Red Baron . Richthofen downed Lewis just north @-@ east of Villers @-@ Bretonneux on 20 April 1918 ; the Rhodesian 's aircraft caught fire in mid @-@ air , and when it crashed he was thrown from the wreckage . The Baron 's bullets had hit Lewis ' compass , goggles , coat and trouser leg , but he was practically unhurt , having suffered only minor burns . He spent the rest of the war a German prisoner .
The Great War airman associated with Southern Rhodesia who ultimately earned the most distinction was Arthur Harris , originally from England , who joined the Royal Flying Corps in late 1915 after serving as a bugler with the 1st Rhodesia Regiment in South @-@ West Africa . Harris alternated between Britain and France during the latter part of the war . He led No. 45 Squadron over the Western Front in 1917 , destroying five German aircraft and winning the Air Force Cross , and afterwards commanded No. 44 Squadron in Britain . Intending to return to Southern Rhodesia after the war , he wore a " rhodesia " flash on his uniform during the hostilities , but ended up staying with the RAF as a career officer . He finished the war a major , rose through the ranks during the interwar period and became famous during World War II as " Bomber Harris " , the head of RAF Bomber Command .
= = Southern Africa = =
= = = Maritz Rebellion ; formation of 1st Rhodesia Regiment = = =
Apart from the capture of Schuckmannsburg in the Caprivi Strip by a combined force of BSAP and Northern Rhodesia Police on 21 September 1914 , the British South Africa Company 's own armed forces and police remained almost totally uninvolved in the war until the following month . The South African Prime Minister , the former Boer general Louis Botha , had told Britain that the Union could both handle its own security during the hostilities and defeat German South @-@ West Africa without help , so the Imperial garrison had been sent to the Western Front . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Manie Maritz — an ex @-@ Boer commander who now headed a column of Afrikaans @-@ speaking Union troops — defected to the Germans in mid @-@ September , hoping to spark an uprising that would overthrow British supremacy in South Africa and restore the old Boer Republics . Botha requested the 500 @-@ man column that the Chartered Company had raised , hoping to reduce the possibility of further defections by interspersing his own forces with firmly pro @-@ British Rhodesians . The expeditionary force was promptly formalised in Salisbury , and named the 1st Rhodesia Regiment after the unit of Southern Rhodesian volunteers that had fought in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . Apart from a small contingent of Matabele ( or Ndebele ) scouts , the unit was all white .
After six weeks ' training in the capital , the 1st Rhodesia Regiment travelled south by railway in late October 1914 . During its stopover in Bulawayo , it paraded in front of about 90 % of the town 's population ; Plumtree , the last stop before crossing the border , provided the soldiers with a lavish parting banquet . Notwithstanding these grand farewells , the Maritz Rebellion was all but over by the time the Southern Rhodesian contingent reached its destination at Bloemfontein . The vast majority of South African troops , including most of Boer origin , had remained loyal to the Union government , and the uprising had been quashed . The Rhodesians garrisoned Bloemfontein for about a month , then redeployed to Cape Town , where they underwent further training for the South @-@ West Africa Campaign as part of South Africa 's Northern Force , which Botha personally commanded .
= = = 1st Rhodesia Regiment in South @-@ West Africa = = =
During late December 1914 , Northern Force travelled to the South African exclave of Walvis Bay , about halfway up the coast of German South @-@ West Africa . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment disembarked on 26 December 1914 .
Northern Force made up the northern prong of a pincer movement designed by Botha to encircle the German forces in South @-@ West Africa . Two smaller South African columns came from the Cape and the Orange Free State ( the latter coming over the deserts of Bechuanaland ) . The principal target was Windhoek , the capital of South @-@ West Africa . The field of operations was arid and barren in the extreme ; water was a precious commodity , so the South Africans and Southern Rhodesians brought thousands of tons of it with them . In the 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of desert between Walvis Bay and Windhoek , temperatures could rise to above 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) in the daytime , then drop below freezing at night , all while desert winds blew sand and dust into every bodily and mechanical orifice . Germany based much of its defensive strategy in South @-@ West Africa around the assumption that no enemy commander could feasibly attempt to advance across the desert from Walvis Bay to Windhoek , but Botha resolved to do exactly that .
The South African offensive from Walvis Bay began in February 1915 , when Northern Force took Swakopmund — the nearest German coastal settlement , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north — without facing major resistance . The Germans almost immediately retreated , leaving behind explosive booby traps and other improvised weapons . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment first engaged the Germans while Northern Force moved east across the desert , taking part in a number of minor skirmishes and suffering its first two fatalities in a German ambush . To overcome the natural difficulties of the desert terrain , Botha used fast @-@ moving mounted or mechanised troops rather than regular infantry , so the Southern Rhodesian contingent played little part in the main advance on Windhoek . The Rhodesians guarded the construction of a railway inland for much of the campaign , but participated in Northern Force 's victory over the Germans at Trekkopjes , losing Lieutenant Hollingsworth ( killed in action ) and five enlisted men ( wounded ) . Windhoek surrendered to Botha in July 1915 , effectively ending the South @-@ West African front of the war . The local German population did not embark on a guerrilla campaign after Windhoek 's fall .
The 1st Rhodesia Regiment was soon posted back to Cape Town , where many of the troopers voiced their dissatisfaction at the lack of fighting in South @-@ West Africa , and requested discharge so they could join the war in Europe . Superiors assured the men that they would see action in East Africa if they stayed , but failed to convince most of them ; the 1st Rhodesia Regiment promptly disbanded due to a lack of personnel . The majority of the South @-@ West Africa veterans boarded ship for England to enlist in the British Army , while others mustered into South African units already billed for European service .
= = East Africa = =
German East Africa , acquired by Germany during the 1880s , covered roughly 900 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 350 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and by 1914 was home to about 5 @,@ 000 white settlers , most of whom were of German origin . German East African soldiery at the outbreak of war comprised 216 German officers and enlisted men , and 2 @,@ 450 askaris ( native soldiers ) ; police numbered 45 whites and 2 @,@ 154 askaris . Because of the British Royal Navy 's domination of the Indian Ocean , German East Africa was largely isolated from outside help . It therefore fought a war of improvisation , judicious resource management and unorthodox strategy . During the conflict , its military strength grew to a peak of 3 @,@ 300 whites and anywhere between 15 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 askaris , all commanded by Generalmajor Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck .
= = = 2nd Rhodesia Regiment = = =
Based around the overflow of volunteers for the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , a core of personnel for a second Southern Rhodesian expeditionary unit was in place by November 1914 . This was made into the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment ( 2RR ) during December 1914 and January 1915 . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment 's lack of combat experience thus far influenced those men in Southern Rhodesia who were yet to enlist ; many Rhodesian colonials were keen to fight on the front lines , and some resolved that they might have to travel to Europe to be sure of doing so . Aware of this competition with the Western Front for the colony 's manpower , recruiters for the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment took great care to assure potential inductees that they would definitely see combat , in Africa , if they signed up for the new unit . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment ultimately had a paper strength of 500 men , the same as the 1st . Thirty black scouts , recruited in Southern Rhodesia , were also attached to the regiment .
Because it was raised with less urgency , the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment received better training than the 1st . The course lasted eight weeks , a fortnight longer than the original regiment 's training period , and focused heavily on route marching , parade drill , and , in particular , marksmanship — recruits were trained to shoot accurately at ranges of up to 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment left Salisbury on 8 March 1915 , moving east to the port of Beira in Portuguese Mozambique , from where they sailed to Mombasa in British Kenya , on German East Africa 's north @-@ eastern flank . Travelling aboard the SS Umzumbi , the battalion disembarked in Kenya less than a week after leaving Salisbury . It was immediately sent inland to the operational area around Mount Kilimanjaro , within sight of which it set up camp . On 20 March , the regiment was inspected by General J M Stewart of the Indian Army . " I had expected to see a regiment that would require some training , " Stewart said ; " I will pay you the highest compliment by sending you to the front today . " So began the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's contribution to the East African Campaign .
The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment operated with some success during its first year on the front . It usually defeated German units that it encountered , but the Germans , using proto @-@ guerrilla tactics , tended to retreat before they could be overrun . Though generally outnumbered and outgunned throughout the campaign , the Germans had the advantage early on of longer @-@ range artillery than the British ; from July to August 1916 , 2RR was prevented from moving out of the Kenyan town of Makindu for nearly a month by German bombardment . The huge marching distances , difficult terrain and uncertainty of surroundings meant that the regiment 's men were forced to develop enormous stamina and resilience if they were not to be invalided home .
Tropical disease killed or rendered ineffective far more 2RR men than the Germans did ; at times the regiment was reduced to an effective strength of under 100 by the vast myriad of potential ailments , including trench fever , blackwater fever , dysentery , pneumonia , sleeping sickness and many others . The 1 @,@ 038 personnel who served with 2RR in East Africa collectively went into hospital 2 @,@ 272 times , and there were 10 @,@ 626 incidences of illness — in other words , the average 2RR soldier was hospitalised twice and reported sick 10 times . In January 1917 , only 91 of the regiment 's men were considered fit for duty ; it was no longer an effective fighting force , and the white Southern Rhodesian manpower did not exist to continue reinforcing it . It was therefore withdrawn from East Africa that month . Those men who were healthy enough to return home arrived back in Salisbury on 14 April 1917 , receiving a tumultuous welcome , but the majority of 2RR remained in medical care overseas for some time afterwards .
The Company briefly considered sending a revived 2nd Rhodesia Regiment to the Western Front , but the British Army promptly rejected this idea , saying that the unit would be impractical for trench warfare because of its small size . The battalion was thereupon dissolved , but most of its remaining men went to war in Europe anyway , generally with South African units .
= = = Rhodesia Native Regiment = = =
By late 1915 , British forces in the border areas of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , on German East Africa 's south @-@ western flank , were severely stretched . Disease was a constant curse , decimating the ranks . Francis Drummond Chaplin , the British South Africa Company administrator in Southern Rhodesia , offered to provide the British with a column of between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 askaris , and Whitehall accepted this in March 1916 ; however , there was then disagreement regarding who would foot the bill for the organisation of this enterprise . After this was resolved in April 1916 — the Company agreed to pay , conditional on reimbursement by the British Colonial Office — recruitment began in May .
Initial recruitment efforts principally targeted the Matabele , who made up about 20 % of the colony 's black population , because they enjoyed a popular reputation among whites for being great warriors ; the unit was therefore originally called the " Matabele Regiment " . This was changed to the more inclusive " Rhodesia Native Regiment " ( RNR ) on 15 May 1916 , as the ranks proved to be more diverse than expected , and included large numbers of Mashonas and other ethnicities . In particular , a disproportionately high number of volunteers came from the Kalanga tribe , a numerically diminutive community in the colony 's south @-@ west . The RNR was organised largely along linguistic and cultural lines , with companies and platoons of Matabele , Mashona , Wayao and others . White officers attached to the unit were often recruited because they knew an African language , or could give orders in Chilapalapa , a pidgin of English and several African tongues often referred to by whites of the time as " kitchen kaffir " . The ranks ' diversity sometimes led to confusion when messages or directives were not properly understood . It became common for black troopers accused of disobeying or ignoring commands to claim ignorance of the language in which they had been ordered .
Commanded by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel A J Tomlinson , the RNR , comprising 426 askaris and about 30 white officers , left Salisbury in July 1916 for Beira . They continued on to Zomba , in Nyasaland , where they were to receive further training closer to the field of operations . When they arrived , the local situation had shifted significantly , so the RNR instead went to New Langenberg , in German East Africa , just north of Lake Nyasa . At New Langenberg the regiment went through a short training course , and was issued with six machine guns . When the unit 's training period ended in October 1916 it was divided ; one company of RNR men went to Buhora , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east , while the rest went 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) south to Weidhaven , on the north banks of Lake Nyasa , from where they moved 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) east to Songea , which they were ordered to " hold ... until reinforced " . Apart from a company of men sent to patrol the road back to Weidhaven , the RNR proceeded to garrison Songea .
The Germans , who had left Songea only a few weeks before , sent two columns to retake it during early November 1916 — 250 askaris marched from Likuyu , and 180 more ( with two machine guns ) set off from Kitanda . The latter German column spotted the RNR company that was patrolling the road , and at Mabogoro attacked the advance guard , which was commanded by Sergeant ( later Lieutenant ) Frederick Charles Booth . The Rhodesians were caught by surprise , and many panicked , running about and firing randomly . Booth restored discipline and led the defence until reinforcements arrived . The Germans then retreated and continued towards Songea . During this contact , Booth advanced towards enemy fire to rescue a wounded scout who was lying in the open , and brought him back alive ; for this and subsequent actions , Booth received the Victoria Cross in June 1917 .
The German column from Kitanda reached Songea early in the morning on 12 November 1916 , and unsuccessfully attempted a frontal assault on the well @-@ entrenched Rhodesian positions . After the German column from Likuyu arrived in the afternoon , the Germans laid siege to Songea for 12 days before retreating towards Likuyu on the 24th . The Rhodesians were relieved the following day by a South African unit . The RNR then moved back to Litruchi , on the other side of Lake Nyasa , from where they sailed to the German East African town of Mwaya , where they were reunited with the RNR contingent that had gone to Buhora . This second column had ambushed a group of Germans , who were moving towards Northern Rhodesia with a naval gun salvaged from SMS Königsberg ( which had been sunk at Rufiji Delta about a year before ) ; after pocketing the Germans , the Rhodesians captured both them and the naval gun .
In Southern Rhodesia , Company officials judged the RNR to have been a success so far , and so decided in January 1917 to raise a second battalion . The unit already in the field was at this time designated 1st Battalion , abbreviated to " 1RNR " , while the new formation was called 2nd Battalion , or " 2RNR " . Recruitment was soon under way . Conscious of the difficulty that had been found in persuading rural Mashonas and Matabele to join the 1st Battalion in 1916 , organisers for 2RNR principally targeted black men from other countries , in particular migrant workers from Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia ; Nyasalanders eventually made up nearly half of the regiment . By the start of March , about 1 @,@ 000 recruits were training in Salisbury . Meanwhile , 1RNR was instructed to guard the Igali Pass , near the border with Northern Rhodesia , to prevent a column of Germans from threatening the settlements of Abercorn and Fife . When the Germans slipped through , the Rhodesians were pulled back to a position between the two towns and instructed to defend either one as circumstances dictated . The Germans did not launch an attack , however , instead setting up camp in their own territory at Galula .
The Southern Rhodesian commanders planned to destroy the German column by taking advantage of the regional geography ; the Germans had Lake Rukwa to their back , and the rivers Songwe and Saisi on their respective left ( eastern ) and right flanks , effectively hemming them in if they were attacked . The plan was that elements of 1RNR would hold the Saisi while a battalion of the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) manned the Songwe ; the rest of 1RNR would then push the Germans back towards the lake . But Tomlinson interpreted his orders as requiring immediate action , and attacked before the two flanking lines were in place on the rivers . The offensive had some successes at first , even though Tomlinson was outnumbered , but the 450 Germans , armed with three Königsberg field guns and 14 machine guns , soon withdrew to the higher ground at St Moritz Mission . The Germans counterattacked over the following week . Colonel R E Murray , who commanded a column of BSAP men about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away , did not assist Tomlinson , and 1RNR took great losses while repulsing the attack : 58 RNR men were killed , and the Germans captured three Rhodesian machine guns . Tomlinson was blamed by most for the debacle , but he insisted for years afterwards that he had only been following orders from Murray to hold his ground . He expressed incredulity at Murray 's failure to reinforce him . An enquiry into the matter was avoided when Tomlinson was wounded and invalided home soon after the battle .
On 5 April 1917 , 1RNR crossed the Songwe River into German East Africa and advanced south @-@ east towards Kitanda . It moved up the winding Lupa River , crossing it at each turn , for 53 days , and by mid @-@ June was 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of its target . When it was then ordered to backtrack north to Rungwe , it covered the 420 kilometres ( 260 mi ) in 16 days . Several scholars highlight the distances marched by the RNR , and comment that their physical endurance must have been remarkable , particularly given the speed at which they moved . " One can only marvel at the hardiness and fortitude of these men who matter @-@ of @-@ factly marched distances unthinkable to modern Western soldiers , " the historian Alexandre Binda writes . McLaughlin contrasts the RNR 's black troopers with the white soldiers of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment , commenting that the former proved far more resilient to tropical diseases ( though not immune ) , and amazed white observers by not just adapting to the difficult East African conditions , but often marching 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) in a day . In June 1917 , Sergeant Rita ( or Lita ) , a black non @-@ commissioned officer later described by Tomlinson as " a splendid soldier " , received the highest award ever given to an RNR askari , the Distinguished Conduct Medal , " for conspicuous gallantry in action on many occasions . His example and influence with his men is incalculable " .
The 1st Battalion harassed the constantly moving German flying column during August and September 1917 . Two Military Medals were won by RNR soldiers during this time : Sergeant Northcote rescued a wounded askari under German fire in late August , and a few days later Corporal Suga , himself lightly injured , dragged his wounded commanding officer Lieutenant Booth out of the open and into cover . The 2nd Battalion , comprising Major Jackson at the head of 585 askaris and 75 whites , left Salisbury on 16 September 1917 , and joined the front on 16 October , when it arrived at Mbewa on the north @-@ eastern shore of Lake Nyasa , intending to ultimately merge with 1RNR . After 1RNR spent two months garrisoning Wiedhaven and 2RNR underwent further training , the two forces joined on 28 January 1918 ( becoming known as the 2nd Rhodesia Native Regiment ) , and immediately made their way south in pursuit of Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's Germans , who were by now down to an effective strength of less than 2 @,@ 000 , and moving through Portuguese Mozambique .
In late May 1918 , the two @-@ year service contracts signed by the original 500 RNR volunteers expired , and the majority of those who had not already been discharged — just under 400 men — went home . While passing through Umtali on their way to Salisbury , the soldiers encountered the RNR 's original commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Tomlinson , whom they promptly mobbed , excitedly chanting nkosi , nkosi ( which roughly means " chief " in Sindebele ) . In the capital , the RNR men were met at the railway station by thousands of people , including a number of prominent government , military and religious figures . Chaplin , the territorial administrator , gave a speech in which he applauded the troops for " upholding the good name of Rhodesia " and for having played " no insignificant part in depriving the Germans of their power in Africa " .
In Mozambique , the RNR encountered Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's supply column near Mtarika on 22 May 1918 . It wiped it out ( capturing two German officers , two German askaris , 34 Portuguese askaris and 252 carriers ) , but as the supply column had been marching between the main German column and its rearguard , Lettow @-@ Vorbeck was then able to attack the RNR from both sides . The contact lasted until darkness fell , and the RNR held its position . Lettow @-@ Vorbeck then moved further south , with the RNR following . This pursuit continued for the rest of the war , with Lettow @-@ Vorbeck avoiding contacts so far as was possible and constantly resupplying his men by briefly occupying isolated towns . The RNR chased the German column for over 3 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 200 mi ) around Mozambique and the eastern districts of Northern Rhodesia , but never caught up with him . After Lettow @-@ Vorbeck formally surrendered at Abercorn on 25 November 1918 , the RNR returned to Salisbury , where the men were discharged during 1919 . The regiment existed on paper for two more years before it was formally disbanded in February 1921 .
= = Home front = =
= = = Home service and conscription debate = = =
Southern Rhodesian troops during World War I were all volunteers . Particularly during the war 's early stages , not all male settlers of fighting age were expected to abandon their civilian lives for service abroad . Many of them were in vital industries like mining , and the Company administration did not grant financial allowances to support the families of married soldiers , so at least at first , only bachelors in non @-@ essential positions were generally considered to have any moral obligation to sign up . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment , raised in early 1915 , explicitly barred married men from its ranks to preempt the tribulations that might befall their families while they were gone . Men of service age who remained at home were pressured by the national and local press to contribute to local security by joining the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers or the Rhodesian Reserves ; editorials told readers that men who failed to do so were not fulfilling their patriotic duty , and warned that conscription might be required if not enough joined up .
The idea of conscription ran contrary to British political tradition , but the sheer scale of the Western Front led to its institution in Britain in January 1916 . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers broadcast the news in special editions . While some settlers supported the extension of the same system to white Southern Rhodesians , it was also opposed in many quarters . The British South Africa Company feared that the loss of skilled white workers might jeopardise its mining operations , crucial to the colonial economy , while the Rhodesian Agricultural Union contended that white farmers had to stay on the land for similar reasons . Some , mindful of John Chilembwe 's anticolonial uprising in Nyasaland in early 1915 , felt that it was necessary to keep a core of male settlers in the colony to guard against a repeat of the Mashona and Matabele rebellions of the 1890s .
By late 1916 , most settlers in the colony who were inclined to volunteer had already done so . To free up white manpower , some suggested the recruitment of older men for local service so more of the younger volunteers could go overseas . In 1917 , the Chartered Company set up a committee to consider the question of national defence both during the war and thereafter ; its report , released in February 1918 , described reliance on volunteers as inefficient , and recommended the institution of compulsory service for whites , even after the war ( no mention was made of using black troops in the future ) . The Company published proposals the following month to register all white males aged between 18 and 65 with a view to some form of conscription , but this provoked widespread and vocal dissent , particularly from farmers . In the face of this opposition the administration vacillated until it quietly dropped the idea after the armistice .
= = = Economic impact = = =
The British South Africa Company had reservations about devoting all of Southern Rhodesia 's resources to the war effort , in part because of its desire to keep the colonial economy operating . There was indeed tightening of belts in the Rhodesias during the war , but not on the same scale as in Britain . The retail sector suffered , prices for many basic day @-@ to @-@ day items rose sharply , and exports plummeted as much of the white male citizenry went overseas to war , but mining , the industry on which Rhodesia 's economic viability hinged , continued to operate successfully , despite occasional difficulties in obtaining manpower . The Company administration posted record outputs of gold and coal during 1916 , and began to supply the Empire with the strategic metal ferrochrome . A flurry of new prospecting ventures led to the discovery of another strategic metal , tungsten , near Essexvale in southern Matabeleland in May 1917 .
Southern Rhodesia 's other main economic arm , farming , performed less strongly during the war , partly because the Chartered Company prioritised the strategically important mines at the behest of British officials . Southern Rhodesian farmers were optimistic at the outbreak of war , surmising that the Empire would become desperate for food and that they would be essentially immune to inflation because they grew their own crops . While these conclusions were on the whole accurate , logistical complications made it difficult for Rhodesian food to be exported , and as in mining there was often a shortage of labour . There were a number of drives to increase agricultural yield with the hope of feeding more people in Britain , but because Southern Rhodesia was so far away it was difficult for the colony to make much of an impact . One of the main culinary contributions the territory made to the British wartime marketplace was Rhodesian butter , which first reached England in February 1917 .
The war began to adversely affect the economy in late 1917 . The Company threatened petrol rationing in November 1917 , and in early 1918 it raised the colonial income tax to help balance the books . By the end of the hostilities the Company had spent £ 2 million on the war effort , most of which was covered by the Rhodesian taxpayers ; the Company covered some of the expenditure itself , and also received a small amount of financial aid from the UK government .
= = = Propaganda and public opinion = = =
Mass media on both sides in the conflict tried to motivate their respective populations and justify the war 's continuation by creating an image of the enemy so grotesque and savage that surrender became unthinkable . Like the major newspapers in Britain , the Rhodesia Herald and the Bulawayo Chronicle became key propaganda tools , regularly printing stories of German atrocities , massacres and other war crimes alongside articles simply entitled " War Stories " that told of British Army soldiers carrying out deeds of Herculean bravery . Anti @-@ German sentiment abounded in the territory throughout the conflict , and periodically intensified , often concurrently with the reporting of particularly unsavoury incidents .
During the initial peak of Germanophobia , which lasted the first few months of the conflict , many German and Austrian men of military age who lived in Rhodesia were arrested ( officially as " prisoners of war " ) and sent to internment camps in South Africa . Gertrude Page , one of the colony 's most famous novelists , wrote an open letter in response , vouching for the loyalty of a young German in her employ , and received a number of replies accusing her of being unpatriotic . The second period of intensification began following the sinking of the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania by a German U @-@ boat on 7 May 1915 . The Rhodesia Herald ran an editorial soon after calling on the Company administration to intern all remaining German and Austrian residents and to close their businesses . A town assembly in Umtali sent the administrator a resolution asking him to confiscate all property in the colony owned by subjects of Germany and Austria within 48 hours " in view of German barbarity " . Most of Southern Rhodesia 's remaining German and Austrian residents were soon sent to the camps in South Africa .
Further periods of intensified anti @-@ German feeling in the Rhodesias followed the execution by the Germans of the British nurse Edith Cavell in Belgium in October 1915 ( " the Crowning Crime " , the Bulawayo Chronicle called it ) , the escalation of bombing raids by German Zeppelins on British cities during 1917 , and the British reportage the same year of the Kadaververwertungsanstalt atrocity story — that the Germans supposedly rendered down battlefield corpses from both sides to make products such as nitroglycerine and lubricants .
A small elite of black urbanites , mostly raised and educated at Christian missions , existed in Southern Rhodesia by the time of the war , and these generally identified themselves strongly with settler society and , by extension , the war effort . But the vast majority of black people in the colony retained their traditional tribal lifestyles of rural subsistence farming , and for most of them , as McLaughlin comments , the war " could have been fought between aliens from different planets for all their connection with events in Europe " . Some felt obliged to " fight for their country " , seeing the travails of Rhodesia and the Empire as their own also , but the great bulk of tribal public opinion was detached , seeing the conflict as a " white man 's war " that did not concern them . Those who favoured the latter line of thinking cared not so much about the conflict itself but more about how its course might affect them specifically . For example , widespread interest was aroused soon after the outbreak of war when rumours began to fly between the rural black communities that the Company planned to conscript them . News of the Maritz Rebellion prompted a fresh rumour among the Matabele that Company officials might confiscate tribal livestock to feed the white troops going south . None of this actually occurred .
The Chartered Company 's native commissioners began to fear a possible tribal rebellion during early 1915 . Herbert Taylor , the chief native commissioner , believed that foreign missionaries were secretly encouraging rural black people to emulate the Chilembwe revolt in Nyasaland , and telling them ( falsely ) that the British were exterminating the natives there . There were few actual attempts to topple the administration in Southern Rhodesia , but the Company still took precautions . Aware that Mashona svikiro ( spirit mediums ) had been instrumental in inciting and leading insurgencies against Company rule during the late 1890s , the native commissioners enacted new legislation designed to imprison any svikiro who gained significant popularity .
The only real threat of a black rebellion in Southern Rhodesia during the war occurred in May 1916 , immediately after the Company instructed native commissioners in Matabeleland to start recruiting for the Rhodesia Native Regiment . Company officials attempted to make clear that the RNR comprised volunteers only , and most Matabele chiefs were not unreceptive to the idea — some , including Chief Ndiweni , attempted to encourage enlistment by sending their own sons off to war — but rumours spread in some quarters that black men were going to be involuntarily conscripted wholesale into the unit . Chief Maduna , in Insiza district , briefly threatened insurrection , issuing rifles to 100 men , but he backed down after a few weeks after it became self @-@ evident that conscription was not happening . Some attempted to dissuade potential RNR recruits from signing up , including a black man in Bulawayo who was fined £ 4 in July 1915 for spreading a false rumour around the city that the British East Africa Transport Corps ' black Southern Rhodesian drivers had had their throats cut by the Germans . Matthew Zwimba , founder of the syncretist Church of the White Bird in Mashonaland , received six months ' hard labour the following year for advising black men not to join the RNR on the grounds that the British had , he said , committed crimes against God in 1913 .
The colony 's small Afrikaner community was split on the issue of war . Some supported the United Kingdom out of loyalty to Rhodesia , but others were still bitter about the Anglo @-@ Boer War and showed little interest in fighting the Germans . In the rural areas , where Afrikaner nationalism was strongest , the Germans were perceived by some Boer farmers as potential liberators from British domination . Southern Rhodesian Afrikaners were often accused of undermining the British war effort . While some leaders of the community publicly came out in support of the war and offered to provide troops , others put pressure on Afrikaans @-@ speakers not to volunteer . When recruitment for the Rhodesia Native Regiment began in 1916 , there were reports of potential black recruits being urged not to join up by their Afrikaans @-@ speaking employers .
= = = Women = = =
As is common in frontier societies , the Southern Rhodesian settler community was mostly male : at the time of the First World War , white females were outnumbered by males almost two to one . Because white women were so marriageable and cheap black labour was easily available to handle domestic duties , most female settlers did not work and spent most of their days supervising the household and family . The average white woman in the colony continued to live this kind of life during the war , in marked contrast to her British counterpart , who in many cases went to replace the male factory workers and farm labourers who went to war . In Rhodesia little of this sort occurred : there were no munitions factories , and the idea of women working down the country 's mines was not considered practical . Some white farmers ' wives took over management of the land in their husbands ' absence , but this was quite unusual .
The contribution to the war made by Southern Rhodesia 's white female population generally comprised organising and running donation drives , comforts committees and other similar enterprises . They sent the troops " comforts parcels " , which contained balaclavas , mittens and scarves that they had knitted , as well as newspapers , soap , food ( including cakes and sweets ) , and minor luxuries . These packages did much to raise the morale of the men , particularly those who were in German captivity . Women were also largely responsible for handling mail between Rhodesian soldiers and their relatives and friends back home . After the armistice , they organised financial assistance for those discharged Southern Rhodesian men in England who could not afford to come home , and arranged visits for those convalescing in English hospitals .
As in Britain , some Southern Rhodesian women during the war presented men not wearing military uniform with white feathers ( symbolising cowardice ) . This campaign often went awry , as many of the men presented with the feathers were not in fact shirking from service . In 1916 , hoping to save them further harassment , the Rhodesia Herald and other newspapers began publishing lists of men who had volunteered only to be deemed medically unfit by the army doctors .
Black women played a minor role in units such as the Rhodesia Native Regiment , accompanying the black soldiers into the operational area and performing domestic tasks like washing and cooking . Many of these were local East African women who had formed attachments with RNR soldiers . Officers tolerated the presence of these women in the interest of morale , aware that attempting to take them away from the men would probably lead to mutiny .
= = = Donations and funds = = =
Southern Rhodesian settlers set up a number of wartime funds , including funds to aid war victims , funds to provide the troops with tobacco and other supplies , funds to assist orphans and widows , funds to buy aeroplanes , and others . These raised about £ 200 @,@ 000 in all . Much of this went to the Prince of Wales National Relief Fund in Britain , which was founded when the war started ; Southern Rhodesian branches of the fund were promptly organised in several towns and ultimately consolidated into the Rhodesian War Relief Fund . This body donated 25 % of its receipts to the Prince of Wales Fund and 75 % to local concerns .
The Tobacco Fund , set up in September 1914 , was particularly successful . Public donors bought Southern Rhodesian tobacco , cigarettes and pipe tobacco to send to the British forces . This was intended not only to comfort the troops , but also to advertise the prospect of post @-@ war emigration to Rhodesia . The labels on the tobacco tins depicted a map of Africa with the sun shining on Rhodesia , accompanied by the slogan " The World 's Great Sunspot " . In a similar vein , " Sunspot " was the name given to the Rhodesian cigarettes that British soldiers received . During the war , British and colonial soldiery collectively chewed and smoked 59 @,@ 955 two @-@ ounce ( 57 g ) tins of donated Southern Rhodesian tobacco , 80 @,@ 584 two @-@ ounce tins of equivalent pipe tobacco , and 4 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 Sunspot cigarettes ( in packs of 10 ) . Another similar undertaking saw six tons ( roughly 6 @,@ 100 kg ) of local citrus fruits sent to wounded British Army personnel in South Africa and England .
Starting in July 1915 , Southern Rhodesians raised funds to buy aeroplanes for the Royal Flying Corps . The colony ultimately bought three aircraft , each of which cost £ 1 @,@ 500 — they were named Rhodesia Nos. 1 , 2 and 3 . Residents of the town of Gatooma also set up their own drive , which funded the purchase of two more planes , Gatooma Nos. 1 and 2 .
The black elite in the towns donated to the settlers ' patriotic funds and organisations , and also set up their own . A war fundraising tea organised by black Salisburians in early March 1915 boasted entertainment in the form of a black choir , as well as the presence of Taylor and a junior native commissioner , each of whom gave speeches in English , Sindebele and Shona . Rural black people , by contrast , did not generally understand the concept of donating money to war funds , and misinterpreted encouragement to do so as being threatened with a new tax . When the Matabele chief Gambo began collecting war donations from his people in early 1915 , also urging other chiefs to do the same , he took care to thoroughly explain the war fund 's purpose and the voluntary nature of contributing , but some villagers still misunderstood and came to believe they would have livestock confiscated if they did not give money . The Company ultimately sent officials around the countryside to clarify the matter .
The Kalanga , a small community in the south @-@ west that provided a disproportionately large number of volunteers for the Rhodesia Native Regiment , also proved conspicuous for their extremely generous financial donations ; in June 1915 , they collectively donated £ 183 , " a staggering sum " , the historian Timothy Stapleton comments , to the Prince of Wales Fund .
= = = Flu pandemic = = =
The 1918 flu pandemic , often referred to at the time as " Spanish flu " , spread quickly into Southern Rhodesia from South Africa in October 1918 . A week after the first case was reported in Salisbury , over 1 @,@ 000 people were infected . Public buildings in the towns were converted into makeshift hospital wards , appeals were put out for trained nurses to attend the sick , and soup kitchens were set up to feed children whose parents were too ill to look after them . Newspapers in the colony published basic instructions on how to deal with the disease . The mine compounds , where hundreds of black labourers lived and worked together in close proximity , were worst affected . The whole country was ultimately infected , with even the most remote villages reporting deaths . Many members of the Rhodesia Native Regiment were infected , and 76 of them died from the disease having survived the war . By the time the pandemic had ended in Southern Rhodesia around mid @-@ November 1918 , thousands had been killed .
= = End of the war , aftermath and statistics = =
News of the armistice on 11 November 1918 reached Southern Rhodesia the same day , and was announced to the town of Salisbury by the repeated blowing of the klaxon at the Castle Brewery . Hysterical street parties started almost immediately , and in the evening the people let off fireworks and lit a huge bonfire on Salisbury kopje . Bulawayo celebrated with a street party that continued uninterrupted for over 48 hours . Smaller towns marked the armistice with their own celebratory functions and events .
Once the frivolities had ended , minds turned to post @-@ war policy , and particularly how soldiers returning from Europe would be reintegrated into society . The Company had already , in 1916 , set aside 250 @,@ 000 acres ( 100 @,@ 000 ha ) of farmland to be given free of charge to white war veterans . In early 1919 it set up a government department to help returning men find work . Many former soldiers failed to find jobs , and some remained unemployed for years after they returned home . Some of the more seriously wounded from the European theatre never came back at all , instead remaining in England because of the better medical facilities and public benefits . Demobilised Western Front veterans began to arrive back in Rhodesia in January 1919 , and continued to do so for nearly a year afterwards . On 30 May 1919 , the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council passed a resolution thanking the territory 's veterans .
The Southern Rhodesian tribal chiefs collectively sent their own statement to King George V.
Proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia had contributed more personnel to the British armed forces in World War I than any of the Empire 's dominions or colonies , and more than Britain itself . About 40 % of white males in the colony , 5 @,@ 716 men , put on uniform , with 1 @,@ 720 doing so as commissioned officers . Black Southern Rhodesians were represented by the 2 @,@ 507 soldiers who made up the Rhodesia Native Regiment , the roughly 350 who joined the British East Africa Transport Corps , British South Africa Police Mobile Column and South African Native Labour Corps , and the few dozen black scouts who served with the 1st and 2nd Rhodesia Regiments in South @-@ West and East Africa . Southern Rhodesians killed in action or on operational duty numbered over 800 , counting all races together — more than 700 of the colony 's white servicemen died , while the Rhodesia Native Regiment 's black soldiers suffered 146 fatalities .
= = Legacy = =
Accounts of white Southern Rhodesian soldiers ' wartime experiences started to be published in the 1920s . The conflict became a key entry in many national histories , though the role played by black troops was often minimised in these accounts . The colony 's wartime contributions became a source of great pride for much of the Southern Rhodesian white community , as well as for some black Africans ; whites were particularly proud that they had had the highest enlistment rate in the British Empire during the war . A national war memorial , a stone obelisk , 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , was funded by public donations and built in Salisbury in 1919 . Soldiers , one black and one white , were depicted in relief on plaques on each side ; the inscriptions below read " 1914 – 1918 — We fought and died for our King . " Five years later , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J A Methuen organised the erection on a kopje near Umtali of a stone cross , 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) tall , to memorialise the country 's fallen black soldiers . This monument remains to this day , as does the bronze plaque at its foot , which reads " To the Glory of God and in Memory of Africans Who Fell . 1914 – 1918 . "
Southern Rhodesia 's contributions to the Imperial war effort helped it to become regarded by Britain as more mature and deserving of responsible government , which Whitehall granted in 1923 . The territory was made a self @-@ governing colony , just short of full dominion status . Charged with its own defence , Salisbury introduced the selective conscription of white males in 1926 , and reformed the Rhodesia Regiment the following year . The territory 's association with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps endured in the form of affiliation between the KRRC and the Rhodesia Regiment 's new incarnation , which adopted aspects of the KRRC uniform and a similar regimental insignia . The new Rhodesia Regiment was granted the original 's World War I battle honours and colours by George V in 1929 .
In World War II , Southern Rhodesia again enthusiastically stood behind the UK , symbolically declaring war on Germany in support of Britain before any other colony or dominion . Over 26 @,@ 000 Southern Rhodesians served in the Second World War , making the colony once more the largest contributor of manpower , proportional to white population , in all of the British Empire and Commonwealth . As in World War I , Southern Rhodesians were distributed in small groups throughout the British Army , Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . Dedicated Rhodesian platoons again served in the KRRC , and the Rhodesian African Rifles , raised in 1940 , were in many ways a resurrection of the Rhodesia Native Regiment . Military aviation , already associated with the colony following the First World War , became a great Southern Rhodesian tradition during the Second , with the colony providing No. 44 , No. 237 and No. 266 Squadrons and other personnel to the Royal Air Force , as well as training in Southern Rhodesia for 8 @,@ 235 Allied airmen .
By the 1960s , Southern Rhodesians ' service on Britain 's behalf in the World Wars , particularly the Second , was an integral part of the colony 's national psyche . The territory had also latterly contributed to British counter @-@ insurgency operations in Malaya , Aden and Cyprus , as well as Operation Vantage in Kuwait . The colonial government 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 was deliberately made on 11 November , Armistice Day , in an attempt to emphasise the territory 's prior war record on Britain 's behalf . The proclamation was signed at 11 : 00 local time , during the customary two @-@ minute silence to remember the fallen .
Since the country 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , Robert Mugabe 's administration has pulled down many monuments and plaques making reference to the fallen of the First and Second World Wars , perceiving them as reminders of white minority rule and colonialism that go against what the modern state stands for . This view is partly rooted in the association of these memorials with those commemorating the British South Africa Company 's dead of the Matabele Wars , as well as those memorialising members of the Rhodesian Security Forces killed during the Bush War of the 1970s . Many Zimbabweans today see their nation 's involvement in the World Wars as a consequence of colonial rule that had more to do with the white community than the indigenous black majority , and most have little interest in its contributions to those conflicts .
The country 's fallen of the two World Wars today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas . The national war memorial obelisk still stands , but the relief sculptures and inscriptions have been removed . The stone cross monument near Mutare ( as Umtali is now called ) is one of the few memorials that remains intact and in its place , atop what is now called Cross Kopje ; its meaning has been largely forgotten .
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= Road to Europe =
" Road to Europe " is the 20th episode of the third season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 7 , 2002 . The episode follows baby Stewie , who becomes obsessed with the fictional British children 's television series " Jolly Farm Revue " . He decides to run away from home to become part of the cast and his anthropomorphic dog Brian decides to chase him down in an attempt to bring him back home . Meanwhile , Peter and Lois go to a Kiss concert , where Lois reveals she knows nothing about the band , much to Peter 's embarrassment .
" Road to Europe " was written by Daniel Palladino and directed by Dan Povenmire . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and its many cultural references . The episode featured Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss . It also featured guest voices by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn , and voice actor Wally Wingert .
= = Plot summary = =
Stewie is entranced by a British television program entitled Jolly Farm Revue , a colorful children 's show featuring several imaginary characters . Lamenting his future in Quahog , Stewie decides to travel to " Jolly Farm " and live there forever . Desperate , he goes to the local airport and sneaks aboard a transatlantic flight , intending to travel to London , and to find the BBC studios where Jolly Farm Revue is filmed . Brian tries to stop Stewie from leaving Rhode Island , and follows him on board the plane . When he finally finds Stewie , the flight takes off and lands in the Middle East . Brian begins to search for a way to get back to the United States , but Stewie refuses to leave with him and insists they travel to London . Brian and Stewie search for a camel to use as transportation , and they perform a musical number as a diversion in order to steal one . They begin their journey , but the camel dies in the middle of the desert . They soon find a nearby Comfort Inn , however , in which to stay . They steal a hot air balloon from the hotel premises and make their way to the Vatican City , then traveling by train from Switzerland to Munich , and end up in Amsterdam . Upon finally arriving at the BBC Television Centre , Stewie is horrified to learn that the farm is a set , and his beloved characters are merely jaded actors . Disillusioned , Stewie decides to travel back home with Brian to Quahog after getting back the Mother Maggie actress for kicking him by defecating in her shoes . This ordeal also caused Stewie to lose interest in the show .
Meanwhile , Peter is overjoyed to hear about Kiss @-@ stock , a five @-@ night set of concerts in New England by his favorite band , Kiss . He and his wife , Lois , dress in face paint and leather to look like Kiss band members , as does the rest of the crowd , and they manage to stand only a few feet from the stage . When Gene Simmons points the microphone at Lois , encouraging her to sing the next line in the chorus of " Rock and Roll All Nite " , Peter is ashamed to discover that she does not know the lyrics . Deeply saddened by this , Gene and Paul Stanley leave the stage , leaving Ace Frehley and Peter Criss to perform " Chattanooga Choo Choo " to cheer the audience . After the concert , Peter accuses Lois of only pretending to be a Kiss enthusiast , and they leave the concert venue in disgrace . Later that night , Peter and Lois stop at a Denny 's on the way home from the concert . The members of Kiss are seated at another table , and Lois recognizes Gene without his makeup as Chaim Witz ( Gene 's birth name ) , an old classmate . Peter is amazed to discover that Lois had dated Gene when they were in school . Peter 's faith in Lois is then restored , and he proudly shares the news on public @-@ access television that his wife " did " Kiss .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Daniel Palladino , his first official episode for the series , an executive producer for the show . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Dan Povenmire , in his fourth episode directing for the season ; the first three being " One If by Clam , Two If by Sea " , " To Love and Die in Dixie " , and " Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " .
" Road to Europe " is the second episode of the " Road to ... " hallmarks of the series , which have aired throughout various seasons of the show , and is the second " Road to ... " episode to be directed by Povenmire . The episodes are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour . The episode was inspired by the 1941 film Road to Morocco , including its musical number " ( We 're off on the ) Road to Morocco " , which was previously parodied by the two characters , then with alternate lyrics , in the Family Guy episode " Road to Rhode Island " . Fans originally believed that the original title of this episode was " Road to Baghdad " , but in an interview with IGN MacFarlane stated that it was not the case .
In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured guest appearances by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn and voice actor Wally Wingert . It also guest starred Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss as themselves .
= = Cultural references = =
Every member in the rock band Kiss guest starred in the episode as themselves . " Road to Europe " features several cultural references . Brian compares Stewie 's look with Charlie Brown ; Stewie responds by comparing him with Charlie Brown 's dog Snoopy ; both these characters are from the comic strip Peanuts . At the Kiss concert , the song that the band plays , and the one that Lois does not know the lyrics to , is the single " Rock and Roll All Nite " . In the song Stewie and Brian sing , the Marquis de Sade , singer Ricky Martin and actress Phylicia Rashad are mentioned . Brian also uses Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog 's catch phrase , " For me to poop on " to insult Stewie .
While riding a tour bus in Germany , Brian looks at a history book that has no information regarding German history from 1939 – 1945 ; the years on which World War II started and ended . Brian questions the tour guide about the dates when Germany invaded Poland , but the guide denies that it happened . Brian keeps insisting until the guide yells " Sie werden sich hinsetzen ! Sie werden ruhig sein ! Sie werden nicht beleidigen Deutschland ! " , literally meaning " You will sit down ! You will be quiet ! You will not insult Germany ! " while making the Nazi salute with his left hand . The last sentence is grammatically incorrect , as the proper German statement would be , " Sie werden Deutschland nicht beleidigen ! " At the beginning of the episode , the credits are presented with title cards containing images of Brian and Stewie passing by various iconic places in Europe . These include France 's Eiffel Tower , Italy 's Leaning Tower of Pisa and a venetian gondola , the United Kingdom 's Stonehenge and Greece 's Parthenon . Other iconic items shown include the Union Flag and the Pope .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the episode by television critics were mostly positive . Critic Ahsan Haque of IGN placed " Road to Europe " in the top ten of Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures , ranking it fifth . Haque noted that the episode is not as entertaining as many of the other Stewie and Brian adventures , but the song included in the episode , " You and I Are So Awfully Different " made it worthy of an appearance on the list . " Road to Europe " is the lowest ranked Road to ... episode on the list with " Road to Germany " at number four , " Road to Rupert " at number three , " Road to the Multiverse " at number two and " Road to Rhode Island " ranked as the best . Television critic Ramsey Isler , also of IGN , commented positively about the episode in his review of the eighth season episode " Go Stewie , Go " , which contained an American version of " Jolly Farm Revue " . Isler went on to note , " for the most part the Jolly Farm concept is much less interesting than it was in the much more amusing and classic Family Guy episode , " Road to Europe " . "
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= Three Horses Beer =
Three Horses Beer ( better known locally as THB ) is a pale lager that has been brewed by Star Breweries of Madagascar since 1958 . It is the highest selling beer in Madagascar and has been described as emblematic of the country . THB is sold nationwide and since 2005 has been exported to such markets as France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . The Malagasy beer is produced at two breweries in Madagascar , the first centrally located in Antsirabe and the other in the northern city of Antsiranana . THB Pilsener , the most common variant of THB , has a light taste and is produced from mostly local barley , corn and hops . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh ( a shandy with less than 1 % alcohol ) , THB Special ( 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol ) , and THB Lite ( 1 % alcohol ) . Recent investments in Star Brewery infrastructure have allowed a 20 % increase in production since 2011 .
After advertising alcohol in the media was banned under President Marc Ravalomanana , Star Breweries has increasingly promoted THB through unconventional means . These have included sponsoring the THB Champions League , Madagascar 's national football championship , and holding annual beer festivals . In addition , THB is a regular sponsor of local musicians through major annual festivals and tours . Star Breweries has also hired musicians to perform in music videos specifically created to promote the beer . In 2014 the THB label was significantly redesigned , and in 2015 a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( " THB always ! " ) was promoted alongside the beer 's longstanding trademark Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The beer is regularly promoted by Malagasy musical stars and other public figures .
= = History = =
In 1953 the French company Rochefortaise launched Société Tananarivienne d ’ Articles Réfrigérés ( STAR ) ( Antananarivo Company of Refrigerated Products ) and its associated factory in Antananarivo , Madagascar , for the exclusive production and distribution of Coca @-@ Cola in Madagascar . In 1957 , a brewer was recruited to develop a local beer . After developing 17 different recipes , he travelled throughout the island to test each one using primarily local ingredient ; the best of these was a pilsener chosen as the recipe to be produced at a Star brewery to be established in Antsirabe . The company first began producing Three Horses Beer ( THB ) in 1958 .
In 1968 Star Breweries opened a factory in Antsiranana for the production and distribution of THB as well as Coca @-@ Cola and other carbonated beverages throughout the island 's northern region . In 1980 , Star Breweries became partly state owned ; in 1989 Rochefortaise sold Star Breweries to Groupe Fraise , and the company obtained fully privatized status one year later . In 2005 , the production of THB in cans began at the Star brewery in Antsirabe . In 2011 Groupe Fraise sold Star Breweries to French brewer Castel .
= = Production = =
THB Pilsener , the oldest and most popular THB beer , is a 5 @.@ 4 % abv pale lager light in color with a medium body , thin head and balanced , mildly bitter flavor . THB Pilsener is sold in two sizes of returnable brown bottles : 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) . The pilsener is also sold in 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 50 centilitres ( 18 imp fl oz ; 17 US fl oz ) aluminum cans , and has been available on tap at commercial establishments in Madagascar since 2006 . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh , a shandy ( locally called panaché ) , with less than 1 % alcohol . It is only sold in 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) glass bottles . The original Fresh shandy , which has a lemon taste , has also temporarily been offered in several other flavors , including mint , raspberry and apple . Other variants include THB Special , with 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol , and THB Lite , a low alcohol beer ( 1 % ) .
THB is produced in two breweries in Madagascar : the original brewery , located in Antsirabe , and a second in Antsiranana . Since its inception , THB has been sold in glass bottles tinted brown to protect the contents from the ultraviolet rays of the sun . The Antsirabe factory produces 100 million bottles and 100 @,@ 000 cans of THB per year . Antsirabe was selected for the original brewery because the water there is low in calcium and other minerals , lending itself well to beer production . Ingredients for the production of THB are sourced throughout the island . Barley grown in nearby Betafo and Fianarantsoa is blended with corn and hops from Toliara to produce the beer . Over 2 @,@ 500 tonnes of malt and 3 @,@ 500 tonnes of corn are grown annually in the surrounding Vakinankaratra region for the production of THB . The MALTO collective of 7 @,@ 000 farmers was formed around 1980 in Antsirabe to grow barley and transform it into malt for Star Breweries beer production . Certain special malts are used to produce variants on the original THB recipe , such as THB Special .
Fermentation of THB beer requires approximately eight hours for each mash of 130 hectoliters . The mash is a blend of malt ( sprouted barley ) and corn in an 80 / 20 ratio to which water and hops are added . The mash is heated in a vat for around two hours to support fermentation . The product is filtered and then heated to 100 degrees Celsius to concentrate and sterilize it . The beer is then decanted and cooled for an hour at 10 degrees Celsius . Finally , a type of mushroom is added as a leavening and fermenting agent ; the beer is allowed to ferment for a full week , and excess carbon dioxide produced by the process is collected for the production of soft drinks and other carbonated beverages at the factory . The beer is allowed to rest in vats for several more days before being filtered once more and then bottled and pasteurized at 62 degrees Celsius for three minutes . The automated bottling process yields crates of THB that are ready for shipment to regional wholesale distribution points .
Star Breweries invested over four million euros into improving its factories in the 2009 @-@ 11 period , resulting in a 20 % increase in production capacity . These improvements included refurbishing the production line equipment , including higher performing mixers and belts and a new bottle conveyor system . The Coca @-@ Cola Company issued international HACCP certification to Star Breweries in 2010 , confirming its adherence to international quality standards in beverage production . In 2011 , Coca @-@ Cola also awarded Star Breweries the Gold Medal among 27 competing African countries for the company 's standards of quality and environmental protection in the production of its beer and other beverages . Frequent brownouts resulting from the overtaxed national power grid produce power cuts to the THB breweries that have negatively affected the volume and cost effectiveness of production since the early 2000s .
= = Distribution = =
Star Breweries distributes THB through a network of regional wholesalers , who provide the product to local vendors . Orders are typically sent to the factories on a weekly basis and are filled within two weeks . In 2005 Star Breweries shifted manufacturing of THB in aluminum cans from Mauritius to Antsirabe in order to export the beer to international markets with high Malagasy expatriate populations , including France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . All exported THB beer was packaged in aluminum cans manufactured at the Antsirabe brewery ; canned THB was also made available alongside the traditional glass bottles in markets in Madagascar that same year . In 2006 the Star Brewery , which employs 1 @,@ 500 staff , was producing 700 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer annually out of the total market share of 800 @,@ 000 ; 550 @,@ 000 hectoliters were produced at the Antsirabe Star Brewery alone . The Antsiranana factory employs 140 staff and produced 180 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer ( 24 million bottles ) in 2010 .
= = Marketing = =
To create the original label for THB , Star Breweries opted to copy an existing label for a Dutch beer brand called The Holland Beer , which featured the image of three horses . This was done in part because of the association between Antsirabe and its history of horse breeding ; the brand took the name Three Horses Beer based on this design . The label also features the brand 's slogan , Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The labels were originally printed in the Netherlands and shipped to Madagascar before eventually being produced on the local market ; THB coasters continue to be produced in Europe . The bottle color and shape and its label have undergone adjustments over time . In 2005 , the label was enlarged and the colors brightened . The band around the neck of the bottle was also broadened with the addition of the image of a medal , in honor of the beer 's first international award in 2004 . A new logo was adopted for the canned THB before being expanded in 2014 to the 33 cl bottled THB . The new logo features three stylized , outlined white horses , now facing right to represent a focus on the future . Red remains the predominant color .
Advertising alcohol on television and in the press was outlawed under president Marc Ravalomanana . In order to maximize brand recognition of THB , the company altered the label for its Fresh shandy , which was exempt from this ban due to its low alcohol content , to match the THB Pilsener design but using a green background instead of the pilsener 's red . The pilsener is advertised in a variety of non @-@ traditional ways , such as through celebrity promotion in music videos and music and sporting event sponsorship . THB is considered by the public as a promoter of Malagasy culture and identity , particularly through its sponsorship of its annual THB Tour traveling music festival and the THB fête de la bière ( beer festival ) . Three Horses Beer sponsors the THB Champions League , the national football championship . Many popular musical artists have advertised THB , including superstars Jerry Marcoss , AmbondronA , Samoëla , Tsiliva , Tence Mena and Jaojoby .
THB launched its first website in 2008 . In 2015 , in honor of the 55th anniversary of national independence , Star Breweries launched a new campaign to promote the beer . The company announced a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( THB always ! ) to be promoted alongside its historic slogan . A song by the same name , written and performed by BIG MJ and the group Tambour Gasy , and an accompanying music video , will promote the beer and the new slogan .
= = Reception = =
In the Malagasy market , THB Pilsener remains the most popular Malagasy brand of beer , and the most popular of any brand of beer sold in Madagascar . It is estimated that four liters per person are sold each year in Madagascar . THB has been described as an " emblem " of the country and a " national symbol " . One Malagasy journalist described THB as symbolic of Fihavanana Malagasy , a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of brotherhood and friendship .
THB won its first ever international award in 2004 at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles international beverage competition in Brussels , Belgium . In 2010 , THB Pilsener was again recognized at this event , receiving the silver medal . THB Pilsener won a gold medal at the same competition in 2012 , and the silver medal in 2015 . THB Fresh also won a gold medal at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles in 2012 .
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= George Headley =
George Alphonso Headley OD ( 30 May 1909 – 30 November 1983 ) was a West Indian cricketer who played 22 Test matches , mostly before the Second World War . Considered one of the best batsmen to play for West Indies and one of the greatest cricketers of all time , Headley also represented Jamaica and played professional club cricket in England . West Indies had a weak cricket team through most of Headley 's playing career ; as their one world @-@ class player , he carried a heavy responsibility and the side depended on his batting . He batted at number three , scoring 2 @,@ 190 runs in Tests at an average of 60 @.@ 83 , and 9 @,@ 921 runs in all first @-@ class matches at an average of 69 @.@ 86 . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1934 .
Headley was born in Panama but raised in Jamaica where he quickly established a cricketing reputation as a batsman . He soon gained his place in the Jamaican cricket team , and narrowly missed selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 . He made his Test debut in 1930 , against England in Barbados , and was instantly successful . Further successes followed in series against Australia and in three more against England , as Headley dominated the West Indian batting of the period . Following his tour of England in 1933 , Headley signed as a professional at Haslingden in the Lancashire League , where he played until the outbreak of war in 1939 .
The war interrupted Headley 's career ; although he returned to Tests in 1948 he was hampered by injuries and did not achieve his previous levels of success . Even so , he was chosen as West Indies captain in 1948 against England , the first black player to be appointed to the position , although a combination of injuries and politics meant he only led his team for one Test match . He did not play Tests between 1949 and 1953 , but resumed his career in English league cricket , first in Lancashire and later in the Birmingham League . His playing career ended in 1954 on his return to Jamaica , after a public subscription paid his fare from England . After retiring as a player , Headley was employed as a cricket coach by the Jamaican government until 1962 . He lived until 1983 ; his son Ron and his grandson Dean each played Test match cricket , for West Indies and England respectively .
= = Early life = =
Headley was born in Colón , Panama on 30 May 1909 , the son of DeCourcy Headley and Irene Roberts . Neither of Headley 's parents was from Panama ; his father was from Barbados and his mother from Jamaica , but they had moved to Panama while DeCourcey worked on the construction of the Panama Canal . By the time Headley was five years old the Canal was complete , and the family moved to Cuba in search of further employment . In 1919 , concerned by the amount of Spanish being spoken by her son , Headley 's mother took him to Jamaica so he could be educated in an English @-@ speaking school .
Headley moved in with his mother 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs Clarence Smith , in Rae Town , Kingston , and remained with her until her death in 1933 . His mother returned to Cuba , but regularly exchanged letters with her son . He attended Calabar Elementary School , where he played for the school cricket team as a wicket @-@ keeper , although a meagre sporting budget meant he had to do so without gloves . Later , he continued his education at Kingston High School . Taking part in all @-@ day cricket matches at the local Crabhole Park , Headley began to attract local attention , and aged 16 , he joined Raetown Cricket Club . In 1925 he scored his first century , batting at number three in the batting order in a match for Raetown against Clovelly .
On leaving school , Headley was appointed as a temporary clerk in a magistrate 's court ; this enabled him to play competitive cricket for the St Andrew 's Police side in 1926 , in a cup competition . Some impressive performances for the club earned him an invitation to practice with the Jamaica Colts team . However , his job made it impossible to attend , and he was not considered for the Jamaican side against Lord Tennyson 's English touring side in 1927 . That year , Headley began working for Keeling – Lindo Estates , in St Catherine . The firm were enthusiastic cricket patrons , allowing employees time off to play in matches , so that Headley was able to attend practice with the Jamaica team on a regular basis . He also moved to the St Catherine Cricket Club , captained by his immediate superior in Keeling – Lindo . To generate more income , Headley took a second job , working for the Jamaica Fruit and Shipping Company , but he wanted a secure profession . To this end , he planned to move to America to pursue a career in dentistry . However , he was now on the verge of the Jamaica team and a delay in the arrival of the application forms for his American work permit allowed him to make his first @-@ class debut for Jamaica against another touring team led by Lord Tennyson .
= = Early career = =
Headley made his Jamaica debut against Lord Tennyson 's XI at Sabina Park on 9 February 1928 , in a match won easily by the home team . Batting at number three , his first innings yielded 16 runs , but in the second innings , he scored 71 , reaching fifty runs in as many minutes . In the second game against Lord Tennyson 's XI which began in Kingston on 18 February , Headley scored his maiden first @-@ class century . Having scored 22 not out after the first day 's play , he reached 50 runs by playing very carefully but subsequently played more adventurous shots . He hit the bowling of Alan Hilder for four consecutive fours and twice hit Lord Tennyson for three fours in a row . At one point , thirteen of his scoring shots in a row went for four . He was finally out for 211 , the highest score at the time by a West Indian batsman against an English team . After the innings , Tennyson compared Headley to Victor Trumper and Charlie Macartney , batsmen considered among the best who ever played . Headley concluded the series against Tennyson 's team with innings of 40 and 71 , to give him an aggregate of 409 runs at an average of 81 @.@ 80 . He also took his maiden first class wicket .
Following his success , Headley abandoned his prospective career in dentistry . Although some critics expected his selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 , Headley was not chosen . While West Indies played their inaugural Test series during that tour , Headley continued to play for St Catherine 's . He had another opportunity against English opposition in 1929 , when a team led by Julien Cahn arrived to play two first @-@ class games . Jamaica 's distance from other Caribbean islands made it difficult for their cricketers to gain good @-@ quality playing experience , so the frequent visits by English sides were important to the development of Jamaican cricket . These tours also served to build Headley 's reputation . In the first match , Headley played a slow , defensive innings of 57 , but he did not reach fifty in his other three innings . Even so , he was chosen by the Jamaican selectors for a West Indies XI , which included players from other islands , to play Cahn 's team in their final tour match . The home side lost the toss and had to bat in very difficult conditions following rain . Headley found the fast bowlers difficult , but survived the period when the pitch was most difficult to bat on before he was out for 44 . In the second innings , he attacked from the start and used a wide range of shots to reach 143 before he was run out . In three matches against the tourists , Headley scored 326 runs , averaging 54 @.@ 33 .
A change in the location of his job meant that Headley moved to the Lucas Cricket Club in 1929 . He visited America and played some exhibition matches for the Jamaican Athletic Club in New York , scoring a century against a touring team from Bermuda ; his parents had moved to America by then , which enabled Headley to combine the cricket with his first visit to his parents in ten years .
= = Test match career = =
= = = Debut and first Test series = = =
In 1930 the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) undertook a tour of the West Indies which included four Test matches — the first Tests to be played in the West Indies . The MCC side was not at full international strength ; it included players who were either just beginning or just ending their international careers , and several star English bowlers were missing . The first Test was played in Barbados and Headley was selected , making his debut for the West Indies on 11 February 1930 — to the disapproval of some Barbadians who thought his place should have gone to a local player . Batting at number three , he played aggressively in the first innings but the crowd barracked him and he was bowled for 21 . However , in the second innings he scored 176 , becoming the first West Indian to score a century on his Test debut and only their second centurion overall . He shared century partnerships with both Clifford Roach and Frank de Caires , but these were insufficient to force victory , and the match was drawn . Headley remained in the Test side for the rest of the series , the only home player other than Roach to appear in all four Tests . In Trinidad , during the second Test , Headley found the unfamiliar conditions difficult — Trinidad was the only Test match ground in the Caribbean which was played on a pitch made from matting instead of grass . Headley scored eight and 39 as West Indies lost the match . The home side levelled the series with their first ever Test victory in the third match of the series , played in British Guiana . In this match Headley became the first West Indian , and only the fifth cricketer of any nation , to score two separate hundreds in a Test match . His first innings of 114 was played mainly in support of Roach , who scored a double century . In the second innings , Headley scored 112 as West Indies batted with a big first innings lead , attacking defensive English bowling .
While en route to the final Test in Jamaica , the West Indies team stopped in Panama and Costa Rica where official functions were held in Headley 's honour . In Jamaica , where there was widespread jubilation , Headley attended several receptions and celebrations . When the cricket resumed , Headley scored 64 , 72 and 55 in three innings against MCC for Jamaica . With the Test series level , it was agreed that the final match of the series would be played until one team won , regardless of how long it took — the other Tests had been limited to four days each . On the first three days , England scored 849 . In reply West Indies could only manage 286 , with Headley out for ten runs . England batted again , to set West Indies an eventual victory target of 836 . This time , Headley batted for 390 minutes , faced 385 balls and hit 28 fours while scoring 223 . He and Karl Nunes added 227 for the second wicket . Headley played the hook very effectively and hit many short deliveries for runs . When Headley was stumped , he had made what was at the time the fourth highest individual score in all Test cricket and the highest in a second innings . When West Indies still needed 428 runs , rain fell for two days and the match had to be abandoned after its ninth scheduled day . Headley ended the series with 703 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 87 .
= = = Australian tour = = =
Headley was selected for the West Indian tour of Australia in the 1930 – 31 season , under the captaincy of Jackie Grant . After a brief visit to New Zealand where they played a non @-@ first @-@ class match against Wellington , the tourists arrived in Sydney . Headley made a good start to the tour and attracted praise from the press in Australia and West Indies . The first match of the Australian leg was against New South Wales , where the West Indians were bowled out for 188 and Headley was stumped for 25 . However , his runs came in less than two overs and Learie Constantine later rated this as one of Headley 's best innings . In the second innings , Headley made 82 , the top score , but could not prevent the tourists losing . The next match was also lost , as Bert Ironmonger took thirteen wickets in the match for Victoria . In the first innings , Headley scored 131 out of 212 , regarded by one critic as one of the best centuries scored on the ground , and top @-@ scored again with 34 in the second innings . By this stage the Australian bowlers had realised that Headley excelled when hitting the ball through the off side , and they began to alter their tactics accordingly . In the final match before the Test series began , against South Australia , Headley had problems playing the Australian bowlers , particularly the leg spin of Clarrie Grimmett . The Australians bowled at Headley 's leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side , making it difficult for him to score runs . Headley scored 27 and 16 as his team were heavily defeated . These bowling tactics were used in subsequent matches , and Headley found difficulty in countering them .
At the beginning of the first Test , West Indies were bowled out 296 as Grimmett took seven wickets , including Headley first ball . In the second innings , with West Indies 80 behind , Grimmett again attacked Headley 's leg stump . After having his scoring restricted , Headley lost patience and after scoring 11 was stumped , trying to hit Grimmett . Bowled out for 249 , West Indies lost by ten wickets . After scoring only three in the following tour match against Tasmania , Headley contributed 14 and two in an innings defeat in the second Test . After two heavy Test defeats for the tourists , some critics believed that the series was too one @-@ sided and that some of the five Tests should be cancelled . Headley 's poor run of form continued in the West Indian victory over Queensland and , having put on weight , he was also struggling with his fitness . In an effort to overcome Australia 's leg stump attack Headley had altered his batting stance ; instead of standing at right angles to the bowler , he turned his body more front @-@ on , to enable him to improve his placement of the ball on the leg side . His quick footwork enabled him to alter his position if necessary to play the ball on the off side . He also eliminated from his strokes a risky cover drive he had developed on Caribbean pitches . During the third Test at Brisbane , Headley made his first substantial contribution to the series , after Australia scored 558 batting first . Facing Grimmett 's leg side tactics , Headley managed to score freely , and forced Grimmett to alter to an off stump attack . With ten fours in total , Headley became the first West Indian to score a century against Australia , and was left 102 not out when West Indies were bowled out for 193 . Forced to follow @-@ on , West Indies were dismissed for 148 of which Headley made 28 , the highest score of the innings . Ironmonger tricked him into playing the leg glance and he was caught by the wicket @-@ keeper who had moved across in anticipation of the shot .
Headley maintained his good form in matches against Victoria and South Australia after the third Test , scoring 77 and 113 in the first match and 75 and 39 in the second . Although neither match was won , the West Indians needed to take only one more wicket to win the first match when it ended drawn , and lost the second by a single wicket . However , the fourth Test was lost by an innings as Ironmonger again caused difficulties for the West Indies batsmen . Headley top @-@ scored with 33 out of the first innings total of 99 but made only 11 on his second attempt , being dismissed both times by Ironmonger . By now the tour was making a financial loss , forcing the tourists to take economy measures such as travelling by tram . In conversation with a member of the Australian Board of Control , Headley , Constantine and fellow tourist Tommy Scott suggested the authorities should produce faster pitches to enable the public to see more attacking cricket . It seems this advice may have been heeded ; the pitch was faster in a match against New South Wales , won by the West Indians , in which Headley scored 70 and two . In the fifth Test , West Indies won the toss and batted first , which proved an advantage in a match plagued by uncertain weather . Headley and fellow Jamaican Frank Martin scored centuries on the first day despite bowling from the Australians which the Jamaican newspaper Daily Gleaner described as good . Headley , playing Grimmett comfortably by now , batted for 146 minutes , and hit 13 fours . In the course of the innings he achieved the rare feat in Australia of reaching 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs on the tour . Grant , the West Indies captain , declared the innings closed after rain had fallen to make the pitch more difficult for batting . Australia were then bowled out for 224 , 126 runs behind West Indies . The tourists scored 124 more runs in their second innings , of which Headley made 30 , before more rain fell and Grant declared for the second time in the match . Subsequently , the bowlers dismissed Australia for 220 to give West Indies their first win over Australia , although the series ended 4 – 1 to the home side . Headley scored 336 runs in the Test matches at an average of 37 @.@ 33 , and 1 @,@ 066 runs at 44 @.@ 41 in all first @-@ class games .
On their return home , the West Indian players were well received by the public and officials ; Headley received praise and once again attended functions arranged in his honour . In Australia Donald Bradman , the star Australian batsman , praised Headley , particularly for the way in which he had overcome his problems against Grimmett . C. L. R. James , the writer and historian , later wrote that Headley 's success demonstrated his mastery of batting . Headley arrived in Australia as a primarily off @-@ side player which accounted for his difficulty against the Australian bowlers ' tactics . However , James notes : " What he did , under fire , so to speak , was to reorganise his batting to meet the new attack . " So successful was Headley that he was described by Grimmett as the best on @-@ side batsman against whom the bowler had played .
= = = Tour by Lord Tennyson 's team = = =
Headley resumed playing for Lucas on his return to Jamaica , attracting great crowds and high expectations . Once the cricket season ended , he embarked on another trip to America to play exhibition matches , visiting his parents on the journey . On his return for the 1931 – 32 season , he was appointed captain of Lucas and began preparing for the forthcoming tour of Jamaica by another team led by Lord Tennyson . In addition to his regular practice , Headley began a programme of running and swimming to improve his overall fitness . After performing well in the trial matches for Jamaica , he was selected in the first match against the tourists . Jamaica made an uncertain start , losing five wickets by the time their score reached 215 but Headley had scored 130 . He then shared a partnership of 487 for the sixth wicket with Clarence Passailaigue ; 236 not out after the first day 's play , Headley went on to score an unbeaten 344 , after batting for 407 minutes and hitting 39 fours . Jamaica totalled 702 , and won the match by an innings . During his innings , Headley passed the previous highest score by any West Indian batsman , 304 not out by Percy Tarilton in 1920 , and the highest score in the West Indies by any batsman , Andy Sandham 's 325 in 1930 . His partnership with Passailaigue took 248 minutes , and as of 2015 remains a world record for the highest sixth wicket partnership in a first @-@ class match . The success of two home batsmen led to celebrations in Jamaica and praise from the English bowlers for Headley 's batting . Headley continued his success in the second game , opening the batting and top @-@ scoring with 84 in the first innings . In the second innings , opening again , he made 155 not out to guide West Indies to their victory target of 363 . In the final match , Headley scored his third century of the series after returning to number three , accumulating 140 of Jamaica 's total of 561 . Jamaica won the match to win the series 3 – 0 ; Headley scored 723 runs at an average of 361 @.@ 50 . In the remainder of the season , Headley led Lucas to victory in the Senior Cup , scoring a century in the final .
= = = 1933 tour of England = = =
After playing in two trial matches , Headley was selected to tour England in 1933 under the continuing captaincy of Jackie Grant . The English press speculated on Headley 's ability to cope with English conditions , while expecting him to perform to a high standard . In the event , Wisden believed he justified the expectations and increased his reputation . In the first match of the tour he scored 52 out of a total of 129 against Northamptonshire , in difficult batting conditions on a wet pitch . He scored fifties in each of his next three matches before scoring a century against the MCC during his first appearance at Lord 's Cricket Ground . In the second innings of this match , a short ball from Bill Bowes struck Headley on the chest , and as a result of this injury he missed three games , but when he returned to the team he scored 129 against Glamorgan and 224 not out against Somerset . A quieter match followed against Middlesex , but Headley reached his second double century of the tour in the match against Derbyshire , which took him past 1 @,@ 000 runs for the season . Despite Headley 's contributions , the West Indians won only one of these matches and subsequently lost the first Test against England by an innings . Headley scored 13 in the West Indies first innings , and his 50 was the highest score when West Indies followed @-@ on . Critics were impressed by Headley 's second innings performance , in which he scored his runs out of 64 added while he was batting . Between the first and second Tests , in matches where conditions were difficult for batting and ideal for spin bowlers , Headley scored three fifties and achieved his side 's highest score in each of four innings .
West Indies drew the second Test , avoiding defeat for the first time in a Test in England . Headley scored 169 in 375 minutes with 18 fours , sharing a partnership of 200 in 205 minutes with Ivan Barrow — who became the first West Indian to score a Test century in England , minutes before Headley became the second . When the innings ended , Headley was still not out and the crowd gave him an excellent reception . Wisden described Headley 's batting as magnificent , displaying " a ready adaptability and perfection of timing . " The West Indies bowlers used Bodyline tactics in the England innings ; England 's Nobby Clark used the tactic in the West Indian second innings , in which Headley scored 24 runs . He was one of the few of his side 's batsmen able to resist the bowling tactics .
After scoring an unbeaten 257 in a minor match against Norfolk , Headley scored 89 in his team 's victory over Glamorgan and 182 against Warwickshire . However , he failed in the third and final Test , scoring nine and 12 as West Indies were defeated by an innings . The tourists thus lost the series 2 – 0 ; in the three Tests Headley 's aggregate was 277 runs at an average of 55 @.@ 40 , the best figures for the team . After the Test matches were over , Headley had an operation to remove a sebaceous cyst from his forehead and missed several games , before returning for an end @-@ of @-@ season festival match in which he scored 167 against an England XI . When the tour concluded , Headley had scored 2 @,@ 320 runs with seven hundreds , at an average of 66 @.@ 28 . This was over 1 @,@ 000 runs more than any other tourist and placed him third in the English first @-@ class batting averages for the season . Ivan Barrow believed Headley reached his batting peak during the tour . He recalled how many bowlers tried to hit his pads with the ball but Headley simply flicked the ball away . Headley 's performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The accompanying article called his tour " almost a triumphant march " and described him as " the best batsman the West Indies have ever produced . " Wisden editor Sydney Southerton also described him as a giant in the team and wrote : " From what we had been told by English players who had been to the West Indies , we were fully prepared for Headley 's success , but even so , he astonished most of us . " Headley bowled more than he had previously : prior to the tour , he had taken three first class wickets , but took 21 wickets in England at an average of 34 @.@ 33 , bowling off spin .
During the tour , Headley received news that his aunt had been killed by floods in Kingston which had also destroyed his home . Headley was greatly affected by the news , particularly the nature of her death . Although not able to attend the funeral , he wanted to leave England on an earlier ship than the rest of the team , but this could not be arranged in time .
= = = Lancashire League = = =
Following his success in England in 1933 , Headley was offered a two @-@ year contract to play professional cricket for Haslingden in the Lancashire League for £ 500 per season , the highest of several offers . The money was far more than he was earning from working as a fruit picker in Jamaica , and after consulting the Jamaican Cricket Board , who advised him to accept , he signed with the club on 8 September 1933 . There was a special provision which allowed Headley to be released to play for West Indies . Living in Haslingden where there were few , if any , other black people , Headley faced some prejudice from residents . However , he was generally welcomed and accepted . His first season was in 1934 and his first match was against Nelson , for whom Headley 's West Indian Test colleague Learie Constantine played . Headley had a difficult match . As the professional , he was expected to open the bowling although , as a spinner , he would normally have bowled later in an innings . When he batted he was run out for a duck by Constantine after facing one delivery , and Haslingden lost the match . After this poor start , Headley scored 1 @,@ 063 runs in the season at an average of 50 @.@ 62 , with three centuries . He changed his bowling style to medium pace and took 59 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 59 . In 1935 he scored over 900 runs at an average of 61 @.@ 13 , and took 34 wickets ; his contract was renewed for another two years . In 1936 he again scored over 900 runs , and took 54 wickets . In 1937 he broke the record for most runs scored by any player in a Lancashire League season , accumulating 1 @,@ 360 at an average of 97 @.@ 15 , with five centuries ; he also took 41 wickets . Headley 's final two @-@ year contract with the club covered the seasons 1938 and 1940 , since he was expected to tour England with the West Indies team in 1939 . The war prevented him playing in 1940 , so his last season with Haslingden was 1938 . Although in that year his overall batting performance declined , to 677 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 61 , he took 76 wickets at 9 @.@ 70 and had success in the Worsley Cup competition , including one innings of 189 not out in a match played over five evenings .
= = = Career in mid @-@ 1930s = = =
Headley did not play any first @-@ class cricket in the West Indies in 1933 – 34 , but returned to Jamaica in readiness for the 1934 – 35 MCC tour . The visiting team , under the captaincy of Bob Wyatt , was stronger than English teams that had previously toured the Caribbean ; despite some shortcomings , Wisden and other critics considered it strong enough for the task in hand .
The first Test in Barbados was badly affected by rain which made the pitch almost impossible to bat on . West Indies batted first and were bowled out for 102 ; Headley 's 44 was the highest score of the match . In reply , England had scored 81 for seven when Wyatt declared in an attempt to make West Indies bat while the pitch was difficult . In the second innings , Headley was out for a duck and Jackie Grant declared when West Indies had scored 51 for six , so that England required 73 to win ; they did so after losing six wickets . In the second Test , Headley scored 25 in his first innings ; in the second , he adopted a cautious approach as his team led by 44 , hitting 93 in 225 minutes . West Indies subsequently bowled out England to win the match and level the series . The rain @-@ affected third Test was drawn , with Headley 's 53 his side 's top score .
The MCC went to Jamaica for the final leg of their tour . Headley played two matches for Jamaica against the tourists ; he failed in the first game but scored 127 in the second . The teams went into the fourth and final Test with the series still level at one win apiece . West Indies batted first , facing accurate bowling . The local press criticised the West Indies batsmen for slow batting on the first day , but Headley scored 132 . The Daily Gleaner noted that Headley maintained the controlled approach he had established in the season . On the second day , he took his score to 270 not out , and the Gleaner described him as " the genius we all know , scoring with all his old freedom and audacity . " In total , he batted for 495 minutes and hit 30 fours , recording the highest score by a West Indian batsman . It remained a West Indian record until Garfield Sobers scored 365 not out in 1958 , and was the team 's highest against England until Lawrence Rowe scored 302 in 1974 . West Indies scored 535 for seven and bowled out England twice to record their first victory in a Test series . Headley contributed 485 runs at an average of 97 @.@ 00 .
Headley returned to England to play for Haslingden in the 1935 English season , and played a single first @-@ class game , scoring a century for Sir L Parkinson 's XI against Leicestershire . In the 1935 – 36 season , the Yorkshire team toured Jamaica , playing three first @-@ class matches , winning one and drawing the others . The touring county considered Headley the key batsman , and targeted him by bowling defensively in an attempt to frustrate him . Headley lost his wicket through impatience in the first match , although he scored a pair of fifties , but scored a century in the third game . In total , he scored 266 runs at an average of 53 @.@ 20 , but Yorkshire won the series after winning the first game , Jamaica 's first defeat at home in a first @-@ class game for ten years . The matches were played in a very competitive atmosphere , but scoring was slow and Yorkshire played attritional cricket . During the series , Headley demanded expenses , which were not normally granted to the players . The Jamaican Board were reluctant to pay but Headley pointed out that , as a professional cricketer , he was entitled to the same treatment as the Yorkshire players , whose expenses were provided . The Board eventually relented before the series ended .
= = = Second tour of England = = =
In 1936 Headley returned to England , and played no more first @-@ class cricket until the two trial matches for the 1939 tour of England . These matches were played in Trinidad where it was believed the matting pitches would most closely replicate English conditions ; Jamaica played Trinidad and a combination team . When Jamaica 's captain , Crab Nethersole , withdrew from the tour due to political commitments , Headley led Jamaica in both matches and scored 160 and 103 . Subsequently , he was chosen for his second tour of England , under the captaincy of Rolph Grant . Headley opened his tour with fifties in his first two matches and by the time the Test series started , although the tourists had lost three matches , he had scored three centuries — 103 against Cambridge University , 116 not out in a victory over Essex and 227 as the tourists defeated Middlesex .
In the first Test , West Indies suffered their only defeat of the series . However , Norman Preston , the editor of Wisden , wrote : " the match provided a personal triumph for Headley " , as he became only the second cricketer after Herbert Sutcliffe to make two hundreds in the same Test match on two separate occasions , having previously done so against England in 1930 . He became the first player to score two hundreds in a Lord 's Test , a feat not repeated until 1990 . In the first innings , Headley scored 106 with 13 fours . After sharing a big partnership with Jeff Stollmeyer , he received little help from the other batsmen . He played cautiously during his 250 @-@ minute innings , as he was aware that his team were relying on his success . By the time West Indies batted again , England had established a lead of 127 . Headley again batted defensively to score 107 , taking two hours to reach 50 , as West Indies needed to bat for a long time to secure a draw . However , he scored runs from any loose bowling and batted in all for 230 minutes , hitting eight fours . Preston , writing in Wisden , believed the West Indians relied too much on Headley 's batting . He also noted that Headley had to play cautiously for his team and although he hit powerful shots , " he was not the same dashing batsmen that England knew in 1933 . " Headley had scored three centuries in consecutive Test innings , but he could not prevent England winning this first Test by eight wickets . He continued to score heavily in the tour matches , making an unbeaten 234 in an innings win over Nottinghamshire , followed by 61 against Yorkshire on a sticky wicket , one of the best innings Neville Cardus had seen .
The second Test was drawn , after being badly affected by rain . Headley , although troubled by the English bowling on a difficult pitch , top @-@ scored with 51 in West Indies ' first innings but the other batsmen contributed little . Headley scored just five in West Indies ' brief second innings , bringing to an end a sequence of six fifties in successive Test innings . After the Test , Headley scored 93 against Surrey but failed to reach fifty in his next three games , which included three single figure scores . West Indies needed to win the final Test to level the series and the team established a first @-@ innings lead of 146 . Headley played cautiously for 140 minutes , attempting to tire out the bowlers , but was run out for 65 in a misunderstanding with Vic Stollmeyer . The remaining batsmen played well , attacking the English bowling . Preston believed this match demonstrated West Indies ' ability to compete at the highest level . However , England were able to bat long enough to secure a draw . In the Test series , Headley scored 334 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 80 , but did not play again on the tour after the final Test , as the team were advised to abandon the last seven matches because of the deteriorating political situation in Europe . They arrived in Canada on the day that Britain declared war on Germany . In all first @-@ class matches during the tour , Headley scored 1 @,@ 745 runs at 72 @.@ 70 , placing him at the top of the season 's first @-@ class averages .
Wisden judged Headley to be the best batsman of the 1939 season , while other critics rated him among the best batsmen in the world , with favourable comparisons to Bradman . C. B. Fry , a former England captain turned journalist , wrote that Headley 's " middle name should be Atlas " , suggesting that he carried the team on his shoulders .
= = Later career = =
= = = After the war = = =
Following the outbreak of war , the Lancashire League clubs cancelled professionals ' contracts , meaning Headley did not complete his final year with Haslingden . Having returned to Jamaica , he worked in the Labour Department for the government and played cricket for Lucas , enjoying batting success and captaining his team to victory in the Senior Cup on three occasions . Headley continued to play for the team until 1947 , when he left to play for the Kensington Club . Unlike other Caribbean teams , Jamaica did not take part in inter @-@ island competition , and although Headley played some exhibition matches in America in 1945 , it was not until June 1946 that he took part in his next first @-@ class match . Trinidad played three matches in Jamaica and Headley scored 52 in the second game but only reached his best form when he scored 99 in the third . However , he was successful as a bowler , taking five for 33 in the first game , the only five wicket return of his career . This included a spell of three wickets without conceding a run in 14 deliveries , prompting a pitch invasion by the crowd . Headley also captained Jamaica in the final two matches of the series against Trinidad after the official captain was injured during the home team 's win in the first match — the other two were drawn .
Prior to a visit by Barbados in March 1947 , Headley was officially appointed as Jamaican captain . Previous captains of island teams had been almost exclusively white . Around this time , Headley requested the Jamaican board provide support for low income players with their kit and transport costs . In the first game against Barbados , Headley scored 203 not out and 57 not out , took four for 40 in the tourists ' first innings and another wicket in the second . Although the game was drawn , he had recorded Jamaica 's highest score in a match between the Caribbean islands . The second match was also drawn ; Headley made 79 before he had to retire when he fell and injured his knee . Another American tour followed , in which Headley was accompanied by promising young players , before he led the Jamaican team to British Guiana in October 1947 . He played only two innings in the two matches , scoring 36 and 4 not out . A thumb injury in the first match meant he could not bat , although he bowled 44 overs in the game . Headley was verbally abused by a section of the crowd , who disapproved of a black captain ; he was also dissatisfied with the impartiality of the umpires . Crab Nethersole , the Jamaican manager for the tour , reported that injuries to key players and the poor attitude of the crowd made the tour difficult , although Headley 's captaincy was universally praised .
= = = Resumption of Test career = = =
For reasons related to class and race , it had been unthinkable before the war for the West Indies to appoint a black Test captain , but the postwar world saw social and political changes in the Caribbean . Although opinion was still divided over the merits of a black captain , Headley was appointed as one of the West Indian captains for the series against the England team which toured the Caribbean in 1948 . Crab Nethersole , the former Jamaican captain and member of the Board of Control for cricket , argued Headley should be outright captain but a compromise was reached . Headley was scheduled to captain the first and fourth Test matches , played in Barbados and Jamaica , and the white players Gerry Gomez and John Goddard were given the captaincy of the second and third matches . In the event , Headley only played in the first Test . In the first innings , he scored 29 but strained his back while fielding . Batting towards the end of West Indies ' second innings , he scored seven not out . Rain helped England to draw the match . Headley 's back caused him to miss the second and third Tests , but he was fit enough to play for Jamaica when the tourists arrived there to play two games against the island before the fourth and final Test . After the first island game , in which he scored 65 , Headley 's request to miss the second match to rest his back was refused by the Jamaican Board . He scored 36 not out , but aggravated his back pains and he withdrew from the final Test . West Indies won this game under the captaincy of Goddard , who had earlier led West Indies to victory in the third Test . He was subsequently chosen to captain West Indies in India in 1948 – 49 , despite Headley 's availability and apparently superior claims to the position .
Selected for the Indian tour after a specific request by the Indian cricket authorities , Headley did not have much success in the early matches and in the drawn first Test he scored only two in a total of 631 . West Indies then moved to Pakistan ; in a non first @-@ class game Headley took six wickets as a bowler , but then in a match against a representative Pakistan XI he fell and injured his side while attempting to take a catch . He batted in discomfort , scoring 57 not out . This injury meant that he played no further part in the five @-@ match Test series against India . Although he continued to travel with the team , he was unable to play in any further matches until the final game of the tour , when he scored 100 against Ceylon Schools as the tourists travelled home via Ceylon .
Headley played for the Kensington Club until 1950 , when he resumed league cricket in England ; he returned for a final season with Kensington in 1955 before retiring from Senior Cup cricket . Meanwhile , he took a new job as an insurance agent . This affected his availability for cricket as he was no longer able to take leave when playing for a team ; if he did not work , he received no wages . Consequently , he did not accept the captaincy of Jamaica during the Test trials for the 1950 tour of England and did not travel with the team . Press reaction was unfavourable towards Headley but the West Indies Board still wanted to select him for the tour . However , Headley accepted a contract with Bacup in the Lancashire League , to replace Everton Weekes who was in the touring party .
For Bacup Headley scored 909 runs and took 20 wickets in 1950 , before signing to play for Dudley in the Birmingham League in 1951 . He and his family moved to Birmingham , and in each the next four seasons Headley averaged over 65 with the bat and under 17 with the ball . In his second season , the club topped the league . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 878 runs for Dudley and , resuming off spin bowling , took 102 wickets . While in England during this time , he played several first @-@ class matches for a Commonwealth XI against an England XI ; he scored 20 in 1951 and accumulated 98 and 61 in 1952 .
= = = End of Test career = = =
Headley 's success for Dudley was watched keenly in Jamaica and commentators began to discuss his availability for the 1954 series against England . A public subscription to finance his travel to Jamaica , opened by the Daily Gleaner , raised over £ 1 @,@ 000 , and despite his reservations , Headley returned to Jamaica . Playing in a fund @-@ raising match , he sustained a hand injury and playing for the Combined Parishes in a minor match against the MCC , a short ball from Fred Trueman struck Headley 's arm . The latter injury kept him out of the first @-@ class match between Jamaica and the MCC , but he played in the second where , although hampered by his injury , he scored 53 not out . The Test selectors had seen enough to include Headley in the team for the first Test . Reaction among critics was mixed , and Headley , nearing his 45th birthday , remains the oldest man as of 2015 to play a Test match for West Indies . Headley batted at number six , and it appeared that England , under the captaincy of Len Hutton , let Headley score an easy run to begin his innings , which Hutton later confirmed to be the case . However , Headley later argued that the run was given to ensure that he was batting at the beginning of the next over , so that England could try to get him out before he settled down .
Headley scored 16 and 1 in the match , his final Test appearance . He used his experience to influence the captain , Jeff Stollmeyer , advising him not to enforce the follow on and to use leg theory bowling to slow down the tourists ' scoring . These tactics helped West Indies to a 140 @-@ run win in a match they might have lost ; Stollmeyer followed a similar approach in the following match . In 22 Tests , Headley scored 2 @,@ 190 runs at an average of 60 @.@ 83 .
Headley finished his career at Dudley at the end of 1954 ; his son Ron played for the club from 1957 , having already played for its second team in 1952 as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . After his final Test match appearance , Headley 's only other first @-@ class match was in the Commonwealth XI fixture in 1954 , when he scored 64 in his final first @-@ class innings . In a career total of 103 first @-@ class games he aggregated 9 @,@ 921 runs at 69 @.@ 86 , with 33 centuries , and took 51 wickets at 36 @.@ 11 .
= = Style , technique and legacy = =
Headley is regarded by critics as one of the best batsmen from the Caribbean and one of the greatest batsmen of all time . In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley described Headley as " the yardstick against whom all other West Indian batsmen are measured " . In 1988 , The Cricketer magazine placed him in an all @-@ time West Indian team , as did a panel of judges for another such team in July 2010 , while in 2004 , another panel of experts named him among the top five West Indian players . He was given the nicknames " the Black Bradman " and " Atlas " by commentators , and was the first world @-@ class batsman from the West Indies who was black . According to historian Gideon Haigh , his role was made harder by the weakness of his colleagues , as few outstanding players find it easy to play in teams which lose frequently . Although he was a naturally attacking player , Headley felt the need to play cautiously owing to the way his team depended on him . C. L. R. James believed that no other great batsman had to carry such a burden for so long . In the years before the war , Headley scored 25 @.@ 61 % of the runs scored in Tests by West Indies , more than twice as many as the next best batsman , and two @-@ thirds of the team 's centuries , scoring ten of the team 's first fourteen centuries in Test cricket . Headley usually batted at number three and as the opening batsmen were often dismissed quickly , he frequently began his innings early .
As of 2014 , Headley 's average in Test matches of 60 @.@ 83 is third highest among those with 2 @,@ 000 runs , behind Bradman and Graeme Pollock , and but for the Tests he played after the war , he would have been above Pollock . In all first @-@ class matches , he has the third highest average with 69 @.@ 86 , behind Bradman and Vijay Merchant among those who played 50 innings . He averaged a century every fourth innings in which he batted , second again to Bradman , and did not suffer a poor series in his career before the war .
Manley describes Headley as just under medium height with sloping shoulders . His movements were precise and economical on the cricket field ; his cap was usually at a slight angle and his sleeves were buttoned down to the wrist . Wisden noted in 1933 that his timing and placement of the ball was perfect . Exceptionally quick on his feet , he watched the ball onto the bat more than any other batsman . According to Wisden , all his shots were equally good but most notable was his on drive played from the back foot . He hit the ball hard and was very difficult to get out . He faced criticism for playing off the back foot so often , but R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed his square cut , late cut , and hook were exceptionally good . Headley was particularly effective on bad batting wickets . C. L. R. James calculated that Headley averaged 39 @.@ 85 and passed fifty on seven occasions in thirteen innings on difficult wickets . According to James 's reckoning , Bradman in similar conditions passed fifty once , and averaged 16 @.@ 66 in fifteen innings . Headley himself preferred batting when the odds favoured the bowlers as he had to go for his shots and play his natural attacking game . He stated : " On a bad wicket , it was you and the bowler ... no nonsense . "
Beyond cricket , Headley 's success was regarded as important . Of Headley 's meeting with the king of England in 1939 , the West Indian writer Frank Birbalsingh said : " That one of us — a black man — could shake the hand of a king introduced possibilities formerly undreamt of in our colonial backwater of racial inferiority , psychological subordination and political powerlessness . " Manley notes that Headley rose to success at a time of political awakening in Jamaica , when the black majority of the population were increasingly determined to end the minority rule of landowners and challenge the racism of the time . According to Manley , the middle classes saw in Headley " the reassurance which they needed . He demonstrated black capacity . " The white upper classes were proud of his achievements as a West Indian , but Manley writes " it was to the black masses that Headley had the deepest significance ... [ He ] became the focus for longing of an entire people for proof : proof of their own self @-@ worth , their own capacity . Furthermore , they wanted this proof to be laid at the door of the white man who owned the world which defined their circumstances . " Manley sees the title of " Atlas " not just in sporting terms , but in his carrying " the hopes of the black , English @-@ speaking Caribbean man ... He was black excellence personified in a white world and in a white sport . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Coaching career = = =
Following the 1955 cricket season , Headley was invited to become a national coach , a post created by the Jamaican government , which involved working mainly with young people . Headley and his second son travelled back to Jamaica , while the rest of the family remained in England . Headley had a heavy workload , particularly in rural areas ; together with his assistant Dickie Fuller his role involved encouraging school children to watch and play cricket , and trying to improve standards and facilities throughout the country . Headley became involved in the selection of teams , taking some of them overseas . At this time , he discovered the future West Indian Test player Roy Gilchrist and future Jamaican cricketer Henry Sewell . However , critics in the 1960s complained that there were not enough Jamaicans in the Test side and blamed Headley and Fuller , although the government remained supportive of their performance . In 1961 , Headley coached for six months in Nigeria and earned praise from the Nigerian Cricket Association . His official coaching role in Jamaica ended after a new government withdrew funding for coaching in 1962 .
= = = Family and retirement = = =
Headley married Rena Saunders in 1939 . He had nine children in total , including Ron Headley who was born two days after the end of the Lord 's Test of 1939 . Ron Headley went on to play professional cricket for the English counties Worcestershire and Derbyshire , and represented Jamaica before playing two Tests for West Indies in 1973 . Another son , Lyndie , reached the semi @-@ finals of the 100 metres and came fourth in the 100 metres relay at the 1964 Olympics ; he also won a gold medal with Jamaican sprint relay teams in the Central American and Caribbean Games of 1966 and silver with the relay team at the Commonwealth Games of the same year . Ron 's son Dean , Headley 's grandson , played Test cricket for England ; the family thus became the first to have three generations play Test cricket .
After his retirement from coaching , Headley remained associated with cricket , presenting awards and playing in friendly matches . He was the official representative of the Jamaican Cricket Board at Constantine 's funeral in 1971 . Official recognition came Headley 's way when he was awarded the M.B.E. in 1956 and was made an honorary life member of the MCC in 1958 . In 1969 , a bronze sculpture of his head was unveiled in Jamaica 's National Stadium , and in 1973 the Norman Manley Foundation gave him the Award for Excellence in Sports . In the latter year , he also received the Order of Distinction . He died in Kingston on 30 November 1983 .
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= Interstate 81 in West Virginia =
In the U.S. state of West Virginia , Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) crosses the Eastern Panhandle region , linking Virginia to Maryland . The Interstate Highway , completed in 1966 , spans 26 @.@ 00 miles ( 41 @.@ 84 km ) through Berkeley County , paralleling U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) for its entire length . I @-@ 81 enters the state near Ridgeway and travels northeast , bypassing the city of Martinsburg , and leaves the state at the Potomac River , which serves as the state line . The first solicitations for the construction of I @-@ 81 were published in 1959 , with the first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of freeway being opened in 1963 , and the full length was completed by 1966 . On average between 45 and 60 thousand vehicles use the freeway though the panhandle per day .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 81 enters the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia just west of Ridgeway , paralleling US 11 ( also known as the Valley Pike ) . The highway passes through some light farmland before entering a wooded area , north of Ridgeway . A welcome center for northbound travelers is passed before the woodlands give way to a light urban setting . As the highway approaches the community of Inwood , a diamond interchange with West Virginia Route 51 ( WV 51 ) provides access to the community , as well as Gerrardstown to the west of the freeway , and Charles Town to the east . A small business park is passed by before I @-@ 81 intersects County Route 32 , providing access to Arden , the Eastern WV Regional Airport and Tablers Station . The freeway turns more towards the north as it approaches Martinsburg , intersecting WV 45 , County Route 15 and Dry Run Road while in the city limits . I @-@ 81 bypasses downtown , running along the western border of town while US 11 continues through the town .
Just northeast of Martinsburg the freeway passes over a CSX Transportation rail line while a cloverleaf interchange with WV 9 provides access back to Martinsburg and to Hedgesville . As the freeway curves back east , it intersects WV 901 between Hainesville and Falling Waters . WV 901 is a short connector route back to US 11 . North of Falling Waters and south of Marlowe , US 11 intersects the freeway and continues north while I @-@ 81 turns east towards the Maryland state line at the Potomac River . Just south of the river is a welcome center intended for southbound travelers from Maryland .
Out of the six states that I @-@ 81 passes through , the segment in West Virginia is the second shortest , only longer than the Maryland segment . Every year the West Virginia Department of Transportation ( WVDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WVDOT calculated that as few as 45 @,@ 000 vehicles traveled along the highway at the Virginia state line , and as many as 62 @,@ 500 vehicles used the freeway between County Routes 15 and 13 in Martinsburg . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
I @-@ 81 roughly parallels the Great Indian Warpath , an old Indian trail which connected New York to the Carolina Piedmont via Virginia and West Virginia . A series of roads linking Virginia to Maryland through Martinsburg were present on maps as early as 1873 .
Bids for construction of I @-@ 81 by WVDOT were published in 1959 , with a budget of about $ 10 @.@ 6 million to complete the highway . Completion of I @-@ 81 in Virginia up to the West Virginia state line was completed by the Virginia Department of Transportation in November 1965 . The first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the highway through West Virginia were completed between 1959 and 1963 . The construction of the remaining 20 miles ( 32 km ) of Interstate Highway through the Eastern Panhandle was completed by 1966 . Since then , there have been no major realignments , and the highway continues on its original path .
= = Future = =
In 2014 , WVDOT officials announced in conjunction with the Maryland State Highway Administration that the bridges over the Potomac River would be rehabilitated to accommodate three lanes of highway in each direction . The widening of the highway is proposed to head south along I @-@ 81 to exit 23 for US 11 . Construction is expected to start in the summer of 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Berkeley County .
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= Literature in early modern Scotland =
Literature in early modern Scotland is literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers between the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution in mid @-@ eighteenth century . By the beginning of this era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands , but the tradition of Classic Gaelic Poetry survived . Middle Scots became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . The establishment of a printing press in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity .
James IV 's creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics . These included Gavin Douglas , whose Eneados ( 1513 ) was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language . James V was also a major patron of poets . George Buchanan founded a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry . In the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots and the minority of her son James VI , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature but secular poetry survived . In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted literature in Scots . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band . David Lyndsay 's The Thrie Estaitis ( 1540 ) is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . There were isolated Scottish plays , but the system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland .
The accession of James VI to the English throne in 1603 meant a loss of the court as a centre of patronage and he increasingly favoured the language of southern England . A number of Scottish poets accompanied the king to London , where they began to anglicise their written language . As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge , often undertaken by women . The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets , such as Elizabeth Melville , whose Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was the first book published by a woman in Scotland . This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors .
After the Union in 1707 , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Allan Ramsay led a " vernacular revival " that laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature . He also led the trend for pastoral poetry and his pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . Tobias Smollett was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry that mixed traditional forms with influences from the Lowlands . Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London . In Scotland drama was supplied by visiting English players and actors , but there were clashes with the Kirk . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing a small theatre in Edinburgh , but it closed soon after the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .
= = Sixteenth century = =
= = = Background = = =
By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands . The tradition of classic Gaelic poetry survived longer in Scotland than in Ireland , with the last fully competent member of the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were hereditary poets to the Lords of the Isles and then the Donalds of Clanranald , still working in the early eighteenth century . Nevertheless , interest in the sponsorship of panegyric Gaelic poetry was declining among the clan leaders . Gaelic was gradually being overtaken by Middle Scots , which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . Middle Scots was derived substantially from Old English , with Gaelic and French influences . It was usually called Inglyshe and was very close to the language spoken in northern England , but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England . From the mid sixteenth century , written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England . With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England , most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion .
The establishment of a printing press under royal patent in 1507 would begin to make it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity . The first Scottish press was established in Southgait in Edinburgh by the merchant Walter Chepman ( c . 1473 – c . 1528 ) and the bookseller Andrew Myllar ( fl . 1505 – 08 ) . Although the first press was relatively short lived , beside law codes and religious works , the press also produced editions of the work of Scottish makars before its demise , probably about 1510 . The next recorded press was that of Thomas Davidson ( f . 1532 – 42 ) , the first in a long line of " king 's printers " , who also produced editions of works of the makars .
= = = Makars = = =
James IV 's ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets . These court poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics included Robert Henryson ( c . 1450 @-@ c . 1505 ) , who re @-@ worked Medieval and Classical sources , such as Chaucer and Aesop in works such as his Testament of Cresseid and The Morall Fabillis . William Dunbar ( 1460 – 1513 ) produced satires , lyrics , invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind . Gavin Douglas ( 1475 – 1522 ) , who became Bishop of Dunkeld , injected humanist concerns and classical sources into his poetry . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados . It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden that brought the reign to an end .
As a patron of poets and authors James V ( r . 1513 – 42 ) supported William Stewart and John Bellenden , who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Hector Boece , into verse and prose . David Lyndsay ( c . 1486 – 1555 ) , diplomat and the head of the Lyon Court , was a prolific poet . He wrote elegiac narratives , romances and satires . George Buchanan ( 1506 – 82 ) had a major influence as a Latin poet , founding a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century . Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland ( 1537 – 95 ) , reformer Andrew Melville ( 1545 – 1622 ) , John Johnston ( 1570 ? – 1611 ) and David Hume of Godscroft ( 1558 – 1629 ) .
From the 1550s , in the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots ( r . 1542 – 67 ) and the minority of her son James VI ( r . 1567 – 1625 ) , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk , heavily influenced by Calvinism , also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature . Nevertheless , poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington ( 1496 – 1586 ) , who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar ; John Rolland ( fl . 1530 – 75 ) , who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume ( c . 1556 – 1609 ) , whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse . Alexander Scott 's ( ? 1520 – 82 / 3 ) use of short verse designed to be sung to music , opened the way for the Castalian poets of James VI 's adult reign .
Unlike many of his predecessors , James VI actively despised Gaelic culture . However , in the 1580s and 1590s he strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots . His treatise , Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody , published in 1584 when he was aged 18 , was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue , to which he applied Renaissance principles . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler ( c . 1560 – 1612 ) , John Stewart of Baldynneis ( c . 1545 – c . 1605 ) , and Alexander Montgomerie ( c . 1550 – 98 ) . They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms , including sonnets and short sonnets , for narrative , nature description , satire and meditations on love . Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander ( c . 1567 – 1640 ) , Alexander Craig ( c . 1567 – 1627 ) and Robert Ayton ( 1570 – 1627 ) . By the late 1590s the king 's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne .
= = = Dramatists = = =
Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540 , which satirised the corruption of church and state , and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes , which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo @-@ classical tradition in French drama , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play ( before 1568 ) and Philotus ( published in London in 1603 ) , are isolated examples of surviving plays . The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors , probably designed for court performance for Mary , Queen of Scots or James VI . The same system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland , but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599 .
= = Seventeenth century = =
= = = Poetry = = =
Having extolled the virtues of Scots " poesie " , after his accession to the English throne , James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English Authorised King James Version of the Bible . In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now " not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther " . Jenny Wormald described James as creating a " three @-@ tier system , with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top " . The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature . A number of Scottish poets , including William Alexander , John Murray and Robert Aytoun , accompanied the king to London , where they continued to write , but they soon began to anglicise their written language . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined . The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king 's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden ( 1585 – 1649 ) .
As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge . While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century , the vernacular continued to develop . In contrast to the Classical tradition , which used syllabic metre , vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre . However , they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role , as the verse was still often panegyric . A number of these vernacular poets were women , such as Mary MacLeod of Harris ( c . 1615 – 1707 ) .
The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) , published in Amsterdam by Arthur Johnston ( c.1579 – 1641 ) and Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet ( 1585 – 1670 ) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets . Elizabeth Melville 's ( f . 1585 – 1630 ) Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland . Anna Hume , daughter of David Hume of Godscroft , adapted Petrarch as Triumphs of Love : Chastitie : Death ( 1644 ) .
This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century , including " Sir Patrick Spens " and " Thomas the Rhymer " , but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century . They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed , often as broadsides and as part of chapbooks , later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including Robert Burns and Walter Scott . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including Robert Sempill ( c . 1595 @-@ c . 1665 ) , Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw ( 1627 – 1727 ) and Lady Grizel Baillie ( 1645 – 1746 ) .
= = = Theatre = = =
The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the Kirk 's dislike of theatre , which struggled to survive in Scotland . However , it was not entirely extinguished . The Kirk used theatre for its own purposes in schools and was slow to suppress popular folk dramas . Surviving plays for the period include William Alexander 's Monarchicke Tragedies , written just before his departure with the king for England in 1603 . They were closet dramas , designed to be read rather than performed , and already indicate Alexander 's preference for southern English over the Scots language . There were some attempts to revive Scottish drama . In 1663 Edinburgh lawyer William Clerke wrote Marciano or the Discovery , a play about the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in Florence after many years of civil war . It was performed at the Tennis @-@ Court Theatre at Holyrood Palace before the parliamentary high commissioner John Leslie , Earl of Rothes . Thomas Sydsurf 's Tarugo 's Wiles or the Coffee House , was first performed in London in 1667 and then in Edinburgh the year after and drew on Spanish comedy . A relative of Sydsurf , physician Archibald Pitcairne ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation ( 1692 ) , a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian Kirk , circulating in manuscript , but not published until 1722 , helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre .
= = Early eighteenth century = =
= = = Vernacular revival = = =
After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Nevertheless , Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working @-@ class Scots . Literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) was considered the most important literary figure of the era , often described as leading a " vernacular revival " . He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature , publishing The Ever Green ( 1724 ) , a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period . He led the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza , which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a poetic form . His Tea @-@ Table Miscellany ( 1724 – 37 ) contained poems old Scots folk material , his own poems in the folk style and " gentilizings " of Scots poems in the English neo @-@ classical style . His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital .
= = = Verse and prose = = =
Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . These included William Hamilton of Gilbertfield ( c . 1665 – 1751 ) , Robert Crawford ( 1695 – 1733 ) , Alexander Ross ( 1699 – 1784 ) , the Jacobite William Hamilton of Bangour ( 1704 – 54 ) , socialite Alison Rutherford Cockburn ( 1712 – 94 ) , and poet and playwright James Thompson 's ( 1700 – 48 ) , most famous for the nature poetry of his Seasons . Tobias Smollett ( 1721 – 71 ) was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , such as The Adventures of Roderick Random ( 1748 ) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ( 1751 ) for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . His work would be a major influence on later novelists such as Thackeray and Dickens .
The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry . Major figures included Rob Donn Mackay ( 1714 – 78 ) and Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t @-@ Saoir ( Duncan Ban MacIntyre ) ( 1724 – 1812 ) . The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair ( Alasdair MacDonald ) ( c . 1698 – 1770 ) . His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald 's Gallery . He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands , including Thompson 's Seasons , which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic , which was not focused on their relations to human concerns .
= = = Drama = = =
Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as Catherine Trotter ( 1679 – 1749 ) , born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen . Her plays and included the verse @-@ tragedy Fatal Friendship ( 1698 ) , the comedy Love at a Loss ( 1700 ) and the history The Revolution in Sweden ( 1706 ) . David Crawford 's ( 1665 – 1726 ) plays included the Restoration comedies Courtship A @-@ la @-@ Mode ( 1700 ) and Love at First Sight ( 1704 ) . These developed the character of the stage Scot , often a clown , but cunning and loyal . Newburgh Hamilton ( 1691 – 1761 ) , born in Ireland of Scottish descent , produced the comedies The Petticoat @-@ Ploter ( 1712 ) and The Doating Lovers or The Libertine ( 1715 ) . He later wrote the libretto for Handel 's Samson ( 1743 ) , closely based on John Milton 's Samson Agonistes . James Thompson 's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings , included Sophonisba ( 1730 ) , Agamemnon ( 1738 ) and Tancrid and Sigismuda ( 1745 ) , the last of which was an international success . David Mallet 's ( c . 1705 – 65 ) Eurydice ( 1731 ) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to the Walpole administration . The opera Masque of Alfred ( 1740 ) was a collaboration between Thompson , Mallet and composer Thomas Arne , with Thompson supplying the lyrics for the his most famous work , the patriotic song Rule , Britannia !
In Scotland a troop of English players came to Edinburgh in 1715 where they performed Macbeth and a series of Restoration comedies , but they soon left , perhaps because of objections from local kirk presbyteries . By 1725 English actor Anthony Aston , a friend of Ramsay , was performing in Edinburgh , but seems to have fallen foul of the Scottish Master of the Revels , who licensed plays , companies and playhouses , and soon left . In 1727 the Kirk attacked theatres as immoral in the Admonition and Exhortation . The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee , Montrose , Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor 's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber 's Close in Edinburgh , but the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and the theatre soon closed . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .
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= Ridge Racer Revolution =
Ridge Racer Revolution is an arcade racing game developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation in 1995 . It is the PlayStation sequel of Ridge Racer ( the arcade sequel is Ridge Racer 2 ) . Like the original Ridge Racer , the player races computer @-@ controlled cars with the objective of winning a series of races , and supports Namco 's NeGcon controller . Ridge Racer Revolution adds two hidden cars , and two @-@ player support via the PlayStation Link cable , and took roughly the same time to develop as the first . The intention was to increase the depth and add features .
The game borrows most of its soundtrack from Ridge Racer 2 . Ridge Racer Revolution was re @-@ released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in June 1997 , and for the Platinum Range in PAL regions the following year . The game received generally positive reviews , although some criticised its similarity to the original . Ridge Racer Revolution was followed by a sequel , Rage Racer , in 1996 .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay system remains unchanged from Ridge Racer , with its checkpoint and time @-@ limit system remaining the same ; running out of time ends the game and passing through checkpoints grants additional time , although the car drifting is more like Ridge Racer 2 . The player drives using automatic transmission or manual transmission . Ridge Racer Revolution supports Namco 's NeGcon controller , and adds a rear @-@ view mirror when using the in @-@ car view . The game consists of three courses : ' Novice ' , ' Intermediate ' ( also called ' Advanced ' ) , and ' Expert ' , each having different sections opened , and incorporates modes from the original game ; Race , against eleven opponents , and Time Trial , against one . Ridge Racer Revolution adds a mode : Free Run , in which there are no other cars and the player practises driving . There is no lap limit . How fast the cars run depends on which of the four speed grades is used . The grade is selectable in Free Run , and can be unlocked for Race . It is not available in Time Trial . A new feature of the game is the option to select the time of day in which the race takes place . This is not available at the start of the game . Ridge Racer Revolution features a two @-@ player link @-@ up mode which allows the players access to the original Ridge Racer 's courses known as ' Special 1 ' and ' Special 2 ' . There are two modes in two @-@ player link @-@ up : Race , which is identical to its single @-@ player counterpart , and Versus , where only the players race against each other . Versus features a handicap option , which increases the speed of the trailing car .
Like the first Ridge Racer , the player normally starts with four cars . The remaining eight are selectable upon winning the mini game before the title screen ( the mini game is Galaga ' 88 instead of the original game 's Galaxian ) . They are mostly unchanged ; their names ( certain cars are named after other Namco titles ) and specifications are similar to the first game . After the player wins the first three circuits , reversed versions are unlocked , and Time Trial features an additional opponent driving a secret car . There are three secret cars ; the ' 13th Racing ' ( from the first Ridge Racer ) of the Novice course , and the new ' 13th Racing Kid ' ( of the Intermediate course ) and ' White Angel ' ( of the Expert course ) . These cars are unlocked upon winning the respective course 's Time Trial race .
Ridge Racer Revolution features two hidden modes ; ' Drift Contest ' , where the player earns points according to how well spins are performed on certain corners , and ' Pretty Racer ' ( also known as ' Buggy mode ' ) , in which the cars become buggies . Pocket Racer was inspired by this . Mirrored tracks that function identically to the original are accessible . As with the first game , the player can insert a music CD which can be listened to instead of the soundtrack . Unlike the first game , only the last course played is loaded into the PlayStation 's memory ; to switch , the player would need to reinsert the game disc before loading .
= = Development = =
Ridge Racer Revolution was developed over eight months by a team of more than twenty people , most of whom joined just for Ridge Racer Revolution . The biggest difficulties were the link @-@ up mode , rear @-@ view mirror , and running the game at high speeds . Each member had worked on other console games , and they commented that the graphics detail showed the improvements in skill and technique . The team wanted players to enjoy a more in @-@ depth game than the original , so rather than develop a port of Ridge Racer 2 , as many features as possible were added . The early designs for the new courses were made in a ' free run ' programme , and used to see how fast the cars went . The rear @-@ view mirror was added primarily with the two player link @-@ up mode in mind . The music was mostly taken from Ridge Racer 2 , and as a result , the sound was finished more quickly than the game . Soundtrack composition involved four musicians , who composed for Ridge Racer , Ridge Racer 2 , and Rave Racer . The team kept exploring the PlayStation 's capabilities to solve the high speed problem , although were confident it was possible . The designer , Hiroyuki Onada , commented that designing an original course was a challenge , and director Kazumi Mizuno believed that graphics quality would be degraded with a split @-@ screen multiplayer mode , so the team decided to focus on the PlayStation 's link @-@ up instead .
= = Reception = =
The game was a bestseller in the UK . The additional features and improvements over the original in particular were given high praise . Coming Soon Magazine praised its multiplayer mode , saying it " will furnish many hours of competitive fun ! " , and in their conclusion remarked that the game " is an excellent racing game that will yield much excitement and challenges " . Absolute PlayStation praised its playability , its ' greatly ' improved artificial Intelligence , and the two @-@ player link @-@ up feature . Electronic Gaming Monthly remarked that it is even better than the original due to the cleaner graphics and improved handling on the cars , which makes them easier to control . Maximum acknowledged the similarity to the original Ridge Racer but gave it a strong recommendation , arguing that removal of the slowdown and track updating of the original , the unlockables , and the two @-@ player mode make it worth buying . They concluded by remarking that the game is " an instantly playable arcade racer that oozes options and playability " .
The Electric Playground complimented the additions and improvements , including the " much improved " graphics and the scene changes , about which it was commented that it was a " serious improvement " . They commented that the colours are " sharp and pretty " , and the link @-@ up multiplayer mode , remarking that " Linked RR Revolution is worth the buy alone " , although the remixed music tracks were criticised because they " pale greatly in comparison to the original tracks " . Gamezilla commented that the new tracks are " always challenging and fun to race " and praised Free Run , saying it 's a " great way to learn the tracks " . GamePro praised the game , saying " Ridge Racer Revolution certainly upholds the Ridge Racer tradition by doing exactly what it should : It surpasses the original " , and Computer and Video Games Magazine commented that the game is " Everything Ridge Racer maniacs could have wanted from a sequel " .
Hugh Sterbakov of GameSpot was more critical . He called it " a clone of the original " , and criticised the lack of split @-@ screen multiplayer .
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= Soul Sound =
" Soul Sound " is a song by British girl group Sugababes from their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) . It was written by Charlotte Gordon Cumming during a trip to Kenya , Africa , where she was inspired to compose it based on her experiences there . Produced by Ron Tom , " Soul Sound " is a pop song featuring guitar and bass instrumentation . It was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the album 's fourth and final single . Critics praised the song for the group 's demeanour although some regarded it as inferior in comparison to the album 's other tracks .
To promote the song , a music video was directed by Max & Dania ; it features the Sugababes in an apartment where their souls are released by the music . The trio performed " Soul Sound " at Manchester Ampersand and at the London Notre Dame Hall . The song became the group 's lowest @-@ charting single at the time , peaking at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , and remains one of their lowest @-@ selling singles to date . It was the final single that they released through London Records , and their last single to feature original member Siobhán Donaghy , who left the group in 2001 .
= = Background and composition = =
" Soul Sound " was written by the Scottish musician Charlotte Gordon Cumming during her trip to Kenya . Her inspiration to write the song stemmed from Africa , a continent which she visited frequently with her family as a child . According to Cumming , " In Africa I feel extremely alive , but also very small . The song was the essence of how I felt : seeing the beauty and horror of a place , and going into a heightened state . " She elaborated , " My songs are all about who I am and what I am feeling , which is why they can take so much out of me to perform – and I always feel a lot when I go to Africa " .
Cumming had spent a year with the Sugababes while they recorded their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) ; according to the Daily Record , the trio 's management were desperate for them to sing " Soul Sound " . The song was produced by Ron Tom , who mixed and programmed it in collaboration with Mark Frank . Individuals who provide backing vocals on the song include Xavier Barnet and the Kenyan @-@ born British singer Lamya . " Soul Sound " was recorded at the Matrix Recording Studios in London , England .
" Soul Sound " is a pop record that experiments with pop @-@ rock balladry . The song features guitar and bass instrumentation , and according to the Daily Mail , evokes the music of harmony groups from the 1960s . John Mulvey of NME characteristed the song as having " tasteful slippery beats , tasteful acoustic guitars , [ and ] the usual indolent harmonies " . The song 's lyrics immediately begin with a sense of decision through the line " I Touch the sky " , and largely focus on the enjoyment of life .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
" Soul Sound " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The Sunday Mirror 's Ian Hyland rated the song nine out of ten stars and described it as " [ p ] ure class from the ever @-@ smiling teens " . According to AllMusic 's Dean Carlson , " Soul Sound " is a representation that " the jitters of youth are [ on One Touch ] though tempered by shrewd ambition and a clever and unpredictable production aesthetic " . John Mulvey of NME stated that while the song lacked the quality of the trio 's debut single " Overload " , it " is pretty good nevertheless " . He elaborated , " the best thing about Sugababes is how they sound like they really can 't be arsed with anything , let alone any of this pop star business [ ... ] Enough with the dance routines and shit @-@ eating grins – does this mean total lack of enthusiasm 's the way forward for teen pop ? " Stylus Magazine writer Scott Plagenhoef described the single as " marvelous lilting [ and ] hopeful " , while Stephen Robinson from Hot Press was less favourable and criticised the song 's pop @-@ rock experimentation , which according to him " doesn 't work quite so well " . Neil Western of the South China Morning Post felt that " Soul Sound " , along with the album 's title track , " lack sparkle " .
= = = Commercial = = =
The song was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the fourth and final single from One Touch . Upon release , it debuted and peaked at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , the group 's lowest @-@ charting single in the United Kingdom at the time . In the UK , " Soul Sound " is one of the group 's lowest @-@ selling singles to date . Unlike the previous singles from One Touch , " Soul Sound " failed to make an impact on the Irish Singles Chart . The song earned the Sugababes a 2001 MTV Awards nomination for Best European Single .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Soul Sound " was directed by Max & Dania and filmed in London . Band member Siobhán Donaghy stated that around the time of the video 's filming , her and the other group members were not performing as a group frequently : " It 's been fairly quiet recently , but it usually is between singles . The other two have been doing their exams , and I have been doing some interviews for newspapers and magazines abroad . Apart from the video for ' Soul Sound ' we have not been doing too much together . " During the video , the group 's members are featured in an apartment and are seated on couches and chairs . The plot involves their inner souls being released by the music , while outside in the neighbourhood the music takes control of other people 's lives and causes their souls to be lifted too . The video was included on the CD release of " Soul Sound " .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes played " Soul Sound " on 27 March 2001 at Manchester Ampersand , in conjunction with many of the album 's tracks such as " Overload " and " Run for Cover " . This was their second @-@ ever live performance , which was sponsored by NME . Donaghy commented ,
We were very lucky that the tour was done in conjunction with NME , and it meant that we were playing to an older audience . We never set out to appeal to under @-@ 10s , because of the kind of stuff we listened to ourselves . If we manage to incorporate even a hint of that in our own music , we should appeal to quite an adult audience . We were all very nervous at all the gigs , but that was just because we were so worried about it going well .
According to Kitty Empire of NME , during the performance , " ' Soul Sound ' [ grew ] lovelier with every croon of its chorus " . Later that month , the trio performed the song at London 's Notre Dame Hall as part of a set list . The Guardian 's John Aizlewood commented that during its performance , the group " [ created ] a tidal wave of melody " .
= = Impact = =
The group 's members were dissatisfied with the release of " Soul Sound " as a single , because they wanted to venture into an R & B sound whereas their record label London Records pushed them into a more pop direction . Soon after the song 's release , Donaghy left the group and was replaced by former Atomic Kitten member Heidi Range , making it the last Sugababes single to feature her vocals . Further , the sales of One Touch and its last three singles , " New Year " , " Run for Cover " and " Soul Sound " , failed to meet the expectations of London Records and the group was subsequently dropped . Band member Keisha Buchanan has stated that the song 's release and subsequent commercial underperformance was a positive experience because , saying : " Everything happens for a reason and it looks like it has all worked out " . " Soul Sound " was featured in the 2001 film Summer Catch , which stars such actors as Freddie Prinze , Jr. and Jessica Biel .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Matrix Recording Studios , London , England
Personnel
Songwriting – Charlotte Edwards
Production – Ron Tom
Mixing – Mark Frank , Ron Tom
Guitar – Andrew Smith
Lead guitar – Ron Tom
Bass – Pino Palladino
Backing vocals – Lamya , Xavier Barnet
Programming – Ron Tom
Additional programming – Mark Frank
Credits are taken from the liner notes of One Touch , courtesy of London Records .
= = Charts = =
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= Miguel Treviño Morales =
Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales ( born 18 November 1970 ) , commonly referred to by his alias Z @-@ 40 , is a former Mexican drug lord and leader of the criminal organization known as Los Zetas . Considered a violent and dangerous criminal , he was one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords until his arrest in July 2013 .
Born into a family with six brothers and six sisters , Treviño Morales began his criminal career as a teenager , working for Los Tejas — a local gang from his hometown of Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas . His fluent English and experience of moving contraband along the U.S. – Mexico border enabled him to be recruited in the late 1990s by the drug lord Osiel Cárdenas Guillén , who headed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas . Around 2005 , he was appointed as the regional boss of Los Zetas in Nuevo Laredo and was given the task to fight off the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take over the lucrative drug trafficking routes to the United States . After successfully securing these routes in Nuevo Laredo in 2006 , Treviño Morales was moved to Veracruz and appointed as the Zetas leader in the state after the death of the drug lord Efraín Teodoro Torres . Two years later , his boss Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano sent him to Guatemala to wipe out his competitors ; after completing the task successfully , he appointed Treviño Morales as the national commander of Los Zetas in 2008 . In 2010 , Los Zetas gained their independence from the Gulf Cartel , their former allies , and both organizations went to war with each other .
As the national commander of Los Zetas , Treviño Morales earned a notorious reputation for intimidating officials and citizens throughout Mexico . The Mexican authorities believe that he is responsible for a significant part of the violence in Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people in 2011 . A common torture method of his was known as guiso ( stew ) , in which victims would be dumped into oil barrels , doused with gasoline and burned alive . Following the death of his boss Lazcano Lazcano in October 2012 , Treviño Morales became his successor and the top leader of Los Zetas drug cartel amid an internal power struggle within the organization .
Mexican Marines arrested Treviño Morales on 15 July 2013 in the state of Nuevo León without a single bullet being fired . At the time of his capture , the Mexican government was offering up to a 30 million pesos ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) reward for information leading to his arrest . The United States Department of Statewas offering up to US $ 5 million for information leading to his arrest and conviction . Authorities on both sides of the border believe that he was succeeded by his younger brother Omar Treviño Morales , a man who was also on the most @-@ wanted list .
= = Early life = =
Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales was born on 18 November 1970 in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , Mexico . His parents , Rodolfo Treviño and María Arcelia Morales , created a large family with six daughters and seven sons , including Miguel . Like many families along the U.S.-Mexico border , the Treviño family travelled from Mexico to the United States and vice versa , where they bought properties and opened several businesses . His father abandoned his family at a very young age , forcing Treviño Morales to single @-@ handedly raise the whole family . Treviño Morales grew up in a lower @-@ class neighborhood in Nuevo Laredo , but as a teenager , he worked for the wealthy by fixing their yards and washing their cars . He also did chores for the local drug lord Héctor Manuel Sauceda Gamboa ( alias El Karis ) , who later became his mentor ; Treviño Morales eventually replaced him as a Zetas leader in Nuevo Laredo . Treviño Morales grew up disliking Mexico 's class disparity and developed so much resentment as to partially explain his violent behavior as an adult . Treviño Morales frequented Dallas , Texas with his family . In 1993 , he was apprehended in Dallas County and charged with avoiding police arrest , after he had tried to lose the cops in a police car chase that ended in a street dead end . He paid a $ 672 @-@ dollar fine and was subsequently released from the county prison . Few details are known of Treviño Morales 's life in Dallas ; the U.S. authorities believe he learned about " power , money , weapons and the vast consumer market for illegal drugs " while living in Texas . They also believe that he perceived an anti @-@ Mexican bias among Americans , and especially towards Mexican immigrants like him . However , Treviño Morales considered Dallas his home because of his large family network that lives in the surrounding areas . According to U.S. investigators , he was last seen in the Dallas area in 2005 after entering the United States illegally , where visited his family and was said to have been at a strip club .
= = Criminal origins and ascension = =
As a teenager , he began to work for Los Tejas , a gang that ran the criminal activities in his hometown of Nuevo Laredo . From washing cars , running errands , and stealing car parts in Nuevo Laredo , Treviño Morales turned to the drug trade , starting with small @-@ scale drug retail sales and smuggling . Unlike the first members of Los Zetas , he was never in the military . He was hired by them and the Gulf Cartel in the late 1990s for his experience moving contraband across the border . His fluent English and his criminal contacts on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border allowed him to gain the trust of the then @-@ leader of the Gulf Cartel , Osiel Cárdenas Guillén . When he joined the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas , Los Tejas , the local gang he once worked for , was absorbed by the former groups . Around 2005 , Treviño Morales became the regional boss of Nuevo Laredo ; he was in charge of fighting off the incursions of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take control of the smuggling routes in the area . The Laredo – Nuevo Laredo area is a lucrative smuggling route for narcotics because of the Interstate 35 highway , which serves as a strategic pathway to San Antonio , Austin , and Dallas for future drug distribution . While in power , he orchestrated a number of assassinations in American cities and in Mexico by young U.S. citizens whom he put on his payroll . Treviño Morales was good at identifying and grooming young teenagers who he believed had the potential to become professional assassins for Los Zetas . These recruits , sometimes called Zetitas ( " Little Zetas " ) , usually joined organized crime as young as twelve @-@ years old to work first as smugglers and later as paid assassins .
By 2006 , the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas managed to defeat the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel in Nuevo Laredo . The latter cartel concentrated its efforts in northeastern Mexico , becoming dominant there . Los Zetas started to expand into other criminal activities beyond drug trafficking . Under Treviño Morales , the organization smuggled immigrants to the United States , carried out extortions and kidnappings , sold bootlegged CDs and DVDs , and intimidated and / or killed residents who failed to cooperate with them . Treviño Morales remained in charge of Los Zetas in the state of Nuevo León and in Piedras Negras , Coahuila , until March 2007 . He was reassigned to the coastal state of Veracruz , shortly after high @-@ ranking Zetas leader Efraín Teodoro Torres ( alias Z @-@ 14 ) was killed in a gun battle at a local horse race . Though Cárdenas Guillén was imprisoned in 2003 , he reportedly directed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas behind bars ; when he was extradited to the United States in 2007 , Treviño Morales and Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano pushed for Los Zetas ' independence from the Gulf Cartel .
In November 2007 , the city of Laredo , Texas , issued an arrest warrant for Treviño in connection with a 2006 double homicide in Texas . In 2008 , Treviño Morales and Lazcano Lazcano , the two leaders of Los Zetas , forged an alliance with the Beltrán Leyva Cartel . It had just gone to war with the Sinaloa Cartel , believing that El Chapo Guzmán , their leader , had betrayed them . Treviño Morales subsequently joined them to kill the leader of the Sinaloa Cartel . Government sources said Los Zetas were fighting for control against La Federación ( The Federation ) , an alliance of several drug trafficking groups led by Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán and Ismael El Mayo Zambada , two drug lords who used to work for the Beltrán Leyva Cartel .
In February 2008 , Lazcano Lazcano sent Treviño Morales to kill rival drug traffickers and take control of the drug trafficking routes in Guatemala . Reportedly , he carried out a military @-@ like ambush that resulted in the death of the Guatemalan drug lord Juan José León Ardón ( alias Juancho ) in March . An unnamed U.S. official said that Treviño Morales may have been the man who fired the bullet that killed the drug kingpin . Having succeeded outside of Mexico , Treviño Morales was appointed by Lazcano Lazcano as the national commander of Los Zetas , a position traditionally reserved to Zetas members with military background . In this position , Treviño Morales had a say in nearly all the decisions Los Zetas made at a national level , creating some resentment among the old @-@ generation commanders of Los Zetas who , unlike him , had been in the Mexican Armed Forces before turning to the drug trade .
= = Leadership position = =
Treviño Morales acted as a cartel ' gate @-@ keeper , ' and his people collected a piso ( tariff ) at all drug territories controlled by Los Zetas . He controlled the highly lucrative Nuevo Laredo plaza ( turf ) , across the border from Laredo , Texas . He bribed and intimidated officials to help maintain control , and responded to any challenges to his authority or control with brutal violence . Treviño was feared and very few local journalists dared to write about him . He was alleged to favored a torture method known as the guiso ( stew ) , in which people are stuffed into an oil barrel , doused with gasoline , and set on fire to burn alive . His violent behavior gained him " the notoriety of a cult figure . " He reportedly survived gun battles unharmed , avoided making alliances with anyone , dismembered dozens of victims while they were still alive and dumped them , and " seemed unafraid to die . " Organization members claimed that Treviño Morales enjoyed driving around the city in a car , pointing at people randomly and saying , " kill this one and kill that one . " A former hitman who worked for him told the press in 2013 that Treviño Morales could not sleep at night if he did not kill someone . He also said that the drug lord would ask his victims how they wanted to be killed . Journalist Alfredo Corchado , head of The Dallas Morning News in Mexico , wrote in one of his books that Treviño Morales enjoyed eating out the hearts of his victims — even when they were still alive — because he believed that doing that would make him invincible among his enemies and authorities .
Treviño Morales reportedly coordinated several violent attacks throughout Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people a year later in San Fernando , Tamaulipas . He is also believed to have threatened to shoot down the plane of the former President Felipe Calderón in August 2012 while on a trip to the state of Tamaulipas . Although it was not the first time Calderón received death threats from organized crime , the authorities deemed the drug lord 's threat as credible , and urged the President to cancel his trip ( though he ultimately went anyway ) . Under Treviño Morales ' leadership , Los Zetas were considered by the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) to be highly sophisticated , advanced , and one of the most dangerous criminal organizations operating in Mexico and the hemisphere . He was widely regarded as one of the most violent drug lords operating in Mexico .
Treviño Morales reportedly moved around through Mexico and Central America , and often met with Colombian drug lords in Mexico City , the nation 's capital , to do business . To escape law enforcement notice , he used " caravans " of purported businessmen and religious persons . In the northern part of the country , he reportedly maintained a close tie with a number of politicians . His brother Omar Treviño Morales ( Z @-@ 42 ) leads Los Zetas in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Split between Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel = =
Cárdenas Guillén was arrested in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , in 2003 and extradited to the United States in 2007 . While in prison in Mexico , he reportedly coordinated the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas from his prison cell . But with his extradition , Treviño Morales 's organization experienced a leadership crisis . La Compañía ( The Company ) , a name used to describe the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas as a conglomerate , remained in a loose cooperation until early 2010 , when violence erupted between both groups . On 18 January 2010 , several members of the Gulf Cartel kidnapped Víctor Peña Mendoza ( alias Concord 3 ) , a leader of Los Zetas and close associate and friend of Treviño Morales . When he was held captive , Peña Mendoza was asked to switch alliances and join the Gulf Cartel , but he refused , earning a beating followed by execution , presumably carried out by Samuel Flores Borrego .
Treviño Morales heard about the incident and issued an ultimatum to Flores Borrego and Gulf Cartel leader Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez :
Hand over the assassin of my friend , you son of a bitch ... You have until the 25th , if you don 't comply , there will be war .
Both of the Gulf Cartel leaders ignored the command , and Treviño Morales moved swiftly to avenge the death of his former comrade . On 30 January 2010 , Treviño Morales kidnapped and slaughtered 16 Gulf Cartel members in Reynosa , Tamaulipas , marking the start of the cartel war between the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas in the Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León , and Veracruz that has led to thousands of deaths . Los Zetas used violent and intimidatory tactics to expand , forging a reputation as Mexico 's most violent drug trafficking organization . It managed to take control of most of the territories owned by the Gulf Cartel when they had essentially served as a single organization . With Treviño Morales as the second @-@ in @-@ command of the criminal organization , Los Zetas began killing Gulf Cartel members and other rival drug traffickers en masse and winning their territories .
= = Infighting in Los Zetas = =
In 2011 , however , Treviño Morales 's criminal organization entered a new internal strife after Jesús Enrique Rejón Aguilar ( alias El Mamito ) , one of their highest @-@ ranking leaders , was arrested in July . Though he did not call out any names , he stated that someone within Los Zetas had betrayed him . Shortly thereafter , alleged organized crime members uploaded a narcocorrido music video on YouTube portraying Treviño Morales " as the New Judas " and accusing him of setting up the arrests and deaths of other commanders within the criminal organization and being disloyal to Lazcano Lazcano , his boss . In several articles published in August 2012 , a U.S. law enforcement official told the press that Treviño Morales had successfully taken the leadership of the cartel and displaced Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano , the long @-@ time leader . Treviño Morales began to take over the assets of Los Zetas and was working to remove Lazcano Lazcano as the head since early 2010 . Amidst the Zetas civil war , many high @-@ ranking members in Los Zetas began to fall . High @-@ ranking Zetas leader Iván Velázquez Caballero ( alias El Talibán ) was arrested in September 2012 , presumably set up either by rival gang members or gangsters aligned with a group related to Treviño Morales . On 6 October 2012 , drug lord Salvador Alfonso Martínez Escobedo ( alias La Ardilla ) was arrested in Nuevo Laredo by the Mexican Navy . After Velázquez 's fall , a split off group known as Los Legionarios ( The Legionaries ) was born in Nuevo Laredo and vowed to bring down Treviño Morales for allegedly betraying him . A second faction from Los Zetas , known as Sangre Zeta ( Zetas Blood ) , also broke up from the organization to join forces against him .
The active role of Treviño Morales got him the loyalty and respect of many in Los Zetas , and eventually many stopped paying to Lazcano Lazcano . In order to avoid his arrest or death from betrayal , Lazcano Lazcano reportedly fled the country and lived in Germany and Costa Rica for an unknown time with surrounding rumors that he had terminal cancer . Back in Mexico , Treviño Morales had become the stronger of the two in Los Zetas . Lazcano Lazcano was then killed by the Mexican Navy in the state of Coahuila on 7 October 2012 , and Treviño Morales succeeded him as the top leader of Los Zetas .
= = Bounty and indictments = =
In 2009 in New York and in 2010 in Washington , the U.S. Department of Justice released an indictment against Treviño Morales for conspiracy to manufacture and distribute cocaine into the United States from Mexico and Guatemala . There was a bounty for him in Mexico set at $ 30 million MXN ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) and another one in the U.S. at US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) . Los Zetas are responsible for the smuggling of multiple tons of cocaine , marijuana , and heroin into the United States from Mexico annually . He was also considered one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords .
Treviño Morales is known by various aliases : L @-@ 40 ( 40 , Z @-@ 40 , Zeta 40 ) , Comandante Cuarenta , El Cuarenta , David Estrada @-@ Corado , and La Mona .
= = = Kingpin Act sanction = = =
On 20 July 2009 , the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Treviño Morales under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ( sometimes referred to simply as the " Kingpin Act " ) , for his involvement in drug trafficking along with three other international criminals . The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing any kind of business activity with him , and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S.
= = Arrest = =
A month before his capture , U.S. authorities had been passing down information to their counterparts in Mexico that Treviño Morales was making frequent visits to the Nuevo Laredo border area to see his newborn baby . They traded this intelligence information from wiretaps conversations and informants ' tips . Treviño Morales was apprehended by the Mexican Marines in Anáhuac , Nuevo León , near the border of Tamaulipas state , at around 3 : 45 a.m. on 15 July 2013 without a single shot fired . The truck he was traveling in was intercepted on the road by a Black Hawk helicopter from the Navy ; when the Marines got off the helicopter and tried to apprehend him , the capo attempted to escape by running through some bushes but was later caught . He was in possession of US $ 2 million ( $ 25 @,@ 316 @,@ 100 MXN ) in cash , eight weapons and hundreds of rounds of ammunition ; two other men were arrested with him and taken into custody . Rumors of Treviño Morales 's arrest and a mugshot of him in custody began to circulate through Twitter and other social media outlets around noon that day , but the Mexican government did not confirm the arrest , nor did the U.S. authorities receive a formal confirmation until hours later .
At the time of his arrest , Treviño Morales had pending charges for organized crime involvement , drug trafficking , torture , money laundering , and the illegal use of firearms under Mexican law , among other charges . However , he only declared the money and firearms that were confiscated during his arrest . Following his arrest , the drug lord was flown to Mexico City and kept at the SEIDO installations , Mexico 's organized crime investigatory agency . On 19 July 2013 , he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 maximum security prison in Almoloya de Juárez , State of Mexico , via helicopter . On January 2014 , a New York federal district court issued other criminal charges against the drug lord . The investigation alleged that Treviño Morales conspired to order killings against rival gangsters of Los Zetas , members of his own criminal organization , and Mexican policemen and personnel of the Mexican Army from September 2004 to July 2013 . The court , which sought his extradition , also stated that the drug lord conspired to traffic drugs to the U.S.
= = Family = =
Miguel 's brother José Treviño Morales was arrested on 12 June 2012 by a combined U.S. federal task force . He has been indicted as one of the money launderers for the Zetas through an Oklahoma @-@ based American Quarter Horse racing operation . His son Alejandro Treviño Chávez was killed during a shootout in the state of Coahuila on 5 October 2012 by a law enforcement group ; in response , Miguel ordered the murder of José Eduardo Moreira , nephew of governor of Coahuila Rubén Moreira , and son of Humberto Moreira ( Governor of the State of Coahuila from 2005 to 2011 ) .
Omar Treviño Morales , his younger brother , is a high @-@ level leader in Los Zetas and one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords . The U.S government is offering up to US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) for information that leads to his arrest and conviction . He is responsible for several murders and kidnappings carried out in Nuevo Laredo between 2005 and 2006 . The authorities consider him the successor and " heir " of Los Zetas following Miguel 's arrest .
Miguel 's older brother , Juan Francisco Treviño Morales , is currently imprisoned in the United States ; his son ( and nephew of Miguel ) , Juan Francisco Treviño Chávez , alias El Quico , was arrested in Monterrey on 15 June 2012 . Eduardo Treviño Treviño , another nephew of Miguel , was arrested in Nuevo Laredo in May 2013 and awaits an extradition to the United States for kidnapping and drug trafficking charges that date back to 2010 . Miguel 's wife Juanita del Carmen Ríos Hernández was included in the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act on February 2014 , banning U.S. citizens from doing any kind of business activities with companies under her name .
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= R & B Junkie =
" R & B Junkie " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Janet Jackson from her eighth studio album , Damita Jo ( 2004 ) . Written by Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , the track was released as a promotional single in December 2004 by Virgin Records . " R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties soul , R & B funk , dance @-@ pop and synths , while it samples Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " ; it has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses .
" R & B Junkie " received positive reviews from music critics , who described it as " infectious " and one of the best tracks on Damita Jo . The song peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles , as it received a limited release . " R & B Junkie " was performed by Jackson during the 2004 BET Awards .
= = Recording and composition = =
" R & B Junkie " was recorded in 2003 , at Flyte Tyme Studios West at The Village , in Los Angeles , California . It was written by Janet Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , while it was produced by Jackson , Jam and Lewis . The latter one also played the keyboards . The song had its drums and percussion played by IZ . Serban Ghenea did the mixing of " R & B Junkie " at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , with Tim Roberts being his assistant . Ian Cross engineered the song while Ghian Wright was an assistant . Additionally , the Pro @-@ Tools engineer was John Hanes .
" R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties funk , dance @-@ pop , and synths . It transforms a brief sample from Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " into a new composition . According to LA Weekly , it worked in the context of a song that is " an ode to old @-@ school soul music and the dances those sounds inspired " . The magazine also considered the song a likely candidate for a summer club hit . " R & B Junkie " ' s positive vibe was described as a sonic " ambrosia " by Baltimore City Paper . Additionally , the song has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses and on the chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received positive reviews from music critics . Angus Batey from Yahoo ! Music described " R & B Junkie " as one of the high points from Damita Jo , describing it as a delicious throwback . BBC Music 's Ian Warde asserted that the song " is a nice Evelyn Champagne King infused number that parties like it 's 1982 " . Similarly , Michael Paoletta from Billboard called the song a " winner " from Damita Jo and noted that it " fabulously " referenced the sampled song . Mikael Wood from Baltimore City Paper commented that " R & B Junkie " had an enough positive vibe to shame American musician Michael J. Powell into early retirement . Ernest Hardy from LA Weekly described the song as the second best song from Damita Jo , after " Like You Don 't Love Me " . Spence D. from IGN called it as ultimately non @-@ descript , despite considering it infectious .
= = Live performance = =
Jackson performed a medley of " All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " and " R & B Junkie " at the 2004 BET Awards . Following Jackson 's Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , various performances on TV were aired with a time delay per the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's guidelines , but the awards show was televised without a delay .
= = Track listing = =
US promo CD single
" R & B Junkie " – 3 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
" R & B Junkie " was only released as promo single and was sent to Urban AC radio stations . It failed to chart on any main Billboard charts , but peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles .
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= Todo a Su Tiempo ( Marc Anthony album ) =
Todo a Su Tiempo ( English : All in Due Time ) is the second studio album by American recording artist Marc Anthony , released by RMM Records on May 30 , 1995 . The album was produced by Sergio George , who was also involved with production of Anthony 's debut studio album , Otra Nota . The album comprises five new compositions , three of which were written by Omar Alfanno , and four cover versions . Eight singles were released from the album , all of which topped the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
Todo a Su Tiempo peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . The album garnered critical praise as a major improvement over his first album and for revolutionizing the salsa music genre . It received a Grammy nomination , a Billboard Latin Music award , and a Lo Nuestro award . Two years later , the album made history as the first salsa disc to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Since the album 's release , it has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
Following the release of his debut album , Otra Nota , in 1993 , Anthony continued to work with producer Sergio George for the recording of Todo a Su Tiempo . Recording for the album took place at the Sound on Sound Studios and the Quad Recording Studios in New York City . According to George , Otra Nota was an experimental album and was on a low budget . George allowed Anthony to choose his own material and described the recording as more " mixed and aggressive " . Anthony described naming the album :
The album took awhile , but I learned that you can 't be afraid of time , waiting . I also learned there is a right time for everything which is why I named the album " Todo a Su Tiempo "
= = Composition and covers = =
The album comprises nine tracks , four of which are covers of songs previously recorded by several performers . Panamanian songwriter Omar Alfanno composed three tracks from the album : " Te Conozco Bien " ( " I Know You Well " ) , " Nadie Como Ella " ( " Nobody Like Her " ) , and " Llegaste a Mi " ( " You Came to Me " ) . The ballad " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " ( " And You Still Being You " ) was composed by Puerto Rican composers Eduardo Reyes , Laura Reyes , and Guadalupe Garcia . " Vieja Mesa " ( " Old Table " ) was composed by Dominican musician Víctor Víctor . The song incorporates the sound of bachata @-@ influenced bolero . " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " ( " I 'm Still Forgetting " ) was first performed by José Feliciano on his 1986 album , Te Amaré . " Por Amar Se da Todo " ( " To Love Gives Everything " ) was performed by Danny Rivera on the 1993 album of the same name . Manny Delgado wrote the song " Hasta Ayer " ( " Until Yesterday " ) for the Venezuelan pop band Los Terrícolas in 1979 . In the album , Anthony recorded the song as a bolero . " Te Amaré " ( " I Will Love You " ) was written by The Barrio Boyzz member Angel Ramirez Jr. for their 1993 album , Donde Quiera Donde Estes .
= = Commercial reception = =
= = = Album = = =
Todo a Su Tiempo was released on May 30 , 1995 , in the United States and was distributed by Sony Music until 1996 , when it was distributed by Universal Music Group . The album debuted at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart for the week of June 17 , 1995 . The same week , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums and remained in that position for five consecutive weeks . A year later , the album returned to number one on the chart , and held the position for a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was third @-@ best @-@ selling tropical album of 1996 in the United States . During the week of April 12 , 1997 , the album once again reached number one the chart and held the position for four weeks . Two years after the album was released , it became the first salsa disc to receive a gold certification by the RIAA for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . The album has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies as of 2001 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Te Conozco Bien " was the lead single from the album . It peaked at number seven on the Billboard Latin Song chart and became his first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Song chart . The song spent eight weeks on top of the chart and was named the best @-@ performing tropical song of the year . The second single , " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart . It became his second number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart ; it spent six weeks on top of the chart . The third single , " Nadie Como Ella " , peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Latin songs and became his third number @-@ one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fourth single , " Te Amaré " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and became his fourth single to reach number one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fifth single , " Llegaste a Mi " , reached number eleven on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and spent two weeks number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . " Hasta Ayer " was the sixth single to be released from the album . It peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and was number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs for three weeks . As the song was a bolero , RMM executive Ralph Mercado responded to the success of the song by stating that Anthony was no longer just a salsa musician . The seventh single , " Por Amar Se da Todo " , peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard Latin Songs and at number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . The last single , " Vieja Mesa " , peaked at number seven on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Todo a Su Tiempo received praise from music critics . Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic gave the album a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , praising the album as a step forward over Otra nota . He described Anthony 's voice as " soaring " and " luminescent " . He cited the album as setting the bar for salsa music and closed the review by it calling the album " without question one of the finest salsa records of the ' 90s " . David Wilson of Wilson and Alroy 's Record Review felt the album was an improvement from his last album , and commended the George 's arrangements as " varied and interesting " . He referred " Por Amar Se da Todo " as a song that " doesn 't let up " and " Nadie Como Ella " as " obvious , but catchy " . Of the song " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " , Wilson said that Anthony is " one of the few current male singers who can really make you believe in a sappy ballad " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the album a four @-@ star rating and enjoyed how Anthony put a variety of sounds , including hip @-@ hop and R & B , to " good use " . She referred to " Hasta Ayer " as " an oldie but goodie totally transformed by soulful crooning " . Billboard 's mentioned Anthony as " grafting his muy soulful baritone onto vivid romantic narratives " and acknowledged " Nadie Como Ella " and " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " as " upbeat " . A writer for the Village Voice penned that the tracks were " nine swirling , complex dance tunes " . In 2015 , Billboard listed Todo a Su Tiempo as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Year stating that the album " launched Anthony to fame as an instant salsa superstar and it wasn ’ t long before he was a household name " .
At the 38th Grammy Awards , the album received a nomination for " Best Tropical Latin Performance " , which was awarded to Gloria Estefan 's Abriendo Puertas . Anthony received two Billboard Latin Music Awards , including " Tropical / Salsa Album of the Year " and " Tropical / Salsa Hot Latin Track of the Year " for the song " Te Conozco Bien " . In 1996 , the album received a Lo Nuestro Award nomination for " Tropical Album of the Year " which it won the following year .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic and from Todo a Su Tiempo liner notes .
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Certification = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Hurricane Kristy ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Kristy in 2006 was a relatively long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . It developed on August 30 from a tropical wave off the southwest coast of Mexico , and quickly intensified to attain hurricane status , reaching peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Subsequently , Kristy weakened from cooler waters and increased wind shear from Hurricane John to its northeast . Steering currents weakened , and turning to a southerly drift , it weakened to a tropical depression by September 2 . The next day it briefly regained tropical storm status , only to again deteriorate to depression status . After turning to the west , Kristy encountered marginally favorable conditions and attained tropical storm status for a third time , though unfavorable conditions caused it to dissipate on September 9 . The storm never affected land , although initially there was a slight threat to Clarion Island . Within the National Hurricane Center area of warning responsibility east of 140 ° W , Hurricane Kristy was the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone of the season .
= = Genesis = =
A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 13 . With a large swirl of low clouds and little convection , the system tracked westward for two weeks across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , before crossing Central America on August 22 . On August 29 , the system became better organized , consisting of a broad low pressure area and thunderstorm activity . The convection persisted and organized further , and at 0000 UTC on August 30 it developed into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E about 600 mi ( 970 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was experiencing slight easterly wind shear , which distorted the convection to the west of the circulation . However , favorable conditions for strengthening were expected , and the depression was forecast to reach peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before weakening . It tracked slowly northwestward along the southern periphery of a ridge , and quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy after convection increased over its circulation center . By that time , wind shear had decreased to very low levels , and with very warm waters , the storm was expected to quickly intensify to reach hurricane status . By late on August 30 , the convection was wrapping into the center while an eye feature became intermittent . Organization continued , and Kristy attained hurricane status early on August 31 , about 30 hours after forming . Six hours after attaining hurricane status , an eye @-@ like featured was evident on satellite imagery , and it is estimated Kristy attained peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) about 550 mi ( 880 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California . However , satellite @-@ derived intensity estimates suggested the hurricane could have been as strong as 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , or as weak as a tropical storm .
= = Weakening and demise = =
Subsequently , wind shear increased , caused by the outflow of powerful Hurricane John to its east . Additionally , the hurricane moved into an area of cooler water temperatures , and as a result its appearance became ragged and amorphous . At the same time , steering currents weakened , and the future of Kristy was uncertain ; the NHC forecast the hurricane to continue slowly westward , dissipating within four days . However , other hurricane models suggested a motion to the southwest , and two models predicted a Fujiwhara effect , or an orbiting of two tropical cyclones , which would eventually result in Kristy being absorbed by Hurricane John . On September 1 , Kristy weakened to tropical storm status , and it weakened faster as dry air encroached the storm . It turned southeastward as the ridge to its north strengthened . On September 2 , the circulation became exposed from the convection , and it was forecast to degenerate into a remnant low within 24 hours . Later that day , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status .
By September 3 , Tropical Depression Kristy was without persistent deep convection for about 18 hours . However , thunderstorms increased around the center later that day , developing a shallow eye @-@ like feature . The convection persisted along the western periphery of the circulation , and it is estimated Kristy re @-@ attained tropical storm status about 24 hours after it was first downgraded to depression status . Around the same time , the cyclone began a steady motion to the southwest . Its re @-@ intensification was short @-@ lived , as continued wind shear weakened the convection and left the center devoid of any thunderstorms . On September 4 , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status , and though quick dissipation was predicted , officials noted that intermittent convection flares could develop . One such convection flare occurred on September 5 , which persisted around the center and warranted Kristy being upgraded to tropical storm status . By that time , wind shear had decreased somewhat and the storm had turned westward , and with a track through warm water temperatures , Kristy was forecast to maintain tropical storm status for five days .
At one point as a tropical storm , the thunderstorm activity around Kristy appeared to be organizing into hooking bands , and further intensification was considered likely , potentially as strong as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , the thunderstorm activity decreased markedly on September 6 , primarily from dry air entrainment , and it weakened to tropical depression status for the last time . In one forecast , Kristy was predicted to move into the area of warning responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center , or west of 140 ° W. However , the depression was unable to maintain organized convection around its center for a few days , and Kristy degenerated into a remnant low on September 8 . The low turned to the southwest , degenerating into a tropical wave on September 9 about 1500 miles ( 2400 km ) southeast of the island of Hawaii , or about 1600 miles ( 2600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . The remnant disturbance continued westward , and initially Kristy was believed to have developed into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C in the central Pacific Ocean ; however , post @-@ season analysis concluded the systems were separate .
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= Baden @-@ Powell House =
Baden @-@ Powell House , colloquially known as B @-@ P House , is a Scouting hostel and conference centre in South Kensington , London , which was built as a tribute to Lord Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of Scouting . The house , owned by The Scout Association , hosts a small exhibition relating to Scouting in its current form and a granite statue by Don Potter .
The building committee , chaired by Sir Harold Gillett , Lord Mayor of London , purchased the site in 1956 , and assigned Ralph Tubbs to design the house in the modern architectural style . The foundation stone was laid in 1959 by World Chief Guide Olave , Lady Baden @-@ Powell , and it was opened in 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . The largest part of the £ 400 @,@ 000 cost was provided by the Scout Movement itself . Over the years , the house has been refurbished several times , so that it now provides modern and affordable lodging for Scouts , Guides , their families and the general public staying in London . The building also hosts conference and event space for hire .
= = History = =
Acting on a 1942 initiative by Chief Scout Lord Somers , a formal Baden @-@ Powell House Committee was established by The Scout Association in 1953 under the direction of Sir Harold Gillett , later Lord Mayor of London . The committee 's directive was to build a hostel to provide Scouts a place to stay at reasonable cost while visiting London . For this purpose , in 1956 the committee purchased a bombed @-@ out property at the intersection of Cromwell Road and Queen 's Gate at a cost of £ 39 @,@ 000 .
The Scout Movement raised the major part of the funding of £ 400 @,@ 000 for building and furnishing the building between 1957 and 1959 . Scouts throughout the Country collected ' ship ' halfpennies , and this raised the bulk of the money for the building . Money was also raised through public appeals supported by publication in Scout Movement magazines , a collection of donations in 15 @,@ 000 brick @-@ shaped boxes , and 5 @,@ 000 appeal letters signed personally by then Chief Scout Lord Rowallan . Scouts representing every county were present at the opening .
In a celebration on 17 October 1959 the foundation stone was laid by the World Chief Guide ( Olave Baden @-@ Powell ) , in the presence of Lord Mayor Sir Harold Gillett , the new Chief Scout Sir Charles Maclean , and 400 other guests . A casket was buried under the foundation stone which held 1959 Scout mementoes , stamps , coins , photographs , etc . , and a programme of the ceremony .
With 142 Queen 's Scouts as Guard of Honour , and live broadcast by the BBC ( commentator Richard Dimbleby ) , Baden @-@ Powell House was opened on 12 July 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . Afterwards , she toured the house with the Chief Scout and the president of The Scout Association , her uncle Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . A black marble panel with gold lettering was put on the balcony in the hall to commemorate the event .
= = Modern architecture = =
The house was designed by the architect Ralph Tubbs in 1956 , whose works included the Dome of Discovery , the highlight of the 1951 Festival of Britain . Tubbs ' floor plans and a model of his design were displayed during a fundraising campaign and exhibition on 21 February 1957 in the Egyptian Hall of the Mansion House .
The six storied Baden @-@ Powell House is designed in the modern architectural style , as pioneered by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier from the late 1920s onwards , and predominating in the 1950s . At Baden @-@ Powell House , Tubbs made the first floor overhang the ground floor , a Le Corbusier architectural design choice to free the building from the ground , such as seen in his Pavillon Suisse at the Cité Internationale Universitaire in Paris . Additionally , Le Corbusier 's Sainte Marie de La Tourette priory in Lyon shows two floors of monk 's cells with small windows , cantilevered over the more open floors below , another design choice used by Tubbs in the facade of Baden @-@ Powell House . While Tubbs created Baden @-@ Powell House in the modern architectural style of Le Corbusier , he used more architectural restraint in his own design choices . For example , he made the main visible building component brick rather than concrete . This heavier evolution of Le Corbusier 's style was popular in England throughout the post @-@ war years until replaced by the Brutalist style in the later 1960s .
Baden @-@ Powell House was built to Tubbs ' design by Harry Neal Ltd , for which they received the 1961 Gold Medal of the Worshipful Company of Tylers and Bricklayers . At the opening , the house received the building design award for ' The building of most merit in London.'
Thirty @-@ five years after its opening , Baden @-@ Powell House was refurbished in a six @-@ month £ 2 million programme , providing all modern amenities such as private facilities for all rooms , double glazing , and air conditioning , as well as enhancing conference facilities for large and small events . Upon completion of the programme , the house was opened by the president of The Scout Association , Prince Edward , Duke of Kent on 5 June 1997 . In 2002 a Starbucks coffee ( discontinued before 2015 ) and sandwich bar was opened , as well as an outdoor roof garden adjacent to the meeting conference rooms on the second floor .
= = Baden @-@ Powell collection = =
Although it has since been replaced with a number of smaller displays available to the public in the reception area showing some traditional Scouting skills , a notable collection of Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has been on display in the past for visitors in ' The story of B @-@ P ' exhibition . This included many drawings and letters by Baden @-@ Powell himself , such as the original of his Last Message to Scouts , Laws for me when I am old and several first editions of his books . The former exhibition also displayed the original painting by David Jagger , as presented to Baden @-@ Powell on 29 August 1929 at the ' Coming of Age ' 3rd World Scout Jamboree . This painting , a personal favourite of Baden @-@ Powell , is often used in publications throughout the Scout movement . The Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has since been moved to the headquarters for Scouting in the UK , Gilwell Park .
As an introductory part of the collection , a nearly 3 meter high statue of Baden @-@ Powell has been erected in front of Baden @-@ Powell House , the only granite statue in London . The sculptor was Baden @-@ Powell 's personal friend Don Potter . It was unveiled on 12 July 1961 by the Duke of Gloucester , as part of the official opening of the house .
= = 21st century : Hostel and Conference centre = =
From 1974 to 2001 , Baden @-@ Powell House was the headquarters of The Scout Association , for which a dedicated extension to the house was completed in 1976 . In April 2001 , the headquarters formally moved to new accommodation at Gilwell Park . As the owner of Baden @-@ Powell House , The Scout Association receives a net income out of the revenues of approximately £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
Baden @-@ Powell House provides a hostel for people visiting London . In the period 2004 – 2006 the hostel participated in the Youth Hostel Association , after which the Scout Association entered into an agreement with German company Meininger City Hostels . The building is still owned by The Scout Association , but it is run by Meininger . As part of the arrangement with this company Scout members from the UK and abroad are able to stay at a reduced rate . It is also a conference and event space . Baden @-@ Powell House is rated Four Star by the Visit Britain Quality Assurance , and Mobility Level 1 ; also recent visitors rate it on average 4 out of 5 .
The hostel and conference centre is entered through a wide glazed atrium which serves as a large foyer containing the cafe and some Scouting displays . From the atrium the large hall is reached which can serve as an auditorium with seating for up to 300 people . The first floor has a restaurant seating 100 guests ; the second floor has meeting rooms , and conference facilities for groups up to 80 delegates per room . The upper floors contain 180 hostel bedrooms . In an average year , 30 thousand people spend the night , and 100 thousand meals are served in the restaurant .
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= Botany =
Botany , also called plant science ( s ) , plant biology or phytology , is the science of plant life and a branch of biology . A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specializes in this field . The term " botany " comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη ( botanē ) meaning " pasture " , " grass " , or " fodder " ; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν ( boskein ) , " to feed " or " to graze " . Traditionally , botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively , with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress . Nowadays , botanists study approximately 400 @,@ 000 species of living organisms of which some 260 @,@ 000 species are vascular plants and about 248 @,@ 000 are flowering plants .
Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – edible , medicinal and poisonous plants , making it one of the oldest branches of science . Medieval physic gardens , often attached to monasteries , contained plants of medical importance . They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities , founded from the 1540s onwards . One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden . These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants . Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy , and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , new techniques were developed for the study of plants , including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging , electron microscopy , analysis of chromosome number , plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins . In the last two decades of the 20th century , botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis , including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately .
Modern botany is a broad , multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology . Research topics include the study of plant structure , growth and differentiation , reproduction , biochemistry and primary metabolism , chemical products , development , diseases , evolutionary relationships , systematics , and plant taxonomy . Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics , which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues . Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods , materials such as timber , oil , rubber , fibre and drugs , in modern horticulture , agriculture and forestry , plant propagation , breeding and genetic modification , in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production , in environmental management , and the maintenance of biodiversity .
= = History = =
= = = Early botany = = =
Botany originated as herbalism , the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties . Many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee , which make up much of the Cherokee land today . The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications . Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC , in archaic Avestan writings , and in works from China before it was unified in 221 BC .
Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece , specifically to Theophrastus ( c . 371 – 287 BC ) , a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the " Father of Botany " . His major works , Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants , constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages , almost seventeen centuries later .
Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De Materia Medica , a five @-@ volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides . De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1 @,@ 500 years . Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya 's Nabatean Agriculture , Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī 's ( 828 – 896 ) the Book of Plants , and Ibn Bassal 's The Classification of Soils . In the early 13th century , Abu al @-@ Abbas al @-@ Nabati , and Ibn al @-@ Baitar ( d . 1248 ) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner .
In the mid @-@ 16th century , " botanical gardens " were founded in a number of Italian universities – the Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location . These gardens continued the practical value of earlier " physic gardens " , often associated with monasteries , in which plants were cultivated for medical use . They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject . Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated . Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe ; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621 . Throughout this period , botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine .
German physician Leonhart Fuchs ( 1501 – 1566 ) was one of " the three German fathers of botany " , along with theologian Otto Brunfels ( 1489 – 1534 ) and physician Hieronymus Bock ( 1498 – 1554 ) ( also called Hieronymus Tragus ) . Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own . Bock created his own system of plant classification .
Physician Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 ) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance , the Dispensatorium in 1546 . Naturalist Conrad von Gesner ( 1516 – 1565 ) and herbalist John Gerard ( 1545 – c . 1611 ) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants . Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 1522 – 1605 ) was considered the father of natural history , which included the study of plants . In 1665 , using an early microscope , Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells , a term he coined , in cork , and a short time later in living plant tissue .
= = = Early modern botany = = =
During the 18th century , systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys , where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups ( e.g. family , genus and species ) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters . The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification ( diagnostic keys ) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys . By the 18th century , new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide . In 1753 Carl von Linné ( Carl Linnaeus ) published his Species Plantarum , a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature . This established a standardised binomial or two @-@ part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus . For the purposes of identification , Linnaeus 's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs . The 24th group , Cryptogamia , included all plants with concealed reproductive parts , mosses , liverworts , ferns , algae and fungi .
Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy , morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus had indicated . Adanson ( 1763 ) , de Jussieu ( 1789 ) , and Candolle ( 1819 ) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed . The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later classification by Bentham and Hooker , which was influential until the mid @-@ 19th century , was influenced by Candolle 's approach . Darwin 's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity .
Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first " modern " textbook , Matthias Schleiden 's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik , published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany . Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co @-@ founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831 . In 1855 , Adolf Fick formulated Fick 's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems .
= = = Modern botany = = =
Building upon the gene @-@ chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) , August Weismann ( 1834 – 1914 ) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes . No other cells can pass on inherited characters . The work of Katherine Esau ( 1898 – 1997 ) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany . Her books Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century .
The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming , who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities , and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today . The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles , Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements . Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology . Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle , Nikolai Vavilov ( 1887 – 1943 ) produced accounts of the biogeography , centres of origin , and evolutionary history of economic plants .
Particularly since the mid @-@ 1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration ( the transport of water within plant tissues ) , the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures . These developments , coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures , and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher , Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research . The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals . Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones . The synthetic auxin 2 @,@ 4 @-@ Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2 @,@ 4 @-@ D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides .
20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis , such as spectroscopy , chromatography and electrophoresis . With the rise of the related molecular @-@ scale biological approaches of molecular biology , genomics , proteomics and metabolomics , the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry , physiology , morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis . The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait , or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed . These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides , antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals , as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield .
Modern morphology recognizes a continuum between the major morphological categories of root , stem ( caulome ) , leaf ( phyllome ) and trichome . Furthermore , it emphasizes structural dynamics . Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants . Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters , relying on DNA sequences as data . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants , answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species . The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research .
= = Scope and importance = =
The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis , a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells . As a by @-@ product of photosynthesis , plants release oxygen into the atmosphere , a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration . In addition , they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils , preventing soil erosion . Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food , oxygen , medicine , and products for people , as well as creating and preserving soil .
Historically , all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals . Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles , cells , tissues , whole plants , plant populations and plant communities . At each of these levels , a botanist may be concerned with the classification ( taxonomy ) , phylogeny and evolution , structure ( anatomy and morphology ) , or function ( physiology ) of plant life .
The strictest definition of " plant " includes only the " land plants " or embryophytes , which include seed plants ( gymnosperms , including the pines , and flowering plants ) and the free @-@ sporing cryptogams including ferns , clubmosses , liverworts , hornworts and mosses . Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis . They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases . The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes , known as the gametophyte , nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life , even in the seed plants , where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte . Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria ( now studied in bacteriology ) , fungi ( mycology ) – including lichen @-@ forming fungi ( lichenology ) , non @-@ chlorophyte algae ( phycology ) , and viruses ( virology ) . However , attention is still given to these groups by botanists , and fungi ( including lichens ) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses .
Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants . Cyanobacteria , the first oxygen @-@ releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth , are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote , ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells . The new photosynthetic plants ( along with their algal relatives ) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria , changing the ancient oxygen @-@ free , reducing , atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years .
Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life 's basic ingredients : energy , carbon , oxygen , nitrogen and water , and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management , conservation , human food security , biologically invasive organisms , carbon sequestration , climate change , and sustainability .
= = = Human nutrition = = =
Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants , or indirectly from animals that eat them . Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere , converting them into a form that can be used by animals . This is what ecologists call the first trophic level . The modern forms of the major staple foods , such as maize , rice , wheat and other cereal grasses , pulses , bananas and plantains , as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres , are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics . Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields , for example through plant breeding , making their work important to mankind 's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations . Botanists also study weeds , which are a considerable problem in agriculture , and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems . Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people . When applied to the investigation of historical plant – people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany . Some of the earliest plant @-@ people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants . This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists .
= = Plant biochemistry = =
Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants . Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism . Others make specialized materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies , and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds .
Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as " algae " have unique organelles known as chloroplasts . Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors . Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue @-@ green pigment chlorophyll a . Chlorophyll a ( as well as its plant and green algal @-@ specific cousin chlorophyll b ) absorbs light in the blue @-@ violet and orange / red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms . The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy @-@ rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis , a process that generates molecular oxygen ( O2 ) as a by @-@ product .
The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons ( and later a proton gradient ) that 's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy . Their energy is used in the light @-@ independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3 @-@ carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate ( G3P ) . Glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesized . Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast . Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae , while inulin , a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae . Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose ( common table sugar ) for export to the rest of the plant .
Unlike in animals ( which lack chloroplasts ) , plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts , including synthesizing all their fatty acids , and most amino acids . The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things , such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out .
Plants synthesize a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose , pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed . Vascular land plants make lignin , a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress . Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibers that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood . Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record . It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods . Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway . These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants .
= = = Medicine and materials = = =
Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism . Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock . Others , such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma , as flavourings and spices ( e.g. , capsaicin ) , and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies . Many medicinal and recreational drugs , such as tetrahydrocannabinol ( active ingredient in cannabis ) , caffeine , morphine and nicotine come directly from plants . Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products . For example , the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid , originally isolated from the bark of willow trees , and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy . Popular stimulants come from plants , such as caffeine from coffee , tea and chocolate , and nicotine from tobacco . Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate @-@ rich plant products such as barley ( beer ) , rice ( sake ) and grapes ( wine ) . Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years . This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery .
Plants can synthesise useful coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine , yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green , indoxyl , source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist 's pigments gamboge and rose madder .
Sugar , starch , cotton , linen , hemp , some types of rope , wood and particle boards , papyrus and paper , vegetable oils , wax , and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products . Charcoal , a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood , has a long history as a metal @-@ smelting fuel , as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist 's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder . Cellulose , the world 's most abundant organic polymer , can be converted into energy , fuels , materials and chemical feedstock . Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane , wallpaper paste , biobutanol and gun cotton . Sugarcane , rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels , important alternatives to fossil fuels , such as biodiesel . Sweetgrass was used by NativeAmericanse to ward of bugs like mosquitoes . These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin .
= = Plant ecology = =
Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats — the environments where they complete their life cycles . Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras , their biodiversity , genetic diversity and fitness , the adaptation of plants to their environment , and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species . Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists . This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time . The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns , productivity , environmental impact , evolution , and responses to environmental change .
Plants depend on certain edaphic ( soil ) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too . For example , they can change their environment 's albedo , increase runoff interception , stabilize mineral soils and develop their organic content , and affect local temperature . Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources . They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups , populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation . Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors , climate , and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest .
Herbivores eat plants , but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous . Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants . For example , mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food , ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection , honey bees , bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds .
= = = Plants , climate and environmental change = = =
Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity . For example , plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology , and the biological impact of climate change and global warming . Palynology , the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates . Estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants . Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation @-@ B ( UV @-@ B ) , resulting in lower growth rates . Moreover , information from studies of community ecology , plant systematics , and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change , habitat destruction and species extinction .
= = Genetics = =
Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms . Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum ( peas ) . What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany . Similarly , " jumping genes " were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize . Nevertheless , there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms .
Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals , and cross species hybrids are often possible . A familiar example is peppermint , Mentha × piperita , a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint , Mentha spicata . The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra @-@ specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids . Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self @-@ incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes . This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing . In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals . These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes .
Unlike in higher animals , where parthenogenesis is rare , asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms . The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example . Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats , where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare , plantlets or bulbs , may develop instead of flowers , replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent . This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants . Apomixis can also happen in a seed , producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent .
Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid , with paired chromosomes , but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis . This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism , or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid ( endopolyploidy ) , or during gamete formation . An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species . Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally , but may be unable to cross @-@ breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers . These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area , may be sufficiently successful to form a new species . Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis , forming clonal populations of identical individuals . Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid , while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid . The commercial banana is an example of a sterile , seedless triploid hybrid . Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed .
As in other eukaryotes , the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non @-@ Mendelian . Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants .
= = = Molecular genetics = = =
A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress , Arabidopsis thaliana , a weedy species in the mustard family ( Brassicaceae ) . The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA , forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants . Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced , in 2000 . The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes , of rice ( Oryza sativa ) and Brachypodium distachyon , has made them important model species for understanding the genetics , cellular and molecular biology of cereals , grasses and monocots generally .
Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast . Ideally , these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced , small stature and short generation times . Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in C4 plants . The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , while not an embryophyte itself , contains a green @-@ pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants , making it useful for study . A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions . Spinach , peas , soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology .
Agrobacterium tumefaciens , a soil rhizosphere bacterium , can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus @-@ inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer , causing a callus infection called crown gall disease . Schell and Van Montagu ( 1977 ) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species . Today , genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops .
= = = Epigenetics = = =
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism 's genes to behave ( or " express themselves " ) differently . One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not . Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed . Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant , and are responsible , for example , for the differences between anthers , petals and normal leaves , despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code . Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell 's life . Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable , while others are reset in the germ cells .
Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation . During morphogenesis , totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo , which in turn become fully differentiated cells . A single fertilized egg cell , the zygote , gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma , xylem vessel elements , phloem sieve tubes , guard cells of the epidermis , etc. as it continues to divide . The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others .
Unlike animals , many plant cells , particularly those of the parenchyma , do not terminally differentiate , remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant . Exceptions include highly lignified cells , the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity , and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei . While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals , such as chromatin remodeling , an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate .
= = Plant Evolution = =
The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical , structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria , ( commonly but incorrectly known as " blue @-@ green algae " ) and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident .
The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions , some more closely related to plants than others . There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition , biochemistry , pigmentation , chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves . The algal division Charophyta , sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta , is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants . The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub @-@ kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina .
Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem . They include mosses , liverworts and hornworts . Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free @-@ living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian . Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day . By the end of the Devonian period , several groups , including the lycopods , sphenophylls and progymnosperms , had independently evolved " megaspory " – their spores were of two distinct sizes , larger megaspores and smaller microspores . Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore @-@ producing organs ( megasporangia ) of the sporophyte , a condition known as endospory . Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers ( integuments ) . The young sporophyte develops within the seed , which on germination splits to release it . The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage . Following the evolution of the seed habit , seed plants diversified , giving rise to a number of now @-@ extinct groups , including seed ferns , as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms . Gymnosperms produce " naked seeds " not fully enclosed in an ovary ; modern representatives include conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and Gnetales . Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary . Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms .
= = Plant physiology = =
Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life . Chemicals obtained from the air , soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism . The energy of sunlight , captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration , is the basis of almost all life . Photoautotrophs , including all green plants , algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis . Heterotrophs including all animals , all fungi , all completely parasitic plants , and non @-@ photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues . Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain , essentially the opposite of photosynthesis .
Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales . Subcellular transport of ions , electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes . Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream . Diffusion , osmosis , and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur . Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , calcium , magnesium , and sulphur . In vascular plants , these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem . Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals . Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes .
= = = Plant hormones = = =
Plants are not passive , but respond to external signals such as light , touch , and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus , as appropriate . Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of Mimosa pudica , the insect traps of Venus flytrap and bladderworts , and the pollinia of orchids .
The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century . Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity , and concluded " It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements " . About the same time , the role of auxins ( from the Greek auxein , to grow ) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went . The first known auxin , indole @-@ 3 @-@ acetic acid ( IAA ) , which promotes cell growth , was only isolated from plants about 50 years later . This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity . The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA , followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification .
Cytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division or cytokinesis . The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn , Zea mays , and is a derivative of the purine adenine . Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division , bud development , and the greening of chloroplasts . The gibberelins , such as Gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway . They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy @-@ breaking in seeds , in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering . Abscisic acid ( ABA ) occurs in all land plants except liverworts , and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids . It inhibits cell division , promotes seed maturation , and dormancy , and promotes stomatal closure . It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission . Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine . It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission , and it , or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene , are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton , pineapples and other climacteric crops .
Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates , first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack .
In addition to being the primary energy source for plants , light functions as a signalling device , providing information to the plant , such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day . This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as photomorphogenesis . Phytochromes are the photoreceptors in a plant that are sensitive to light .
= = Plant anatomy and morphology = =
Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues , whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form . All plants are multicellular eukaryotes , their DNA stored in nuclei . The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose , hemicellulose and pectin , larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts . Other plastids contain storage products such as starch ( amyloplasts ) or lipids ( elaioplasts ) . Uniquely , streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division .
The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses , ferns and seed plants ( gymnosperms and angiosperms ) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems . The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures . The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll . Non @-@ vascular plants , the liverworts , hornworts and mosses do not produce ground @-@ penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis . The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts .
The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food , and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system . Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots . Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots . Roots that spread out close to the surface , such as those of willows , can produce shoots and ultimately new plants . In the event that one of the systems is lost , the other can often regrow it . In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf , as is the case with Saintpaulia , or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus ( a mass of unspecialised cells ) that can grow into a new plant . In vascular plants , the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots . Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch , as in sugar beets and carrots .
Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures , but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti , food as in potato tubers , or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering . Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis . Large , flat , flexible , green leaves are called foliage leaves . Gymnosperms , such as conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and gnetophytes are seed @-@ producing plants with open seeds . Angiosperms are seed @-@ producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds . Woody plants , such as azaleas and oaks , undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues : wood ( secondary xylem ) and bark ( secondary phloem and cork ) . All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants . Some plants reproduce sexually , some asexually , and some via both means .
Although reference to major morphological categories such as root , stem , leaf , and trichome are useful , one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results . Furthermore , structures can be seen as processes , that is , process combinations .
= = Systematic botany = =
Systematic botany is part of systematic biology , which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships , particularly as determined by their evolutionary history . It involves , or is related to , biological classification , scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics . Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species . Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy . Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus , who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics . These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics . While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms , molecular phylogenetics , which uses DNA sequences as data , has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so . The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy . It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature . The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) and administered by the International Botanical Congress .
Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukarya and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified . The order is : Kingdom ; Phylum ( or Division ) ; Class ; Order ; Family ; Genus ( plural genera ) ; Species . The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus , resulting in a single world @-@ wide name for each organism . For example , the tiger lily is Lilium columbianum . Lilium is the genus , and columbianum the specific epithet . The combination is the name of the species . When writing the scientific name of an organism , it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase . Additionally , the entire term is ordinarily italicised ( or underlined when italics are not available ) .
The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny . Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies . The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships . As an example , species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves . They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus . However , both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles ( highly specialised pad @-@ like structures ) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related .
Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care , since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently . Some euphorbias have leafless , rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti , but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related . The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters , distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups ( homoplasies ) or those left over from ancestors ( plesiomorphies ) – and derived characters , which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor ( apomorphies ) . Only derived characters , such as the spine @-@ producing areoles of cacti , provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor . The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms : tree @-@ like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent .
From the 1990s onwards , the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics , which uses molecular characters , particularly DNA sequences , rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles . The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships , instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to . Clive Stace describes this as having " direct access to the genetic basis of evolution . " As a simple example , prior to the use of genetic evidence , fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals . Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants .
In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants . As a result of this work , many questions , such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms , have now been answered . Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants . Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence , there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa . Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed .
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= Odin @-@ class coastal defense ship =
The Odin class was a pair of coastal defense ships built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the late 19th century . The class comprised two ships : Odin , named after the Norse god Odin , and Ägir , named after the Norse god of the same name . The ships were very similar to the preceding Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships , and are sometimes considered to be one class of ships .
Like the preceding Siegfried @-@ class ships , Odin and Ägir were obsolete by the time World War I had started . Regardless , they were still used in their primary role until 1915 , at which point they were withdrawn from active service . The ships performed a variety of secondary duties until the end of the war . On 17 June 1919 , both ships were struck from the naval register and sold to the A. Bernstein Company in Hamburg . The shipping company had the ships rebuilt as freighters ; Odin served in this capacity until she was scrapped in 1935 , however Ägir accidentally grounded near the Karlsö lighthouse on the island of Gotland in 1929 and proved to be a total loss .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Odin @-@ class ships were 76 @.@ 40 meters ( 250 @.@ 7 ft ) long at the waterline and 79 m ( 259 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 15 @.@ 20 m ( 49 @.@ 9 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 61 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . Like the preceding Siegfried class , Odin and Ägir were substantially rebuilt between 1901 – 03 and 1903 – 04 , respectively . The hulls were lengthened somewhat , to 84 @.@ 80 m ( 278 @.@ 2 ft ) at the waterline and 86 @.@ 15 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) overall . The beam was also slightly increased , to 15 @.@ 40 m ( 50 @.@ 5 ft ) . Forward draft decreased slightly , to 5 @.@ 59 m ( 18 @.@ 3 ft ) , while the aft draft increased slightly , to 5 @.@ 49 m ( 18 @.@ 0 ft ) . The two ships had a designed displacement of 3 @,@ 550 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 490 long tons ; 3 @,@ 910 short tons ) and a maximum weight of 2 @,@ 754 t ( 2 @,@ 711 long tons ; 3 @,@ 036 short tons ) . After the reconstruction , displacement was increased to 4 @,@ 100 t ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ; 4 @,@ 500 short tons ) designed , and a maximum of 4 @,@ 376 t ( 4 @,@ 307 long tons ; 4 @,@ 824 short tons ) for Odin and 4 @,@ 292 t ( 4 @,@ 224 long tons ; 4 @,@ 731 short tons ) for Ägir .
Odin and Ägir used the same transverse and longitudinal steel frame construction as the Siegfried @-@ class ships . The ships had eight watertight compartments and a double bottom for about 60 % of the length of the hull . As in the Siegfrieds , a ninth watertight compartment was added when the ships were lengthened . The ships were described as good sea boats ; they had gentle motion and were very responsive to commands from the helm . The ships lost significant speed in heavy seas , however . The ships had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men , with an additional 6 officers and 22 men when serving as a flagship . The refit increased crew requirements , to an additional 31 sailors normally , and the extra flagship crew increased to 9 officers and 34 men . The ships carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one pinnace , two cutters , one yawl , and one dinghy .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Odin and Ägir were equipped with the same propulsion system that was in Siegfried : two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , each in its own engine room . These engines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) in diameter . Odin had eight marine type boilers , while Ägir 's engines were powered by eight Thornycroft boilers . The ships had similar maximum speeds , with Odin , at 14 @.@ 4 knots ( 26 @.@ 7 km / h ; 16 @.@ 6 mph ) , somewhat slower than her design speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) and Ägir slightly faster at 15 @.@ 1 knots ( 28 @.@ 0 km / h ; 17 @.@ 4 mph ) . Their engines were rated at 4 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 600 kW ) , though on trials Odin managed only 4 @,@ 650 ihp ( 3 @,@ 470 kW ) while Ägir reached 5 @,@ 129 ihp ( 3 @,@ 825 kW ) .
Odin had three electric generators that provided between 29 – 26 kilowatts at 67 volts , while Ägir was equipped with six generators that provided between 243 – 250 kW at 120 V. Because of her increased number of electrical generators , Ägir was nicknamed " Electrische Anna " ( " Electric Anna " ) . The ships stored up to 270 t ( 270 long tons ; 300 short tons ) of coal which enabled a range of 2 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 100 km ; 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After the refit , fuel bunkerage was increased , to 370 t ( 360 long tons ; 410 short tons ) of coal . This increased the sailing range to 3 @,@ 000 nmi ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots . After 1909 , capacity to store 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of fuel oil was added .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' primary armament consisted of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 35 guns . In an arrangement that was very unusual for such large guns , two of the guns were mounted in a pair of MPL C / 88 turrets forward side @-@ by @-@ side , while the third was mounted in a single turret aft . The guns could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline , and depress to -4 degrees and elevate to 25 degrees . This enabled a maximum range of 13 @,@ 000 m ( 43 @,@ 000 ft ) . The guns had an ammunition storage of 174 rounds , or 58 shells per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 shells per minute . The 1895 design for the armor @-@ piercing shell weighed 140 kg ( 310 lb ) .
The ships also had a secondary battery of ten 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 2 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition . The 8 @.@ 8 cm gun fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 590 m / s ( 1 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . The guns could sustain a rate of fire of approximately 15 rounds per minute . The ships were also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Two were placed laterally in above water swivel mounts and the third was submerged in the bow . The torpedo tubes were supplied with a total of 8 torpedoes .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships used a similar Krupp compound steel and teak armor protection scheme as in the preceding Siegfried class . The upper section of the main armored belt was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central portion of the ships , where the ships ' vitals were located . Behind this was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of teak , which gave a total thickness of 400 mm ( 16 in ) . The bow and stern were unprotected . The lower section followed a similar pattern of steel armor distribution , although the thickness of the central portion of the belt was decreased to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The main armored deck was between 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick ; more important areas of the ships were covered by the thicker armor . The conning tower roof was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and the sides were 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The barbettes for the main battery and cupolas for the secondary guns ranged in thickness between 30 to 200 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) , backed by 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of teak .
= = Service history = =
Odin and Ägir saw only limited service in their intended roles . The revolutions in capital ship building in the first decade of the 20th century rapidly made these ships obsolete . The Second Naval Law , passed on 27 March 1908 , reduced the service life of all capital ships from 25 years to 20 years . This meant that the Odin @-@ class ships , along with a number of other vessels , were to be replaced as soon as possible . Odin and Ägir were replaced by the Kaiser @-@ class battleships König Albert and Prinzregent Luitpold respectively .
As the new battleships were intended for offensive operations , the Odin class was still retained for coast defense duties . The ships served in this capacity through the start of World War I , until they were withdrawn from active service in 1915 , along with their half @-@ sisters of the Siegfried class . After she was pulled from combat duties , Odin served as a tender in Wilhelmshaven . She was struck from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to A. Bernstein Co . , a shipping company based in Hamburg . By 1922 , the ship had been rebuilt as a freighter , and she served in this capacity until she was scrapped in 1935 .
Ägir was also stationed in Wilhelmshaven after she was withdrawn from her coast defense duties , though she served as a barracks ship there . She was stricken from the navy list on 17 June 1919 , and also sold to A. Bernstein Co. for use as a freighter . On 8 December 1929 , the ship grounded off the Karlsö lighthouse on the Swedish island of Gotland . The situation proved to be unsalvageable . Her bow ornament is now on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .
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= Siege of Damascus ( 1148 ) =
The Siege of Damascus took place between 24 July and 29 July 1148 , during the Second Crusade . It ended in a decisive crusader defeat and led to the disintegration of the crusade . The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux 's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany . Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed , with most of their armies being destroyed . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa ( Urfa ) , but in Jerusalem , the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus . At the Council of Acre , magnates from France , Germany , and the Kingdom of Jerusalem decided to divert the crusade to Damascus .
The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . Having arrived outside the walls of the city , they immediately put it to siege , using wood from the orchards . On 27 July , the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi arrived with Muslim reinforcements and cut off the crusader 's route to their previous position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . The entire crusader army retreated back to Jerusalem by 28 July .
= = Second Crusade = =
The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux 's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany . Conrad 's force included Bolesław IV the Curly and Vladislaus II of Bohemia , as well as Frederick of Swabia , his nephew who would become Emperor Frederick I. The crusade had been called after the fall of the County of Edessa on 24 December 1144 . The crusaders marched across Europe and arrived at Constantinople in September and October 1147 .
Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed , and most of their armies were destroyed . Louis abandoned his troops and travelled by ship to the Principality of Antioch , where his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine 's uncle , Raymond , was prince . Raymond expected him to offer military assistance against the Seljuk Turks threatening the principality , but Louis refused and went to Jerusalem to fulfil his crusader vow . Conrad , stricken by illness , had earlier returned to Constantinople , but arrived in Jerusalem a few weeks later in early April 1148 . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa , but in Jerusalem , the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus .
= = = Council of Acre = = =
The Council of Acre was called with the Haute Cour of Jerusalem at Acre on 24 June . This was the most spectacular meeting of the Cour in its existence : Conrad , Otto , Henry II , Duke of Austria , future emperor Frederick , and William V , Marquess of Montferrat represented the Holy Roman Empire . Louis , Thierry of Alsace , and various other ecclesiastical and secular lords represented the French . From Jerusalem King Baldwin , Queen Melisende , Patriarch Fulk , Robert de Craon ( master of the Knights Templar ) , Raymond du Puy de Provence ( master of the Knights Hospitaller ) , Manasses of Hierges ( constable of Jerusalem ) , Humphrey II of Toron , Philip of Milly , Walter I Grenier , and Barisan of Ibelin were among those present . Notably , no one from Antioch , Tripoli , or the former County of Edessa attended . Both Louis and Conrad were persuaded to attack Damascus .
Some of the barons native to Jerusalem pointed out that it would be unwise to attack Damascus , as the Burid dynasty , though Muslim , were their allies against the Zengid dynasty . Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi had besieged the city in 1140 , and Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , a Mamluk acting as vizier for the young Mujir ad @-@ Din Abaq , negotiated an alliance with Jerusalem through the chronicler Usama ibn Munqidh . Conrad , Louis , and Baldwin insisted , Damascus was a holy city for Christianity . Like Jerusalem and Antioch , it would be a noteworthy prize in the eyes of European Christians . In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus , around the Sea of Galilee by way of Baniyas . There were perhaps 50 @,@ 000 troops in total .
The general view now appears to be that the decision to attack Damascus was somewhat inevitable . Historians , such as Martin Hoch , regard the decision as the logical outcome of Damascene foreign policy shifting into alignment with the Zengid dynasty . King Baldwin III had previously launched a campaign with the sole objective of capturing the city . This damaged the Burid dynasty 's relations with the Kingdom of Jerusalem .
= = = Fiasco at Damascus = = =
The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . They arrived at Daraiya on 23 July , with the army of Jerusalem in the vanguard , followed by Louis and then Conrad in the rearguard . The densely cultivated gardens and orchards would prove to be a serious obstacle for the Crusaders . According to William of Tyre , the crusader army was prepared itself for battle :
At Daria [ Darayya ] , since the city was now so near , the sovereigns drew up their forces in battle formation and assigned the legions to their proper places in the order of march ... Because of its supposed familiarity with the country , the division led by the King of Jerusalem was , by common decision of the princes , directed to lead the way and open a path for the legions following . To the King of the Franks [ Louis VII ] and his army was assigned the second place or centre that they might aid those ahead if the need arose . By the same authority , the Emperor [ Konrad III ] was to hold the third or rear position , in readiness to resist the enemy if , perchance an attack should be made from behind .
The Muslims were well prepared and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus on 24 July . These orchards were defended by towers and walls and the crusaders were constantly pelted with arrows and lances along the narrow paths .
On Saturday 24 July the Crusaders began with an attack in the morning along the banks of the Barada river . There was ferocious combat in the orchards and narrow roads between the Christian force and a mixture of professional troops of Damascus , the ahdath militia and Turkoman mercenaries . William of Tyre reported :
The cavalry forces of the townsmen and those who had come to their assistance realized that our army was coming through the orchards in order to besiege the city and they accordingly approached the stream which flowed into the town . This they did with their bows and their balistas [ crossbows ] so that they could fight off the Latin army ... The emperor [ Konrad ] , in command of the forces following , demanded to know why the army did not advance . He was told the enemy was in possession of the river and would not allow our forces to pass . Enraged at this news , Konrad and his knights galloped swiftly forward through the king 's lines and reached the fighters who were tying to win the river . Here all leaped down from their horses and become foot soldiers , as is the custom of the Teutons when a desperate crisis occurs .
The historian David Nicolle wrote that William of Tyre did not explain how Conrad was able to bring his forces up from the rear to the front without totally disorganizing the Christian army " . According to Syrian chronicler Abu Shama :
Despite the multitude of ahdath [ militia ] , Turks , and common people of the town , volunteers and soldiers who had come from the provinces and had joined with them , the Muslims were overwhelmed by the enemy 's numbers and were defeated by the infidels . The latter crossed the river , found themselves in the gardens and made camp there ... The Franks ... cut down trees to make palisades . They destroyed the orchards and passed the night in these tasks .
Thanks to a charge by Conrad , the crusaders managed to fight their way through and chase the defenders back across the Barada river and into Damascus .
Having arrived outside the walls of the city , they immediately put it to siege , using wood from the orchards . The Crusaders began to build their siege position opposite the Bab al @-@ Jabiya gate where the Barada did not run past Damascus . Inside the city the inhabitants barricaded the major streets , preparing for what they believed to be an inevitable assault . Unur had sought help from Saif ad @-@ Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi of Aleppo , and personally led an attack on the crusader camp ; the crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards , where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks . During the counter @-@ attack on Sunday , July 25 the Damascus forces took heavy losses which included the 71 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer and well known scholar named Yusuf al @-@ Findalawi , the Sufi mystic Al @-@ Halhli and the soldier Nur al @-@ Dawlah Shahinshah . According to William of Tyre , on 27 July the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . During a raid on the Crusader camp on 26 July , according to Abu Shama :
A large group of inhabitants and villagers ... put to flight all the sentries , killed them , without fear of danger , taking the heads of all the enemy they killed and wanting to touch these trophies . The numbers of heads they gathered was considerable .
There were conflicts in both camps : Unur could not trust Saif ad @-@ Din or Nur ad @-@ Din from conquering the city entirely if they offered help ; and the crusaders could not agree about who would receive the city if they captured it . Guy Brisebarre , lord of Beirut , was the suggestion of the local barons , but Thierry of Alsace , Count of Flanders , wanted it for himself and was supported by Baldwin , Louis , and Conrad . It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position , and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad @-@ Din if the crusaders went home . Meanwhile Nur ad @-@ Din and Saif ad @-@ Din had by now arrived at Homs and were negotiating with Unur for possession of Damascus , something that neither Unur nor the crusaders wanted . Saif ad @-@ Din apparently also wrote to the crusaders , urging them to return home . With Nur ad @-@ Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . First Conrad , then the rest of the army , decided to retreat back to Jerusalem on 28 July , though for their entire retreat they were followed by Turkish archers who constantly harassed them .
= = Aftermath = =
Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other . A new plan was made to attack Ascalon but this was abandoned due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege . This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat , to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land . Following the battle , Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel . As a result of the attack , Damascus no longer trusted the crusaders , and the city was formally handed over to Nur ad @-@ Din in 1154 . Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated , and when his attempt to call a new crusade failed , he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether .
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= Tropical Storm Josephine ( 1996 ) =
Tropical Storm Josephine was an unusual Atlantic tropical storm that moved from west to east across the Gulf of Mexico in October 1996 . It formed on October 4 as a tropical depression from the remnants of a cold front . Early in its duration , the system interacted with a ridge over the central United States , which produced strong winds and high tides along the Texas coast . The outer rainbands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas , and in Louisiana , high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle . Moving generally to the east due to a trough , the depression intensified into a tropical storm on October 6 , and the next day reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while approaching the west coast of Florida . Josephine made landfall in Taylor County near peak intensity early on October 8 , and soon after became extratropical . While moving ashore , the storm produced a high storm surge reaching 9 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee . High tides flooded about 3 @,@ 600 houses along the west coast . Josephine also produced heavy rainfall , which flooded hundreds of winds , and high winds , which left 400 @,@ 000 people without power . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes , one of which damaged 130 homes .
The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States , producing wind gusts as strong as 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , Maryland . The winds caused widespread power outages , including 26 @,@ 000 in Virginia and 31 @,@ 000 in New Jersey . Heavy rainfall flooded low @-@ lying areas and rivers along the storm 's path , including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In the southeastern United States , the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents , which killed a person each in Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia . Damage throughout the United States totaled about $ 130 million ( 1996 USD ) . Josephine later moved offshore , and after passing southeast of Cape Cod , moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds . The storm later restrengthened in the northern Atlantic Ocean before merging with another extratropical storm near Iceland on October 16 .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late September 1996 , a cold front stalled over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico , producing an area of convection . The thunderstorms were possibly related to the same tropical wave that spawned Hurricane Hernan in the eastern Pacific Ocean . A low pressure area formed in the Bay of Campeche by October 2 , although initially upper @-@ level conditions did not favor tropical cyclogenesis . The convection became more persistent on October 3 and gradually became better organized . On October 4 , classifications based on the Dvorak technique began , and later that day the Hurricane Hunters flew into the system . Based on the data from the flight , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Ten formed at 1800 UTC that day off the northeast coast of Mexico . During its formative stages , the depression interacted with a ridge near the Great Lakes to produce strong winds across the Gulf Coast of the United States . With weak steering currents , the depression moved slowly to the northeast , and initially , wind shear prevented further organization . On October 6 , a strong trough caused the system to accelerate to the east @-@ northeast . The storm 's west to east motion across the Gulf of Mexico was unusual although not unprecedented .
On October 6 , the banding features became better defined , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine . Further intensification followed , and Josephine attained peak winds of about 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on October 7 . This was based on flight @-@ level winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , and while near peak intensity , the storm developed a partial eyewall . Josephine accelerated to the northeast while maintaining peak winds , and it made landfall in Taylor County , Florida at 0330 UTC on October 8 . By that time , Josephine was losing tropical characteristics , and shortly thereafter the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it moved over Georgia . The remnants continued to accelerate to the northeast , having weakened quickly to winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . It moved along the East Coast of the United States , emerging from North Carolina into the western Atlantic , and later crossed Atlantic Canada . On October 12 , the remnants of Josephine turned to the north and later to the northwest within the general flow of the north Atlantic Ocean . The next day , the storm strengthened to again reach its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . On October 16 , the storm merged with another extratropical storm near Iceland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
About 19 hours before landfall , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a tropical storm warning from Apalachicola to Venice , Florida , which was preceded by a tropical storm watch six hours prior . As the storm intensified further , the NHC issued a hurricane warning from Apalachicola to Anclote Key , and extended the tropical storm warning westward to Fort Walton Beach . The agency later issued a tropical storm warning for the Atlantic coast from Cape Canaveral to Little River Inlet in South Carolina . Officials ordered evacuations for barrier islands in nine Florida counties along the gulf coast , and about 3 @,@ 000 people stayed in shelters . Government offices closed along the storm 's projected path in the state . Later , the storm forced the cancellation of part of Bob Dole 's bus tour through New York , and postponed a search for the wreck of TWA Flight 800 . Game one of the 1996 World Series was postponed by one day due to the storm .
While Josephine was forming , it produced high tides of 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal that flooded coastal regions and eroded beaches along the Texas coast . Coastal flooding covered portions of Texas State Highway 316 and John F. Kennedy Memorial Causeway . The storm 's outer periphery dropped locally heavy rainfall that reached 10 @.@ 81 in ( 275 mm ) at Brownsville International Airport , which flooded homes in Brownsville and streets near San Benito . Light rainfall also occurred elsewhere along the gulf coast . In Louisiana , tides were 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , which flooded portions of Louisiana Highway 1 and several houses . The floods damaged two houses in Mandeville , and damage statewide was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 5 million . After residents refused to evacuate Grand Isle , over 200 people were stranded when floodwaters rose .
Josephine made landfall in northwestern Florida along Apalachee Bay and produced a high storm surge of around 9 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee , causing minor to moderate beach erosion . The storm produced widespread tropical storm force wind gusts in the state , and the highest sustained winds were 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) along the Sunshine Skyway Bridge ; the same location reported a peak gust of 72 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Josephine dropped heavy rainfall in the state , peaking at 11 @.@ 39 in ( 289 mm ) in Fernandina Beach . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes in northern Florida , most of which caused minor tree damage . One 400 yd ( 370 m ) wide tornado , rated an F2 , remained on the ground for 7 mi ( 11 km ) in Edgewater , which damaged 130 houses , 30 of them severely . The tornado caused a woman to have a heart attack in Edgewater , and its damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 4 million . In western Florida , the high tides flooded roads and buildings along the coast . Between Levy to Lee county along the gulf coast , Josephine flooded about 3 @,@ 600 homes , mostly west of U.S. Route 19 . The heaviest storm surge damage was in Pinellas County , where about 1 @,@ 400 homes were affected , causing $ 25 million in damage . One person was injured in the county when a man was surfing in rough seas . The high tides damaged three fishing piers along the west coast . In Clay County , flooding rains forced about a dozen families to seek shelter elsewhere , and a few roads were washed out . In Jacksonville , high rains flooded hundreds of roads and caused schools countywide to close . Street flooding occurred as far south as the Florida Keys . High winds caused sporadic wind damage across northern Florida , and about 400 @,@ 000 people lost power statewide . Following the storm , President Bill Clinton declared 16 counties as disaster areas , which made them eligible for federal assistance in reconstructing .
When the remnants of Josephine moved into Georgia , rainfall of over 7 in ( 180 mm ) flooded portions of Georgia State Route 40 and destroyed six houses along the St. Marys River . A woman died after driving into a downed tree in the state . In South Carolina , the storm caused flash flooding that covered roads and cars , after 6 in ( 150 mm ) of precipitation fell . Wind gusts in the state reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) along the coast , while high tides caused minor beach erosion . The remnants of Josephine spawned a weak tornado in Horry County that downed trees and power lines . Heavy rainfall , including reports of 4 in ( 100 mm ) in three and a half hours , also affected North Carolina , which flooded low @-@ lying areas , rivers , and portions of several roads including U.S. Route 70 . A woman and her child required rescue from a flooded road in Chadbourn . In some areas of eastern North Carolina , the storm raised river levels only weeks after they receded following Hurricane Fran . High winds of up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) downed trees and power lines , causing power outages and dozens of traffic accidents ; one man died while driving amid heavy rainfall . High tides flooded barrier islands and caused erosion in beaches , previously affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In conjunction with a cold front , Josephine spawned three tornadoes in the state along the state 's central coastline . The tornadoes destroyed several mobile homes , uprooted trees , and brought down power lines .
After having tracked across the southeastern United States , Josephine emerged into the western Atlantic Ocean as a strong extratropical cyclone and remained near the coast . It continued to bring strong winds and heavy rainfall . In southeastern Virginia , where wind gusts reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge – Tunnel , the storm left about 26 @,@ 000 people without power , while flooding contributed to over 70 traffic accidents . A three car accident killed a man in the state . In neighboring Maryland , the storm produced a peak wind gust of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , which knocked down trees onto houses and left about 7 @,@ 000 people without power . In the Chesapeake Bay , waves of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height caused minor coastal damage and flooded portions of the coastline , including along Maryland Route 238 . In Ocean City , a 160 ft ( 49 m ) barge broke from its moorings during the storm , which later washed ashore . About 4 @,@ 000 people lost power in Delaware , where winds reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and high tides , peaking at 7 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) at Lewes , flooded oceanfront homes and portion of Delaware Route 1 . High rainfall caused the Christina River to crest at 10 @.@ 6 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) , causing some people to require rescue from their cars . About 1 @,@ 500 people lost power in southeastern Pennsylvania , when high winds knocked down some tree limbs onto power lines . In neighboring New Jersey , high winds of around 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) left about 31 @,@ 000 homes without power , and 12 houses lost their roofs during the storm . In both New Jersey and New York , rainfall was around 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) , causing minor street flooding . While passing offshore New England , the remnants of Josephine produced gusts as high as 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) at Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts . Minor street flooding occurred in the state after the storm dropped up to 4 @.@ 50 in ( 114 mm ) of rainfall on Cape Cod . Throughout New England , the high winds downed trees and branches , causing scattered power outages in Rhode Island , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , and Maine . Nationwide , damage was estimated at $ 130 million ( 1996 USD ) .
Later , the remnants of Josephine moved across Atlantic Canada , where rainfall peaked at 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) in northern Newfoundland . The strongest winds in the region were 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) , strong enough to cause ferry service to be canceled or delayed . In Amherst and Fort Lawrence , the storm caused power outages and school closings .
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= Marry You =
" Marry You " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars for his debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . Written and produced by The Smeezingtons , the track serves as the record 's sixth track and was released as Mars 's fourth single outside of the United States . " Marry You " is a pop song featuring strong influences of doo @-@ wop . The recording focuses on spontaneous marriage and therefore , since its release , has frequently been used as a proposal song .
" Marry You " received generally positive reviews from music critics , with some complimenting its production and its reminiscence of 60 's pop style . Some criticized a perceived lack of creativity . Despite not being released as a single in the US , the song charted at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 and has since sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies there . It charted on most international markets within the top fifteen , reaching number 10 on the Canadian Hot 100 , number 8 in Australia , the top five in New Zealand , and charting at number 11 in the United Kingdom . The single was certified three times platinum by Music Canada and two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . Mars performed " Marry You " on both of his worldwide tours , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 – 12 ) and the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 – 14 ) . The song has been covered a number of times , most notably by the cast of Glee ; their cover outperformed the original song by reaching number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Development and conception = =
" Marry You " is one of the eleven songs composed and produced by The Smeezingtons , the collaboration of Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , and Ari Levine , for Mars 's debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans . Lawrence explained the inspiration behind the song in an interview with American Songwriter stating , " [ w ] e had this image of a slow @-@ mo video in Vegas of a couple running , and she ’ s in her gown and he ’ s in his tux , the wedding party is behind them and everyone ’ s raging . This sort of crazy , daring , wedding feeling " . Lawrence was surprised at the impact of the song after watching some YouTube videos . He stated that " [ w ] e always thought it was a good song and catchy , but we didn ’ t think it would affect pop culture the way that it has . The first time we saw one of those YouTube videos , it changed everything for us . We were almost in tears , just the power of music ... the power of what it is we can create . These ideas , words , and lyrics and how they can get into the fabric of society and affect people ’ s lives in such an amazing way . "
" Marry You " was recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios in Hollywood and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles . The song was mixed by Manny Marroquin and assistants Christian Plata and Erik Madrid . Levine and Mars played and recorded all of the instruments on the track . Levine was also responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in Los Angeles .
= = Composition = =
" Marry You " was written by The Smeezingtons ( Mars , Lawrence , and Levine ) . It combines elements of pop and doo @-@ wop and lasts three minutes and fifty seconds . According to the digital sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing , it was composed in time signature of common time and in the key of F major with a tempo of 145 beats per minute . The track includes drums , double hand @-@ claps , piano , echoing church wedding bells and a sing @-@ songy chorus . Mars 's vocal range spans from C4 to D5 . His vocals in the song have been described as " plaintive " and " ach [ ing ] so gently " , while wooing throughout the track .
The song has been characterized as possessing " forceful velocity " and an " instantly hummable melody " with it being " buoyant " , " bubbly " and " Motown marriage track " . A love song , it lyrically tells about a couple that go to Las Vegas , give up their " capricious impulses " and spontaneously decide to get married . Although the song has since become a " classic marriage tune " , Lawrence has stated that the writers instead meant to imply a " racy kind of idea " . Critics have compared the song to 60 's girl groups and to the " surf pop of The Beach Boys " , and Coldplay .
= = Critical reception = =
" Marry You " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner gave it a strong review , rating it four out of five stars , with him labeling it as a song that " would not only impress the Elvis impersonator in any Vegas chapel , but is enough to make him a shoo @-@ in for ultimate seducer of 2011 " and a " 60s @-@ inspired jive @-@ starter " . NPR 's Ken Tucker and Emily Yang of The Signal said that the recording 's sound was reminiscent of 60 's pop . Nina Baniamer of Contactmusic.com found the track 's production " epic and ambitious " and called the " anthemic " song " sure fire hit " . The Boston Globe critic Ken Capobianco praised the song for its " artfully arranged throwback " and exalted Mars 's vocals on his love songs , such as " Marry You " . Leah Greenblatt , writing for Entertainment Weekly , stated that " Marry You " has " a malt @-@ shop heart " beating beneath its " digital skin " , which shows innovation and creativity . The Independent music critic , Andy Gill , flattered the single by calling it " overly ingratiating " . In a mixed review , Tim Sendra of Allmusic praised the song 's " dynamic and nuanced production " , yet founding the track " pleasantly silly " . In a negative review , Mike Diver of BBC Music thought confessed that the recording was a " too @-@ clingy and very creepy love song " and noted its lack of inspiration . Similarly , Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson suggested that the song was spun off of Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You " , where the word " fuck " was changed to " marry " . He further added that the single was a " bizarrely syncopated piledriver " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Marry You " debuted at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 11 , 2010 . It reached a peak of number 85 on January 15 , 2011 and remained on the chart for a total of 5 weeks . The song was never released as a single in the United States , despite its strong airplay on mainstream and adult top 40 radio stations . As of January 2015 , the track has sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies there and has yet to be certified by the Recording Industry Association of America .
The song 's reception was stronger outside of the United States , thus debuting at number 89 in Canada on December 11 , 2010 , after the Glee performance of the track . It reached its peak position of number 10 on the Canadian Hot 100 in early November 2011 . It was certified three times platinum by Music Canada . In the United Kingdom , " Marry You " debuted and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and remained on the chart for 39 weeks . The single performed well across the rest of Europe , reaching the top 10 in Austria , Czech Republic , Ireland , Luxembourg , and Slovakia and the top 20 in Belgium , Germany , Netherlands , and Switzerland . In 2014 , the song re @-@ entered the Spanish Charts two years after its first appearance and reached a new peak of 26 . It also made its debut on the Danish Charts at number 34 .
In Australia , " Marry You " debuted at number 50 on the ARIA Singles Chart on December 12 , 2010 and remained on the chart for three weeks . It reappeared on the chart on June 19 , 2011 , reaching a peak position at number 8 for two non @-@ consecutive weeks ; it dropped off the chart after 19 weeks . The single was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association in 2011 . The single reached number 5 on New Zealand 's RIANZ Singles Chart and spent five months on the chart . In Asia , the song peaked at number 3 on the Japan Hot 100 , and the track was awarded Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan . The single reached number 12 in South Korea and sold 2 @,@ 152 @,@ 783 copies there as of 2015 .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Mars has performed the song at several shows , first at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City on August 25 , 2010 . On November 6 , 2011 , Mars and his band performed it live at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . He also sang it on December 8 , 2012 for the 2012 edition of Jingle Bell Ball , an event annually held and promoted by Capital FM at the O2 Arena in London . It was the eight song of his debut worldwide tour , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 ) , and was eight ( 2013 set list ) or sixth ( 2014 set list ) on his second worldwide tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 ) .
The song has been covered several times , first on the " Furt " episode of the television show Glee , which aired on November 23 , 2010 . The show 's cover version achieved moderate success by peaking at number 27 in Australia , number 19 in Canada , number 31 in Ireland and number 32 in the United States . On January 1 , 2013 , the song was covered by Sunny , Sooyoung , and Yoona of South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their comeback special , Girls ' Generation 's Romantic Fantasy . Rapper and actor Donald Glover sang a cover of the song in the film Magic Mike XXL . The cover appeared on the movie 's soundtrack album , which was released on June 30 , 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
Promo CD Single
" Marry You " - 3 : 50
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California ;
Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans , Elektra Records :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release = =
= = = Process = = =
On August 15 , 2011 , a promo CD single containing the album version of " Marry You " became available for purchase through Elektra Records and Warner Music Group . A week later , the song was released in the United Kingdom . It was announced on September 13 , 2011 that " Marry You " would be released in Germany .
= = = History = = =
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= Erie , Pennsylvania =
Erie / ˈɪəri / is a city located in northwestern Pennsylvania , United States . Named for the lake and the Native American tribe that resided along its southern shore , Erie is the state 's fourth @-@ largest city ( after Philadelphia , Pittsburgh and Allentown ) , with a population of 101 @,@ 786 at the 2010 census , and an estimated population of 99 @,@ 452 in 2014 . It was the third @-@ largest city in the state until 1999 . It is the second largest city in Western Pennsylvania ( after Pittsburgh ) . Erie 's metropolitan area , equivalent to all of Erie County , consists of approximately 280 @,@ 000 residents . The city is the seat of government for Erie County and the principal city of the Erie , PA Metropolitan Statistical Area .
Erie is between Buffalo , New York , Cleveland , Ohio , and Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Once teeming with heavy industry , Erie 's manufacturing sector remains prominent in the local economy , though service industries , healthcare , higher education , and tourism are emerging as greater economic drivers . Millions visit Erie for recreation at Presque Isle State Park , as well as attractions like the casino and horse racetrack named for the state park .
Erie is known as the " Flagship City " because of its status as the home port of Oliver Hazard Perry 's flagship Niagara . The city has also been called the " Gem City " because of the sparkling lake . Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 .
= = History = =
Cultures of indigenous peoples occupied the shoreline and bluffs in this area for thousands of years , taking advantage of the rich resources . The Sommerheim Park Archaeological District located in Millcreek Township , Pennsylvania west of the city , includes artifacts from the Archaic period in the Americas , as well as from the Early and Middle Woodland Period , roughly a span from 8,000BCE to 500CE .
The historic Iroquoian @-@ speaking Erie Nation occupied this area before being defeated by the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the 17th century during the Beaver Wars . The Iroquois tribes had developed and five nations formed a political league in the 1500s , adding their sixth nation in the early 18th century . The Erie area became controlled by the Seneca , " keeper of the western door " of the Iroquois , who were largely based in present @-@ day New York .
Europeans first arrived as settlers in the region when the French constructed Fort Presque Isle near present @-@ day Erie in 1753 , as part of their effort to defend New France against the encroaching British colonists . The name of the fort refers to the peninsula that juts into Lake Erie , now protected as Presque Isle State Park . The French term " presque @-@ isle " means peninsula ( literally , " almost an island " ) . When the fort was abandoned by the French in 1760 during the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) , it was the last post they held west of Niagara . The British established a garrison at the fort at Presque Isle that same year , three years before the end of the French and Indian War .
Present @-@ day Erie is situated in what was the disputed Erie Triangle , a triangle of land that was claimed after the American Revolutionary War by the states of New York , Pennsylvania , Connecticut ( as part of its Western Reserve ) , and Massachusetts . It officially became part of Pennsylvania on March 3 , 1792 , after Connecticut , Massachusetts and New York relinquished their claims to the federal government , which in turn sold the land to Pennsylvania for 75 cents per acre or a total of $ 151 @,@ 640 @.@ 25 in Continental currency . The Iroquois released the land to Pennsylvania in January 1789 for payments of $ 2 @,@ 000 from Pennsylvania and $ 1 @,@ 200 from the federal government . The Seneca Nation separately settled land claims against Pennsylvania in February 1791 for the sum of $ 800 .
The General Assembly of Pennsylvania commissioned the surveying of land near Presque Isle through an act passed on April 18 , 1795 . Andrew Ellicott , who completed Pierre Charles L 'Enfant 's survey of Washington , D.C. and helped resolve the boundary between Pennsylvania and New York , arrived to begin the survey and lay out the plan for the city in June 1795 . Initial settlement of the area began that year . Lt. Colonel Seth Reed and his family moved to the Erie area from Geneva , New York ; they were Yankees from Uxbridge , Massachusetts . They became the first European @-@ American settlers of Erie , settling at what became known as " Presque Isle " .
President James Madison initiated the construction of a naval fleet during the War of 1812 in order to gain control of the Great Lakes from the British . Daniel Dobbins of Erie and Noah Brown of Boston were notable shipbuilders who led construction of four schooner − rigged gunboats and two brigs . Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry arrived from Rhode Island and led the squadron to success in the historic Battle of Lake Erie .
Erie was an important shipbuilding , fishing , and railroad hub during the mid @-@ 19th century . The city was the site where three sets of track gauges met . While the delays required cargo troubles for commerce and travel , they provided much needed local jobs in Erie . When a national standardized gauge was proposed , those jobs , and the importance of the rail hub itself , were put in jeopardy . In an event known as the Erie Gauge War , the citizens of Erie , led by the mayor , set fire to bridges , ripped up track and rioted to try to stop the standardization .
On August 3 , 1915 , the Mill Creek ( Lake Erie ) flooded downtown Erie . A culvert , or a tunnel , was blocked by debris , and collapsed . A four @-@ block reservoir , caused by torrential downpours , had formed behind it . The resulting deluge destroyed 225 houses and killed 36 people . After the flood , Mayor Miles Brown Kitts had the Mill Creek directed into another larger culvert , constructed for more than 2 miles under the city , before emptying into Presque Isle Bay on the city 's lower east side .
Downtown Erie continued to grow for most of the 20th century , based on its manufacturing base . It attracted numerous new waves of European immigrants for industrial jobs . Erie 's economy began to suffer in the later part of the 20th century as industrial restructuring took place and jobs moved out of the area ; it was considered part of the Rust Belt . The importance of American manufacturing , US steel and coal production , and commercial fishing began to gradually decline. before taking a major population downturn in the 1970s .
With the advent of the automobile age after World War II and government subsidies for highway construction , thousands of residents left Erie for suburbs such as Millcreek Township , which now has over 50 @,@ 000 people . This caused a decline in retail businesses , some of which followed to the suburbs .
Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 , and was a finalist in 1961 , 1994 , 1995 and 2009 .
= = Geography = =
Erie is situated in northwestern Pennsylvania at 42 ° 6 ′ 52 ″ N 80 ° 4 ′ 34 ″ W ( 42 @.@ 114507 , -80.076213 ) , on the southern shore of Lake Erie across from the Canadian province of Ontario . It is 100 miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Cleveland , Ohio , 90 miles ( 140 km ) southwest of Buffalo , New York , and 128 miles ( 206 km ) north of Pittsburgh . Erie 's bedrock is Devonian shale and siltstone , overlain by glacial tills and stratified drift . Stream drainage in the city flows northward into Lake Erie , then through Lake Ontario into the St. Lawrence River , and out to the Atlantic Ocean . South of Erie is a drainage divide , beyond which most of the streams in western Pennsylvania flow south into the Allegheny or Ohio rivers .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 19 @.@ 3 square miles ( 49 @.@ 9 km2 ) , with 19 @.@ 1 square miles ( 49 @.@ 4 km2 ) being land and the remaining 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , or 1 @.@ 03 % , being water . Presque Isle State Park ( known to the locals as " The Peninsula " ) , juts into Lake Erie just north of the city limits and has 7 miles ( 11 km ) of public beaches , wetlands , and fishing sites .
Erie is laid out in a grid surrounding Perry Square in the downtown area . The downtown buildings are separated from the waterfront by the Bayfront Parkway . The tallest structure in Erie is St. Peter Cathedral at 265 feet ( 81 m ) , and the tallest building is Renaissance Centre at 198 feet ( 60 m ) . Erie has generally small ethnic neighborhoods including a Little Italy . South of 38th Street , the grid gives way to curvilinear roads of post @-@ 1970 suburban development . Millcreek Township and upper Peach Street in Summit Township include the Erie metropolitan area 's newer developments .
Most of the cityscape includes renovated and refurbished factory buildings , mid − rise housing , single family homes , and office buildings . Erie 's waterfront includes the Burger King Amphitheater and surrounding parkland , which hosts numerous festivals . The Bayfront Convention Center is on Sassafras Pier next to Dobbins Landing . The Bicentennial Tower is centrally located in the skyline when viewed from Presque Isle State Park , with the high @-@ rise and mid @-@ rise buildings flanking the higher ground behind and to the east and west sides . On the east end of the waterfront , the Erie Maritime Museum and the city 's main library , and third largest in Pennsylvania , host the USS Niagara . Docks and marinas fill the freshwater shoreline in between .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Erie is typical of the Great Lakes . Erie is located in the snow belt that stretches from Cleveland to Syracuse and Watertown ; accordingly , its winters are typically cold , with heavy lake effect snow , but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt . Erie lies on the typical humid continental zone ( Köppen Dfa ) . The city experiences a full range of weather events , including snow , ice , rain , thunderstorms and fog . The city 's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat , with an average of only 3 @.@ 8 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + highs annually , and the highest temperature ever recorded was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on June 25 , 1988 ; there is an average of 2 @.@ 5 days with lows of 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or colder annually , and the lowest temperature ever recorded was − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) on January 19 , 1994 and February 16 , 2015 .
Erie is 6th on The Daily Beast list of snowiest places in the United States , averaging 78 @.@ 7 inches ( 200 cm ) ; however , the 1981 – 2010 normal seasonal snowfall is 100 @.@ 8 in ( 256 cm ) . The adverse winter conditions caused USAir Flight 499 to overrun the runway at Erie International Airport in 1986 , as well as causing whiteouts that were responsible for a 50 car pile @-@ up on Interstate 90 .
Erie was determined to be the snowiest city in the US in the 2013 @-@ 2014 snow season . Erie received 138 @.@ 4 inches of snow that season . According to the National Weather service , Erie was just ahead of Syracuse , NY by 6 inches of snow .
= = Demographics and religion = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 101 @,@ 786 people , 40 @,@ 913 households , and 22 @,@ 915 families residing in the city . There were 44 @,@ 790 housing units at an average vacancy rate of 8 percent . Erie has long been declining in population due to the departure of factories and dependent businesses . The city has lost approximately 40 @,@ 000 people since the early 1960s , allowing Allentown to claim the position as Pennsylvania 's third @-@ largest city behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh .
Erie 's population was spread evenly among all age groups , with the median being 34 . About 13 % of families and 19 % of the population were below the poverty line . Most of the people who reside in Erie are of European descent .
Since the mid @-@ 1990s , the International Institute of Erie ( IIE ) , founded in 1919 , has helped with the resettlement of refugees from Bosnia , Eritrea , Ghana , Iraq , Kosovo , Liberia , Nepal , Somalia , Sudan , the former Soviet Union , and Vietnam . The inclusion of refugees in Erie 's community augments religious diversity and prompts community events such as cultural festivals .
In the early 20th century , Erie had a significant Russian immigrant community , many of whom worked in the shipbuilding plants along the bayfront . Unusual for a Great Lakes city , a substantial number of these Russian immigrants were priestless ( Bespopovtsy ) Old Believers . In 1983 , most of this community united with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia and became an Old Ritualist priest within the canonical Orthodox Church . Even today , the gold @-@ domed Church of the Nativity , on the bayfront near the former heart of the Russian community , is an Old Ritualist church and home parish to the famed iconographer Fr . Theodore Jurewicz .
Erie has a Jewish community that is over 150 years old . Temple Anshe Hesed , a member of the Union for Reform Judaism , is served by its spiritual leader , Rabbi John L. Bush . Congregation Brith Sholom ( The Jewish Center ) is affiliated with the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism , and Rabbi Leonard Lifshen has been its spiritual leader since 1989 .
Erie is home to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Erie , covering 13 counties — at 9 @,@ 936 square miles ( 25 @,@ 734 km2 ) , it is the largest in the state . Its diocesan seat is the Saint Peter Cathedral in Erie , which has a 265 feet ( 81 m ) central tower flanked by two 150 feet ( 46 m ) towers . Lawrence Thomas Persico is Bishop of Erie , since October 1 , 2012 ; Donald Trautman is Bishop Emeritus of the diocese .
According to the Association of Religion Date Archives , Erie County had a total population of 280 @,@ 843 people in 2000 , of which 103 @,@ 333 claimed affiliation with the Catholic Church , 40 @,@ 301 with mainline Protestant houses of worship , and 12 @,@ 980 with evangelical Protestant churches .
= = Economy = =
Erie is the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 's primary access point to Lake Erie , the Great Lakes , and the Saint Lawrence Seaway . The city emerged as a maritime center after the American Revolution , then as a railroad hub during the great American westward expansion . Erie became an important city for iron and steel manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution and thrived well into the 20th century with big industry .
While only General Electric diesel @-@ electric locomotive building remains from the ranks of the large manufacturers in the early 21st century , a more diverse mix of mid @-@ sized industries has emerged . This broader economic base includes not only smaller and more agile steel and plastic plants , but also a vigorous service sector : health , insurance and tourism . As of December 2010 , Erie 's unemployment rate was 8 @.@ 9 percent , as compared to rates for Pennsylvania and the United States at 8 @.@ 5 and 9 @.@ 4 percent , respectively .
Erie is the corporate headquarters of the Erie Insurance Group , and Marquette Savings Bank . Lord Corporation was founded and has major operations in Erie . Along with GE and Erie Insurance , major employers in the county , and consequently , the city include the County , State and Federal governments , as well as the Erie City School District .
Over 10 percent of the USA 's plastics are manufactured or finished in Erie @-@ based plastics plants . Erie is an emerging center for biofuels and environmental research , producing over 45 million U.S. gallons of biofuel a year . Tourism plays an increasingly important role in the local economy with over 4 million people visiting Presque Isle State Park and other attractions . Shoppers from Ohio , New York , and the Canadian province of Ontario frequent the Millcreek Mall and Peach Street stores and attractions as a result of Pennsylvania 's tax exemption on clothing .
Both UPMC Hamot and Saint Vincent Health System are also major employers in Erie . Although both of these hospitals had been stand @-@ alone Erie entities , Hamot merged with the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center in 2011 , and St. Vincent joined became affiliated with the Cleveland Clinic in 2012 . , followed by Highmark 's Allegheny Health Network in 2013 . The United States Department of Veterans Affairs operates the Erie Veterans Affairs Medical Center on East 38th Street . The Shriners International operates Shriners Hospital for Children in Erie since 1927 .
= = Utilities = =
The Erie Water Works , which was incorporated in 1865 as the Erie Water and Gas Company , includes a reservoir , two water treatment plants , and an elaborate water works and pipe network that provides water for most of the city and suburbs . Penelec , a subsidiary of FirstEnergy , supplies electricity to the region , as well as the Northwestern Pennsylvania Rural Electric Cooperative . Time Warner Cable became the region 's cable television provider , after taking over Adelphia , and also provides digital phone and high @-@ speed internet to the region . Local telephone and high speed internet service is also provided by Verizon .
Sewage service in Erie is provided by the Erie Sewer Authority , and many outlying townships have partnerships with the Sewer Authority for service . The Authority cleans about 30 − 40 million US gallons ( 150 @,@ 000 m3 ) of wastewater every day .
The time and temperature number in Erie is 452 @-@ 6311 and was originally discontinued by Verizon in October 2008 before being restarted by a private individual two years later . The city of Erie and northwest Pennsylvania is located in area code 814 . On December 16 , 2010 , the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission ( PUC ) voted to split the area code , which was to take effect February 1 , 2012 . The North American Numbering Plan decided that northwest Pennsylvania would receive the new code of 582 . A local grassroots coalition began organizing an opposition to the plan , and generated numerous petitions for reconsideration . The PUC immediately voted to review their decision and ordered additional public input hearings and technical conferences as a response to the strong public outcry . In January 2011 , the PUC announced that it was placing the entire area code split plan on hold as NEUSTAR pushed the projected exhaustion date back two years to 2015 .
= = Arts and culture = =
Erie is home to several professional and amateur performing @-@ arts groups . The most significant is the Erie Philharmonic , in continuous existence since 1913 ( with the exception of an interregnum during World War II ) . This group of professional musicians also has a full chorus and a Junior Philharmonic division that tours the area . The Lake Erie Ballet is a professional company that performs well @-@ known programs throughout the year . The Erie Civic Music Association attracts , sponsors , and books performances by professional musicians , singers , entertainers , and ensembles from around the world .
The Erie Art Museum is the city 's main art gallery , located in the Old Customshouse on State Street . Its collection has an emphasis on folk art and modern art and it hosts a popular blues and jazz concert series . The Erie Art Museum also works on public art projects in an effort to revitalize and improve the city . In 2000 , the Erie Art Museum created a project entitled GoFish , similar to CowParade . 95 fiberglass fish were decorated by Erie artists and placed throughout the city . Patrons paid $ 3 @,@ 000 for a fish and the proceeds went to Gannon University 's Scholarship Fund and the Erie Public Art Endowment Fund . The Erie Art Museum created a similar public art project in 2004 that involved frogs rather than fish . In 2012 , the Erie Art Museum began a project to create forty artistic and functional bike racks , designed and created by local artists . The Museum 's intentions are to add color and interest to downtown Erie and to promote bicycling , encouraging healthy lifestyles and environmental awareness .
Downtown Erie 's historic and ornate Warner Theatre hosts a range of performances . Renovated in the 1980s and again in 2007 , the Warner is the hub of Erie 's Civic Center . The downtown area is the home of the Erie Playhouse , one of the leading community theaters in the country , and the third oldest community theater in the U.S. . Since 2007 , the annual Roar on the Shore motorcycle rally has taken place in Erie .
Along West 6th Street is Millionaires Row , a collection of 19th century Victorian mansions . The John Hill House is one of the notable residences . The Erie Land Light stands at the foot of Lighthouse Street . The lighthouse was built in 1818 and replaced in 1867 .
The Bicentennial Tower , on Dobbins Landing at the foot of State Street , was built in 1995 − 96 to celebrate the city 's bicentennial . It is 187 feet ( 57 m ) tall and gives a panoramic view of Lake Erie and downtown . The Blasco Library and Erie Maritime Museum are its neighbors to the east . Presque Isle Downs opened on February 28 , 2007 , and was the fourth slots parlor in the state and the first in Western Pennsylvania . Table games opened at the casino on July 8 , 2010 .
Erie has also been the location for many movies , including the hometown for fictional band " The Wonders " in That Thing You Do ! featuring Tom Hanks . It is also mentioned in the film Wall Street as the location of the fictional company Anacott Steel . Erie is the hometown of Train lead singer , Patrick Monahan . Erie is also the hometown of Marc Brown , the author and illustrator of Arthur books and TV series .
= = Media = =
Erie is served by Erie Times @-@ News , the city 's only daily newspaper . The Nielsen Company ranks Erie as 144 out of the 210 largest television market in the United States , as of the 2010 − 2011 report . The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including WICU @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WJET @-@ TV ( ABC ) , WFXP ( FOX ) , WSEE @-@ TV ( CBS ) , and WSEE @-@ DT2 ( CW ) . WQLN is a member of Public Broadcasting Service and also broadcasts in London , Ontario . Cable companies available for Erie include Time Warner Cable , DirecTV , and Dish Network . Erie is also served by several AM and FM radio stations based in the city , and dozens of other stations are received from elsewhere .
= = Sports = =
Erie plays host to a number of semi @-@ pro and professional sports teams . The Erie SeaWolves play AA baseball in the Eastern League as an affiliate of the Detroit Tigers . The Erie Otters play hockey in the Ontario Hockey League . The Erie BayHawks are a member of the NBA Development League . The Erie Illusion is a member of the United States Women 's Football League . Hockey and basketball games are played at Erie Insurance Arena , while Minor League Baseball games are held at Jerry Uht Park .
Gannon University , Mercyhurst University , Edinboro University , and Penn State Behrend have active NCAA collegiate sports programs . The local high schools compete in PIAA District 10 sporting events . Additionally , Cathedral Preparatory School hosts the annual high school basketball tournament featuring top national teams ; called the Burger King Classic since 2010 . Scholastic and intramural sports are held at school and park facilities around the city . The Mercyhurst Ice Center , the JMC Ice Arena , Family First Sports Park , and Erie Veterans Memorial Stadium are many sports arenas and stadiums available in and around the city .
The Lake Erie Speedway , a 3 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) NASCAR sanctioned race track is located in Greenfield Township . Horse racing is found at the Presque Isle Downs and Casino located near Summit Township .
= = Recreation = =
Erie 's location along the shores of Lake Erie provides a plethora of outdoor activities throughout the year . The region 's largest attraction is Presque Isle State Park , drawing over four million visitors a year . The region grows grapes and produces the third largest amount of wine in the United States .
Downtown Erie is surrounded by Presque Isle State Park , a National Natural Landmark . The Seaway Trail runs through downtown Erie along the lakefront . The Tom Ridge Environmental Center , at the foot of Presque Isle , features 7 @,@ 000 square feet ( 650 m2 ) of exhibit space .
Other tourist destinations include the Bayfront Convention Center ; the Bicentennial Tower that overlooks Lake Erie ; Dobbins Landing , a pier in downtown Erie ; the Erie Land Light , and the Erie Maritime Museum , the home port of the Niagara . The 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) Millcreek Mall , one of the largest shopping malls in the United States , is located on Peach Street in nearby Millcreek Township . The indoor waterpark Splash Lagoon , in Summit Township , is the largest indoor waterpark on the East Coast and third largest in the United States . Waldameer Park , located at the base of Presque Isle , is the fourth oldest amusement park in Pennsylvania , and the tenth oldest in the United States .
= = Government = =
The city of Erie is incorporated as a 3rd class city under Pennsylvania law . Incorporated under an " optional charter " , the city is governed by a mayor – council government . The government consists of a mayor , treasurer , controller and a seven @-@ member city council . All of whom are elected to four @-@ year terms , with the terms of the council designed to be overlapping . The mayor is chief executive ; the city council prepares legislation and conducts oversight . The city council meets in Mario S. Bagnoni Council Chambers at City Hall . Joseph E. Sinnott ( D ) is the mayor of the city of Erie and was first elected in 2005 . As of July 2016 , the Erie City Council consists of :
Robert Merski Council President
Sonya M. Arrington
David Brennan
Curtis Jones , Jr .
Casimir Kwitowski
James Winarski
Melvin Witherspoon
In exchange for tax revenue , the city of Erie provides its residents with police and fire protection . For separate quarterly payments , the city provides garbage , recycling , water and sewer services . The Erie Police Department provides law enforcement in the city and currently has a complement of 173 sworn personnel under the direct supervision of Chief of Police Randy Bowers . The City of Erie Fire Department is a full @-@ time career fire department and employs around 150 uniformed personnel . These employee 's are under the direct supervision of Chief Tony Pol . The City currently operates out of six fire houses and protects approximately 20 square miles ( 52 km2 ) . The city has six engines , two towers and one water rescue unit . The city provides mutual aid to fire departments of Millcreek Township , Summit Township and East County .
Erie is the largest city in Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district and is currently represented in Congress by Republican Mike Kelly , who was elected in 2010 . Republican Jane M. Earll of the 49th District has represented Erie in the Pennsylvania State Senate since 1997 . Senator Earll declined to run for a fifth term in 2012 and was succeeded by Democrat Sean D. Wiley . The city of Erie is split by the 1st and 2nd Districts of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives and is represented by Democrats Patrick Harkins and Florindo Fabrizio , respectively .
= = Education = =
Erie Public Schools enroll 12 @,@ 527 students in primary and secondary grades . The district has 23 public schools including elementary , middle , high , and one charter school . Other than public schools , the city is home to more than 40 private schools and academies . Bethel Christian School is in Erie .
The City of Erie is served by four city high schools , Central Tech High School , East High School , Northwest Pennsylvania Collegiate Academy , Strong Vincent High School , three Catholic high schools Cathedral Preparatory School , Mercyhurst Preparatory School , Villa Maria Academy , and nearby McDowell High School and Iroquois High School in adjacent Millcreek Township and Lawrence Park Township , respectively .
Erie is home to several colleges and universities . Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine ( LECOM ) , a large medical school , with branch campuses in Bradenton , Florida and Greensburg , Pennsylvania , has the largest enrollments of medical students in the country , with over 3 @,@ 000 .
Penn State Behrend offers more than 40 degrees at the associate , bachelor 's and master 's levels . It has an enrollment of 4400 , with housing for 1800 on campus .
Other notable colleges in the Erie area include Gannon University , a Catholic university , situated in downtown Erie . Another Catholic institution , Mercyhurst University , is in the southeast part of the city .
Ranking Erie city and county officials , as well as officials of the Erie School District , began looking into the need for a community college in the Erie area in 2006 . As of January 2008 , county officials and representatives of Penn State @-@ Behrend , Mercyhurst and Gannon were in serious discussions expected to lead to the creation of Northwest Pennsylvania Community College by September 2009 . Besides accreditation issues , officials must resolve whether to use local four @-@ year educational institutions or to build a separate site in Summit Township for community college classes .
Erie is also home of the Barber National Institute and its Elizabeth Lee Black School , which provides services and education for children and adults with mental disabilities . Erie is home to its main campus , and it provides services in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh . The Achievement Center also serves the needs of children from birth to age 21 with physical and mental health disabilities.The public libraries in Erie are part of the Erie County library system . The Raymond M. Blasco , M. D. Memorial Library , named for its benefactor , opened in 1996 . It is the third largest library in Pennsylvania . It is connected to the Erie Maritime Museum , both of which are part of a bayfront improvement project that includes the Bayfront Convention Center and the Bicentennial Tower on Dobbins Landing .
= = Transportation = =
Erie is well connected to the Interstate Highway System . There are six " Erie exits " along Interstate 90 , a major cross @-@ country thoroughfare running from Boston to Seattle . Erie is the northern terminus of Interstate 79 , which travels south to Pittsburgh and , ultimately , West Virginia . The western terminus for Interstate 86 , also called the " Southern Tier Expressway , " is at Interstate 90 between Erie and North East , Pennsylvania . Interstate 86 continues east through New York to Binghamton . The Bayfront Connector runs from Interstate 90 in Harborcreek to the Bayfront Parkway and downtown Erie , along the east side of the city , then connects to Interstate 79 on the west side of the city . Major thoroughfares in the city include 12th Street , 26th Street , 38th Street and Peach Street . Peach is also a part of U.S. Route 19 , whose northern terminus is in Erie and continues south eventually reaching the Gulf of Mexico . Other major routes running through Erie are Pennsylvania Route 5 , known as the Seaway Trail and is made up of parts of 6th Street , 8th Street , 12th Street , and East Lake Road in the city , U.S. Route 20 , which is 26th Street in the city . The city is divided between east and west by State Street .
The Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority ( EMTA ) operates the city 's transit bus system , known as the ' e ' . Buses run seven days a week in the city , with trips out to other parts of the county occurring a couple times a week . Intercity buses providing transportation between Buffalo , Cleveland and Pittsburgh are operated by Greyhound Lines . Service between Buffalo and Cleveland is also provided by Lakefront Lines . Both companies operate out of the Intermodal Transportation Center , which opened in 2002 at the foot of Holland Street .
The former " Water Level Route " of the New York Central Railroad travels directly through Erie . It is now the mainline for CSX freight trains . The mainline of the Norfolk Southern Railway , originally built by the Nickel Plate Railroad , also travels through Erie . At one time Norfolk Southern trains ran down the middle of 19th Street , but were removed in 2002 . Passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak 's Lake Shore Limited out of Union Station at 14th and State Streets . The Lake Shore Limited stops twice daily — one eastbound towards New York City , and one westbound towards Chicago .
Erie International Airport / Tom Ridge Field ( IATA code : ERI ; IACO code : KERI ) is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the city and hosts general aviation , charter , and airline service . Destinations with non @-@ stop flights out of Erie include Chicago O 'Hare International Airport via United Airlines , Philadelphia International Airport via US Airways and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport via Delta Air Lines . Erie International is in the midst of a $ 80 @.@ 5 million runway extension . The extension is slated to increase the runway 's length by 1 @,@ 920 feet ( 590 m ) , for a total runway length of 8 @,@ 420 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) , " to meet safety requirements " as well as allowing the airport to accommodate larger aircraft .
The Port of Erie is located on Presque Isle Bay , a natural harbor formed by Presque Isle . It offers some of the finest port facilities for cargo shipping on the Great Lakes , with direct rail access . The Erie − Western Pennsylvania Port Authority provides water taxi service in the summer months between Dobbins Landing and Liberty Park in downtown Erie , and the Waterworks ferry landing on Presque Isle .
= = Sister cities = =
Erie has four official sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International :
Dungarvan , Ireland ( 2007 )
Lublin , Poland ( 1999 )
Mérida , Yucatán , Mexico ( 1973 )
Zibo , Shandong , China ( 1985 )
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= Sid Luckman =
Sidney Luckman ( November 21 , 1916 – July 5 , 1998 ) was an American football quarterback for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League ( NFL ) from 1939 through 1950 . During his twelve seasons with the Bears he led them to four NFL championships .
Luckman was the first modern T @-@ formation quarterback and is considered the greatest long range passer of his time . He was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player in 1943 , and Pulitzer prize winning sports writer Ira Berkow wrote that Luckman was " the first great T @-@ formation quarterback " . Following his retirement from playing , Luckman continued his association with football by tutoring college coaches , focusing on the passing aspect of the game .
Luckman was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 , and in 1988 he was declared a joint winner of the Walter Camp Distinguished American Award .
= = Early life = =
Luckman was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Jewish immigrants from Germany . His father sparked his interest in football at age eight , by giving him a football to play with . He and his parents lived in a residence near Prospect Park and it was here as a youngster that Sid first started throwing the football around .
He played both baseball and football for Erasmus Hall High School , with his football skills impressing recruiters from about 40 colleges . Luckman chose Columbia University after meeting Lions coach Lou Little during a Columbia / Navy game at the university 's Baker Field athletic facility . Luckman was not admitted to Columbia College ; instead , he attended the New College for the Education of Teachers , an undergraduate school , which was within Teachers College at Columbia . He competed on the football team from 1936 until the New College closed in 1939 , when he transferred to Columbia College . Coach Little had a problem of getting good high school athletes because of the entrance requirements at Columbia , and Columbia didn ’ t have any physical education undergraduate program , and so , when New College was started Lou Little was happy because they had a P. E. Department . In fact , the 1936 varsity football squad had five other New College students , Hubert Schulze , Edward Stanzyk , Oscar Bonom , Harry Ream , and Antoni Mareski .
At Columbia Luckman was a member of the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity . Keen to remain in Columbia to stay close to his family , he took on jobs such as dish @-@ washing , baby @-@ sitting , and messenger delivery around the campus . At Columbia , as a part of the football team , he completed 180 of 376 passes for 2 @,@ 413 yards and 20 touchdowns and finished third in the 1938 Heisman Trophy voting , behind Davey O 'Brien and Marshall Goldberg .
= = Chicago Bears = =
= = = Draft = = =
Hearing of Sid Luckman 's exploits as a single @-@ wing tailback at Columbia University , Chicago Bears owner and coach George Halas believed Luckman had the ability to become an effective T @-@ formation quarterback , and traveled to New York to watch him play . Halas then convinced the Pittsburgh Pirates ( later the Steelers ) to draft Luckman second overall and then trade him to the Bears because he was interested in using Luckman 's skills to help him restructure the offensive side of the game . However , despite his successes at Columbia University , Luckman initially declined any further interest in pro football , instead preferring to work for his father @-@ in @-@ law ’ s trucking company . Halas went to work on convincing him otherwise . After gaining an invitation to Luckman 's tiny apartment for a dinner which Luckman 's wife Estelle prepared , Halas produced a contract for $ 5 @,@ 500 ( $ 92 @,@ 500 today ) which Luckman immediately signed . At that time both at the college and pro levels , offenses were a drab scrum of running the ball with only occasional passes . In what was then the predominant single @-@ wing formation , the quarterback was primarily a blocking back and rarely touched the ball . Most passing was done by the tailback , and then usually only on third down with long yardage to go . Halas and his coaches , primarily Clark Shaughnessy , invented a rather complex scheme building on the traditional T @-@ formation , but needed the right quarterback to run it properly .
Upon starting with Halas , Luckman mastered an offense that revolutionized football , and became the basis of most modern professional offenses . Eventually , Luckman tutored college coaches across the Big Ten , Notre Dame and West Point in the intricacies of the passing game .
= = = T @-@ formation = = =
In 1940 , during his second season with the Bears , Luckman took over the offense and led the Bears to the title game against Sammy Baugh and the Washington Redskins . The Redskins had beaten the Bears , 7 – 3 , during the regular season . Using the " man @-@ in @-@ motion " innovation to great advantage , the Bears destroyed the Redskins , 73 – 0 , stated to be " the most one @-@ sided game in the history of the sport " . Luckman passed only six times , with four completions and 102 yards in the rout .
From 1940 to 1946 the Bears displayed their dominance in the game , playing in five NFL championship games , winning four , and posted a 54 – 17 – 3 regular season record . In 1942 , the Bears posted a perfect 11 – 0 record and outscored their opponents , 376 – 84 , however they lost the championship game to the Redskins . Although the T @-@ formation had been used many years before Luckman joined the Chicago Bears , he was central to Chicago 's successful use of this style of play because of his game @-@ sense and versatility . Perfecting Halas ' complex offensive scheme of fakes , men in motion , and quick hitting runs , Luckman added the dimension of accurate downfield throwing . He was instrumental in his team 's record @-@ setting 73 – 0 win over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL championship game . Sportscaster Jimmy Cannon once said in reference to Luckman 's years at Columbia , " You had to be there to realize how great Sid was . " Luckman later became a sought @-@ after tutor and instructor for universities wishing to install the T @-@ formation as an offense .
= = = Service with the Merchant Marine = = =
In 1943 , as soon as the season had ended , Luckman volunteered as an ensign with the U. S. Merchant Marine . He was stationed stateside and while he could not practice with the team , he did receive permission to play for the Bears on game days during the following seasons . He returned again to the Bears , as a full @-@ time occupation , in 1946 and led them to a fifth NFL championship .
= = = Numbers and accomplishments = = =
During his career , Luckman completed 51 @.@ 8 % of his passes for 14 @,@ 686 yards and 137 touchdowns with 132 interceptions . He averaged 8 @.@ 4 yards per attempt , second all @-@ time only to Otto Graham ( 8 @.@ 6 ) , and also has a career touchdown rate ( percentage of pass attempts that result in touchdowns ) of 7 @.@ 9 percent .
In 1943 , Luckman completed 110 of 202 passes for 2194 yards and 28 touchdowns . His 13 @.@ 9 % touchdown rate that year is the best ever in a single @-@ season , while his 10 @.@ 9 yards per attempt is second all @-@ time . During one game that year , Luckman threw for 443 yards and seven touchdowns , still tied for the most passing touchdowns in one game ; it was also the first 400 @-@ yard passing game in NFL history . His 28 touchdown passes in 1943 ( in only 10 games ) was a record that lasted for many years .
Luckman led the NFL in yards per attempt an NFL record seven times , including a record five consecutive years from 1939 to 1943 , and led the NFL in passing yards three times . Luckman was a five @-@ time All @-@ NFL selection , was named the National Football League 's Most Valuable Player Award in 1943 , and led the " Monsters of the Midway " to championships in 1940 , 1941 , 1943 , and 1946 . Despite the fact that his career ended in 1950 , Luckman still owns several Bears ' passing records .
= = Career statistics = =
Bold text indicates career best
= = Later years = =
After retiring from the NFL , Luckman went to work for Cel @-@ U @-@ Craft , a Chicago @-@ based manufacturer of cellophane products , eventually becoming its president . The company was a part of the Rapid American Corporation of which he also obtained shares . In 1969 , RAC was the subject of an IRS investigation over the payment of these shares and dividends , a case that Luckman and his wife appealed .
Luckman 's wife Estelle Morgolin died of cancer in 1981 , and he underwent a triple heart bypass operation the following year . Luckman eventually retired to Aventura , Florida where he died on July 5 , 1998 at the age of 81 . He is survived by a son , Bob , and two daughters , Gale and Ellen .
= = List of honors = =
Joe F. Carr Trophy – National Football League Most Valuable Player in 1943 .
College Football Hall of Fame in 1960
Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 .
Walter Camp Distinguished American of the Year Award in 1988 .
Columbia University Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006 .
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= Battle of Gospić =
Battle of Gospić ( Croatian : Bitka za Gospić ) was fought in the environs of Gospić , Croatia , from 29 August until 22 September 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence . The battle pitted the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) , stationed in five barracks in the town , and paramilitary elements of the Serbian Guard against the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) , police forces based in Gospić and police reinforcements from elsewhere in Croatia . Fighting in the eastern districts of Gospić , controlled by JNA forces with supporting artillery , was largely static but the balance shifted in favor of the Croatian forces following the capture of several JNA depots and barracks on 14 September . The remaining barracks were captured by 20 September leading to the expulsion of the JNA and Serbian Guard forces from the town .
The battle followed escalating ethnic tensions in the Lika region , including attacks on Croatian civilians in Lovinac , an attack on a Croatian police checkpoint in Žuta Lokva , and skirmishes at the Plitvice Lakes and the Ljubovo Pass on the Gospić – Plitvička Jezera road . The remainder of 1991 saw further deterioration of the situation in the region , resulting in war crimes against Serbs and Croats in the Gospić and Široka Kula massacres . Fighting in the region remained deadlocked , with little to no territorial gains to either side , until a lasting ceasefire was called with the signing of the Sarajevo Agreement of 2 January 1992 .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , as well as in parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . These regions became the newly formed SAO Krajina ( Serb Autonomous Oblast ) . The announcement of SAO Krajina 's intent to integrate with Serbia resulted in the Croatian Government declaring the insurrection a rebellion .
By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence and in June 1991 , with the Breakup of Yugoslavia , Croatia declared its independence . The declaration came into effect on 8 October after a three @-@ month moratorium . The SAO Krajina , renamed Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) on 19 December , then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croatian civilians .
Control of the growing tensions became hampered by increasing support of SAO Krajina being provided by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) . The inability of the Croatian Police to cope with the situation led to the establishment of the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) in May 1991 . However , the development of the ZNG into a military force was hampered by a UN arms embargo , introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate — the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August .
= = Prelude = =
An already tense situation in the Lika region , following 1 April Plitvice Lakes incident when the first fatalities of the Croatian War of Independence occurred , deteriorated further in June when Croatia reaffirmed its sovereignty through a parliamentary declaration . This was reflected in the rise of violent incidents , setting up of unauthorized road checkpoints and occasional exchanges of small arms fire . On 22 June , three policemen were abducted on the road between Gospić and SAO Krajina @-@ controlled Gračac , and a series of attacks on the Croatian police occurred in various parts of Lika , including Gospić , on 27 – 28 June . In July 1991 , the JNA started to openly confront the Croatian police and the ZNG in Lika . On 1 July , Plitvice police station was surrounded by the JNA , and on 6 July , two ZNG troops were killed and another two wounded in a JNA ambush near Gospić . Further escalation of the fighting was seen at the Ljubovo pass on the Gospić – Korenica road , where the JNA and SAO Krajina troops fought and pushed the ZNG back on 28 – 29 July .
Ethnic violence continued to escalate when Serb paramilitaries abducted and killed five Croatian civilians from Lovinac in southern Lika on 5 August , and a police checkpoint in Žuta Lokva was attacked . In early August , the JNA moved the 236th Proletarian Motorized Brigade ( a brigade in name only , the 236th was actually only a company @-@ sized unit ) and a portion of the motorised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade , previously deployed to the Ljubovo pass , to Gospić as reinforcements for its garrison in the town . Other movements in that month include the assault and capture of the Plitvice police station on the 30th by SAO Krajina forces .
With the imminent capture of Plitvice and the withdrawal of the ZNG from Lički Osik on 31 August , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) north of Gospić , the SAO Krajina and the JNA shifted their focus in Lika to Gospić itself , where Serbs comprised 38 @.@ 4 % of the total population of 12 @,@ 000 .
= = Order of battle = =
The JNA forces consisted of 70 officers and 200 soldiers garrisoned at the Stanko Opsenica barracks and four other smaller JNA facilities in Gospić . The garrison was supported by 128 Serbian Guard paramilitaries led by Đorđe Božović , which deployed to Gospić from Serbia using JNA transportation , according to an interview with the commanding officer of the southern Lika Territorial Defence in 1991 . Following a reorganization in 1991 , the JNA units based in Gospić were the 236th Motorized Brigade and the 1st Brigade of the 35th Partisan Division , both subordinated to the Rijeka Corps . Prior to this , the 10th Proletarian Infantry Regiment , a B @-@ class unit required to maintain only 15 % of wartime troop levels , was stationed in Gospić , but was amalgamated with the 9th Proletarian Infantry Regiment to form the 236th Motorized Brigade . The JNA garrison in Gospić was formally commanded by Colonel Petar Čavar , however effective command was taken over by his chief of staff , Yugoslav Counterintelligence Service Major Relja Tomić .
In early September , Croatian forces in Gospić comprised 427 troops , largely drawn from police forces based in Gospić , Rijeka and Zabok , volunteers from Gospić , Zagreb and Senj as well as Croatian Defence Forces troops . The only ZNG unit in Gospić was the 118th Infantry Brigade , which started to form around the ZNG 58th Independent Battalion on 14 August , but would not be fully assembled until after October . By mid @-@ September , the brigade comprised two battalions — one with four companies and the other one three . The 118th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac , while the head of the Croatian police in Gospić was Ivan Dasović .
= = Timeline = =
The JNA and the Serb paramilitary force bombarded Gospić with artillery stationed in the village of Divoselo and JNA Jasikovac Barracks on 29 August 1991 . The intensity of these attacks increased significantly towards mid @-@ September causing significant damage to Gospić ; one SAO Krajina report of the attack estimated that more than 50 % of structures in the city were damaged .
At the outset of the battle , the JNA and the paramilitaries pushed the Croatian force out of eastern Gospić . On 5 September , Croatian forces captured JNA Major General Trajče Krstevski , along with three armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and 32 soldiers , when he attempted to reach JNA barracks that were isolated in the centre of the town but released them the next day following the successful negotiation of a prisoner exchange ( POWs ) . The Croatian commanders in Gospić , however , declined a request that the APCs also be returned — contrary to the instructions of Croatian authorities in Zagreb . Following the capture of Krstevski , the JNA artillery bombardment intensified , averaging 1 @,@ 100 artillery shells per day . Despite the intense bombardment , the second week of the battle was a stalemate , without any changes in lines of control .
The ZNG and Croatian police planned to cut power , water and communications to all JNA facilities in the government @-@ controlled part of Croatia on 14 September . In Gospić , this action was brought forward to 13 September , the same day that the ZNG captured a JNA storage facility . This provided the Croatian troops with 14 @,@ 000 rifles and a substantial quantity of antitank weapons , more than sufficient for the Croatian forces to match the JNA in the town . The JNA barracks in Perušić and Kaniža Barracks in Gospić were captured the following day . The bulk of the JNA garrison in Gospić surrendered on 18 September , following three days of fighting for the Stanko Opsenica Barracks . An infantry attack aiming to support the JNA garrison was successfully repelled by Croatian forces on 16 September in the Divoselo area , where Božović was killed . After the city centre became relatively secure , the Croatian forces extended their offensive , capturing the Jasikovac Barracks and relieving two Croatian @-@ held pockets in villages of Ribnik and Bilaj by 20 September . As the JNA surrendered , the Serb forces retreated from the eastern parts of Gospić to a line 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) in front of Medak , as the Croatian forces completed mopping up in Gospić by 22 September .
= = Aftermath = =
Croatia captured approximately 300 JNA officers and soldiers , who were taken to Rijeka after their capture . They were later exchanged for Croatian POWs captured by the JNA in the Battle of Vukovar and elsewhere in Croatia . A large quantity of small arms and ammunition was captured as well as seven tanks and twelve 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars . After the battle , the artillery bombardment of Gospić continued from positions around Divoselo and Lički Čitluk , approximately 5 to 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 0 miles ) south of Gospić . Skirmishes in Lika continued until January 1992 as each side sought to improve their positions on the ground , especially around Gospić and Otočac . On 23 September , a Croatian advance to the south was stopped by JNA and SAO Krajina forces , consisting of an infantry battalion and the Krajina Express armored train , which were defending a JNA storage depot in Sveti Rok . The JNA secured the depot and captured Lovinac on 26 September . By the end of September , Croatian defensive positions around Otočac were sufficiently reinforced that only minor attacks were launched and primarily near the village of Drenov Klanac . In late October and early December , fighting intensified around Divoselo near Gospić , but no territory changed hands . The intensity of artillery bombardment of Gospić peaked on 1 November 1991 , when 3 @,@ 500 artillery shells struck the town . In December , the JNA Knin Corps proposed to the JNA General Staff to advance from Gračac in an attempt to capture Gospić and Otočac , but the signing of the Sarajevo Agreement and ceasefire of 2 January 1992 largely halted further fighting , until the commencement of Operation Medak Pocket in September 1993 .
The continuing military confrontation in the region was accompanied by an escalation of ethnic violence , culminating in war crimes against civilians committed by military authorities in Gospić and the SAO Krajina military in the area around Lički Osik in October 1991 . In Gospić , approximately 50 Serb civilians were taken from the town and killed in the surrounding fields . The individuals responsible for the event , later known as the Gospić massacre , were prosecuted by the Croatian judiciary . This resulted in the conviction , in 2003 , of Norac and two other defendants to 12 years in prison . The killings in the Lički Osik area , known as the Široka Kula massacre , resulted in the deaths of 40 civilians , mostly Croats but also some Serbs suspected of supporting Croatia . In 2011 , a court in Belgrade , Serbia , convicted four former SAO Krajina militiamen of killing four Serbs and a Croat in Široka Kula .
In 1993 , Croatian authorities charged Marcel Dusper , Tomo Čačić , Jovo Kuprešanin , Bogdan Odanović , Relja Tomić , Duško Bajić , Dane Drakula , Mićo Vasić , Goce Koneski , Slobodan Dotlić , Dragoljub Lazarević , Radovan Radenković , Bratislav Milojković , Stevo Milošević and Miloš Bogdanović , 15 former JNA officers , posted in Gospić garrison in 1991 with war crimes against a civilian population . All of the defendants , except Drakula were tried in absentia . Drakula was acquitted , while Dusper , Tomić and Bajić were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison each while the remaining defendants were sentenced to 15 years . The rulings were upheld by the Supreme Court of Croatia in 1994 . Dotlić was arrested on 18 October 2013 after he visited his parents living in Croatia . Prior to his arrest , Dotlić had requested a new trial , but after his arrest the charges against him were changed to armed insurrection but this was later dropped following the General Amnesty Act .
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= Sidney Mashbir =
Sidney Forrester Mashbir ( 12 September 1891 – 13 June 1973 ) was a senior officer in the United States Army who was primarily involved in military intelligence . Born in New York , he served in the Arizona Army National Guard during the Mexican @-@ American Border War . Mashbir then held several posts in intelligence positions , taking credit for catching the first German spy in the United States , before departing for on a four @-@ year assignment as a language officer to Japan in 1920 . He resigned from the army in 1923 in an attempt to execute his own master plan devised to extract intelligence from Japan in event of a war . His plan failed as a result of the Great Kantō earthquake in September 1923 and he was left bankrupt ; he consequently returned to the US as an engineering businessman .
In 1937 , Mashbir returned to Japan in a second attempt to activate his plan on behalf of the Office of Naval Intelligence ; it again failed , and Mashbir was dis @-@ enrolled from the reserves in 1939 . However , following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Mashbir was re @-@ enrolled in January 1940 to lead the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section of Southwest Pacific Area , where he quickly rose to the rank of Colonel . He later served as the Executive Officer for the Army Adjutant General 's Office before retiring in 1951 .
= = Early life = =
Sidney Mashbir was born in Manhattan , New York , on 12 September 1891 , but moved to Safford , Arizona in 1899 . Sidney 's father was Professor Eliazar S. Mashbir , a Russian immigrant who was well @-@ educated and became the first Russian @-@ speaking attorney to practice Law in New York City . Sidney 's mother , Frieda Freudenthal was also well @-@ educated , and in 1906 became the postmistress of Safford , which included the area of Solomonville .
Mashbir attended public schools in Safford and Tucson , later studying engineering at the University of Arizona for six months each year until 1911 , whilst simultaneously maintaining a career as an engineering draughtsman , primarily for the engineering department of Tucson , and railroad companies . He married his first wife Blanche Beckwith on 12 September 1913 , with whom he had his first son , Forrester Mashbir ; the couple separated during the mid / late @-@ 1920s .
= = Military career = =
= = = Early service = = =
Mashbir joined the Arizona National Guard at a young age , and served as the bugler of Company B in 1904 . He later became the First Lieutenant and adjutant of the University Battalion whilst studying at the University of Arizona . In 1912 , he served as a Lieutenant in Company K of the National Guard encampment , which based at Fort Huachuca . The senior instructor at the time was Captain Louis Joseph Van Schaick .
In early 1916 , Mashbir received his first official intelligence assignment , when he was assigned as the Assistant Intelligence Officer of the Ajo @-@ Yuma district of Arizona as a part of the first Arizona Infantry under General Frederick Funston . The unit was at the time was involved in the Mexican @-@ American Border War . Mashbir 's duties included mapping roads , trails and waterholes in northern Sonora . Additionally he would scout Mexican towns with Papago Indian scouts , reporting on the strength and equipment of Mexican garrisons and installing primitive wiretaps on Mexican communication lines . Mashbir was also responsible for investigating Japan 's physical presence in Mexico at the time .
In late 1916 , Mashbir applied for a commission in the Regular Army and was accepted with General Funston 's support despite the Army ’ s policy that married men not be accepted . After attending the Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth , he joined the 22nd Infantry Regiment , which was stationed at Governors Island , New York , but was soon detailed for counter @-@ espionage duty and was recommended to join a new Counter Intelligence service that was being formed .
On 10 September 1917 Mashbir was detailed as assistant to the Department Intelligence Officer at Governors Island . He enrolled in the Military Intelligence Division G @-@ 2 Reserves , where he was promoted to temporary Lieutenant Colonel . During this time he wrote the Provisional Rules for Counter Espionage , Eastern Department , which would become a model for future counterintelligence manuals until World War II , as well as a 52 @-@ page book titled Ten Lessons in Bayonet Fighting published by George Banta Publishing Company at the end of 1917 . Mashbir is also credited with investigations as a Coast Defense Intelligence Officer at Fort Hamilton , which uncovered the first German spy to be apprehended in the United States , Paul Otto Kuhn .
= = = Between the wars = = =
Following World War I , Mashbir held a position teaching military science and tactics at Syracuse University , where he first considered studying the Japanese language and culture . In August 1919 , he asked the War Department if he could embark on this course of study , stating that it was his intention to apply for a posting to Japan for the purpose of learning the language if the War Department saw fit . Ranked Captain , Mashbir was assigned as one of four US Army Language Officers in Japan on 7 July 1920 . He relocated to Tokyo the following month to begin his four @-@ year tour . When he arrived he reported for duty to Lieutenant Colonel Charles Burnett , the military attaché . Having few Army colleagues , while in Tokyo Mashbir sought the company of other intelligence professionals in the Navy , one of whom was an assistant naval attaché , Lieutenant @-@ Commander Ellis M. Zacharias , with whom Mashbir began a lifelong friendship and collaboration . In July 1922 , at Zacharias ' request , Mashbir secretly worked day and night to produce a secret plan to gather intelligence and get information out of Japan in case of war ; it become known as M @-@ Plan , named after Mashbir . His undisclosed activities working for the naval attaché did not sit well with his superiors , however .
In order to establish a network of foreign businessmen in Japan who could be turned into an intelligence network in time of war , it was suggested by his commander , Colonel Burnett , that Mashbir resign his commission and become a businessman in Tokyo himself , in order to put the M @-@ Plan in effect . Consequently , Mashbir resigned in 1923 to pursue business interests and undercover secret intelligence operations , under the impression that he could be reinstated in the Army when his work was done . However the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 bankrupted him and , when he sought reinstatement in the military , discovered that it was not possible , because the reinstatement clause of the law under which he had resigned was no longer valid . Neither Mashbir nor Colonel Burnett , who had urged Mashbir to resign , was aware of this , and it become a sticking point for Mashbir in later life , noting that even in 1926 the law was still being reprinted without the correct clause . Consequently , the M @-@ Plan to establish an intelligence network in Japan was scrapped . Mashbir returned to the United States in 1926 under the impression that his military career was over , and sought employment selling refrigerators . He managed to rejoin the Military Intelligence Division G @-@ 2 Reserves , but only spent one year in active duty beginning in the summer of 1927 during which time he updated the Order of Battle documentation on Japan . For the next ten years he returned to his original profession of engineering , including some government work on technical standards .
In 1937 , Mashbir returned to Japan after an 11 @-@ year absence in a second attempt to launch the M @-@ Plan on behalf of the Office of Naval Intelligence and his friend , naval attaché Zacharias . This mission aroused suspicions among ill @-@ informed military attachés in Tokyo and an investigation was started into Mashbir . In a misunderstanding that would come close to damaging his career irreparably once more , Mashbir was investigated in Hawaii and , influenced by the military attaché suspicions , a prejudicial report based upon erroneous assumptions was delivered on 24 June 1937 . Colonel Mashbir was advised on 25 February 1939 that he was disenrolled from the Military Intelligence Division G2 Reserves for failure to report on the specified day for physical examination . However , it appeared that the actual cause of the disenrollment was due to suspicions aroused by failure to communicate to uninformed individuals the nature and the extent of the work on which he was actually engaged . Mashbir ’ s dismissal and the failure to implement an intelligence network such as that suggested in Mashbir 's M @-@ Plan has been described as a key factor in the United States ' failure to have more information on Japan before the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .
= = = World War II and after = = =
Despite Mashbir 's dismissal , the outbreak of hostilities in World War II between Japan and the US , led to him being immediately sought after by the Signal Corps due to his military experience , wide technical skill and knowledge of the Japanese language . He was sworn in for active duty on 24 January 1942 and sent to Brisbane , Australia , and later Manila , Philippines to co @-@ ordinate the inter @-@ service joint Australian / American Allied Translator and Interpreter Section ( ATIS ) , within the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . It was at this time that the suspicions which lingered about Mashbir ’ s 1937 mission to Japan on behalf of Naval Intelligence were cleared up with the assistance of Admiral Zacharias , now Assistant Director of Naval Intelligence , interceding with the Assistant Chief of Staff of G2 .
The prompt accomplishments of the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section and Mashbir ’ s executive ability resulted in Mashbir being promoted to full Colonel by General Douglas MacArthur after only one month . Mashbir then joined the forefront of MacArthur ’ s intelligence activities and Japanese surrender negotiations , remaining the Commandant of ATIS until December 1945 . He was made famous at the time in the motion picture and still photograph of the preliminary surrender negotiations at Manila , as the man who pushed the ink @-@ well , indicating that General Richard K. Sutherland should correct the Japanese Instrument of Surrender ; and also as the man who thumbed the Japanese Lieutenant General Torashirō Kawabe along as he attempted to shake hands . The second incident provoked some mixed feelings , including sentiment that it could have damaged surrender talks . Mashbir also played a critical role retrieving and translating the Z Plan and in organizing the final surrender of Japan . In his autobiography , Mashbir explained that he was not permitted to shake hands , and that it would have been rude to point , which ultimately lead to the awkward thumbing motion that was photographed .
Colonel Mashbir left Japan on 8 December 1945 to serve on the management staff of the Adjutant General ’ s office in Washington , later becoming the executive officer . He retired in October 1951 , having reached the statutory age of 60 . As a result of his military service , Mashbir received several medals including the Army Distinguished Service Medal , Army Commendation Medal ( Silver Oak Leaf Cluster ) , Army of Occupation Medal , World War II Victory Medal , American Defense Service Medal and American Campaign Medal . He was also recommended to become an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( Honorary ) in 1946 by the Australian Governor @-@ General , as was presented OBE insignia in 1948 .
= = Later life = =
Two years after retiring , Mashbir published a 374 @-@ page memoir describing his military and intelligence career in I Was an American Spy ( New York : Vantage , 1953 ) . In Chapter 13 , " The Nisei " ( whom Mashbir used as translators in ATIS ) he pays tribute to Military Intelligence Service ( MIS ) soldiers in these words : " The United States of America owes a debt to these men and to their families which it can never fully repay . "
Because of the highly classified and secret nature of ATIS missions , and the work of many MIS soldiers , knowledge of Mashbir and his colleagues was largely missing during the war and even decades afterwards . The role and activities of the MIS was kept in secrecy for more than 30 years ; the few records about its activities were finally made available to the public in 1972 under the Freedom of Information Act , however much still remains unknown today . Consequently , many MIS soldiers did not receive recognition or decorations for their efforts . They became " unsung heroes " , unacknowledged for their contributions in wartime as well as postwar activities . An exception to this was the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame , of which Mashbir was inducted in 1988 .
Sidney Mashbir died on 13 June 1973 and was buried at Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery , Point Loma , California . His second wife , Mary Irene ( Donahue ) Mashbir ( born 10 April 1896 ) , with whom he had his second son , Don , and with whom he was buried , died earlier on 3 May 1964 . He was survived by his third wife , Alice Moore Mashbir ( 1928 – 2003 ) , and his two sons , Forrester Mashbir ( 1921 – 2003 ) and Don Stuart Mashbir ( 1931 – 2008 ) .
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= Black Coffee ( All Saints song ) =
" Black Coffee " is a song recorded by English @-@ Canadian girl group All Saints for their second studio album , Saints & Sinners ( 2000 ) . It was released by London Records on 2 October 2000 as the second single from the album . The track was initially written and recorded under the working title , " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " , by Swiss model and singer Kirsty Bertarelli , after she met Swiss entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli in 1997 . All Saints ' later recording was produced by William Orbit who , together with group members Shaznay Lewis and Melanie Blatt , gave it a new arrangement and renamed it " Black Coffee " . A moderately fast ambient , electropop and R & B song , " Black Coffee " has a distinctly production @-@ laden and hazy sound , with obscure and breathy keyboard instruments , guitar , synths , and glitching electronics throughout . It is a sad love song about Kirsty 's love at first sight feelings for Ernesto .
The track has received universal acclaim from critics who have cited it as among the group 's best releases , commending Orbit 's obscure electronic production , and the group 's wistful harmonies . " Black Coffee " marked All Saints ' fifth number @-@ one single on the UK Singles Chart and , at the time , made them the girl group with the second most number @-@ one singles in the UK after the Spice Girls , surpassing B * Witched . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and is the group 's fourth best @-@ selling single in the UK . " Black Coffee " also achieved success internationally , reaching the top 10 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , New Zealand and Sweden , and the top 20 in Australia , Finland and Norway .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Bo Johan Renck . It made use of bullet time @-@ like effects and featured the group at a high rise apartment block , serenading an arguing couple . All Saints promoted " Black Coffee " with live performances on Top of the Pops , Children in Need , Later ... with Jools Holland and at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party . Despite the single 's success , its release happened during a bitter rift within the group . This became visible publicly during tense live renditions of the song . As well , each member purposefully avoided the others filming their scenes separately during the making of the music video .
= = Background = =
Swiss model and singer Kirsty Bertarelli ( then Roper , stage name : Kirsty Elizabeth ) based " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " on her first experiences and feelings for Swiss entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli . The pair had met at a dinner on his yacht off the coast of Sardinia in 1997 , and fell in love . The track was later produced by Kirsty 's recording partner , and BBC Radio 1 DJ , Gary Davies who passed it on to songwriter Tom Nichols for input , in an attempt to establish " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " as a single for Kirsty . Nichols and Alexander Von Soos further modified the song and Kirsty later recorded the demo . Nichols developed it as a quirky pop song , something " slightly left of centre , not completely mainstream " and " slightly out of the ordinary " . While searching for a major label deal for Kirsty , Davies played the " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " demo to London Records executive Tracy Bennett who wanted the group All Saints to record it instead .
= = New arrangement and recording = =
Davies accepted Bennett 's offer , though much time had passed since their meeting leaving him and Nichols unsure if the song was going to be recorded at all . However , after the success of All Saints ' single " Pure Shores " in February 2000 , Bennett handed " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " over to musician William Orbit who was approached for the production of the group 's 2000 album Saints & Sinners . Orbit and All Saints members Shaznay Lewis and Melanie Blatt did a new arrangement for the song and renamed it " Black Coffee " .
" Black Coffee " was recorded at Guerilla Beach and Larrabee West studios in Los Angeles , and at Sarm West and Olympic Studios in London . The recording sessions took place during a complex period for All Saints ; they had been developing Saints & Sinners for three years , having written over 40 songs for the album , and had to work around Orbit 's busy schedule for studio time with him . The " Black Coffee " sessions with Orbit were viewed by Blatt as beneficial for the group as he helped them to explore more experimental genres than those on their previous releases . Nichols found Orbit 's production " fantastic " and vastly different from that of the demo .
For group member Natalie Appleton , the " Black Coffee " sessions were more frustrating . She was optimistic that the song could feature her own lead vocals as well as those of her sister and fellow group member Nicole Appleton as it was the group 's first original single not written by Lewis . According to Natalie , before the Appletons arrived at the session , Lewis was already present and " staking her claim " to sing lead vocals on " Black Coffee " because Blatt had the lead vocals on " Pure Shores " . Natalie then suggested that each member should have a chance at the song as they were all fond of it . Eventually , the group 's management let Natalie cut a lead vocal , but she was nervous during the session and believed they were placating her . In the Appletons ' autobiography Together , she recalled : " Without support , it is hard to do your best . " Lewis was ultimately chosen as the track 's lead vocalist ; Natalie found this unsurprising , but felt " used and slacked off " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Black Coffee " is composed in 4 / 4 simple time with a moderately fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is an ambient , electropop , R & B song . The track has an unconventional sound ; it is complemented by being more production @-@ laden in comparison to other pop songs . The production is indebted to the genres of electronic and techno music with welding , clipped dance rhythms . It includes obscure and breathy keyboard instruments as well as guitar , synths , and glitching electronics throughout . The verses have a mellow , hazy , and sinister sound and are dislocated from one another with All Saints using eerie harmonies in the build @-@ up to the chorus . These segments generally follow a chord progression of Bm7 – E – Bm7 – E. In the chorus , the song becomes more wistful and changes to a sequence of E – Bm – D – A.
" Black Coffee " is a sad love song about Kirsty 's love at first sight feelings for Ernesto . It recalls how they met , during a time where they were frequently sailing and did not want to be elsewhere . The hook , " I wouldn 't want to be anywhere else but here , anywhere at all " , explains how Ernesto made Kirsty feel . The song 's first verse and outro narrates their romance : " Night swimming / Beach walking / Always silent / Never talking / Then you call my name / And I know inside I love you ... " The second verse details more domestic scenarios during their relationship : " Brush your teeth / Pour yourself a cup of black coffee . " Mary Ann A. Bautista of the Philippine Daily Inquirer opined that the lyrics manifested a role reversal in a romantic relationship : " Not only does the girl make the first move , but she also reveals her true emotions by saying ' I love you ' first ; along the way , she hopes to be loved and nurtured . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Black Coffee " was released on 2 October 2000 as the second single from Saints & Sinners . London Records commissioned the single in CD , cassette , 7 " and 12 " formats . It was accompanied by a B @-@ side , " I Don 't Wanna Be Alone " , written by Lewis , Ali Tennant , Wayne Hector and Karl Gordon , and produced by Gordon . Remixes by ATFC , the Shadow Snipers and Wideboys were also made available , as well as a remix by The Neptunes which featured a rap by American duo Clipse . The single 's cover art was photographed by Ellen von Unwerth . A second version of the song accompanied the release of the group 's 2001 single " All Hooked Up " .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Black Coffee " has received universal acclaim from critics . Sean O 'Brien of The Sunday People gave the song a rating of eight out of ten , opining that it was poised for great commercial success . David Brinn of The Jerusalem Post called the track " wistful " and " radio @-@ friendly " . Tim de Lisle of The Mail on Sunday considered it a " wispy but beguiling piece " and wrote that Orbit 's " floaty atmospheres proved to be perfectly suited to the girls ' slender voices " . Simon Evans writing in the Birmingham Post described the song as a " beautiful slice of haunting , hypnotic pop " . John Mulvey of The Scotsman praised its " sleek , scrupulously mature sound " . Siobhan Grogan of the NME found the track " almost perfect " and complimented its " mellow , glossy haziness " , adding that it was if the group recorded the track lying down . Grogan concluded : " It 's wistful in all the right places and makes sadness sound rather alluring like only the bitterest love songs can . " John Walshe of the Hot Press deemed the group 's harmonies " so saccharine they could have been copyrighted by NutraSweet " .
A Sunday Herald critic opined that the song was " impressively @-@ lacquered " and " undoubtedly [ helped ] tentpole the album proper " . Samuel McGuire of the same publication viewed the track as a " gem of a truly wondrous lustre " . Nigel Packer of the BBC News considered it to be a highlight of Saints & Sinners , complimenting its " pure pop " and " liquid techno sound " . Lindsay Baker of The Guardian cited " Black Coffee " as the album 's " particularly infectious " track . R.S. Murthi writing in the New Straits Times described it as " the most endearing " song on Saints & Sinners , deeming it " tasty " and " redolent of the Cocteau Twins " . Eva Simpson of the Daily Mirror regarded the track as " sassy " and a " curtain raiser " for Saints & Sinners , noting that Orbit 's production " brought the same high @-@ gloss sheen " as " Pure Shores " . Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail named " Black Coffee " , together with " Pure Shores " , as the two best tracks on the album , deeming them " brilliantly produced " . Russell Baillie of The New Zealand Herald considered " Black Coffee " , along with " Pure Shores " and " Surrender " , to " put most [ of the album ] in the shade " . A Western Mail critic said " Black Coffee " was as " equally tremendous " as " Pure Shores " .
Julie MacCaskill of the Daily Record believed that the song was a testament to the group 's " pop power " . Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic felt that " Black Coffee " was among All Saints ' most accomplished and mature work , praising its " lush electronic landscapes " . " Black Coffee " placed among 2000 year @-@ end lists compiled by Dotmusic ( number three ) , and the NME ( number 26 ) . In 2016 , Lewis Corner from Digital Spy placed the song at number three in his ranking of All Saints ' singles , commending its " euphoric " chorus and concluding : " It quite literally is pop @-@ form caffeine . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Black Coffee " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart for the week @-@ ending 14 October 2000 with first @-@ week sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies . At the time , this was the second lowest first @-@ week sales tally for a number @-@ one single in 2000 , beating only Westlife 's " I Have a Dream " / " Seasons in the Sun " . In spite of low sales , " Black Coffee " sold nearly 25 % more copies than the number @-@ two single that week - Mariah Carey and Westlife 's " Against All Odds " . It marked All Saints ' fifth number @-@ one single and , at the time , made them the girl group with the second @-@ most number one singles after the Spice Girls , surpassing B * Witched . The song was also Orbit 's third UK number @-@ one single as a producer in 2000 , following " Pure Shores " and Madonna 's " American Pie " . " Black Coffee " dropped to number three in its second week and went on to spend a total of 21 weeks on the chart . On 20 October 2000 , the single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting UK shipments in excess of 200 @,@ 000 copies . By 2008 , " Black Coffee " had sold 230 @,@ 000 copies . It is the group 's fourth best @-@ selling single in the UK according to the Official Charts Company .
The song also had success across Europe , peaking at number five on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for two consecutive weeks . It reached the top 10 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands and Sweden , and the top 20 in Finland and Norway . In Australia , the track entered the ARIA Singles Chart issued for 15 October 2000 at number 29 and went on to peak at number 20 for two consecutive weeks . " Black Coffee " debuted at number 40 on the New Zealand Singles Chart dated 29 October 2000 and reached number seven in its seventh week , becoming All Saints ' fifth top 10 single there . The success of " Black Coffee " launched both Nichols and Kirsty 's musical careers . In an interview for HitQuarters , Nichols explained : " I owe a lot to the All Saints and to Tracy Bennett at London [ ... ] they are a large further reason why I have a career because suddenly when that song was released , the opportunities that [ I got ] certainly in the UK , but also Europe @-@ wide , [ were ] absolutely huge . " Kirsty received royalties of over £ 12 @,@ 000 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Black Coffee " was directed by Bo Johan Renck . It was filmed at Ealing Studios in London on 17 August 2000 . Special effects , similar to the bullet time from the 1999 film The Matrix , were used as they were considered state of the art at the time . The video was specially edited as each All Saints member filmed their scenes separately . The members requested that they not be put in the same room as each other because they were not on speaking terms during this period . The Daily Mirror reported : " The girls have formed camps with sisters Nicole and Natalie sticking together while Mel and Shaznay are the other duo . There are definitely tensions . " The video aired on 4 September 2000 .
The video opens with a view of a high rise apartment block at night and All Saints , in individual scenes , dancing and singing from its rooftop . An interracial couple is shown arguing in various rooms in their apartment as different members of the group appear invisible beside them at various points . Each time the pair engages in aggressive behaviour , their actions are frozen while All Saints serenade them . These actions include : throwing pillows , leaves , a suitcase full of clothes , splashing bathwater , and breaking a mirror . The girlfriend later sits in a corner and cries during her boyfriend 's rage . The video ends with frozen , individual visuals of each group member throughout the now empty apartment .
The music video received heavy rotation from MTV Europe . Corner noted that it signified when " cracks were initially starting to show " within All Saints , explaining : " There 's a reason they don 't appear alongside each other in the music video : by then , they couldn 't physically stand each other . " CBC Television placed " Black Coffee " at number five in its ranking of the group 's music videos , praising its special effects and the combination of " an angelic serenade during an argument " . Jon Stewart , author of Oh Blessed Holy Caffeine Tree : Coffee in Popular Music , felt that the music video 's " opulent location " identified " strongly with the culture industry 's image of coffee as a luxurious beverage whose consumption signifies prominent social status " . Stewart further opined that the visual put emphasis on the " romantic disharmony " of the song 's lyrics .
= = Live performances = =
To promote " Black Coffee " , All Saints first performed it at BBC 's People 's Awards on 6 October 2000 . The group also performed the song on Top of the Pops on 13 October 2000 , the Pepsi Chart Show on 15 October 2000 , and at G @-@ A @-@ Y on 11 November 2000 . The group also performed the song for BBC 's Children in Need telethon on 17 November 2000 . Prior to this performance , there was much backstage tension between the group 's members because Nicole had revealed her pregnancy to the other members the previous day . Spice Girls singer Melanie C described the atmosphere as " icy " , while Nicole 's then @-@ boyfriend Liam Gallagher recalled : " Nic and Nat are working really hard , but it doesn 't matter what they do – the other two have got it in for them . You don 't treat people like that , trying to control their lives . " All Saints performed " Black Coffee " along with " Pure Shores " and " Whoopin ' Over You " on Later ... with Jools Holland on 18 November 2000 .
The group next performed the song at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party on 10 December 2000 . By this time , tensions within the group had become visible on stage ; and the Appletons , along with their make @-@ up artists and hairdressers , were ignored by Lewis and Blatt . Natalie recalled : " It was as if Nic and I were not there . " The performance received a negative review from Betty Clarke of The Guardian who wrote : " Only All Saints let the side down , going through the motions ... " All Saints performed " Black Coffee " and " Pure Shores " at Capital Radio 's Christmas Party later that month . However , a rift between the members was now palpable on stage with Lewis and Blatt on one side of the stage and the Appletons on the other . The tension was prompted by a row which erupted backstage between Lewis and Natalie over who would wear a particular jacket for the performance and nearly led to the two coming to blows . The rift ultimately caused All Saints to split up the following year .
In 2000 , Kirsty sang " Black Coffee " at her wedding to Ernesto . In an interview for The Daily Telegraph , she said : " Hearing my song on the radio brought mixed emotions , I have to be thankful to All Saints , they were so popular at the time they could make the song number one , but I knew the emotions behind that song . I wanted to sing it myself because there 'd have been real meaning behind it , which was my love for Ernesto . " In 2014 , All Saints reunited and performed " Black Coffee " as part of their set list for five dates as special guests on the Backstreet Boys ' In a World Like This Tour in Ireland and the UK ( 26 March – 5 April 2014 ) . The group dressed in tracksuit jackets , and casual leggings and trousers for their renditions . They also reprised the song at G @-@ A @-@ Y on 12 April 2014 , and performed it at the V Festival ( 16 @-@ 17 August 2014 ) . The group then performed " Black Coffee " at Manchester Pride on 25 August 2014 , dressed in matching military shirts , bomber jackets , leggings and trainers .
= = Legacy = =
According to Clem Bastow of The Sydney Morning Herald , " Black Coffee " , in particular , won All Saints " major critical points " over the Spice Girls and complemented the group 's " impeccable back catalogue " . Graeme Virtue of the Sunday Herald hailed it as one of " the best pop singles ever " . Kathy McCabe of the Herald Sun deemed the song " the benchmark of sassy , harmony @-@ laden pop " . Christie Leo of the New Straits Times wrote : " The aromatic shimmer of ' Black Coffee ' alone is all the evidence you 'll need to know that All Saints were truly heavenly . " Ian Sturgess of the Daily Mirror said the track : " boasts one of the most infectious pop choruses of all time " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian found " Black Coffee " superior to " Pure Shores " , praising its " beguiling treatment of a domestic scenario " and citing its lyrics as " easily the most alluring depiction of a bleary @-@ eyed morning routine ever recorded . " Q magazine placed " Black Coffee " in their list of 1010 Songs You Must Own .
In 2007 , " Black Coffee " was included in the competitive music video game series SingStar . According to Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman , the " smart @-@ pop attack " of the song " paved the way " for later girl groups Girls Aloud and the Sugababes . Neil Hannon of the Irish band The Divine Comedy expressed admiration for " Black Coffee " , commending its production @-@ heavy sound which " adds to the sound of it , rather than taking anything away " , and noted that its sound later became apparent in singles by Girls Aloud : " Girls Aloud do pop like that now : songs like ' Biology ' are a bit weird , and they flout the general rules , and I admire that . But ' Black Coffee ' is better . " Writing for Metro in 2013 , Seamus Duff stated that " Black Coffee " still sounded as " fresh and relevant " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Saints & Sinners .
= = Charts = =
= = Certification = =
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= Juniata County , Pennsylvania =
Juniata County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . At the 2010 census , the population was 24 @,@ 636 . Its county seat is Mifflintown . The county was created on March 2 , 1831 , from part of Mifflin County and named for the Juniata River .
Mountains in Juniata County include Tuscarora Mountain and Shade Mountain . Agricultural land and forested land make up most of the county 's area . Major rivers and creeks in the county include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , and West Branch Mahantango Creek . It borders six other counties . The county lies over 16 different rock formations ( which are from the Ordovician , Silurian , and Devonian ) and 51 different soils .
Juniata County has a relatively low population density . The most population @-@ dense parts of the county are the boroughs of Mifflintown and Mifflin . The most common races in the county are white ( 96 @.@ 8 % of all residents ) and black ( 0 @.@ 6 % of all residents ) . Between 1940 and 2005 , Juniata County 's population grew faster than all but two other counties in Pennsylvania . Susquehanna Township had the fastest @-@ growing population of any borough or township in the county during this time period . Livestock farming is the largest industry in the county , although there are other industries as well , including crop farming and tourism . Manufacturing jobs are the most common jobs in the county . The county 's median household income is $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and its median family income is $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . The poverty rate is 9 @.@ 5 % and the unemployment rate is 5 @.@ 4 % . The median house value in the county was $ 87 @,@ 000 in 2000 . The main roads in Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 , U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 .
There are four boroughs and thirteen townships in Juniata County . The county is served by two school districts : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy and 59 natural heritage sites in the county .
The first European settlers arrived in Juniata County in the 1750s . The county has historically been part of Mifflin County and before that , part of Cumberland County .
= = History = =
Juniata County was historically a part of Cumberland County and later Mifflin County . Juniata County was formed on March 2 , 1831 , from parts of Mifflin County . It is named after the Juniata River . The word " juniata " itself is a Seneca word that means either " people of the standing stone " or " blue waters " . The first boroughs in the county to be settled were Mifflintown and Thompsontown , which were settled in 1790 . Port Royal and Mifflin were settled in 1812 and 1848 , respectively . The first of these borough to be incorporated was Mifflintown , on March 6 , 1833 . The last one to be incorporated was Thompsontown , on February 7 , 1868 . However , squatters arrived in the county and were removed from it considerably earlier , by 1750 and one of the first warrants for land in the county was issued in 1755 . Many of the earliest landowners in Delaware Township were speculators as opposed to settlers . There was an Indian raid in the county in 1755 and 1756 , although Fort Bingham and Fort Peterson had been constructed . The Beale family was one of the earliest families to inhabit the county . More settlers arrived in the 1750s and 1760s and the first gristmill on the western side of the Juniata River was built in the county in 1767 . A public road was built in the county between Tuscarora Creek and a location near Shade Mountain in 1768 . John Hamilton constructed a sawmill and gristmill on Cocalamus Creek in Delaware Township in 1776 . The first known physician in the county , Dr. Ezra Doty , settled in Mifflintown in 1791 .
The first four townships in what would become Juniata County were formed on October 23 , 1754 . They were Lack Township , Aire Township , Fannett Township , and Tyrone Township . These early townships had no formal boundaries . By 1913 , the original townships had been divided into a total of 13 townships .
The Pennsylvania Canal began serving Juniata County in 1826 and closed in 1900 . The Pennsylvania Railroad reached the county in the late 1840s . The Tuscarora Valley Railroad was also in the county until it closed in 1934 .
During Hurricane Agnes in 1972 , a total of 6374 acres of Juniata County were flooded . 57 families were displaced during this flooding .
Juniata County was the last county in Pennsylvania to develop a modern comprehensive plan . It did , however , construct a comprehensive plan in 1974 .
In a 1997 survey , 66 @.@ 8 % of respondents found Juniata County a " very desirable " living place . In a similar survey in 2007 , however , only 56 @.@ 9 % of respondents found the county a " very desirable " living place .
= = = Historic places = = =
Eight locations in Juniata County are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . They were listed between 1972 and 1986 . They include the Academia Pomeroy Covered Bridge , the Tuscarora Academy , and the Book Site in Beale Township ; the Dimmsville Covered Bridge in Greenwood Township ; the Lehmans @-@ Port Royal Bridge in Milford Township ; and the East Oriental and North Oriental covered bridges . Eight additional places are eligible for a listing on the National Register of Historic Places . There are five Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission historical markers in Juniata County . They commemorate the Tuscarora Path , the Tuscarora Academy , Patterson 's Fort , Fort Bingham , and Juniata County itself .
The Academia Pomeroy Covered Bridge ( also known as the Pomeroy Academia Covered Bridge ) was built in 1901 . It is 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide and 278 feet ( 85 m ) long , making it one of the longest remaining covered bridges in Pennsylvania .
= = Geography = =
According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the county has a total area of 394 square miles ( 1 @,@ 020 km2 ) , of which 391 square miles ( 1 @,@ 010 km2 ) is land and 2 @.@ 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) is water .
Juniata County is located between two major metropolitan areas . One is State College , which is northwest of the county . The other is Harrisburg , which is to the southeast of the county . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which is a four @-@ lane highway , leads from the county to these metropolitan areas .
Parts of Juniata County are fairly flat , but there are areas in the county with slopes of 25 % or greater . However , most development in the county is confined to areas with slopes of 15 % or less . Many of the county 's steepest slopes , with grades of 25 % of more , are located on the edges of the county . These slopes are generally found on mountainous ridges . However , there are some similarly steep slopes in the middle of the county . All four boroughs in the county have slopes with a grade of 25 % or more near them . Slopes of 15 % to 25 % can be found throughout the county .
Much of Juniata County is hilly . Mountains occupy many of the county 's borders . Tuscarora Mountain forms the county 's border with Perry County . Shade Mountain runs from Snyder County through Juniata County and into Huntingdon County .
There are two locations in Juniata County that the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan describes as " outstanding and unique scenic features " . These are Hawstone Overlook and the Concord Narrows . Hawstone Overlook is an overlook in Milford Township on Pennsylvania Route 333 , from which the Juniata River between Shade Mountain and Blue Mountain can be seen , as well as the Lewistown Narrows . The Concord Narrows are a narrow water gap where the Juniata River flows past Tuscarora Mountain . Quartizite from the Silurian Period can be found in this water gap .
= = = Rivers and watersheds = = =
There are several major streams and rivers in Juniata County . These include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , Cocolamus Creek , West Branch Mahantango Creek , Licking Creek , and Lost Creek .
112 @,@ 000 acres , or 45 % of Juniata County 's area is in the Tuscarora Creek watershed , including the borough of Port Royal . 59 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 % of the county 's area ) is in the Juniata River watershed . This area includes parts of all four of the boroughs in the county . 26 @,@ 000 acres of Juniata County are in the Cocolamus Creek watershed and a similar amount of the county is in the watershed of Lost Creek . 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 % of the counties area ) are in the West Branch Mahantango Creek watershed .
= = = Land use = = =
Residential land makes up more than 50 @,@ 000 acres , or one fifth , of Juniata County 's area . The bulk of residential land is single @-@ family dwellings , but seasonal homes and mobile homes also make up significant portions of it . The county 's residential land is concentrated along in its boroughs , but occurs along roads and in villages throughout the county . Multi @-@ family residential land is comparatively rare . Less than 1 % of the county 's land ( 430 acres ) is used for manufacturing purposes . Only approximately 370 acres are used for transportation and utilities . Roughly 300 acres are used for transportation and communication and 70 acres are used for other utilities . Businesses make up 0 @.@ 21 % of the county 's land , or 525 acres . 490 acres are devoted to retail businesses , while 35 acres are devoted to wholesale businesses . Services occupy 0 @.@ 67 % of the county 's area .
Land devoted to recreation in Juniata County makes up 0 @.@ 5 % , or 1000 acres , of its area . Agricultural land comprises 41 % ( 101 @,@ 000 acres ) of the county . A total of 167 @,@ 500 acres , or approximately two thirds of the county 's area , is forested land . Large portions of the southwestern part of the county are forested . 34 % of the county 's land is undeveloped , most of which ( 60 @,@ 000 acres ) is unused land .
The vast majority of Juniata County is rural land . However , there are a few rural hamlets and villages ( which have one to four housing units per acre ) scattered throughout the county . There is also an area termed a " high growth area " by the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan near the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown . It has between 8 and 17 housing units per acre . The Juniata County Comprehensive Plan also designates areas near Thompsontown and Port Royal as " rural growth area [ s ] " . These areas have three to six housing units per acre .
= = = Adjacent counties = = =
Juniata County borders Mifflin County , Pennsylvania to the northwest , Snyder County , Pennsylvania to the north , Northumberland County , Pennsylvania to the northeast , Dauphin County , Pennsylvania to the southeast , Perry County , Pennsylvania to the south , and Huntingdon County , Pennsylvania and Franklin County , Pennsylvania to the southwest .
= = Geology = =
Juniata County lies over 16 different rock formations , some of which contain limestone . These rock formations come from the Ordovician Period , the Silurian Period , and the Devonian Period . The northernmost part of the county contains rocks of the Juniata Formation , the Bald Eagle Formation , and undivided Juniata and Bald Eagle formations . All of these formations primarily consist of sandstone . South of these formations lie the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Clinton Group , and the Tuscarora Formation . The first two of these consist mainly of shale , while the third is composed of quartzite . The rock formations in the southwestern part of the county include the Brallier and Harrell Formations undivided , the Hamilton Group , the Irish Valley member of the Catskill Formation , and others . The eastern part of the county lies almost entirely over the Hamilton Group , the Tuscarora Formation , and the Irish Valley member of the Cataskill Formation .
Other rock formations found in Juniata County include the Keyser through Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formation undivided , the Onondaga and Old Port Formations undivided , the Reedsville Formation , the Trimmers Rock Formation , the Wills Creek Formation , and the Wills Creek Formation through Mifflintown Formation undivided .
Four of the rock formations found in Juniata County come from def Ordovician Period , seven come from the Silurian Period , and seven come from the Devonian Period .
There are seven soil associations in Juniata County . One of these is the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association . It is a deep and fairly well @-@ drained soil that is found in 24 % of the county . It is mostly found in the county 's forested areas . The Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington Association is also found in the county . It is found in 33 % of the county 's area and is not as deep as the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association , but is well @-@ drained . The soil is mostly found in agricultural lands and some forested areas . Another soil association in the county is the Edon @-@ Opequon @-@ Weikert Association , which is a well @-@ drained soil that occupies 17 % of the county . The Elliber @-@ Kreamer @-@ Mertz Association is a deep and well @-@ drained soil that makes up 12 % of the county . The Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly Association and the Morrison @-@ Hazelton @-@ Clymer Association make up 7 % and 6 % of the county , respectively . They are both deep and occur on gentle slopes . However , the former is poorly drained , while the latter is well @-@ drained . The Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association is well @-@ drained and makes up 1 % of the county 's area .
There are 51 different soil types in Juniata County , of which 18 are considered prime farmland . There area few agricultural soils on the northern and southern edges of the county .
The main rock formations in the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the undivided Keyser and Tonoloway Formations and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation . The same rock formations are found in the borough of Port Royal , along with the Clinton Group and the Hamilton Group to the northwest and southeast of the borough , respectively . The Hamilton Group , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formations , and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation are found in or near the borough of Thompsontown .
= = Climate = =
Juniata County is in the Humid Continental climatic region . In the summer , highs are generally in between 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , but on occasion exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . The lows in the summer are typically slightly below 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . High temperatures in the winter are usually between 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) and 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) .
On average , Juniata County receives 38 inches ( 97 cm ) of precipitation per year . An average of 28 inches ( 71 cm ) of snow fall on the county each winter . The county rarely experiences long @-@ term droughts , but does experience short @-@ term droughts often .
= = Demographics = =
At the 2010 census , there were 24 @,@ 636 people , 9 @,@ 476 households , and 6 @,@ 839 families residing in Juniata County . The projected population of the county for 2020 is 26 @,@ 071 . The population density was 63 people per square mile ( 24 / km ² ) . There were 10 @,@ 978 housing units at an average density of 28 per square mile ( 10 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the county was 96 @.@ 8 % White , 0 @.@ 6 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 1 % Native American , 0 @.@ 3 % Asian ( 0 @.@ 1 % Indian , 0 @.@ 1 % Chinese , and 0 @.@ 1 % Korean ) , 1 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 1 % from two or more races .
There are eight Filipino people , five Vietnamese people , and two Samoans in Juniata County .
2 @.@ 5 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . These include 195 Puerto Ricans , 77 Mexicans , and 2 Cubans . The highest percentage of Hispanic people in any township or borough in the county is 8 @.@ 71 % , in Mifflintown . Between 1990 and 2000 , the Hispanic population in the county increased by 653 % . In 2000 , 45 @.@ 4 % of the population of Juniata County were of German , 20 @.@ 2 % American , 5 @.@ 7 % Irish and 5 @.@ 0 % English ancestry according to Census 2000 . 3 @.@ 95 % reported speaking Pennsylvania German , German , or Dutch at home ; 1 @.@ 63 % speak Spanish .
The housing density and population density of Juniata County is considerably below average for a Pennsylvania county .
The administrative subdivisions of Juniata County with the highest population density are Mifflintown ( with a density of 6 @,@ 184 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , Mifflin ( with a density of 3506 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , and Thompsontown ( with a density of 2193 @.@ 1 people per square mile ) . The township with the highest population density in the county is Monroe Township , with 104 @.@ 0 people per square mile . The highest density of housing units in the county is in Mifflintown ( 2 @,@ 837 @.@ 4 per square mile ) , followed by Mifflin ( 1 @,@ 454 @.@ 2 per square mile ) and Thompsontown ( 1 @,@ 144 @.@ 4 per square mile ) . Greenwood Township has the third lowest population density of any administrative division in Juniata County : 27 @.@ 9 people per square mile . The second lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 24 @.@ 5 people per square mile ) and the lowest density is in Lack Township ( 13 @.@ 2 people per square mile ) . The lowest density of housing units in the county is in Lack Township ( 10 @.@ 0 per square mile ) , the second @-@ lowest density is in Greenwood Township ( 11 @.@ 3 per square mile ) , and the third @-@ lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 13 @.@ 7 per square mile ) .
Between 1940 and 2005 , the population of Juniata County was proportionally the third fastest @-@ growing population of any county in Pennsylvania , with only Snyder County 's and Perry County 's populations growing faster . In this time period , the county 's population has increased by 50 @.@ 69 % , or 7 @,@ 792 people . In the 1980s , the county 's rate of population growth was more than 50 times higher than the rate of population growth in Pennsylvania . The county 's rate of population growth in the 1970s was even higher .
Susquehanna Township 's population was the fastest @-@ growing population of any administrative division in Juniata County between 1990 and 2005 , with an increase of 35 @.@ 42 % . Other fast @-@ growing populations in the county include those of Milford Township ( 22 @.@ 53 % ) and Thompsontown 20 @.@ 1 % ) . The populations of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the only administrative divisions in the county whose populations decreased in that time period ( at a rate of -7.42 % and -3.7 % , respectively ) . However , between 2000 and 2005 , eight administrative divisions experienced decreasing populations . Between 1990 and 2000 , every borough and township in the county experienced an increase in population .
At the 2010 census , the average household size in Juniata County was 2 @.@ 57 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 01 . 23 @.@ 0 % of the county 's households were inhabited by a single individual .
In 2000 , there were 11 @,@ 353 males and 11 @,@ 468 females in Juniata County , or 98 @.@ 99 males per 100 females . The highest percentage of males in any administrative division in the county was 52 @.@ 07 % , in Beale Township . The highest percentage of females in any township or borough in the county was 52 @.@ 95 % , in Fermanagh Township .
At the 2010 census , the population in Juniata County was spread out with 6 @.@ 3 % under 5 years of age , 6 @.@ 8 % from 5 to 9 years of age , and the same percentage from 10 to 14 years of age . 6 @.@ 5 % of the county 's inhabitants were 15 to 19 years of age , 5 @.@ 4 % were 20 to 24 years old , 5 @.@ 3 % were 25 to 29 years old , and 5 @.@ 5 % were 30 to 34 years old . People of 35 to 39 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 1 % of the population , 40- to 44 @-@ year @-@ olds comprised 6 @.@ 6 % of the population , and 7 @.@ 6 % of the population consisted of 50- to 54 @-@ year @-@ olds . People of 55 to 59 years of age made up 7 @.@ 6 % of the population , people of 60 to 54 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 0 % of it , and 65- to 69 @-@ year @-@ olds made up 4 @.@ 9 % of the population . People of 70 to 74 years of age make up 3 @.@ 9 % of the county 's population , people of 75 to 79 years of age make up 3 @.@ 2 % of the population , people of 80 to 84 years old make up 2 @.@ 5 % of the population , and people older than 85 years make up 2 @.@ 3 % of the population .
= = Infrastructure , industry , and economy = =
In 2000 , the agricultural , hunting / fishing , forestry , and mining industries made up 5 @.@ 46 % of the industry in Juniata County . Livestock farming was more popular in the county than crop cultivation . In 2002 , the egg and poultry industry in the county generated $ 32 million in sales ( the 7th highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) and the dairy industry generated $ 17 million in sales ( the 23rd highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) . The hog and pig industry generated $ 7 million and the cattle industry generated $ 4 million in sales ( the 10th and 27th highest of Pennsylvania counties , respectively ) . The county 's grain industry generated $ 1 million ( the 35th highest of Pennsylvania counties ) . The county is the fourth most prolific poultry @-@ producing county in Pennsylvania . In addition to the aforementioned industries , there are also small @-@ scale clothing manufacturing businesses in the county .
There were 801 farms in Juniata County in 1997 , occupying a total of 96 @,@ 312 acres of farmland . By 2002 , there were only 644 farms and 86 @,@ 203 acres of farmland .
There is one public library in Juniata County : the Juniata County Library in Mifflintown . It has approximately 64 @,@ 000 materials and an annual circulation of 131 @,@ 940 materials . It will be celebrating its 50th anniversary in 2016 .
There are no hospitals in Juniata County . The county is served by a hospital in Lewistown , which was established in 1905 . The county has six emergency medical services units and eight fire companies , all of which are volunteer fire departments . As the county does not have its own police force , it is served by the Pennsylvania State Police .
There are more than 100 cemeteries in Juniata County .
= = = Economic and employment statistics = = =
In 2000 , the most common occupation in Juniata County was manufacturing . 23 @.@ 6 % of employed people over 16 years old in the county performed manufacturing jobs . 10 @.@ 5 % of employed people older than 16 worked in health services , 9 @.@ 5 % worked in other services , 9 @.@ 3 % each work in construction and retail , 6 @.@ 2 % worked in public administration , and 6 @.@ 1 % worked in transportation . 5 @.@ 6 % had an occupation in the field of education , and a similar number worked in finance , insurance , and real estate . 5 @.@ 5 % worked in agriculture , fishing , forestry , or mining , 3 @.@ 5 % worked in wholesale trade , 1 @.@ 7 % worked in communications , utilities , and related fields .
In 2000 , a total of 1 @,@ 955 households in Juniata County made less than $ 20 @,@ 000 per year and 3036 households made $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 39 @,@ 999 per year . 1 @,@ 940 households made $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 59 @,@ 999 per year , 1 @,@ 308 households made $ 60 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 per year , and 216 households made $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 per year . 125 households made more than $ 150 @,@ 000 per year . In 1999 , the median household income for the county was $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and the median family income was $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . Both of these figures are lower than the average for Pennsylvania . The per capita income in the county was $ 16 @,@ 142 per year in 1999 and $ 14 @,@ 539 in 1989 . The county 's poverty rate , 9 @.@ 5 % , is below the average poverty rate for Pennsylvania , which is 11 % . In 1999 , Mifflin had the highest poverty rate of any township or borough in the county , 17 @.@ 54 % . Greenwood Township had the lowest poverty rate , 6 @.@ 99 % . The county 's unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 3 % in 1999 and 5 @.@ 4 % in 2008 . According to the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan , the economic situation in the county " suggests a fairly healthy county economy " .
Of the boroughs and townships in Juniata County , Beale Township had the highest household and family income in 1999 : $ 41 @,@ 458 and $ 43 @,@ 625 , respectively . The borough of Mifflin had the lowest household and family income in 1999 : $ 26 @,@ 438 and $ 28 @,@ 750 , respectively .
94 @.@ 32 % of the houses in Juniata County have full plumbing facilities . This is below Pennsylvania 's average ( 98 @.@ 51 % ) , which may be due to the presence of cabins and other houses that are not permanently inhabited . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities of any township or borough in the county ( 100 % ) . Lack Township has the lowest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities ( 72 @.@ 31 % ) . There are six public sewer companies in the county , the largest of which , the Twin Boroughs Sanitary Authority , is used at a rate of 450 @,@ 000 gallons per day . The county also has five public water companies , including the Port Royal Municipal Authority and the Mifflintown Municipal Authority . The Mifflintown Municipal Authority is the most @-@ used water company in the county , serving 465 @,@ 000 gallons of water per day .
On average , Juniata County generates 32 tons of solid waste per day .
Nine townships and all four boroughs in Juniata County receive electricity from Pennsylvania Power and Light . The remaining townships are given electricity by First Energy and Valley Rural Electric Cooperative , Inc .. Nittany Media Inc. and Dish and Direct TV provide cable services to the county .
= = = Housing = = =
In 2000 , 28 @.@ 70 % of the houses in Juniata County were built before 1939 , 6 @.@ 51 % were built in the 1940s , and 8 @.@ 26 % were built in the 1950s . 8 @.@ 53 % of the county 's houses were built in the 1960s , 17 @.@ 99 % were built in the 1970s , and 14 @.@ 18 % were built in the 1980s . 15 @.@ 82 % of the houses were built in the 1990s or in 2000 . The majority of the houses in Mifflin and Mifflintown were built before 1939 .
In 2000 , 14 @.@ 43 % of the houses in Juniata County were vacant . 9 @.@ 42 % of the county 's houses were vacant for seasonal or recreational reasons . The county 's vacancy rate is higher than average for Pennsylvania . Mifflintown had the lowest vacancy rate of any township or borough in the county ( 5 @.@ 18 % ) . Lack Township had the highest vacancy rate ( 48 @.@ 77 % ) . 66 @.@ 49 % of the county 's houses are occupied by their owner and 19 @.@ 08 % are occupied by a renter . Many of the houses in the southwestern part of the county are seasonally occupied .
13 @.@ 11 % of the houses in Juniata County cost less than $ 50 @,@ 000 and 51 @.@ 07 % cost $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 . 17 @.@ 51 % of the county 's houses cost $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 124 @,@ 999 and 9 @.@ 74 % cost from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 . 4 @.@ 62 % of the houses cost between $ 150 @,@ 000 and $ 174 @,@ 999 and 1 @.@ 21 % cost between $ 175 @,@ 000 and $ 199 @,@ 999 . 1 @.@ 92 % of the houses in the county cost between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 249 @,@ 999 , 0 @.@ 39 % cost between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 299 @,@ 999 , and 0 @.@ 43 % cost more than $ 300 @,@ 000 . Of the administrative divisions in the county , Fermanagh Township has the highest percentage of houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1 @.@ 34 % ) and numerous townships and boroughs in the county do not have any houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses costing less than $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 56 @.@ 48 % ) and Delaware Township has the lowest percentage of such houses ( 4 @.@ 73 % ) .
In 1990 , the median house value in Juniata County was $ 51 @,@ 500 . This rose to $ 87 @,@ 000 by 2000 .
= = = Crime = = =
The most common crimes committed in Juniata County between 2005 and November 2007 were property crimes , with 996 recorded offenses . Other common crimes in the county are assaults , with 383 offenses between 2005 and 2007 and alcohol @-@ related crimes , with 306 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . Rarer crimes in the county include drug violations ( 71 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) , sex offenses ( 64 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) and arson , with only 12 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . There were no homicides in the county in these years .
= = = Recreation = = =
There are municipal parks in all four boroughs of Juniata County . There are also five boat launches in the county , all of which are on or near the Juniata River . There are two golf courses in the central part of the county and one campground in the southern part of the county .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Roads = = =
The main roads in the eastern part of Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 . The main roads in western Juniata County are U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 experiences the most traffic . It and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 are considered major arterial roads . Pennsylvania Route 75 and Pennsylvania Route 35 northeast of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 are minor arterial roads . Major rural collector roads in the county include Pennsylvania Route 850 Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 235 , and Pennsylvania Route 35 southwest of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 . Minor rural collector roads include Pennsylvania Route 333 and numerous less prominent roads . There are also many local roads throughout the county , most of which are in its northeastern and central parts .
There are approximately 735 miles ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) of roads in Juniata County 's road system . 372 @.@ 6 miles ( 599 @.@ 6 km ) of the roads are locally owned , 354 @.@ 9 miles ( 571 @.@ 2 km ) are owned by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , and 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) are owned by Pennsylvania or the United States . 508 @.@ 3 miles ( 818 @.@ 0 km ) are local roads , 89 @.@ 7 miles ( 144 @.@ 4 km ) are minor collector roads , 68 @.@ 7 miles ( 110 @.@ 6 km ) are major collector roads , 46 @.@ 8 miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km ) are minor arterial roads , and 21 @.@ 4 miles ( 34 @.@ 4 km ) are major arterial roads .
The daily traffic of Juniata County 's arterial roads ranges from several dozen to several thousand vehicles per day . Pennsylvania Route 75 carries 50 vehicles per day in the southwestern part of the county and 7 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the northeastern part of the county . Pennsylvania Route 104 carries 2 @,@ 900 vehicles per day in the county . The most heavily traveled road there , however , is U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which carries 11 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The least @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is State Route 2026 , which is used by 350 vehicles per day and the most @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is Pennsylvania Route 35 , which gets up to 7100 vehicles per day . Traffic on minor rural collector roads ranges from 100 vehicles per day on Academia Road to over 1000 vehicles per day on several roads . The volume of vehicle traffic in the county has changed little since the late 1990s .
U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 allow Juniata County residents to access numerous locations in New York , Pennsylvania , and Maryland . It receives approximately 12 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the county . Pennsylvania Route 35 allows access to Mifflin and Mifflintown from other locations in the county . Pennsylvania Route 75 is used by trucks in the county to access the Pennsylvania Turnpike .
There are 21 road intersections in Juniata County that were the site of five or more crashes between January 1 , 2002 , and December 31 , 2006 .
= = = Bridges = = =
There are 254 state @-@ owned bridges in Juniata County , of which 77 are considered structurally deficient by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation .
The longest bridge in Juniata County is the First Street Bridge over the Juniata River in Port Royal . It is 1 @,@ 087 feet ( 331 m ) long and was built in 1937 . The second @-@ longest bridge in the county crosses the Juniata River at Thompsontown Station and is 808 @.@ 1 feet ( 246 @.@ 3 m ) long . It was built in 1994 . All other bridges in the county are less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) long .
= = = Other transportation = = =
For air travel , Juniata County is served by the privately owned Mifflintown Airport and the Stottle Memorial Heliport in Tuscarora Township .
The BicyclePA Route J runs through Juniata County on U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 .
= = Education = =
= = = Schools and school districts = = =
There are two public school districts in Juniata County : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . Both of these are K @-@ 12 schools . The Greenwood School District serves Greenwood Township and parts of Perry County and the Juniata County School District serves the rest of Juniata County .
The Juniata County School District has nine elementary schools , one junior high school , and two high schools . In the 2006 – 2007 school year , there were 3 @,@ 123 students in the school district . The largest high school in the district is the Juniata High School , with 637 students . The largest elementary school in the district is the Fermanagh @-@ Mifflintown Elementary School , with 238 students and the smallest one is the Susquehanna Township Elementary School , with 63 students .
The Greenwood School District has an elementary school , a middle school , and a high school . They have 449 , 137 , and 278 students , respectively .
Additionally , there are 12 private schools in Juniata County , most of which are religious schools run by groups such as the Amish or other types of Mennonites . Nearly all are based in Mifflintown , McAlisterville , or Thompsontown , although one is based in Port Royal . In May 2014 , the largest private school in the county was the Juniata Mennonite School , which had 220 students , and the smallest private school was the Breezy Hollow Amish School , which had 18 students .
There are no colleges in Juniata County , although there are twelve in the county 's general vicinity .
= = = Statistics = = =
In 1990 , 16 @.@ 91 % of Juniata County residents over 25 years of age had less than a ninth @-@ grade education . 17 @.@ 93 % of residents over 25 years of age had a ninth @-@ grade education to a twelfth @-@ grade education and 46 @.@ 35 % had graduated from high school . 7 @.@ 80 % of the residents had attended college , but did not have a degree and 3 @.@ 76 % had an associate degree . 4 @.@ 67 % of Juniata County residents aged 25 years or more had a bachelor 's degree and 2 @.@ 59 % had a graduate or professional degree .
By 2000 , the percentage of people with less than a ninth @-@ grade education had decreased to 5 % and the percentage with a ninth @-@ grade to twelfth @-@ grade education had decreased to 13 % . The percentage of people who graduated high school decreased to 38 % , but the percentage of people who attended college but did not get a degree increased to 16 % . The percentage of people with an associate degree increased to 6 % , the percentage of people who had a bachelor 's degree increased to 14 % , and the percentage of people with a graduate or professional degree increased to 8 % .
Of the townships and boroughs in Juniata County , Lack Township has the highest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 42 @.@ 43 % ) . Spruce Hill Township has the lowest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 18 @.@ 00 % ) . Mifflintown has the highest percentage of people with a higher education .
= = Biology = =
There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy : the Baker Easement , the Brady Bryner Preserve , the Gregory Alan Grening Preserve , the Grening Preserve Addition , the McLaughlin Easement , and the Port Royal Wetlands . The combined area of these lands is 415 acres . There are State Game Lands in the northwestern part of the county and state forests in the county 's northern and southern portions .
Four streams in Juniata County are considered high @-@ quality coldwater fisheries . There are also some Class A Wild Trout Waters in the northern and western parts of the county .
The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory lists 59 natural heritage sites in Juniata County . 11 are considered " exceptional significance " , 19 are considered " high significance " , 12 are considered " notable significance " , and 17 are considered " local significance " . Sites on the inventory are found in every township in the county except for Greenwood Township .
The largest remaining intact wetland in Juniata County may be the Cedar Spring Run Wetland , which is in Walker Township . The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory considers it to be an " exceptional significance " site . Numerous wetland plants that are rare in the area inhabit this wetland , including Quercus shumardii . The wetland is a red maple @-@ black ash palustrine forest community . Another wetland on the Natural Heritage Inventory 's list of exceptional significance sites is the Locust Run Wetlands , which is in Walker Township and Delaware Township . These wetlands consist of two large groups of temporary pools and several permanent ones . The West Branch Mahantango Creek Vernal Pools are also in the county . This system consist of dozens of temporary pools that are inhabited by Leucothoe racemosa . The Slim Valley Wetlands are in Fayette Township and Fermanagh Township . They contain spotted pondweed and serve as a breeding ground for amphibians .
There are four sites on Tuscarora Creek and its tributaries on the " exceptional significance " list in the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory . The Doyle Run Floodplain is located on the creek in Beale Township . It contains a silver maple floodplain forest and is home to Ranunculus flabellaris and many species that are rare in Pennsylvania . Barton Hollow , a tributary of Tuscarora Creek in Lack Township , is home to plant species such as Carex careyana and Pinus echinata and animal species such as the Emperor Butterfly and a mussel species known as the Triangle Floater . Tuscarora Creek supports Carex shortiana downstream of Blair Hollow in Lack Township , as well as 350 plant species and 50 animal species . The creek 's valley downstream of Pennybaker Island in Lack Township is home to Samolus parviflorus and Quercus shumardii .
A woodland known as the Kurtz Valley Woodland is located in Delaware Township , Juniata County . It is listed as an " exceptional significance " site on the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory and contains a red cedar – redbud shrubland community , which is rare in Pennsylvania . The McAlister Limestone Glade is another " exceptional significance " site in the county . It is located in Fayette Township and contains a side @-@ oats grama calcareous grassland , which is described as a " very important " natural feature . The Westfall Prairie is also located in Fayette Township and is home to a number of rare species .
Allegheny Woodrats live on the slopes of the Lewistown Narrows in Milford Township , Juniata County and Northern Myotis bats feed there . The Lewistown Narrows are an " exceptional significance " site according to the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory .
= = Communities = =
Under Pennsylvania law , there are four types of incorporated municipalities : cities , boroughs , townships , and , in at most two cases , towns .
= = = Boroughs = = =
Boroughs in Juniata County include :
Mifflin
Mifflintown ( county seat )
Port Royal
Thompsontown
= = = Townships = = =
Townships in Juniata County include :
= = = Census @-@ designated places = = =
Census @-@ designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data . They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania . CDPs in Juniata County include :
East Salem
East Waterford
McAlisterville
Mexico
Richfield
= = = Population ranking = = =
The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Juniata County .
† county seat
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= Olivia Shakespear =
Olivia Shakespear ( born Olivia Tucker ; 17 March 1863 – 3 October 1938 ) was a British novelist , playwright , and patron of the arts . She wrote six books that are described as " marriage problem " novels . Her works sold poorly , sometimes only a few hundred copies . Her last novel , Nurse Harry , is considered her best . She wrote two plays in collaboration with Florence Farr .
Olivia was the daughter of a retired Adjutant General , and had little formal education . She was well @-@ read however , and developed a love of literature . In 1885 she married London barrister Henry Hope Shakespear , and in 1886 gave birth to their only child , Dorothy . In 1894 her literary interests led to a friendship with William Butler Yeats that became physically intimate in 1896 . He declared that they " had many days of happiness " to come , but the affair ended in 1897 . They nevertheless remained lifelong friends and corresponded frequently . Yeats went on to marry Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , Olivia 's step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend .
Olivia began hosting weekly salon frequented by Ezra Pound and other modernist writers and artists in 1909 , and became influential in London literary society . Olivia 's daughter Dorothy Shakespear married Pound in 1914 , despite the less than enthusiastic blessing of her parents . After their marriage , Pound would use funds received from Olivia to support T. S. Eliot and James Joyce . When Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , in France in 1926 , Olivia assumed guardianship of the boy . He lived with Olivia until her death on 3 October 1938 .
= = Early life and marriage = =
Olivia 's father , Henry Tod Tucker ( b . 1808 ) , was born in Edinburgh and joined the British Indian Army as an ensign at age 16 . He rose to the rank of Adjutant General in Bengal , but retired in 1856 at age 48 owing to ill health . Within a year of returning to Britain he married Harriet Johnson ( b . 1821 ) of Bath . The couple moved to the Isle of Wight where their two daughters were born : Florence in 1858 and Olivia on 17 March 1863 . Soon after they relocated to Sussex where their third child , Henry , was born in 1866 . In 1877 the family moved to London and raised their daughters in a social world that encouraged the pursuit of leisure . Olivia often visited her many Johnson relatives in the country , and became particularly fond of her cousin Lionel Johnson — the only one of many uncles and cousins not to join the military — who went on to become a poet and friend to W. B. Yeats . It is likely that Olivia received little formal education ; she may have been educated by tutors , and appears to have become well @-@ read as a young woman .
In 1885 Olivia married Henry Hope Shakespear , a man described by Terence Brown in The Life of W.B. Yeats : A Critical Biography as " worthy " but " dull " . Born in India in 1849 , he was descended from 17th @-@ century East London ropemakers and , like Olivia , came from a military family , although of less prestige and wealth than the Tuckers and Johnsons . John Harwood , Olivia 's biographer and author of Olivia Shakespear and W. B. Yeats : After Long Silence believes Henry probably saw an opportunity to increase his social standing and annual income in wedding Olivia . He had attended Harrow , studied law , and joined a law practice in 1875 . The couple were married on 8 December 1885 , and honeymooned in Boulogne and Paris . Olivia 's father endowed them with a comfortable income in the form of a trust . Nine months after the wedding their only child , Dorothy , was born on 14 September 1886 ; they likely discontinued physical relations after the honeymoon , and Olivia realised quite soon that the marriage was devoid of passion . Yeats ' biographer Alexander Jeffares writes , " she was unselfcentered , unselfish , deeply imaginative and sympathetic and , until she met Yeats , she seems to have accepted the fact of her unhappy loveless marriage " .
Shakespear dissolved his legal partnership in the late 1880s — his partner may have been embezzling from clients ' trusts — and formed his own practice . Harwood writes that Shakespear 's attitude to the situation showed a certain amount of " timidity " on his part and a definite " dislike of scenes " . During this period Olivia moved from socialising with military wives to literary women : Valentine Fox ( unhappily married to a Kent brewer ) and Pearl Craighie , a divorced American writer who published as John Oliver Hobbes .
= = W. B. Yeats = =
= = = Friendship = = =
Accompanied by Pearl Craighie , on 16 April 1894 Olivia attended a literary lunch to launch The Yellow Book . Olivia was seated opposite W. B. Yeats . Recently returned from visiting Maud Gonne in Paris , Yeats was in London for the production of his play The Land of Heart 's Desire . The two were not introduced that evening but Yeats , probably through Lionel Johnson ( who became disruptively drunk at the dinner ) , enquired about the woman seated opposite . Yeats was deeply affected , later writing in his memoirs of the encounter : " I noticed opposite me .... a woman of great beauty ... She was exquisitely dressed ... and suggested to me an incomparable distinction . " Soon after Olivia attended a showing of The Land of Heart 's Desire , and found herself moved by the performance . She wanted to meet the " tall and black haired " poet and asked Johnson to invite Yeats to tea on 10 May 1894 , adding in her handwriting to the invitation , " I shall be so glad to see you " . In his Memoirs Yeats referred to her as " Diana Vernon " , writing , " In this book I cannot giver her real name — Diana Vernon sounds pleasantly in my ears and will suit as well as any other " .
They quickly established a strong friendship , with Olivia listening sympathetically to his obsessive love for Maud . When Yeats later described their friendship , he wrote , " I told her of my love sorrow , indeed it was my obsession , never leaving by day or night " . Writing in The Last Courtly Lover , Gloria Kline suggests Olivia and Yeats began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work . John Unterecker , writing in " Faces and False Faces " , sees friendship as the most important aspect in the relationship , explaining , " she found in Yeats , as he in her , a person who could discuss literature and ideas ... she was one of the few persons with whom he could be completely relaxed " . Comparing the difference between Maud and Olivia he writes , " Maud Gonne offered Yeats subject matter for poetry , the ' interesting ' life he had hoped for , and Olivia Shakespear offered him repose " . According to Kline , Yeats compared Olivia to Diana and Maud to Helen ; he was attracted to dark coloured women , describing Olivia 's skin as " a little darker than a Greek 's would have been and her hair was very dark " . Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes that Yeats ' impression of Olivia was one of a woman with " a profound culture , a knowledge of French , English , and Italian and seemed always at leisure . Her nature was gentle and contemplative , and she was content , it seems , to have no more of life than leisure and the talk of her friends " . Nevertheless she was working on her third novel , Beauty 's Hour , and it is likely that Yeats read the manuscript , suggested revisions , and may have contributed to the characterisations . Kline believes the two began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work ; Yeats biographer Foster adds they were drawn together by a mutual interest in the occult . For Yeats , then aged 30 , an important aspect of their friendship was the opportunity it presented for a sexual relationship with a woman , something he had not then experienced .
In August Yeats returned to Ireland , continuing his correspondence with Olivia , writing to her about Maud who had recently given birth to a daughter , Iseult . In her letters Olivia may have been honest about her feelings toward him ; in April 1895 he wrote to her , " I no more complain of your writing of love , than I would complain of a portrait painter keeping to portraits " .
= = = Love affair = = =
Yeats delayed visiting Olivia in London a month later ; he instead tended to Johnson who was involved in the Wilde case and descending into the alcoholism that would kill him . Yeats appeared to have persuaded himself that Olivia and her cousin shared a flaw , writing , " here is the same weakness I thought ... Her beauty ... dark and still , had the nobility of defeated things , and how could it help but wring my heart . I took a fortnight to decide what I should do " . He constructed a plan to reconcile his desire with what he believed to be her wickedness : he would ask that she leave her husband to live with him . Until then their friendship would remain platonic .
Yeats finally visited Olivia at her Porchester Circle home a few weeks later to present his well @-@ thought out intentions but , to his bewilderment , Olivia declared her love for him . Unsure of himself , he took another absence , during which he decided that if Maud was unattainable , or unavailable due to circumstances , he would have Olivia , writing " but after all if I could not get the woman I loved it would be a comfort for a little while to devote myself to another " . For Yeats , Olivia was willing to lose her daughter , financial security , social standing , and the goodwill of her family . Although her husband had grounds to sue Yeats and consequently destroy his reputation , her best hope against complete ruin was Shakespear 's strong dislike of public scenes . Then Yeats lost his nerve again , suggesting instead each seek advice from a friend ( a " sponsor " ) . He probably chose Florence Farr to be his sponsor while Olivia chose Valentine Fox — Harwood speculates that the sponsors advised the two to go ahead with the affair , perhaps to Yeats ' discomfort . On 15 July 1895 , Yeats and Olivia travelled to Kent to visit Valentine Fox ; the trip Harwood says " would have been , emotionally speaking a highly charged outing " . Of the railway trip , Yeats wrote in his memoirs , " when on our first railway journey together — we were to spend the day at Kent — she gave the long passionate kiss of love , I was startled & a little shocked " . They went on to share more passionate kisses in art galleries and at her home .
Still distressed about Lionel , Yeats turned to Arthur Symons for companionship , moving into a room adjacent to his in October 1895 . One day while preoccupied and thinking about Maud he locked himself out for a visit just before Olivia and her sponsor arrived to visit ; as soon as she left he stayed up all night telling Symons about Maud . She arrived in London a few weeks later for a brief visit . Yeats was ambivalent about Olivia despite the advice of the sponsors ; with no money to support her , he suggested she seek a legal separation ( instead of a divorce ) , sparing her social ostracism and financial ruin . Ezra Pound biographer Jay Wilhelm suggests Shakespear knew that Olivia loved Yeats but seemed more concerned about the loss of social status in the event of divorce , causing Yeats and Olivia to decide that " it was kinder to simply deceive him than totally abandon him " . In January 1896 Yeats moved again , into a small flat in Woburn Place , so as to be nearer to her . Finally after a charged bed @-@ buying session , with Yeats describing " an embarrassed conversation upon the width " , and his nervousness preventing them at first from becoming lovers , he eventually wrote in January 1896 , " at last she came to me in my thirtieth year .... and we had many days of happiness " . Yeats ' happiness is apparent in the poems he wrote at that period , and for the duration of their affair , Olivia appears to have acted as a muse to the poet .
Six months later he was in back in Ireland , and in August Olivia was visiting Valentine Fox with her husband where she received news of her father 's death . She left for an extended stay in Torquay where she stayed until September before leaving for a visit to Scotland with her husband . Yeats left Ireland for Paris to visit Maud in November , and did not return to London until January 1897 , with Maud following close behind and arriving in London in February . Yeats wrote of Maud 's visit : " Maud wrote to me ... she was in London & would I come to dine . I dined with her & my trouble increased — she certainly had no thought of the mischief she was doing – & at last one morning .... [ Olivia ] found my mood did not answer hers and & burst into tears — ' There is someone else in your heart ' she said . It was the breaking between us for many years " . The affair ended that spring when Yeats again returned to Ireland . Olivia did not visit him again at Woburn Place for many years , according to Yeats biographer Richard Ellmann .
= = Pembroke Mansions = =
Olivia 's life is not well documented between 1897 and 1908 . It is known that she visited her cousin Lionel for the last time in 1897 before he was isolated by his alcoholism . He died alone of a cerebral haemorrhage in 1902 . In 1899 the family suffered an unspecified financial setback that forced them to move into an apartment in Bayswater to Pembroke Mansions , which a friend described by as " an uninviting Bayswater slum " . A few months later Olivia 's mother died . Within a week Olivia received a letter of condolence from Yeats , which may have been the first letter she received from him in two years , since 1897 . Several scholars and biographers speculate that they resumed their love affair at some point between 1903 and 1910 ; Pound biographer Wilhelm believes they reconciled as early as 1903 , while Yeats biographers Jeffares and Ross suggest the affair likely reignited for a period in 1906 .
For a short time in 1901 Olivia held a position as a book reviewer for The Kensington Review , a small literary magazine , until it succumbed to poor sales . After , she dabbled in the occult and became friendly with prominent London occultists . In 1902 she co @-@ wrote with Florence Farr — who for a time led the Order of Golden Dawn — two plays on the occult , The Beloved of Hathor and The Shrine of the Golden Hawk , which were subsequently published as a pair .
Although the family received an inheritance from Olivia 's mother , they continued to live in Bayswater . For a period Dorothy was at boarding school , after which she was sent to a finishing school in Geneva . To save money , the family often left London during the summer , to take long visits to relatives in the country , in particular her brother Henry Tucker . Not until 1905 did the family lease a house in Brunswick Gardens , near Kensington Palace , when Dorothy returned home to live with her parents .
= = Dorothy and Ezra Pound = =
Records of Olivia 's life resume through Dorothy 's letters and diaries surrounding the arrival of the American poet Ezra Pound in London in 1909 . Following her friends in Kensington society , Olivia opened her home once a week for a salon , beginning an important period in her life . When Yeats returned to London that year , Olivia became the centre of a blossoming literary movement . Yeats held a Monday evening salon ; those who attended usually also visited Olivia 's . She hosted , and became a nexus for , much of the pre @-@ war literary activity in London . Notable attendees included Pound , H.D. ( Hilda Doolitle ) , Yeats , Wyndham Lewis , Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska , Walter Morse Rummel , Richard Aldington , William Carlos Williams , T. E. Hulme and John Cournos . The gatherings were held in her drawing room , a place Pound described in a letter as " full of white magic " . Olivia was by now a well @-@ known occultist and hosted séances in her drawing room . She became well @-@ versed in astrology and palmistry , passing on what she knew to Dorothy who shared her interest . Both read grimoires ; Olivia was an expert at " drawing occult symbols " and quite familiar with the symbology of the occult .
Olivia met Pound in January 1909 at a Kensington salon hosted by a friend ; she invited him for tea on 16 February 1909 , and at his insistence introduced Pound to Yeats in May 1909 . Yeats had recently returned to London and began a thorough investigation of spiritualism and the occult , turning to Olivia for advice . She took the young American poet to Yeats ' rooms at Woburn Place , fostering their relationship .
Dorothy soon fell in love with Pound . In late 1909 and early 1910 Olivia and Dorothy attended his lectures at the London Polytechnic Institution ; in June 1910 they joined him in Sirmione , Italy . For reasons unclear to biographers Olivia forbade the two from writing to each other during his extended visit to New York from 1910 to 1911 . Despite the restriction Dorothy seems to have considered herself engaged to Pound , although uncertain whether he intended to stay in New York or return to London .
In 1910 Yeats thought his horoscope suggested a return to Olivia ; he distanced himself from Maud and in June began to see Olivia more frequently . Pound was fond of Olivia , which may have caused Yeats some jealousy as when , for example , Pound met the two at the theatre and took them afterward to tea — an occasion when Yeats was extremely rude to Pound . A year later , Olivia introduced Yeats to Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , her 18 @-@ year @-@ old step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend , whom Yeats eventually married .
Pound returned from America in 1911 and resumed his visits to Olivia and Dorothy , adhering to Olivia 's restrictions . That October Pound formally asked to marry Dorothy ; her father refused on the basis of Pound 's meagre income . Neither Dorothy nor Pound gave up : he again asked for permission to marry her in March 1912 but was again rejected . In Dorothy 's mind they continued to be engaged , although they were only allowed short visits in the Family drawing room once a week or every two weeks .
Olivia became concerned about her daughter after Hilda Doolittle , who also believed she was engaged to Pound , arrived in London in 1911 . Olivia welcomed H.D. to her home , but she witnessed the interactions between Dorothy , Pound , H.D. and Richard Aldington , whom H.D. married in 1913 . In September 1912 Olivia wrote a stern letter to Pound , in which she pointedly told him to break off his friendship with Dorothy :
You told me you were prepared to see less of Dorothy this winter . I don 't know if you wd rather leave it to me to say I don 't think it advisable she should see so much of you etc. or whether you wd rather do it in your own way .... I don 't know if she still considers herself engaged to you — but she obviously can 't marry you — it 's hardly decent ! There 's another point too — which is the personal inconvenience & bother to myself — I had all last winter , practically to keep 2 days a week for you to come & see her ... She must marry — She & I can 't possibly go on living this feminine life practically à deux for ever , & we haven 't money enough to separate ... You ought to go away — Englishmen don 't understand yr American ways , & any man who wanted to marry her wd be put off by the fact of yr friendship ( or whatever you call it ) with her . If you had ₤ 500 a year I should be delighted for you to marry her !
In 1913 , Olivia introduced Pound to vorticist sculptor Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska at an art exhibition at the Albert Hall . At the same exhibition the sculptor met Nina Hamnett , whom he subsequently used as a model for a series of nudes bronzes , one of which Olivia bought . In 1914 Olivia translated a grimoire for Yeats and Pound , who spent November 1913 to January 1914 in the countryside at Stone Cottage in Ashdown Forest — Pound acting as secretary to Yeats — researching the occult . They read several grimoires , and Olivia provided for them a translation of the Abbot of Villar 's 1670 grimoire Le Comte de Gabalis . Her translation was serialised in the literary magazine The Egoist later that year .
By 1914 Olivia seems to have realised that Dorothy was determined to marry Pound , and finally consented ; ironically Pound was then earning less than he had in 1911 . Hope Shakespear relented when the couple agreed to a church wedding rather than a civil ceremony , which took place on 20 April 1914 . Olivia gave them two early circus drawings by Pablo Picasso .
= = Later life and death = =
After Dorothy 's wedding much of the documentation of Olivia 's life ceases . She moved out of Brunswick Gardens in 1924 , throwing away personal correspondence and giving away hundreds of books . Hope Shakespear died on 5 July 1923 ; within months Olivia moved to an apartment in West Kensington , taking with her two maids who had been with the family for decades . Her life continued unchanged , filled with social events . In September 1926 , Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , who in 1927 was brought from France to be raised in England . Olivia became his guardian and Dorothy spent summers with her mother and son .
In 1926 Yeats spent several weeks in London , likely visiting Olivia frequently . He showed regret for his behaviour in 1897 , writing to her , " I came across two early photographs of you yesterday ... Who ever had a like profile ? — a profile from a Sicilian coin . One looks back to one 's youth as to a cup that a mad man dying of thirst left half tasted . I wonder if you feel like that ? " The two maintained their correspondence , as they had for many years .
Olivia continued to socialise and had many friends , one of whom , Wyndham Lewis , painted her portrait ; he enjoyed her company despite finding it difficult to relate to others . She stopped writing but remained an avid reader , turning to detective stories for light relief although she also kept up with literary authors . She became friendly with Thomas MacGreevy , whom she invited for tea , later writing to him , " WBY has given me the new edition of Reveries and the Veil , & I am re @-@ reading it all . It is very beautifully done . He was about 29 when I first knew him " . McGreevy told Yeats that Olivia was " always a symbol of elegance , a kind of gold and ivory image " . Harwood writes of her , " Olivia Shakespear was avant @-@ garde in literature , agnostic in religion , and conservative in politics , at least later in life " .
Olivia 's correspondence with Pound continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s , when she acted in part as his agent in London . In 1924 , at Pound 's request , she welcomed George Antheil into her social circle , procured artwork and books that were sent on to Dorothy and Ezra in Rapallo , and mediated in a dispute between Pound and Lewis . She was uninterested in Pound 's politics and economic views and particularly disliked his later Cantos . After her husband 's death , Olivia 's income was sufficient to support a comfortable lifestyle . During the 1920s and 1930s she gradually increased Dorothy 's income ( which was also increased by various family bequests ) , and in the 1930s she made investments in Dorothy 's name , sending the proceeds to Dorothy and Pound . In a very real sense , according to Harwood , Olivia Shakespear is the " unsung heroine " of the modernist period , because much of the money Ezra Pound generously used to support struggling writers such as T.S. Eliot and James Joyce came from her .
Olivia died of complications brought on by gall bladder disease on 3 October 1938 . The day before her death she wrote in a letter to Dorothy : " On Monday I was taken suddenly ill with gall bladder trouble — awful pain — sent for Doctor Barnes — he gave me dope & an injection and pain gradually went ... He says I am going on all right , but of course I feel rather a wreck " . She died the following day of a heart attack . John Unterecker believes Olivia 's death shattered Yeats , who died only months later , because she added warmth to his life . Yeats wrote of her death :
Olivia Shakespear has died suddenly . For more than forty years she has been the centre of my life in London and during all that time we have never had a quarrel , sadness sometimes but never a difference . When I first met her she was in her late twenties but in looks a lovely young girl . When she died she was a lovely old woman ... She came of a long line of soldiers and during the last war thought it her duty to stay in London through all the air raids . She was not more lovely than distinguished — no matter what happened she never lost her solitude ... For the moment I cannot bear the thought of London . I will find her memory everywhere .
Dorothy was ill when her mother died , unable to travel to London . She sent Pound to organise the funeral and to clear out the house . Ezra sorted through Olivia 's correspondence and returned to Yeats many of her letters . Unterecker writes that Yeats made an effort to keep the correspondence private : " Shortly before his death he methodically destroyed a large group of letters to Olivia Shakespear . These , returned to him after her death ... Yeats wanted no one to read " .
= = Novels : description and reception = =
Olivia had six novels published between 1894 and 1910 , which as described by Foster are about women unhappy in love , with insipid and uninspiring male characters . The heroines — frequently orphaned , educated by elderly tutors , and depicted in country house libraries — fall in love with much older men in the later novels .
The first two novels were published in 1894 to mixed reviews . Love on a Mortal Lease ( title from George Meredith ) was released in June , followed in November by The Journey of High Honour , at 30 @,@ 000 words considerably shorter than the 355 pages of Love on a Mortal Lease . Each novel sold only a few hundred copies . Harwood describes the early work such as Love on a Mortal Lease as showing stylistic similarities to contemporary women novelists such as Craighie and Rhonda Broughton , with witty dialogue in Craighie 's style , although he thinks Olivia brought a more serious voice to her work . He describes Love on a Mortal Lease as a work in which the heroine is well @-@ characterised but the background is weak .
She dedicated The False Laurel , published in 1896 , to Lionel Johnson . The plot features a poetess who falls in love with and marries an insipid young poet , giving up her own writing to attend to his needs . She becomes bored , writes a successful play , and then goes mad . The False Laurel was the least successful of her books , selling fewer than 200 copies . It received a poor review from The Bookman but a good one from The Athenaeneum .
Rupert Armstrong was published in 1899 by Harper and Brothers , dedicated to Valentine Fox . In this , the fourth of her novels , Harwood believes her writing and voice became more original . The complicated plot — a mother and daughter struggle for " possession of the [ father 's ] artistic soul " — shows hints of incestuous love , a theme found in her later work . Written during the affair with Yeats , Harwood sees the characters presented " in a precise , bitter intensity unlike anything in the earlier work " .
The Devotees was published by Heinemann in December 1900 . Like Rupert Armstrong , the plot of The Devotees depicts a mildly incestuous love : a young man and girl , raised together since childhood , devote themselves for decades to his drug @-@ addicted mother before they marry . The reviews were mostly unkind .
Olivia 's final novel , Uncle Hilary , was published in 1910 and is considered her best work . Of Uncle Hilary Jane Eldridge Miller writes in Rebel Women : Feminism , Modernism , and the Edwardian Novel , " Shakespear demonstrates the ways in which that ideal leads to disillusionment and resentment " . In the complicated plot a young woman unwittingly marries her stepfather , leaves him , and accepts a marriage proposal from her guardian . Harwood believes her loveless marriage , the love affair with Yeats , the frustration with Dorothy , and Pound 's unfaithfulness to Dorothy , built in her a strength and acceptance of life that bordered on the spiritual and she no longer needed to write . Miller writes that in the novel Olivia explores " marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy " , with a focus on the nature of romantic love — rejected in favour of spiritual and intellectual pursuits . Leon Surette writes in The Birth of Modernism , Olivia 's Uncle Hilary highlights the ties between spiritualism , occultism and feminism , seeing Uncle Hilary as a feminist novel which he describes as " quite readable " .
Jane Miller characterises the works as " marriage problem " novels in which the wife confronts the reality of marriage , its restrictions , and the need to achieve independence . By finding interests outside marriage the wife loses the overwhelming need for love within the marriage . Miller writes that in Uncle Hilary Olivia examines issues such as marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy , while focusing on the nature of romantic love . It was in Uncle Hilary that Olivia wrote of love : " Love is the worst slavery that exists ... it is the most persistent of illusions " .
= = List of works = =
Novels
Love on a Mortal Lease ( 1894 )
Beauty 's Hour ( 1894 )
The Journey of High Honour ( 1894 )
The False Laurel ( 1896 )
Rupert Armstrong ( 1898 )
The Devotees ( 1904 )
Uncle Hilary ( 1909 )
Plays
The Beloved of Hathor ( 1902 )
The Shrine of the Golden Hawk ( 1902 )
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= Coelurus =
Coelurus ( / sᵻˈljʊərəs / si @-@ LEWR @-@ əs ) is a genus of coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period ( mid @-@ late Kimmeridgian faunal stage , 153 – 150 million years ago ) . The name means " hollow tail " , referring to its hollow tail vertebrae ( Greek κοιλος , koilos |
= hollow + ουρα , oura =
tail ) . Although its name is linked to one of the main divisions of theropods ( Coelurosauria ) , it has historically been poorly understood , and sometimes confused with its better @-@ known contemporary Ornitholestes . Like many dinosaurs studied in the early years of paleontology , it has had a confusing taxonomic history , with several species being named and later transferred to other genera or abandoned . Only one species is currently recognized as valid : the type species , C. fragilis , described by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879 . It is known from one partial skeleton found in the Morrison Formation of Wyoming , United States . It was a small bipedal carnivore with elongate legs .
= = Description = =
Coelurus is known from most of the skeleton of a single individual , including numerous vertebrae , partial pelvic and shoulder girdles , and much of the arms and legs , stored at the Peabody Museum of Natural History ; however , the relative completeness of the skeleton was not known until 1980 . The fossils were recovered from Reed 's Quarry 13 at Como Bluff , Wyoming . Additionally , two arm bones possibly belonging to this genus are known from the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah . It was not a large dinosaur . Its weight has been estimated at around 13 to 20 kilograms ( 29 to 44 lb ) , with a length of about 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) and a hip height of 0 @.@ 7 meters ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) . From reconstructions of the skeleton , Coelurus had a relatively long neck and torso due to its long vertebrae , a long slender hindlimb due to its long metatarsus , and potentially a small slender skull .
The skull is unknown except for possibly a portion of lower jaw found at the same site as the rest of the known Coelurus material . Although it has the same preservation and coloring as the fossils known to belong to the Coelurus skeleton , it is very slender , which may mean it does not belong to the skeleton ; this bone is 7 @.@ 9 centimeters long ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) but only 1 @.@ 1 centimeters tall ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) . In general , its vertebrae were long and low , with low neural spines and thin walls to the bodies of the vertebrae . Its neck vertebrae were very pneumatic , with numerous hollow spaces on their surfaces ( pleurocoels ) ; these hollows were not evenly distributed among the vertebrae and varied in size . The neck vertebrae were very elongate , with bodies four times longer than wide , and they articulated with concave faces on both ends ( amphicoely ) . The back vertebrae were not as elongate , lacked surface hollows , and had less developed concave faces and bodies that were hourglass @-@ shaped . The tail vertebrae also lacked surface hollows .
The only bone known from the shoulder girdle is a fragment of scapula . The upper arm had a distinct S @-@ shaped curve in side view and was slightly longer than the forearm ( 11 @.@ 9 centimeters [ 4 @.@ 7 in ] versus 9 @.@ 6 centimeters [ 3 @.@ 8 in ] ) . The wrist had a semilunate carpal † similar to that of Deinonychus , and the fingers were long and slender . The only bone known from the pelvic girdle is paired and fused pubis bones , which had a prominent , long " foot " at the end . The thigh bones had an S @-@ shape when viewed from the front . The metatarsals were unusually long and slender , nearly the length of the thigh bones ( the best preserved thigh bone is about 21 centimeters long [ 8 @.@ 3 in ] ) .
= = = Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus = = =
The three best @-@ known small theropods of the Morrison Formation — Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus — were generalized coelurosaurs , and they have been mistaken for each other at various times . Now that Coelurus and Ornitholestes have been more fully described , it is possible to distinguish them by various characteristics of their anatomy . For example , they had visibly different proportions : Coelurus had a longer back and neck than Ornitholestes , and longer , more slender legs and feet . Coelurus and Tanycolagreus are more similar , but differ in a variety of details . Such details include the shape of the upper arm , forearm , and thigh bones ; the location of muscle attachments on the thigh bone , proportionally longer back vertebrae ; and , again , the very long metatarsus of Coelurus .
= = Classification = =
Since the growth of phylogenetic studies in the 1980s , Coelurus has usually been found to be a coelurosaurian of uncertain affinities , not fitting with the better @-@ known clades of the Cretaceous . Along with several other generalized coelurosaurians such as the compsognathids , Ornitholestes , and Proceratosaurus , it has had multiple placements around the base of Coelurosauria . The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Rauhut ( 2003 ) and Smith et al . ( 2007 ) found that Coelurus was more closely related to compsognathids than to other coelurosaurs . Oliver Rauhut ( 2003 ) proposed that Coeluridae was composed of Coelurus plus the compsognathids , but he and others have not since found the compsognathids to group with Coelurus . However , a work published by Phil Senter in 2007 following the description of Tanycolagreus found it and Coelurus to be closely related at the base of Tyrannosauroidea . Senter proposed that Coelurus and Tanycolagreus were the only coelurids and were actually tyrannosauroids , but the phylogenetic analysis of Turner et al . ( 2007b ) found that Coelurus was a basal coelurosaur , although more derived than the tyrannosaurids . Zanno in 2010 recovered Coelurus as a basal maniraptoran . Coelurus is sometimes put into its own family , Coeluridae , although the membership of the family has not been stable .
Before the use of phylogenetic analyses , Coeluridae and Coelurosauria were taxonomic wastebaskets used for small theropods that did not belong to other groups ; thus , they accumulated many dubious genera . As late as the 1980s , popular books recognized over a dozen " coelurids " , including such disparate forms as the noasaurid Laevisuchus and the oviraptorosaurian Microvenator , and considered them descendants of the coelophysids . A wastebasket Coeluridae lingered into the early 1990s in some sources ( and appears in at least one 2006 source ) but since then it has only been recognized in a much reduced form . Coeluridae received a formal phylogenetic definition in 2015 , when it was defined as all species more closely related to Coelurus fragilis than to Proceratosaurus bradleyi , Tyrannosaurus rex , Allosaurus fragilis , Compsognathus longipes , Ornithomimus edmontonicus , or Deinonychus antirrhopus by Hendrickx , Hartman and Mateus . It remains unclear whether or not this group contains any species other than Coelurus itself , and while Tanycolagreus is often included , support for this relationship has been weak in most of the studies that recovered it .
Below is a cladogram placing Coelurus in Coelurosauria by Cau et al. in 2015 .
= = History = =
Coelurus was described in 1879 by Othniel Charles Marsh , an American paleontologist and naturalist known for his " Bone Wars " with Edward Drinker Cope . At the time , he only described what he interpreted as vertebrae from the back and tail , found at the same location as the type specimen of his new genus and species Camptonotus dispar ( later renamed Camptosaurus because Camptonotus was already in use for a cricket ) . Marsh was impressed with the hollow interiors of the thin @-@ walled vertebrae , a characteristic that gave the type species its name : Coelurus fragilis . He thought of his new genus as an " animal about as large as a wolf , and probably carnivorous " . Coelurus would prove to be the first named small theropod from the Morrison Formation , although at the time Marsh was not certain that it was a dinosaur . He returned to it in 1881 and provided illustrations of some bones , along with putting it in a new order ( Coeluria ) and family ( Coeluridae ) .
From there , the story becomes more complex . Apparently , the skeleton was scattered throughout the quarry , with the remains being recovered from September 1879 to September 1880 . Marsh elected to place some of the material in a new species , C. agilis , on the strength of a pair of fused pubic bones he thought belonged to an animal three times the size of C. fragilis . He returned to the genus in 1888 to add C " . gracilis , based on unknown remains only represented today by a single claw bone pertaining to a small theropod from the Early Cretaceous Arundel Formation of Maryland . This species is not currently accepted as representing Coelurus in reviews of the genus , but has not been given its own genus .
Despite their professional animosity , Cope also assigned species to Coelurus ; in 1887 , he named fossils from the Late Triassic of New Mexico as C. bauri and C. longicollis . He later gave them their own genus , Coelophysis .
In 1903 , Henry Fairfield Osborn named a second genus of small theropod from the Morrison Formation , Ornitholestes . This genus was based on a partial skeleton from Bone Cabin Quarry , north of Como Bluff . Ornitholestes became intertwined with Coelurus in 1920 , when Charles Gilmore , in his influential study of theropod dinosaurs , concluded that the two were synonyms . This was followed in the literature for decades . The two genera were not formally compared , however , nor was there a full accounting of what actually belonged to Coelurus , until John Ostrom 's study in 1980 .
Gilmore had suspected that C. fragilis and C. agilis were the same , but Ostrom was able to demonstrate this synonymy . This greatly expanded the known material pertaining to C. fragilis , and Ostrom was able to demonstrate that Ornitholestes was quite different from Coelurus . At the time , Dale Russell had proposed that C. agilis was a species of Elaphrosaurus based on the incomplete information then published ; Ostrom was also able to demonstrate that this was not the case . Additionally , he showed that one of the three vertebrae Marsh had illustrated for C. fragilis was actually a composite of two vertebrae , one of which was later shown to come from another quarry and belonged not to Coelurus but to another , unnamed small theropod . This unnamed genus would not be the last small theropod from the Morrison Formation to be confused with Coelurus ; a later discovery ( 1995 ) of a partial skeleton in Wyoming was first thought to be a new larger specimen of Coelurus , but further study showed it belonged to a different but related genus , Tanycolagreus .
= = = Species = = =
Only one species of Coelurus , the type species C. fragilis , is still recognized as valid today , although six other species have been named over the years . C. agilis , as discussed , was named by Marsh in 1884 for what turned out to be additional parts of the skeleton of C. fragilis . Cope 's C. bauri and C. longicollis , named in 1887 from Late Triassic fossils from New Mexico , were transferred by Cope in 1889 to his new genus Coelophysis . C. daviesi was named by Richard Lydekker in 1888 for Harry Seeley 's Thecospondylus daviesi , a neck vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of England , but this species was later transferred to its own genus , Thecocoelurus . C. gracilis , another Early Cretaceous species , was also named in 1888 . It was coined by Marsh for what seems to be an assortment of limb remains , but Gilmore could only find a single claw when he reviewed the species in 1920 . This species has been proposed as outside Coelurus since the 1920s ( when Gilmore assigned it to Chirostenotes ) , and has been regarded as a dubious species outside of Coelurus in recent reviews . Finally , during the period when Ornitholestes was thought to be the same as Coelurus , its type species was recognized as distinct by Steel , as C. hermanni .
= = Paleobiology and paleoecology = =
= = = Provenance and occurrence = = =
The type specimen of Coelurus agilis , YPM 2010 ( now considered a synonym of Coelurus fragilis ) was recovered in the Brushy Basin member of the Morrison Formation , in Albany County , Wyoming . The specimen was collected by Reed in gray sandstone and brown / green claystone that were deposited during the Kimmeridgian stage of the Jurassic period , approximately 157 to 152 million years ago . This specimen is housed in the collection of the Yale Peabody Museum in New Haven , Connecticut .
= = = Fauna and habitat = = =
The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns , to fern savannas with rare trees . It has been a rich fossil hunting ground , holding fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Other fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles such as Uluops , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Fruitachampsa , several species of pterosaur like Kepodactylus , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Such dinosaurs as the theropods Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Hesperosaurus , Drinker , Fruitadens , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus are known from the Morrison . Coelurus is regarded as a small terrestrial carnivore , feeding on small prey items like insects , mammals , and lizards . It is thought to have been a fast animal , certainly faster than the similar but shorter @-@ footed Ornitholestes . Coelurus is present in stratigraphic zones 2 and 5 of the Morrison Formation .
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= Adam Gilchrist =
Adam Craig Gilchrist , AM ( / ˈɡɪlkrɪst / ; born 14 November 1971 ) , nicknamed " Gilly " or " Churchy " , is a former Australian cricketer and one of the most explosive batsmen in world cricket . He was the captain of Australia , and Middlesex . He is an attacking left @-@ handed batsman and record @-@ breaking wicket @-@ keeper , who redefined the role for the Australia national cricket team through his aggressive batting . He is widely regarded as the greatest wicket @-@ keeper – batsman in the history of the game . He held the world record for the most dismissals by a wicket @-@ keeper in One Day International ( ODI ) cricket until it was surpassed by Kumar Sangakkara in 2015 and the most by an Australian in Test cricket . His strike rate is amongst the highest in the history of both ODI and Test cricket ; his century against England at Perth in December 2006 is the fourth @-@ fastest century in all Test cricket . He is the first player to have hit 100 sixes in Test cricket . His 17 Test and 16 ODI centuries are the second most by a wicket @-@ keeper , only after Kumar Sangakkara . He holds the unique record of scoring at least 50 runs in successive World Cup finals ( in 1999 , 2003 and 2007 ) . His swashbuckling 149 off 104 balls against Sri Lanka in the 2007 World Cup final is rated one of the greatest World Cup innings of all time . He is one of only three players to have won three titles . Adam Gilchrist is also the first player to reach 1000 runs in the Indian Premier League . Gilchrist is renowned for walking when he considers himself to be out , sometimes contrary to the decision of the umpire . He made his first @-@ class debut in 1992 , his first One @-@ Day International appearance in 1996 in India and his Test debut in 1999 . During his career , he played for Australia in 96 Test matches and over 270 One @-@ day internationals . He was Australia 's vice @-@ captain in both forms of the game , captaining the team when regular captains Steve Waugh and Ricky Ponting were unavailable . He retired from international cricket in March 2008 .
In March 2013 , he announced that he would join the Caribbean Premier League , a Twenty20 tournament in the West Indies in July along with teammate Ricky Ponting .
= = Early and personal life = =
Adam Gilchrist was born in 1971 at Bellingen Hospital , in Bellingen , New South Wales , the youngest of four children . He and his family lived in Dorrigo , Junee and then Deniliquin where , playing for his school , Deniliquin South Public School , he won the Brian Taber Shield ( named after New South Wales cricketer Brian Taber ) . At the age of 13 , his parents , Stan and June , moved the family to Lismore where Gilchrist captained the Kadina High School cricket team . Gilchrist was selected for the state under @-@ 17 team , and in 1989 he was offered a scholarship by London @-@ based Richmond Cricket Club , a scheme he now supports himself . During his year at Richmond , he also played junior cricket for Old Actonians Cricket Club 's under 17 team , with whom he won the Middlesex League and Cup double . He moved to Sydney and joined the Gordon Club in Sydney Grade Cricket , later moving to Northern Districts .
Gilchrist is married to his high school sweetheart Melinda ( Mel ) Gilchrist ( née Sharpe ) , a dietitian , and they have three sons , Harrison , Archie and Ted , and a daughter , Annie Jean . His family came under the spotlight in the months leading up to the 2007 Cricket World Cup as Archie 's impending birth threatened his presence in the squad ; Archie was born in February and Gilchrist was able to take part in the tournament .
= = Domestic career = =
In 1991 , Gilchrist was selected for the Australia Young Cricketers , a national youth team that toured England and played in youth ODIs and Tests . Gilchrist scored a century and a fifty in the three Tests . Upon his return to Australia late in the year , Gilchrist was accepted into the Australian Cricket Academy . Over the next year , Gilchrist represented the ACA as they played matches against the Second XI of Australia 's state teams , and toured South Africa to play provincial youth teams .
Upon returning to Australia , Gilchrist scored two centuries in four matches for the state Colts and Second XI teams , and was rewarded with selection to make his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales during the 1992 – 93 season , although he played purely as a batsman , due to the presence of incumbent wicketkeeper Phil Emery . In his first season , the side won the Sheffield Shield , Gilchrist scoring an unbeaten 20 in the second innings to secure an easy win over Queensland in the final . Gilchrist made 274 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 44 in his debut season , a score of 75 being his only effort beyond fifty . He also made his debut in Mercantile Mutual limited overs competition . He struggled to keep his place in the side , playing only three first @-@ class matches in the following season . He scored on 43 runs at 8 @.@ 60 ; New South Wales won both competitions , but Gilchrist was overlooked for both finals and did not play a single limited overs match .
Due to a lack of opportunities in the dominant New South Wales outfit , Gilchrist joined Western Australia at the start of the 1994 – 95 , where he had to compete with former Test player Tim Zoehrer for the wicket @-@ keeper 's berth . Gilchrist had no guarantee of selection . However , he made a century in a pre @-@ season trial match and seized Zoehrer 's place . The local fans were initially hostile to the move , but Gilchrist won them over . He made 55 first @-@ class dismissals in his first season , the most by any wicketkeeper in Australian domestic cricket in 1994 – 95 . However , he struggled with the bat , scoring 398 runs at 26 @.@ 53 with seven single figure scores , although he recorded his maiden first @-@ class century in the latter stages of the season , with 126 against South Australia . Gilchrist was rewarded with selection in the Young Australia team that toured England in 1995 and played matches against the English counties . Gilchrist starred with bat , scoring 490 runs at 70 @.@ 00 with two centuries . His second season based in Perth saw him top of the dismissals again , with 58 catches and four stumpings , but , significantly , 835 runs at an impressive batting average of 50 @.@ 52 . The Warriors made it to the final of the Sheffield Shield , at the Adelaide Oval , where Gilchrist scored 189 not out in the first innings , from only 187 balls , including five sixes . The innings brought Gilchrist national prominence . The match ended in a thrilling draw as South Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair held on to fend off the visitors . The hosts thus took the title , having scored more points in the qualifying matches . Gilchrist also scored an unbeaten 76 to help Western Australia secure a narrow three @-@ wicket victory over New South Wales in the penultimate limited overs match of the season , which saw them into the final against Queensland , which was lost . Gilchrist 's form saw him selected for Australia A , a team comprising players close to national selection . At the start of the 1996 – 97 season , sections of the media advocated that he replace Ian Healy as the national wicket @-@ keeper , but Healy struck 161 in the First Test and maintained his position . Gilchrist continued to perform strongly on the domestic circuit he topped the dismissals count once again , with 62 , along with a batting average of just under 40 , although he failed to post a century . Team success came in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , where the Warriors won by eight wickets against Queensland in the March 1997 final ; Gilchrist was not required to bat .
The 1997 – 98 season ended with Gilchrist top of the dismissals chart for the fourth season in a row with an improved batting average of 47 @.@ 66 , despite playing in only six of the ten qualifying Shield matches due to his becoming a regular member of the national limited overs team . Gilchrist registered his maiden – first @-@ class double century with an unbeaten 203 against South Australia early in the season , before returning late in the season after his international commitments were over . He added 109 against Victoria , and played in the Sheffield Shield final victory over Tasmania , although he scored only eight . There was disappointment for the team in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , losing the semi @-@ final to Queensland . The following season saw Gilchrist 's domestic appearances diminish due to his international commitments : he made only a single appearance in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , but still managed to help Western Australia defend the Sheffield Shield , scoring a century in the qualifying rounds .
Gilchrist 's regular selection for Australia has meant that he is rarely available for domestic selection . He became the Test wicket @-@ keeper in late @-@ 1999 , and between 1999 and 2005 , he made only seven first @-@ class appearances for his state . He did not play in the 2005 – 06 Pura Cup and only appeared three times in the limited @-@ overs ING Cup .
= = International career = =
= = = Early one @-@ day seasons = = =
Gilchrist was called up for the Australian One Day International ( ODI ) team in 1996 , his debut coming against South Africa at Faridabad on 25 October 1996 as the 129th Australian ODI cap , after an injury to incumbent Ian Healy . While not particularly impressive with the bat on his debut , scoring 18 before being bowled by Allan Donald , Gilchrist took his first catch as an international wicketkeeper , Hansie Cronje departing for a golden duck from the bowling of Paul Reiffel . He was run out for a duck in his only other ODI on the tour . Healy resumed his place during the 1996 – 97 season . Gilchrist replaced Healy for the first two ODIs in the 1997 Australian tour of South Africa , after Healy was suspended for dissent . When Healy returned Gilchrist maintained his position in the team as a specialist batsman after Mark Waugh sustained a hand injury . It was during this series that Gilchrist made his first ODI half @-@ century , with an innings of 77 in Durban . He totalled 127 runs at 31 @.@ 75 for the series . Gilchrist went on to play in the Texaco Trophy later in 1997 in the 3 – 0 series loss against England , scoring 53 and 33 in two innings .
At the start of the 1997 – 98 Australian season , Healy and captain Mark Taylor were omitted from the ODI squad as the Australian selectors opted for Gilchrist and Michael di Venuto . Gilchrist 's elevation was made possible by a change in policy by selectors , who announced that selection for ODI and Test teams would be separate , with Test and ODI specialists selected accordingly , while Healy remained the preferred Test wicket @-@ keeper . This came after Australia failed to qualify for the previous season 's ODI triangular series final for the first time in 17 years . The new team was initially unconvincing , losing all four round robin matches against South Africa in the 1997 – 98 Carlton & United Series , with multiple players filling Taylor 's role as Mark Waugh 's opening partner without success . Gilchrist also struggled batting in the lower order at number seven , the conventional wicket @-@ keeper 's batting position , scoring 148 runs at 24 @.@ 66 in the eight qualifying matches . In the first final against South Africa at the Melbourne Cricket Ground Gilchrist was selected as Waugh 's opening partner . In a particularly poor start to the new combination , Waugh was run out after a mix @-@ up with Gilchrist . However , in the second final , Gilchrist struck his maiden ODI century , spearheading Australia 's successful run chase at the Sydney Cricket Ground , securing his position as an opening batsman . Australia won the third final to claim the title .
Touring New Zealand in February 1998 , Gilchrist topped that Australia averages with 200 runs at 50 @.@ 00 , including a match @-@ winning 118 in the first match . He also effected his first ODI stumping , the wicket of Nathan Astle in the Second ODI in Wellington . Australia then played two triangular tournaments in Asia . Gilchrist struggled in India , scoring 86 runs at 17 @.@ 20 . He went on to play in the Coca Cola Cup in Sharjah in April 1998 , a triangular tournament between Australia , India and New Zealand . Australia finished runners @-@ up in the tournament , with Gilchrist taking nine dismissals as wicketkeeper and averaging 37 @.@ 13 with the bat .
Gilchrist won a silver medal at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur , the only time cricket has been in the Commonwealth Games . The matches did not have ODI status , and after winning their first four fixtures , Australia lost the final to South Africa , Gilchrist making 15 . He then scored 103 and ended with 190 runs at 63 @.@ 33 as Australia took a rare 3 – 0 whitewash on Pakistani soil .
Gilchrist was in fine form ahead of the 1999 Cricket World Cup with a productive individual performance in the Carlton & United Series in January and February 1999 against Sri Lanka and England . He finished with 525 runs at a batting average of 43 @.@ 75 with two centuries — both against Sri Lanka — and a fifty , and a total of 27 dismissals in 12 matches . His 131 helped Australia set a successful run @-@ chase at the SCG , and he followed this with 154 at the MCG . The 1999 tour of the West Indies was Australia 's last campaign before the World Cup and continued to prove Gilchrist 's ability as a wicketkeeper @-@ batsman . Gilchrist , with a batting average of 28 @.@ 71 and a strike rate of nearly 90 @.@ 00 , and seven fielding dismissals in a seven @-@ match series which ended 3 – 3 with one tie .
= = = First World Cup success = = =
Gilchrist played in every match of Australia 's successful World Cup campaign , but struggled at first , with scores of 6 , 14 and 0 in the first three matches against Scotland , New Zealand and Pakistan . Australia lost the latter two matches and had to avoid defeat for six consecutive matches to reach the final . Gilchrist 's quick @-@ fire 63 runs in 39 balls against Bangladesh helped the Australians into the Super Six stage of the tournament , which was secured with a win over the West Indies , although Gilchrist made only 21 . Gilchrist continued to struggle in the Super Six phase , scoring 31 , 10 and 5 against India , Zimbabwe and South Africa . Australia won all three matches , the last in the final over , to scrape into the semifinals . Gilchrist made only 20 in the semifinal against South Africa , but completed the final act of the match . With the scores tied , South Africa were going for the winning run when Gilchrist broke the stumps to complete the run out of Allan Donald ; the match was tied , and Australia proceeded to the final as they had won the group stage match against South Africa . Gilchrist 's 54 in the final helped secure Australia 's first world title since 1987 with an eight wicket victory over Pakistan . It was a happy ending for Gilchrist , who had struggled through the tournament , with 237 runs at 21 @.@ 54 .
Success at the World Cup was followed by a defeat by Sri Lanka in the final of the Aiwa Cup in August 1999 , . Gilchrist was the most successful batsman and wicket @-@ keeper of the tournament , with 231 runs at 46 @.@ 20 . While the Test players battled against Sri Lanka , Gilchrist led Australia A in a limited overs series against India A in Los Angeles . He then scored 60 runs at 20 @.@ 00 as the Australians completed a 3 – 0 whitewash of Zimbabwe in October .
= = = Test debut = = =
Gilchrist made his Test match debut in the First Test against Pakistan at the Gabba in Brisbane in November 1999 becoming the 381st Australian Test cricketer . He replaced Healy , who was dropped after a run of poor form , despite the incumbent 's entreaties to the selectors to allow him a farewell game in front of his home crowd . Gilchrist 's entry into the Test arena coincided with a dramatic rise in Australia 's fortunes . Up to this point , they had played eight Tests in 1999 , winning and losing three .
Gilchrist 's icy reception at the Gabba did not faze him ; he took five catches , stumped Azhar Mahmood off Shane Warne 's bowling and scored a rapid 81 , mostly in partnership with ODI partner Waugh , in a match that Australia won comfortably by ten wickets . In his second Test match he made an unbeaten 149 to help guide Australia to victory in a game that looked well beyond their reach . Australia were struggling at 5 / 126 in pursuit of 369 for victory as he joined his Western Australian team @-@ mate , Justin Langer , but the pair put on a record @-@ breaking partnership of 238 to seal an Australian win . Gilchrist continued his strong run throughout his debut Test season , and ended the summer with 485 runs at 69 @.@ 28 in six matches , three each against Pakistan and India , adding two fifties against the latter .
Gilchrist was moderately successful in the following ODIs , the Carlton & United Series ; Australia defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in a best @-@ of @-@ three final . Gilchrist scored 272 runs at 27 @.@ 20 ; his best effort was 92 in a 152 @-@ run victory over India on Australia Day . Gilchrist then scored 251 runs at 41 @.@ 66 in the ODIs during a tour of New Zealand . The highlight was a 128 in Christchurch that propelled Australia to a score of 6 / 349 . Gilchrist was named man of the match in two of the games .
In the Third Test against New Zealand in 2000 , Gilchrist recorded the third best Test performance ever by a wicketkeeper , and the best by an Australian , taking ten catches in the match . Although Gilchrist 's batting was modest , yielding 144 runs at 36 @.@ 00 , Australia took a 3 – 0 clean sweep . In two home and away ODI series against South Africa , Gilchrist had a quiet time , scoring 170 runs at 26 @.@ 66 . South Africa won three of the six matches , with one tie .
Later that year , he was handed the vice @-@ captaincy of the Australian team in place of Shane Warne , who had been plagued by a number of off @-@ the @-@ field controversies , including an altercation with some teenage boys , and a sex scandal with a British nurse .
The 2000 – 01 season saw a West Indian touring party and Gilchrist warmed up with consecutive first @-@ class centuries for Western Australia . Captaining his Test team for the first time in place of the injured Steve Waugh in the Third Test in Adelaide . Gilchrist scored only 9 and 10 not out , but a ten @-@ wicket haul from Colin Miller resulted in a hard @-@ fought five @-@ wicket victory for Australia . Gilchrist described the match as " the proudest moment of my career " . Waugh resumed the captaincy on his return to the team for the Fourth and Fifth Tests , with the series finishing in a 5 – 0 whitewash . Gilchrist scored 241 runs at 48 @.@ 20 with two fifties . In the ensuing ODI tournament , Gilchrist scored 326 runs at 36 @.@ 22 with a top @-@ score of 98 as the Australians won all ten matches .
Up to this point , Gilchrist had played in 14 Tests , all in Australasia , and all of which had been won . Australia 's run of 15 consecutive Test wins faced a steep challenge on the tour of India , where they had not won a Test series since 1969 – 70 .
Australia 's streak looked in danger during the First Test in Mumbai when they fell to 5 / 99 in reply to India 's 171 when Gilchrist came to the crease . He counterattacked savagely , scoring 122 in just 112 balls , and featuring in a 197 @-@ run partnership with Matthew Hayden in only 32 overs . This swung the momentum back to Australia , who reached 349 . Gilchrist took six catches and was named Man of the Match in a ten wicket victory , extending the world record run to 16 .
Gilchrist 's form dipped momentarily , with a rare king pair ( two golden ducks in the same match ) in the Second Test in Kolkata and just two runs in his two innings in Chennai . He was out LBW four consecutive times in the last two Tests , three of these to Harbhajan Singh , who took 32 wickets in the series to end Australia 's run by inflicting a 2 – 1 series loss . His one @-@ day form remained strong , with 172 runs at 43 @.@ 00 in the ODI series in India , as Australia bounced back to win the series 3 – 2 . During this series he captained the ODI team for the first time , winning all three of the matches under his captaincy .
= = = 2001 Ashes = = =
Gilchrist played a pivotal role in the 2001 Ashes series which Australia won 4 – 1 , with 340 runs at a batting average of 68 @.@ 00 and 26 dismissals in the five match series .
Gilchrist warmed up by putting his ODI struggles on English soil in 1999 behind him , scoring 248 runs at 49 @.@ 60 in the triangular tournament preceding the Tests , scoring an unbeaten 76 in the final win over Pakistan .
Gilchrist put the disappointment of India behind him in the First Test at Edgbaston , scoring 152 from only 143 balls . The allowed Australia to reach 576 in only 545 minutes , and set up an innings victory that set the tone for the series . Gilchrist then added 90 in the eight @-@ wicket win in the Second Test at Lord 's , before turning the tide in the Third Test at Trent Bridge . Australia slumped to 7 / 105 in reply to the hosts ' 185 , but Gilchrist 's 54 took the tourists to 190 before a seven @-@ wicket win resulted in the retention of the Ashes .
Gilchrist captained the team in the Fourth Test at Headingley after an injury to Steve Waugh . After persistent rain interruptions , Gilchrist declared with Australia four down at tea on the fourth day , leaving England with a target of 315 , which , despite losing two early wickets , they reached with six wickets to spare , ( Mark Butcher scoring an unbeaten 173 , including 24 boundaries ) . Gilchrist failed to pass 25 in the last two Tests , but it had been a productive season ; he scored centuries in both of Australia 's county matches .
Two home series followed in the 2001 – 02 season , a fully drawn ( 0 – 0 ) three match series against New Zealand and a whitewash over South Africa 3 – 0 . Gilchrist scored 118 in the First Test against New Zealand and an unbeaten 83 in the Third Test in Perth as the Australians held on for a draw with three wickets intact . However , Gilchrist did little in the triumph over South Africa , failing to pass 35 . He ended the summer Tests with 353 runs at 50 @.@ 42 .
In the ensuing ODIs , Gilchrist scored only 97 runs at 16 @.@ 16 . The Australian selectors sought to accommodate Hayden , who had been successful as a Test opener , into the ODI team by rotating him with Gilchrist and Waugh , but this appeared to unsettle the team . With a newly fragile top @-@ order , Australia failed to qualify for the finals , and the Waugh brothers were dropped from the team , ending Gilchrist 's four @-@ year partnership with Mark . Ricky Ponting was promoted to the captaincy ahead of vice captain Gilchrist .
The Australians then toured South Africa the next month and it was during the First Test in Johannesburg that Gilchrist broke the record for the fastest double century in Tests on 23 February , requiring 212 balls for the feat . This was eight balls quicker than Ian Botham 's innings against India at The Oval in 1982 . He ended unbeaten on 204 , having featured in a partnership of 317 with Damien Martyn at a run rate of 5 @.@ 5 . South Africa were demoralised and lost by an innings after being forced to follow on . The record lasted only one month , however , with New Zealand 's Nathan Astle taking 59 balls less to reach the milestone during an innings in March 2002 .
In the Second Test at Cape Town , Gilchrist struck 138 from 108 balls to set up a first innings lead and eventual four @-@ wicket win . He then top @-@ scored with 91 in the Third Test , and although Australia lost the match , Gilchrist ended the series with an astonishing 473 at 157 @.@ 66 from just 474 balls , in addition to 14 dismissals .
Gilchrist captained the ODI team , once again for a single match , against Kenya in Nairobi during the PSO Tri @-@ Nation Tournament . Despite Australia 's unbeaten run in the competition , the final , against Pakistan was abandoned due to rain , so the teams shared the trophy . During the six middle months of 2002 , Gilchrist played in 18 ODIs , scoring 562 runs at 31 @.@ 22 , including a century , recovering from his slump .
After scoring 122 runs at 40 @.@ 66 in the 3 – 0 Test series clean sweep over Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates , Gilchrist went on to help the Australians retain The Ashes 4 – 1 in 2002 – 03 , playing in all five matches of the series , finishing with 330 runs at 55 @.@ 50 and taking 25 dismissals as wicket @-@ keeper . After scoring fifties in the first two Tests , Gilchrist scored a counter @-@ attacking 133 from 121 balls in the Fifth Test at the SCG , but was unable to prevent Australia 's only loss of the series .
From the time of his debut up to the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist 's played in 40 Tests in series . With the exception of the 2001 tour of India , when he averaged 24 @.@ 80 ( he made 124 runs in the series ; 122 of them came in one innings ) , his performances with the bat were such that he was described at the time as the " finest batsman @-@ wicketkeeper to have graced the game " . At one point in March 2002 , Gilchrist 's Test average was over 60 ; the second @-@ highest for any established player in Test history , and he topped the ICC Test batting rankings in May 2002 .
Gilchrist warmed up for the World Cup in South Africa by scoring 310 runs at 44 @.@ 28 in the triangular tournament in Australia against England and Sri Lanka . His performances over the past year were recognised with the Allan Border Medal .
= = = 2003 World Cup = = =
Gilchrist played in all but one of the matches in Australia 's successful defence of their World Cup title ; he was rested for the group match against the Netherlands . He finished the tournament with 408 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of 105 . He scored four half @-@ centuries , and was run out against Sri Lanka in the Super Six stage just a single run short of a century . In the semi @-@ final , he scored 22 before being caught off an inside @-@ edge onto pad off the bowling of Aravinda de Silva . The umpire gave no reaction , however Gilchrist walked off the pitch after a moment 's pause . In 2009 it was described as an " astonishing moment " drawing criticism from England 's Angus Fraser , who " objected to him being canonised simply for not cheating " , and from others who " thought that he walked almost by accident ; that having played his shot he overbalanced in the direction of the pavilion . " His actions nevertheless drew praise from the majority . In the final , India elected to field first and Gilchrist hammered 57 from 48 balls , featuring in a century opening stand with Hayden to seize the initiative . This laid the foundation for Australia 's 2 / 359 and a crushing 125 @-@ run win , ending an unbeaten campaign . Gilchrist was also the competition 's most successful wicketkeeper , making 21 dismissals .
Success in the World Cup was followed up by a tour of the West Indies where Gilchrist was part of a side that won both the ODI and Test series . He scored 282 runs at 70 @.@ 50 with one century in the four Tests , and 212 runs at 35 @.@ 33 in the ODIs . The Australians then defeated a touring Bangladeshi cricket team in short series in both forms of the game . Gilchrist was only sporadically required with the bat .
= = = Decline and revival = = =
After scoring his first Test century at his home ground in Perth , an unbeaten 113 against Zimbabwe , Gilchrist 's Test form dipped again during the 2003 – 04 season , with only 120 runs coming in the next 10 innings , during the home series against India ( drawn 1 – 1 ) and the away series in Sri Lanka ( won 3 – 0 ) . However , he returned to form in the Second Test Kandy , scoring a quickfire 144 in the second innings to set up a 27 @-@ run win after Australia conceded a 91 @-@ run first innings lead .
However , he maintained high standards in ODIs during this period , including 111 against India in Bangalore , 172 against Zimbabwe , just one run short of Mark Waugh 's Australian record , and two further half @-@ centuries in the VB Series in Australia . His success in One @-@ day cricket was underlined by his rise to the top of the ICC ODI batting rankings in February 2004 . However , he was unable to maintain this form on the 2004 tours of Sri Lanka , Zimbabwe and the Champions Trophy in England , accumulating 253 runs at 28 @.@ 11 in 11 innings .
Gilchrist then scored 115 runs at 28 @.@ 75 in two Tests at home to Sri Lanka in mid @-@ 2004 , and captained in the First Test win in Darwin with Ponting absent . Australia won the series 1 – 0 .
A 104 in the First Test against India in October 2004 proved to be a false renaissance ; he scored only 104 runs in the remaining seven innings on the Indian tour and 139 runs in eight ODI innings towards the end of the 2004 – 05 season , which formed the lowest average period of Gilchrist 's career until 2007 . He took the captaincy of the Test team once again , in place of the injured Ricky Ponting , and led the Australian side to an historic 2 – 1 series victory in India , a feat last achieved in 1969 . Ponting recovered to lead the team in the Fourth Test , Australia 's only loss .
Gilchrist returned to form when New Zealand toured Australia at the start of southern hemisphere season . He scored 126 and 50 in the 2 – 0 Test series clean sweep and scored fifties in both ODIs . He then scored 230 runs at 76 @.@ 66 in three Tests against Pakistan , including a rapid 113 in the Third Test at the SCG as Australia won all five Tests during the summer . He made it three successive Test centuries with 121 and 162 in the first two Tests on the tour of New Zealand , before ending with an unbeaten 60 in the Third Test ; he totalled 343 runs at 114 @.@ 33 for the series . His ODI form in the early part of 2005 remained moderate , with 308 runs at 28 @.@ 00 during the southern summer .
Gilchrist was in strong form ahead of the Tests , scoring 393 runs at 49 @.@ 13 in the ODIs in England . The highlight was the 121 not out in the final game of the one @-@ day NatWest Series , Gilchrist being awarded the man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match award . However , he performed poorly in the five Tests , with 204 runs at 25 @.@ 50 . Just as in India in 2001 , Australia lost 2 – 1 , and Gilchrist fell four times to man of the series Andrew Flintoff .
Australia and Gilchrist returned to form after the Ashes in the series against the ICC World XI . Gilchrist scored 45 , 103 and 32 as Australia swept the ODIs 3 – 0 , and top @-@ scored with 94 in the first innings of the one @-@ off Test , which Australia won . However , this did not transfer into the regular international matches . In six home Tests against the West Indies and South Africa in 2005 – 06 , Gilchrist managed only 190 runs at 23 @.@ 75 , but Australia was unhindered , winning 3 – 0 and 2 – 0 respectively .
His one @-@ day form also began to suffer , scoring only 11 runs in three ODIs in New Zealand and 13 in the first two matches of the VB Series . He was rested for two games and returned to form against Sri Lanka on 29 January 2006 on his home ground , the WACA , hitting 116 runs off 105 balls to lead Australia to victory . He continued in this vein with the fastest ever century by an Australian in just 67 balls against Sri Lanka at the Gabba , ending with 122 as Australia won the deciding third final by nine wickets . After a slow start , he ended the series with 432 runs at 48 @.@ 00 .
The purple patch ended on the tour of South Africa and then Bangladesh . He scored 206 runs at 29 @.@ 42 in five Tests and 248 runs at 35 @.@ 42 in eight ODIs , inflated by a 144 in the First Test against Bangladesh . Despite this , Australia won all five Tests . Gilchrist scored 130 runs at 26 @.@ 00 , including a 92 against the West Indies as Australia won the 2006 Champions Trophy in India .
On 16 December 2006 , during the Third Ashes Test at the WACA , Gilchrist scored a century in 57 balls , including twelve fours and four sixes , the second fastest recorded Test century . At 97 runs from 54 balls , Gilchrist needed three runs from the next delivery to better Viv Richards ' record set in 1986 . The ball delivered by Matthew Hoggard was wide and Gilchrist was unable to score from it . He later claimed that the " batting pyrotechnics " had been the result of a miscommunication with the Australian captain Ricky Ponting ; Gilchrist had actually been told not to score quick runs with a view to declaring the innings .
He ended the 2006 – 07 Ashes with a century and two fifties , totalling 229 runs at 45 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of over 100 as Australia regained the Ashes with a 5 – 0 whitewash . It was an inconsistent series ; aside from three scores mentioned , Gilchrist failed to pass one in his other three innings . Between Ashes series , Gilchrist had averaged only 25 with one Test century .
However , both he and Australia suffered a surprising string of poor results in the 2006 @-@ 07 Commonwealth Bank Series , Gilchrist managing an average of only 22 @.@ 20 during the tournament . Australia won seven of their eight qualifying matches , but England won with two finals victories over the Australians . Gilchrist scored 60 and 61 in the first two matches but did not pass 30 thereafter . He was then rested for Australia 's winless three @-@ match ODI tour of New Zealand , before his selection for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . Having previously indicated that it was highly likely that he would retire after the 2007 World Cup , he then stated a desire to play on aftwerwards .
= = = 2007 World Cup = = =
Gilchrist and Australia started their 2007 World Cup campaign by winning all three of their matches in Group A , against Scotland , the Netherlands and South Africa . Australia won all six of their matches in the Super8 stage with little difficulty — the margins of victory were exceeded 80 runs or six wickets in every instance . They topped the table and thus qualifying for a semi @-@ final rematch against fourth @-@ placed South Africa . Gilchrist opened the Australian batting in each match , taking a pinch @-@ hitting role in the opening powerplays . Initially successful in the group matches , scoring 46 , 57 and 42 , he failed in the first Super8 match against West Indies ( 7 ) , but bounced back to score a second half @-@ century ( 59 not out ) in a ten @-@ wicket victory against Bangladesh in a match drastically shortened due to rain . After a run of middling scores , he failed again in the final Super8 match against New Zealand .
As a batsman , Gilchrist was dismissed for a single run in the semi @-@ final against South Africa , despite which Australia won by seven wickets . As wicket @-@ keeper , however , he took four catches , equalling the most dismissals in one match in the tournament and bringing his total for the tournament to 14 , second behind Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara .
Gilchrist opened the batting against Sri Lanka in the final . This was Gilchrist 's third successive World Cup final , and the third time he scored at least a 50 runs in World Cup finals and he went on to make his only ever century in a world cup match . Gilchrist went on to score 149 runs off 104 balls with thirteen fours and eight sixes , the highest individual score in a World Cup final , eclipsing his captain Ricky Ponting 's score of 140 in the 2003 final . Australia won and he was named the man of the match . Subsequently there has been some controversy over Gilchrist 's use of a squash ball inside his glove during this innings . The MCC stated that Gilchrist had not acted against the laws or the spirit of the game , since there is no restriction against the external or internal form of batting gloves .
In September 2007 , Gilchrist played in the inaugural World Twenty20 . He scored 169 runs at 33 @.@ 80 as Australia were knocked out by India in the semifinals . Gilchrist then scored 208 runs at 34 @.@ 66 as Australia took an away ODI series against India 4 – 2 . In November , Gilchrist 's peers voted him the greatest Australian ODI cricketer ever , for which he was awarded an honour at an ACA function before Australia 's second Test against Sri Lanka . He was only required to bat once in the Tests , and made 67 not out as Australia swept Sri Lanka aside 2 – 0 .
= = = Retirement = = =
On 26 January 2008 during the 4th and final Test of the 2007 – 08 series against India , Gilchrist announced that he would retire from international cricket at the end of the season . A back injury kept Ricky Ponting off the field for sections of the Indian 's second innings , resulting in Gilchrist captaining the team for the part of final two days of his Test cricket career . India batted out the match for a draw , so Gilchrist 's 14 in the first innings was his final Test innings ; he took his 379th and final catch when Virender Sehwag was caught behind . Gilchrist had scored only 150 runs at 21 @.@ 42 in his final Test series .
John Buchanan , who coached Australia during most of Gilchrist 's international career , predicted that Gilchrist 's retirement would have more impact than the previous year 's retirements of Damien Martyn , Glenn McGrath , Shane Warne and Justin Langer and Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd asked Gilchrist to reconsider . Gilchrist later revealed that he chose to retire after dropping VVS Laxman during the first innings , and realising that he had lost his " competitive edge . " He played out the summer 's ODI series , before ending in disappointment when India beat Australia 2 – 0 in the 2007 @-@ 08 Commonwealth Bank Series finals . Gilchrist managed only seven and two in the finals . His highlight of the series was his scoring 118 and being named Man of the Match in his final match at his adopted home in Perth on 15 February 2008 , against Sri Lanka . He ended his final series with 322 runs at 32 @.@ 20 .
= = = Indian Premier League = = =
Gilchrist was contracted by the Hyderabad @-@ based Deccan Chargers in the inaugural season 's player auction for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . In Deccan 's fourth match of the inaugural 2008 season , Gilchrist hammered the second fastest hundred in the IPL , off just 42 balls , as Deccan recorded their first win , against Mumbai . Gilchrist led the Deccan Chargers in the second half of the IPL in the absence of regular captain VVS Laxman , who was ruled out for the rest of the tournament due to injury . Deccan came last , winning only two of 14 matches .
In the second season , Gilchrist was installed as captain in place of Laxman by new coach and former Australian teammate Darren Lehmann . The team started well and won their first four matches but stumbled and won only three of their remaining ten qualifying matches . They qualified fourth into the semifinals and Gilchrist led the team to the final by striking 85 off just 35 balls against the Delhi Daredevils . Although made a duck in the final against the Royal Challengers Bangalore , Deccan won by six runs to take the title . Gilchrist was named the Player of The Tournament .
In the fourth season , Gilchrist was contracted by Kings XI Punjab for US $ 900 @,@ 000 . He was chosen the captain for the team as Kumar Sangakkara ( former captain of Punjab ) had moved to Deccan Chargers . In March 2012 he was named " player @-@ coach " , replacing his friend and former Australia teammate Michael Bevan , whose contract as head coach was not renewed . Gilchrist had speculated on retiring from the IPL at the end of the 2012 season , after Kings XI Punjab failed to make it to the play @-@ offs .
In the sixth season , Gilchrist made a comeback for his final IPL stint . He stated the reason as being the Kings XI management 's decision to renew his contract for another season . An interesting change in the team staff was the induction of Darren Lehmann as the new Kings XI coach . This brought together the duo of Gilchrist and Lehmann who had guided their previous franchise , the Deccan Chargers to its 2009 IPL victory . Some good performances by the players led the Kings XI Punjab team eyeing for the fourth spot in the play @-@ offs and a possible maiden win under Gilchrist 's leadership . They were knocked out very late in the tournament . In his final game at IPL , Gilchrist decided to bowl the last over of the match against the Mumbai Indians , where he got the wicket of Harbhajan Singh of his first ball , securing KXIP 's victory in the match . In a recent press conference , Gilchrist has confirmed that this will be his final IPL season and that he was looking forward to a fresh start in the inaugural Caribbean Premier League in July 2013 .
= = = Middlesex = = =
He signed a short @-@ term contract in November 2009 to play English Twenty20 cricket for Middlesex between 3 and 24 June 2010 . He was appointed interim captain on 11 June upon the sudden resignation of Shaun Udal . In addition to the seven Twenty20 fixtures , he is also captaining the county versus the touring Australians in a fifty @-@ over friendly .
In addition to this he will be taking part in the major sporting events Titans of Cricket in October 2011 – an evening of exciting challenges for famous sportsmen , touring across the UK in Manchester and Birmingham , with the grand finale in London 's O2
In July 2014 , he played for the Rest of the World side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord 's .
= = Style of play = =
Gilchrist 's attacking batting has been a key part of Australia 's one @-@ day success , as he usually opened the batting . He was a part of the successful 1999 , 2003 and 2007 Cricket World Cup campaigns . Gilchrist 's Test batting average in the upper 40s is unusually high for a wicket @-@ keeper . He is currently 45th on the all – time list of highest batting averages . He maintains a Test strike @-@ rate of 82 runs per hundred balls , the highest since balls were recorded in full . His combination of attack and consistency create one of the most dynamic world cricketers ever , playing shots to all areas of the field with uncommon timing . He second on the all @-@ time list of most sixes in Tests at 100 with only Brendon McCullum ahead of him with 107 . Gilchrist 's skills as a wicket @-@ keeper are sometimes questioned ; some people would claim that he is the best keeper in Australia while Victorian wicket @-@ keeper Darren Berry was regarded by many as the best Australian wicket @-@ keeper of the 1990s and early 2000s .
In this role , Gilchrist is perhaps disadvantaged by his relatively tall stature for a pure wicket @-@ keeper . However , while perhaps not as elegant as some , he has successfully kept wicket for spin bowler Shane Warne and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Brett Lee for most of his international career . His partnerships with McGrath and Lee are second and fourth respectively in both test and ODI history for the number of wickets taken . With Alec Stewart and Mark Boucher , he shares the record for most catches ( 6 ) by a wicketkeeper in a ODI match , however he has now achieved this feat five times , the most recent versus India in 2008 CB Series . The match in 2007 was also the second time he took six dismissals and scored a half century in the same ODI ; he remains the only player to do so even once . At Old Trafford in August 2005 , he passed Alec Stewart 's world record of 4 @,@ 540 runs as a Test wicketkeeper , Statistically , he is currently the most successful ODI wicket @-@ keeper in history ; with 417 catches and 55 stumpings , a total of 472 dismissals , his closest rival , Mark Boucher , is more than 80 dismissals behind .
= = Walking and discipline = =
Cricket has for many years debated whether batsmen should " walk " , that is to agree that they have been dismissed and leave the field of play without waiting for ( or contrary to ) an umpire 's decision . Gilchrist reignited this debate by walking during a high @-@ profile match , the 2003 World Cup semi @-@ final against Sri Lanka , after the umpire ruled him to be not out . He has since proclaimed himself to be " a walker " , or a batsman who will consistently walk , and has done so on numerous occasions . On one occasion against Bangladesh , Gilchrist walked but TV replays failed to suggest any contact between his bat and the ball . Without such contact , he could not have been caught out .
Gilchrist 's actions have sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires . Ricky Ponting has declared on several occasions that he is not a walker but will leave it to each player to decide whether they wish to walk or not . While no other Australian top order batsmen have expressly declared themselves to be walkers , lower @-@ order batsmen Jason Gillespie and Michael Kasprowicz both walked during Test matches in India in 2004 . In 2004 , New Zealand captain Stephen Fleming accused Gilchrist of conducting a " walking crusade " when Craig McMillan refused to walk after Gilchrist had caught him off an edge from the bowling of Jason Gillespie in the First Test in Brisbane . After the appeal was turned down by the umpire , who did not hear the edge , Gilchrist goaded McMillan about the edge , and McMillan 's angry response was picked up by the stump microphone : " ... not everyone is walking , Gilly ... not everyone has to walk , mate ... " . The taunt was effective , however , as McMillan , perhaps distracted , missed the next ball and was given out leg before wicket . Gilchrist said in his autobiography that he had " zero support in the team " for his stance and that he felt that the topic made the dressing room uncomfortable . He added that he " felt isolated " and " silently accused of betraying the team . Implictly I was made to feel selfish , as if I was walking for the sake of my own clean image , thereby making everyone else look dishonest . "
Gilchrist has been noted for his emotional outbursts on the cricket field , and has been fined multiple times for dissent against umpiring decisions . In January 2006 , he was fined 40 % of his match fee in an ODI against South Africa . In another instance , in early 2004 in Sri Lanka , Gilchrist audibly argued with umpire Peter Manuel after batting partner Andrew Symonds was given out . After the argument concluded , Manuel consulted umpiring partner Billy Bowden and reversed his decision , recalling Symonds to the crease . Gilchrist was also reprimanded by the Australian Cricket Board for publicly questioning the legality of Muttiah Muralitharan 's bowling action in 2002 , as his comments were found to be in breach of the clause in the player code of conduct relating to " detrimental public comment " .
During the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist accused Pakistani wicketkeeper Rashid Latif of making a racist remark towards him while the latter was batting in their group match . Latif who was cleared by match referee Clive Lloyd , threatened to sue Gilchrist for this claim .
= = Charity , media , business career and political work = =
Outside cricket , Gilchrist is an ambassador for the charity World Vision in India , a country in which he is popular due to his cricketing achievements , and sponsors a boy whose father has died . He was approached in early 2005 by the US baseball franchise , the Boston Red Sox , with a view to him playing for them when his cricket career ended . However , he was selected for the 2007 Cricket World Cup and announced his retirement from Test and One @-@ Day cricket in early 2008 .
In March 2008 , Gilchrist joined the Nine Network . Gilchrist has appeared as one of a panel of revolving co @-@ hosts for the revived Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition . He made his debut on the program in March 2008 , and commentates on Nine 's cricket coverage during the Australian summer . In 2013 Gilchrist joined Ricky Ponting and various other names in cricket to commentate for Channel Ten in the third series of the Big Bash League .
As Amway Australia Ambassador , Gilchrist has played a role in many of their charity events . In August 2010 , he presented the Freedom Wheels program , an initiative to provide modified bikes to kids with disabilities , a cheque for $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Gilchrist has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008 . In 2008 , Gilchrist supported debate on whether Australia Day should be moved to a new date because the current date marks European settlement and is offensive to many Aboriginal Australians . Gilchrist is considered to have left @-@ wing views ; Australian captain Ricky Ponting commented in his annual Captain 's Diary that his deputy had a penchant for reading Karl Marx while on tour .
Gilchrist has had a number of company directorships outside of cricket . His appointment to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation , committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth and director of Travelex . The appointment to TFS Corporation was not without controversy when as a board member of TFS he was named as a plaintiff suing his own TFS shareholders for defamation
= = Autobiography = =
Gilchrist 's autobiography True Colours , published in 2008 , was the subject of much controversy . Gilchrist questioned the integrity of leading Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar in relation to the evidence he presented in the Monkeygate dispute , which was about allegations of racism against Harbhajan Singh . The autobiography said that Tendulkar told the first hearing that he could not hear what Harbhajan said to Andrew Symonds ; Gilchrist said he was " certain he [ Tendulkar ] was telling the truth " because he was " a fair way away " . Gilchrist then questioned why Tendulkar then agreed with Harbhajan 's claim at the second hearing that the exchange was an obscenity , and concluded that the process was " a joke " . He also raised questions over Tendulkar 's sportsmanship and said he was " hard to find for a changing @-@ room handshake after we have beaten India " .
There was a backlash in India , which forced Gilchrist to clarify his position . Gilchrist later insisted that he did not accuse Tendulkar of lying in his testimony . He also denied calling the Indian a " bad sport " in regards to the handshake issue . Tendulkar responded by saying that " those remarks came from someone who doesn 't know me enough . I think he made loose statements ... I reminded him that I was the first person to shake hands after the Sydney defeat . " The autobiography also blamed the ICC for allowing Sri Lankan cricketer Muralitharan to bowl ; Gilchrist believes that ICC changed the throwing law to legitimise a bowling action that he regards as illegitimate . The law change was described as " a load of horse crap . That 's rubbish . " Gilchrist claimed that Muralitharan threw the ball and alleged that the ICC protected him because Sri Lankan cricket authorities portrayed any criticism of the bowler 's legitimacy as racism and a witchhunt conducted by whites . In response to these comments , former Sri Lankan captain Marvan Atapattu said that by questioning the credentials of players like Muralitharan and Tendulkar , Gilchrist had done no good to his own reputation .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Awards = = =
Gilchrist was one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Year for 2002 , and Australia 's One @-@ day International Player of the Year in 2003 and 2004 . He was awarded the Allan Border Medal in 2003 , and was the only Australian cricketer who was a current player at the time to have been named in " Richie Benaud 's Greatest XI " in 2004 . He was selected in the ICC World XI for the charity series against the ACC Asian XI , 2004 – 05 , was voted as " World 's Scariest Batsman " in a poll of international bowlers , and was named as wicket @-@ keeper and opening batsman in Australia 's " greatest ever ODI team . " In a poll of over ten thousand people hosted in 2007 by ESPNcricinfo , he was voted the ninth greatest all @-@ rounder of the last one hundred years . A panel of prominent cricket writers selected him in Australia 's all @-@ time best XI for ESPNcricinfo . Gilchrist has not only left his mark on Australian cricket but the whole cricketing world . In 2010 , Gilchrist was made a Member of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket and the community . He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2012 . On 9 @-@ December @-@ 2013 , ICC announced that they had inducted Gilchrist in the prestigious ICC Hall of Fame .
= = = Test match performance = = =
Test debut : vs Pakistan , Brisbane , 1999 – 2000 .
Gilchrist 's best Test batting score of 204 not out was made against South Africa , Johannesburg , 2001 – 2002 .
He has captained Australia in six Tests : four wins , one loss , one draw .
Holder of the second most sixes in a Test career , with 100 sixes .
Holder of fourth fastest Test hundred ( 100 in 57 deliveries ) vs England , 16 December 2006 .
Holder of the second most Test dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 416 ) , 4 February 2008 .
Holder of most Test centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 17 ) , 4 February 2008 .
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( Test matches ) = = =
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( Test match series ) = = =
= = = ODI highlights = = =
ODI debut : vs South Africa , Faridabad , 1996 – 97 .
Holder of most ODI dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 472 ) , as of 4 November 2011 .
Gilchrist 's best ODI batting score of 172 was made against Zimbabwe , Hobart , 2003 – 04 .
He has captained Australia in 15 ODIs : 11 wins , 4 losses .
Holder for record of second fastest ODI century by an Australian ( 100 from 67 deliveries against Sri Lanka on 14 February 2006 ) .
Holder of most ODI centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 15 ) , 4 February 2008 .
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( ODIs ) = = =
= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( ODI series ) = = =
= = = Twenty20 Centuries = = =
= = Career Best Performances = =
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= Carom billiards =
Carom billiards , sometimes called carambole billiards or simply carambole ( and in some cases used as a synonym for the game of straight rail from which many carom games derive ) , is the overarching title of a family of billiards games generally played on cloth @-@ covered , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 3 @.@ 0 @-@ metre ( 5 by 10 ft ) pocketless tables , which often feature heated slate beds . In its simplest form , the object of the game is to score points or " counts " by caroming one 's own cue ball off both the opponent 's cue ball and the object ball ( s ) on a single shot . The invention as well as the exact date of origin of carom billiards is somewhat obscure but is thought to be traceable to 18th @-@ century France .
There is a large array of carom billiards disciplines . Some of the more prevalent today and historically are ( chronologically by apparent date of development ) : straight rail , cushion caroms , balkline , three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . There are many other carom billiards games , predominantly intermediary or offshoot games combining elements of those already listed , such as the champion 's game , an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline , as well as games which are hybrids of carom billiards and pocket billiards , such as English billiards played on a snooker table and its descendant games , American four @-@ ball billiards , and cowboy pool .
= = Etymology = =
The word carom , which simply means any strike and rebound , was in use in reference to billiards by at least 1779 , sometimes spelled " carrom " . Sources differ on the origin . It has been pegged variously as a shortening of the Spanish and Portuguese word carambola , or the French word carambole , which are used to describe the red object ball . Some etymologists have suggested that carambola , in turn , was derived from a yellow @-@ to @-@ orange , tropical Asian fruit also known in Portuguese as a carambola ( which was a corruption of the original name of the fruit , karambal in the Marathi language of India ) , also known as star fruit . But this may simply be folk etymology , as the fruit bears no resemblance to a billiard ball , and there is no direct evidence for such a derivation .
In modern French , the word carambolage means ' successive collision ' , currently used mainly in reference to carom or cannon shots in billiards , and to multiple @-@ vehicle car crashes ) .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Cloth = = =
Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century . The predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth , Iwan Simonis , was formed in 1453 . Most cloth made for carom billiards tables is a type of baize that is dyed green , and is made from 100 % worsted wool , which provides a very fast surface allowing the balls to travel with little resistance across the table bed . The green color of cloth was originally chosen to emulate the look of grass , and has been so colored since the 16th century . However , as in green eyeshades , the color also serves a useful function : Humans have a higher light sensitivity to green than to any other color , so green cloth permits play for longer periods of time without eye strain .
= = = Balls = = =
Modern billiard balls are made from highly resilient plastics with a typical diameter of 61 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . They are significantly larger and heavier than their pocket billiards counterparts , ranging between 205 and 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 2 and 7 @.@ 8 oz ) with a typical weight of 210 g ( 7 @.@ 5 oz ) . While UMB , the International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized world carom billiards authority , technically permits balls as small as 61 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer , and the de facto standard is 61 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball , a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it ( to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls ) , and a third , red ball . In some sets of balls , however , the second cue ball is solid yellow . Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play .
Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game , including clay , wood , ivory , plastics ( including celluloid , Bakelite , crystalate , and phenolic resin , polyester and acrylic ) and even steel . The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid @-@ 20th century was ivory . The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters . It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 for a substitute material . The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls , invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868 , but the material was volatile and highly inflammable , sometimes exploding during manufacture .
= = = Cues = = =
Carom billiard cues have specialized refinements making them different from the typical pool cue with which many people are more familiar . Such cues tend to be shorter and lighter overall , with a shorter ferrule , a thicker butt and joint , a wooden joint pin ( in high @-@ end examples ) and collarless wood @-@ to @-@ wood joint ( for a one @-@ piece cue " feel " ) , a fast , conical taper , and a smaller tip diameter as compared with pool cues . Typical cues are 140 – 140 cm ( 54 – 56 in ) in length and 470 – 520 g ( 16 @.@ 5 – 18 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight — lighter for straight rail , heavier for three @-@ cushion — with a tip 11 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . The specialization makes the cue significantly stiffer , which aids in handling the larger and heavier billiard balls as compared with pool cues . It also acts to reduce deflection ( sometimes called " squirt " ) , which may be defined as displacement of the cue ball 's path away from the parallel line formed by the cue stick 's direction of travel . It is a factor that occurs every time english ( side ) is employed , and its effects are magnified by speed . In some carom games , deflection plays a large role because many shots require extremes of english , coupled with great speed ; this is a combination typically minimized as much as possible , by contrast , in pool . The wood used in carom cues can vary widely , and most quality carom cues are handmade .
= = = Heated slate = = =
The slate bed of a billiard table is often heated to about 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) above room temperature , which helps to keep moisture out of the cloth to aid the balls rolling and rebounding in a consistent manner , and generally makes a table play faster . A heated table is required under international carom rules and is an especially important requirement for the games of three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . Heating table beds is an old practice . Queen Victoria ( lived 1819 – 1901 ) had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes , although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then @-@ used ivory balls from warping . The first use of electric heating was for an 18 @.@ 2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer , Jr . The New York Times announced it with fanfare : " For the first time in the history of world 's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used ... "
= = History of games = =
= = = Straight rail = = =
Straight rail , sometimes referred to as carom billiards , straight billiards , the three @-@ ball game , the carambole game , and the free game in Europe , is thought to date to the 18th century , although no exact time of origin is known . It was known as French caroms , French billiards or the French game in early times , taking those bygone names from the French who popularized it . The object of straight rail is simple : one point , called a " count " , is scored each time a player 's cue ball makes contact with both object balls ( the second cue ball and the third ball ) on a single stroke . A win is achieved by reaching an agreed upon number of counts .
At straight rail 's inception there was no restriction on the manner of scoring . However , the technique of crotching , or freezing two balls into the corner where the rails meet — the crotch — vastly increasing counts , resulted in an 1862 rule which allowed only three counts before at least one ball had to be driven away . Techniques continued to develop which increased counts greatly despite the crotching prohibition , especially the development of a variety of " nurse " techniques . The most important of these , the rail nurse , involves the progressive nudging of the object balls down a rail , ideally moving them just a few centimeters on each count , keeping them close together and positioned at the end of each stroke in the same or near the same configuration such that the nurse can be replicated again and again .
Straight rail is still popular in Europe , where it is considered a fine practice game for both balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards . Additionally , Europe hosts professional competitions known as pentathlons after the ancient Greek Olympic competitions , in which straight rail is featured as one of five billiards disciplines at which players compete , the other four being 47 @.@ 1 balkline , cushion caroms , 71 @.@ 2 balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards .
Straight rail was played professionally in the US from 1873 to 1879 , but is uncommon there today .
= = = The champion 's game = = =
The new game appearing in 1879 , called the champion 's game or limited @-@ rail , is considered an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline and was designed with the specific intent of frustrating the rail nurse . The game employed diagonal lines — balklines — at the table 's corners to regions where counts were restricted , thus " cutting off four triangular spaces in the four corners , [ taking ] away 711 mm ( 28 in ) of the ' nursing ' surface of the end rails and 1 @,@ 422 mm ( 56 in ) on the long rails . " Ultimately , however , despite its divergence from straight rail , the champion 's game simply expanded the dimensions of the balk space defined under the existing crotch prohibition which was not sufficient to stop nursing .
= = = Balkline = = =
Balkline succeeded the champion 's game , adding more rules to curb nursing techniques . There are many variation of balkline but all divide the table into marked regions called balk spaces . Such balk spaces define areas of the table surface in which a player may only score up to a threshold number of points while the object balls are within that region .
In the balkline games , rather than drawing balklines a few inches from the corners , the entire table is divided into rectangular balk spaces , by drawing balklines a certain distance lengthwise and widthwise across the length of the table a set number of inches parallel out from each rail . This divides the table into eight rectangular balkspaces . Additionally , rectangles are drawn where each balkline meets a rail , called anchor spaces , which developed to stop a number of nursing techniques that exploited the fact that if the object balls straddled a balkline , no count limit was in place .
For the most part , the differences between one balkline game to another is defined by two measures : 1 ) the spacing of the balklines , and 2 ) the number of points that are allowed in each balk space before at least one ball must leave the region . Generally , balkline games , and their particular restrictions , are given numerical names indicating both of these characteristics ; the first number indicated either inches or centimeters depending on the game , and the second , after a dot , indicates the count restriction in balk spaces , which is always either one or two . For example , in 18 @.@ 2 balkline , one of the more prominent balkline games and of U.S. origin , the name indicates that balklines are drawn 18 inches distant from each rail , and only two counts are allowed ( before the first short , we call " entrée " and for the second short " dedans " ) in a balk space before a ball must leave ( in 18 @.@ 1 , we call directly the first short " dedans " ) . By contrast , in 71 @.@ 2 balkline , of French invention , lines are drawn 71 centimeters distant from each rail , also with a two count restriction for balk spaces .
Over its history balkline has had many variations including 8 @.@ 2 , 10 @.@ 2 , 12 @.@ 2 , 13 @.@ 2 , 12 ½ .2 , 14 @.@ 1 , 14 @.@ 2 , 18 @.@ 1 , 18 @.@ 2 , 28 @.@ 2 , 38 @.@ 2 , 39 @.@ 2 , 42 @.@ 2 , 45 @.@ 1 , 45 @.@ 2 , 47 @.@ 1 , 47 @.@ 2 , 57 @.@ 2 and 71 @.@ 2 balkline . In its various incarnations , balkline was the predominate carom discipline from 1883 to the 1930s when it was overtaken by three @-@ cushion billiards ( and pocket billiards ) . Balkline is popular in Europe and the Far East .
= = = Cushion caroms = = =
Cushion caroms , sometimes called by its original name , the indirect game , is traceable to 1820 's Britain and is a descendant of the doublet game dating to at least 1807 . The game is sometimes referred to as one @-@ cushion or one @-@ cushion billiards , which is the direct translation of its name into English from various other languages such as Spanish ( " una banda " ) and German ( " einband " ) .
The object of the game is to score cushion caroms , meaning a carom off of both object balls with at least one rail being struck before the hit on the second object ball . Cushions caroms was defunct for a number of years , but was revived in the late 1860s as another alternative to straight rail , for the same reasons that balkline developed , i.e. , as an alternative to the tedium engendered by the use of the " rail nurse " ( see above ) . Cushion caroms is still popular in Europe .
= = = Three @-@ cushion billiards = = =
In three @-@ cushion billiards , sometimes called three @-@ cushion carom , or carambole , the object is to carom off both object balls with at least three rail cushions being contacted before the contact of the cue ball with the second object ball . Three @-@ cushion is a very difficult game . Averaging one point per inning is professional @-@ level play , and averaging 1 @.@ 5 to 2 is world @-@ class play . An average of one means that for every turn at the table , a player makes 1 point and misses once , thus making a point on 50 % of his or her shots .
The origin of the game is not entirely known . It is undisputed that one Wayman Crow McCreery of St. Louis , Missouri popularized the game in the 1870s . At least one publication categorically states he invented the game as well . The first three @-@ cushion billiards tournament took place January 14 – 31 , 1878 in St. Louis , with McCreery a participant and New Yorker Leon Magnus the winner . The high run for the tournament was just 6 points , and the high average a 0 @.@ 75 . The game was infrequently played , with many top carom players of the era voicing their dislike of it , until after the 1907 introduction of the Lambert Trophy . By 1924 , three @-@ cushion had become so popular that two giants in other billiard disciplines agreed to take up the game especially for a challenge match . On September 22 , 1924 , Willie Hoppe , the world 's balkline champion ( who later took up three @-@ cushion with a passion ) , and Ralph Greenleaf , the world 's straight pool title holder , played a well advertised , multi @-@ day , match to 600 points . Hoppe was the eventual winner with a final score in of 600 – 527 .
Three @-@ cushion billiards retains great popularity in parts of Europe , Asia , and Latin America , and is the most popular carom billiards game played in the US today , where pool is far more widespread . The principal governing body of the sport is the Union Mondiale de Billard ( UMB ) . It had been staging world three @-@ cushion championships since the late 1920s . The International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized World Pool @-@ Billiard Association ( WPA ) cooperates with the UMB to keep their rulesets synchronized .
= = = Artistic billiards = = =
In artistic billiards , sometimes called fantasy billiards or ( in French ) fantaisie classique , players compete at performing 76 preset shots of varying difficulty . Each set shot has a maximum point value assigned for perfect execution , ranging from a 4 @-@ point minimum for lowest level difficulty shots , and climbing to an 11 @-@ point maximum for shots deemed highest in difficulty level . There is a total of 500 points available to a player . The governing body of the sport is the Confédération Internationale de Billard Artistique ( CIBA ) .
Each shot in an artistic billiards match is played from a well @-@ defined position ( in some venues within an exacting two millimeter tolerance ) , and each shot must unfold in an established manner . Players are allowed three attempts at each shot . In general , the shots making up the game — even 4 @-@ point shots — require a high degree of skill , devoted practice and specialized knowledge to perform .
World title competition first started in 1986 and required the use of ivory balls . However , this requirement was dropped in 1990 . The highest score ever achieved in world competition was 374 , by the Frenchman Jean Reverchon in 1992 , while the highest score in competition overall is 427 set by Belgian Walter Bax on March 12 , 2006 at a competition held in Deurne , Belgium , beating his own previous record of 425 . The game is played predominantly in western Europe , especially in France , Belgium and the Netherlands .
= = Competition disciplines = =
Triathlon : Straight rail , Balkline and One @-@ cushion or Balkline , One @-@ cushion und Three @-@ cushion ( like the actually ANAG Billiard Cup ) .
Pentathlon : Straight rail , Balkline ( 47 @.@ 2 & 71 @.@ 2 ) , One @-@ cushion and Three @-@ cushion .
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= 2012 Hawaii Bowl =
The 2012 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game held on December 24 , 2012 at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaii in the United States . The eleventh edition of the Hawaii Bowl began at 3 : 00 p.m. HAST and aired on ESPN . It featured the SMU Mustangs from Conference USA against the Mountain West Conference co @-@ champion Fresno State Bulldogs , and was the final game of the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season for both teams . The Mustangs accepted their invitation after earning a 6 @-@ 6 record in the regular season , while the Bulldogs accepted their invitation after a 9 @-@ 3 regular season record .
The pre @-@ game buildup focused primarily on the strong rushing attacks of both teams as well as the overall sound offense of Fresno State . Most analysts predicted a resounding victory by Fresno State . The point spread favored Fresno State as 12 @-@ point favorites over the Mustangs . Contrary to predictions , SMU won the game by a score of 43 @-@ 10 , largely thanks to the play of defensive end Margus Hunt , who forced two fumbles and totaled three sacks ( including one safety ) as well as two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns . Consequently , Hunt and Fresno State 's Davante Adams , who totaled 13 receptions for 144 yards and a touchdown , were named the game 's co @-@ Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .
= = Teams = =
Conference USA has had its tie @-@ in to the Hawaii Bowl ever since the game 's establishment in 2002 . The Mountain West Conference started its affiliation with the game when the hometown Hawaii Warriors moved to said conference ( previously , Hawaii , and said tie @-@ in , belonged to the Western Athletic Conference ) . In fact , Hawaii has an automatic bid to the bowl game should it be eligible ; however , because of its 3 @-@ 9 record in 2012 , it was not bowl @-@ eligible , leaving the spot to the fifth bowl @-@ eligible Mountain West team . The 2012 Hawaii Bowl was the seventh meeting between Fresno State and SMU , the last one coming in 2004 .
This was the Mustangs ' second Hawaii Bowl , following the 2009 game where they defeated the Nevada Wolf Pack by a score of 45 @-@ 10 ( SMU 's first bowl bid since playing in Hawaii in the 1984 Aloha Bowl , and their first since the program was relaunched in 1989 after being shut down for two years due to massive NCAA rules violations ) . It also was the Mustangs ' final game as a member of Conference USA before they moved to the Big East Conference in 2013 .
= = Pregame buildup = =
One of the keys to the game , according to ESPN.com blogger Matt Fortuna , was to stop the run . Both teams had 1 @,@ 000 + yard rushers ( Zach Line for SMU , Robbie Rouse for Fresno State ) , but SMU 's rush defense ( 24th in FBS ) was better than Fresno State 's ( 73rd in FBS ) . Many analysts predicted that Fresno State would emerge victorious , some going as far as to predict a blowout , but said that for SMU to emerge victorious , they would have to win the field position battle as well as create turnovers .
= = = Fresno State = = =
In their first season in the Mountain West , the Bulldogs became co @-@ champions with a 7 @-@ 1 conference record . This was the Bulldogs ' first appearance in the Hawaii Bowl . Coming into the 2012 season , Bulldogs ' coach Tim DeRuyter said that his team would challenge for a Mountain West Conference title . After making good on that promise , the Bulldogs attempted to achieve their first bowl victory since the 2007 Humanitarian Bowl . A victory in the Hawaii Bowl would have given Fresno State a 10 @-@ win season for the first time since 2001 , when quarterback Derek Carr 's older brother David was the Bulldogs ' quarterback .
= = = = Offense = = = =
Fresno State was led offensively by their quarterback , junior Derek Carr , who finished 14th in the country in quarterback rating ( 155 @.@ 9 ) , 8th in passing yards ( 4 @,@ 104 ) , and tied for 3rd in touchdowns ( 37 ) . Carr was named the Mountain West Conference Player of the Year and announced before the game that he would return to Fresno State to play his senior season . The Bulldogs were riding a five @-@ game winning streak coming into the game ; the fewest points they scored during any game of that streak was 42 . The Bulldogs ' rushing attack was led by 5 @-@ foot , 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) senior running back Robbie Rouse , who rushed for 1490 yards , which ranked 14th in the country . Rouse , who rushed for over 100 yards in nine games during the regular season , was also Fresno State 's second @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , catching the ball 63 times for 435 yards . Carr 's top target in the passing game was redshirt freshman wideout Davante Adams , who had broken several school records during his freshman year including becoming just the seventh freshman in school history to record over 100 yards receiving in a single game and setting the single @-@ game school record for a freshman by recording 12 receptions against Oregon . In total , Adams amassed 102 catches for 1312 yards and 14 touchdowns , all of which led the team . His efforts earned him a spot on Phil Steele 's fourth @-@ team All @-@ America squad and accolades as the Mountain West Conference Freshman of the Year . Fresno State 's starter at tight end was senior Marcel Jensen , who totaled 20 receptions for 339 yards and 4 touchdowns , all of which were career highs . Jensen was an honorable mention all @-@ conference honoree . The Bulldogs ' offensive line was anchored by junior left tackle Austin Wentworth , who achieved first @-@ team all @-@ conference honors .
= = = = Defense = = = =
Described as " well @-@ rounded and explosive " by SBNation.com , Fresno State 's defense was paramount to their success during the season . Their 3 @-@ 4 defense was installed by their first @-@ year coach , DeRuyter , and proved effective throughout the season . They finished third in the NCAA in interceptions , amassing 22 of them . 8 of those 22 interceptions came from Fresno State 's defensive leader , Mountain West Conference Defensive Player of the Year , first @-@ team All @-@ American , and NCAA leader in interceptions senior safety Phillip Thomas , who also recorded a career high 82 tackles and finished second on the team with 4 sacks , the second @-@ most by a defensive back in the country . Fresno State 's defense was also successful rushing the passer ; they finished ninth in the NCAA in sacks with 39 of them . Fresno State 's front seven was led by sophomore Tyeler Davison , who achieved first team all @-@ conference accolades and recorded six tackles for loss during the season . The Bulldogs ' leader in sacks was junior nose tackle Andy Jennings , who achieved 5 @.@ 5 of them . The Bulldogs ' linebackers were led by senior Travis Brown . Brown totaled 68 tackles and was a first team all @-@ conference selection .
= = = SMU = = =
Coming into the 2012 season , SMU was widely expected to finish third in the Conference USA West Division . They exceeded that expectation by finishing second in the C @-@ USA West and earning a bid to the Hawaii Bowl . A year after his season ended due to a foot injury , running back Zach Line was poised to have a breakout year and was expected to win the Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year award .
= = = = Offense = = = =
At quarterback , University of Texas transfer Garrett Gilbert started for the Mustangs and struggled ; he totaled a 53 % completion percentage , 15 touchdowns , and 15 interceptions , the latter of which was tied for ninth @-@ most in the NCAA . The Mustangs ' offensive leader was three @-@ time All @-@ Conference USA player and 2012 Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year running back Zach Line , who had totaled 4 @,@ 185 rushing yards and 37 touchdowns in his career coming into the game . Line was also the Mustangs ' fourth @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , totaling 33 for 229 yards . SMU 's wide receiving corps featured a trio of standouts : senior Darius Johnson , junior Jeremy Johnson , and sophomore Der 'rikk Thompson . The former Johnson , who is one of just two SMU players ever to record three 60 @-@ catch seasons , led the Mustangs with 787 receiving yards from 64 receptions which included 5 touchdowns . The latter Johnson totaled 67 receptions , which led the team , for 679 yards and 3 touchdowns . Thompson , who led the trio by averaging 13 @.@ 0 yards per reception , caught the ball 41 times for 535 yards and 4 touchdowns during the regular season . Coach June Jones ' spread offense did not employ a tight end , and none were on the roster for the Mustangs . The Mustangs ' offensive line was led by senior Bryan Collins , who achieved 2nd team all @-@ conference honors .
= = = = Defense = = = =
The Mustangs were defensively anchored by senior defensive end Margus Hunt , who achieved eight sacks en route to a first @-@ team all @-@ conference selection . Prior to the game , there was significant hype surrounding the defensive matchup between Fresno State 's Davante Adams and SMU 's cornerback junior Kenneth Acker , who intercepted the ball three times during the season . Acker achieved second @-@ team all @-@ conference accolades . SMU 's defense also had an all @-@ conference honoree in the linebacking corps , senior Ja 'Gared Davis , who totaled 77 tackles during the season . The Mustangs were prolific in turnovers and led the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) in interceptions returned for touchdowns ( 8 ) , tied for fourth in interceptions ( 21 ) , and finished third in total takeaways ( 37 ) . Despite their success with turnovers , the Mustangs were far more mediocre in scoring defense , in which they allowed 25 @.@ 7 points per game ( tied for 54th nationally ) , and total defense , in which they gave up 396 @.@ 1 yards per game ( 62nd nationally ) .
= = Game summary = =
= = = Game notes = = =
= = = = First quarter = = = =
SMU received the ball to start the game and marched down the field on an 8 @-@ play , 52 @-@ yard drive highlighted by a 37 @-@ yard run by quarterback Garrett Gilbert to set up a 41 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Chase Hover which he missed . Fresno State 's subsequent drive lasted only two series and ended in a punt . The remainder of the first quarter 's drives ended in punts . There were a total of three drives that went three @-@ and @-@ out in the quarter , two by SMU and one by Fresno State .
= = = = Second quarter = = = =
SMU struck first in the second quarter via a 17 @-@ yard rush from Gilbert , their quarterback , to put the Bulldogs up 7 @-@ 0 . Fresno State 's ensuing drive started with a first down , but ended when quarterback Derek Carr was sacked by SMU defender Margus Hunt ; Hunt forced a fumble that was recovered by the Mustangs at the Fresno State 16 @-@ yard line . SMU gained only three yards on their drive , but due to their excellent field position , kicker Chase Hover was able to convert a 30 @-@ yard field goal making it 10 @-@ 0 .
Fresno State 's offensive woes continued on their next drive . On second down , Carr was sacked for a loss of 18 yards to the 6 @-@ yard line . On third down , Hunt recorded another sack which resulted in a safety to make the score 12 @-@ 0 SMU . Zach Line rushed for an 8 @-@ yard touchdown to cap an 11 @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive after the safety . This made the score 19 @-@ 0 .
Hunt continued his fantastic first @-@ half performance on Fresno State 's next drive , forcing running back Robbie Rouse to fumble . It was recovered by safety Taylor Reed . Hover kicked a 48 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 22 @-@ 0 . Fresno State finally started to put together a solid drive at the end of the half including three consecutive first @-@ down passes from Carr to Isaiah Burse for 16 yards , Greg Watson for 12 yards , and Davante Adams for 33 yards respectively that set up first and goal at the three @-@ yard line with 0 : 39 remaining in the half . The Bulldogs failed to execute , however , and ended the half without scoring at all . The final play of the half was a pass to tight end Marcel Jensen in the end zone , but he dropped the ball , thus ending the scoring threat .
= = = = Third quarter = = = =
Since SMU had received the ball to start the game , Fresno State got possession to start the second half . The first play from scrimmage of the half was a 38 @-@ yard pass from Carr to Burse which got the Bulldogs up to the Mustangs ' 41 @-@ yard line . The drive stalled from there , however , after a six @-@ yard loss on a pass play , a false start penalty , a pass completed for no gain , and an incomplete pass . After a 42 @-@ yard punt that was returned for 4 yards , SMU was set up at their 14 @-@ yard line . The ensuing drive for SMU showed promise after they got into Bulldog territory , but an interception by Sean Alston returned for 50 yards to the SMU 15 ended any chance of scoring for the Mustangs . Fresno State finally put points on the board after setting up in the red zone ; Carr threw a 6 @-@ yard pass to Adams making the score 22 @-@ 7 after Quentin Breshears tacked on the point after . On the ensuing drive , SMU ran 7 plays for 75 yards in 3 : 20 in a drive that culminated with a 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Gilbert to Darius Johnson ; the drive included a 27 @-@ yard rush by Zach Line as well as a 19 @-@ yard pass from Gilbert to Der 'rikk Thompson . After the TD , the score was 29 @-@ 7 SMU . The teams then exchanged punts for the remainder of the quarter .
= = = = Fourth quarter = = = =
Fresno State was able to run a 7 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive to begin the fourth quarter that culminated with a 32 @-@ yard field goal by Breshears making the score 29 @-@ 10 . Any chance of a Bulldog comeback was quashed after Carr threw two interceptions returned for touchdowns to Reed and Hayden Greenbauer , the latter of which came with just 1 : 14 to play . The final score was 43 @-@ 10 , the Mustangs victorious .
= = = = Post @-@ game = = = =
SMU 's resounding victory was considered an upset , and during the game , the Mustangs set a single @-@ season record for most interceptions returned for a touchdown ( 8 ) , surpassing the 2011 Southern Miss Golden Eagles football team . Margus Hunt was named the game 's Most Valuable Player because of his two @-@ forced fumble , three @-@ sack ( including one safety ) performance . In total , the Mustangs achieved seven sacks , the most Fresno State had surrendered in a single game all year . Davante Adams ' third @-@ quarter touchdown reception lengthened his streak to eight consecutive games with a touchdown reception , tying a Fresno State record that was set by Henry Ellard in 1982 .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = = = Team statistics = = = =
= = = = Individual statistics = = = =
= = = = = Passing = = = = =
= = = = = Rushing = = = = =
= = = = = Receiving = = = = =
Source :
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= SM U @-@ 21 ( Germany ) =
SM U @-@ 21 was a U @-@ boat built for the Imperial German Navy shortly before World War I. The third of four Type U @-@ 19 @-@ class submarines , these were the first U @-@ boats in German service to be equipped with diesel engines . U @-@ 21 was built between 1910 and October 1913 at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig . She was armed with four torpedo tubes and a single deck gun , though a second was added during her career .
In September 1914 , U @-@ 21 became the first submarine to sink a ship with a self @-@ propelled torpedo when she destroyed the cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Firth of Forth . She also sank several transports in the English Channel and the Irish Sea later in the year , all in accordance with the cruiser rules then in effect . In early 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support the Ottoman Empire against the Anglo @-@ French attacks during the Gallipoli Campaign . Shortly after her arrival , she sank the British battleships HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic while they were bombarding Ottoman positions at Gallipoli . Further successes followed in the Mediterranean in 1916 , including the sinking of the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner in February .
Throughout 1916 , U @-@ 21 served in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as U @-@ 36 , since Germany was not yet at war with Italy and thus could not legally attack Italian warships under the German flag . She returned to Germany in March 1917 to join the unrestricted commerce war against British maritime trade . In 1918 , she was withdrawn from front line service and was employed as a training submarine for new crews . She survived the war and sank while under tow by a British warship in 1919 .
= = Design = =
U @-@ 21 was 64 @.@ 15 meters ( 210 @.@ 5 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 10 m ( 20 @.@ 0 ft ) and a height of 8 @.@ 10 m ( 26 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ; 720 short tons ) surfaced and 837 t ( 824 long tons ; 923 short tons ) submerged . The boat 's propulsion system consisted of a pair of 8 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ stroke diesel engines manufactured by MAN SE for use on the surface and two electric double motor @-@ dynamos built by AEG for use while submerged . U @-@ 21 and her sister boats were the first German submarines to be equipped with diesel engines . The electric motors were powered by a bank of two 110 @-@ cell batteries . U @-@ 21 could cruise at a top speed of 15 @.@ 4 knots ( 28 @.@ 5 km / h ; 17 @.@ 7 mph ) on the surface and 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . Steering was controlled by a pair of hydroplanes forward and another pair aft , and a single rudder .
U @-@ 21 was armed with four 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , which were supplied with a total of six torpedoes . One pair was located in the bow and the other was in the stern . She was initially fitted with a machine gun for use on the surface , but by the end of 1914 this was replaced with a 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 gun . In 1916 , a second 8 @.@ 8 cm gun was added . U @-@ 21 had a crew of four officers and twenty @-@ five enlisted sailors .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 21 was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) . She was laid down in 1910 and launched on 8 February 1913 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , she was commissioned into the fleet on 22 October 1913 .
= = = North Sea operations = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , U @-@ 21 was based at the island of Heligoland in the German Bight , commanded by Kapitänleutnant ( Captain Lieutenant ) Otto Hersing . In early August , Hersing took U @-@ 21 on a patrol into the Dover Straits but he found no British vessels . On 14 August U @-@ 21 went on a second patrol , this time in company with her sister boats U @-@ 19 and U @-@ 22 , to the northern North Sea between Norway and Scotland . The patrol was an attempt to locate the British blockade line and gather intelligence , but they spotted only a single cruiser and a destroyer off the Norwegian coast . Hersing attempted to enter the Firth of Forth — a major Royal Navy fleet base — later in the month but was unsuccessful .
On 5 September 1914 , U @-@ 21 encountered the British scout cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Isle of May . Hersing had surfaced his U @-@ boat to recharge his batteries when a lookout spotted smoke from Pathfinder 's funnels on the horizon . U @-@ 21 submerged to make an attack , but Pathfinder turned away on her patrol line ; U @-@ 21 could not hope to keep up with the cruiser while submerged , so Hersing broke off the chase and resumed recharging his batteries . Shortly thereafter , Pathfinder reversed course again and headed back toward U @-@ 21 . Hersing maneuvered into an attack position and fired a single torpedo , which hit Pathfinder just aft of her conning tower . The torpedo detonated one of the cruiser 's magazines , which destroyed the ship in a large explosion . The British were able to lower only a single lifeboat before Pathfinder sank . Other survivors were found clinging to wreckage by torpedo boats that rushed to the scene . Pathfinder was the first warship to be sunk by a modern submarine . A total of 261 sailors were killed in the attack .
U @-@ 21 caught the French steamer SS Malachite on 14 November ; after forcing the ship to stop and examining her cargo manifest , Hersing ordered the crew to abandon ship before he sank Malachite with his deck gun . U @-@ 21 's next success came three days later with the British collier SS Primo , which he also sank in accordance with the cruiser rules that governed commerce raiding . These two ships were the first vessels to be sunk in the restricted German submarine offensive against British and French merchant shipping .
On 22 January , Hersing took his U @-@ boat through the Dover Barrage in the Channel before turning into the Irish Sea . He shelled the airfield on Walney Island , though a coastal battery quickly forced him to withdraw . The next day , U @-@ 21 stopped the collier SS Ben Cruachan ; after evacuating her crew , the Germans sank her with scuttling charges . Later that day , U @-@ 21 stopped and sank the steamers SS Linda Blanche and SS Kilcuan . In both cases , Hersing adhered to the prize rules , including flagging down a passing trawler to pick up the ships ' crews . After these successes , U @-@ 21 withdrew from the area to avoid the British patrols that would arrive in the aftermath of the sinkings . After passing back through the Dover Barrage , U @-@ 21 cruised back to Wilhelmshaven .
= = = In the Mediterranean 1915 – 17 = = =
In April 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support Germany 's ally , Turkey . She left Kiel on 25 April , and the first leg of the voyage , from Germany to Austria @-@ Hungary , took eighteen days . Hersing took his submarine north around Scotland to avoid the Dover patrols , and rendezvoused with the supply ship SS Marzala off Cape Finisterre to refuel . Unfortunately for the Germans , Marzala carried poor quality crude oil that could not be burned in the boat 's diesel engines ; U @-@ 21 had less than half of her fuel supply remaining , and was only halfway on the voyage to Austria @-@ Hungary . Hersing was forced to run his U @-@ boat on the surface to conserve fuel , which increased the risk of detection by Allied forces . While en route the Germans managed to escape from patrolling British and French torpedo boats and transport ships that might have reported their location .
U @-@ 21 finally arrived in Cattaro on 13 May , with only 1 @.@ 8 t ( 1 @.@ 8 long tons ; 2 @.@ 0 short tons ) of fuel left in her tanks — she had left Germany with 56 t ( 55 long tons ; 62 short tons ) . She spent a week at the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine bases at Pola and Cattaro in mid @-@ May , where she was visited by Georg von Trapp , an Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat commander . Several other German submarines joined U @-@ 21 in the following months , after calls for assistance from the Ottoman ground forces on the Gallipoli peninsula , who were taking heavy casualties from the bombardments from Allied warships . These U @-@ boats included U @-@ 33 , U @-@ 34 , U @-@ 35 , and U @-@ 39 .
U @-@ 21 arrived in her operational area off Gallipoli on 25 May ; that day , she encountered the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship HMS Triumph . Hersing brought his U @-@ boat to within 300 yards ( 270 m ) of his target and fired a single torpedo , which hit Triumph . U @-@ 21 then dived under the sinking battleship to escape the destroyers hunting her . Hersing then took his boat to the sea floor to wait for the Allied forces to abandon the chase . After twenty @-@ eight hours on the sea floor , U @-@ 21 surfaced to recharge her batteries and bring in fresh air . On 27 May , Hersing attacked and sank his second battleship , HMS Majestic . This time , the British had attempted to protect her with torpedo nets and several small ships , but Hersing was able to aim a torpedo through the defenses . Majestic sank in the span of four minutes . These two successes brought significant dividends : all Allied capital ships were withdrawn to protected anchorages and were thus unable to bombard Ottoman positions on the peninsula . For these two successes , the crew of U @-@ 21 was awarded the Iron Cross by Kaiser Wilhelm II , while Hersing himself received the Pour le Mérite , Germany 's highest award for valor .
After sinking Majestic , Hersing took his submarine to refuel at a Turkish port before attempting the dangerous route through the Dardanelles to Constantinople . While transiting the straits , U @-@ 21 was nearly pulled into a whirlpool but the Germans managed to escape . After arriving in the Ottoman capital , the crew were given a large welcoming ceremony attended by Enver Pasha . U @-@ 21 required significant maintenance , and so the crew was given a month of shore leave while the repairs were carried out . Once the repair work was finished , U @-@ 21 sortied through the Dardanelles for another patrol . Hersing spotted the Allied munitions ship Carthage , which he sank with a single torpedo . Later on the patrol , a lookout on an Allied trawler spotted U @-@ 21 's periscope ; the Germans had to crash dive to escape from being rammed , but doing so brought them into a minefield . One mine exploded off the U @-@ boat 's stern but it caused no significant damage , and U @-@ 21 was able to withdraw to Constantinople .
U @-@ 21 thereafter moved to the Black Sea where she and UB @-@ 14 served as the nucleus of the newly formed Black Sea Flotilla . In September , U @-@ 21 undertook another patrol in the eastern Mediterranean . In the meantime , the Allies had finally managed to establish a complete blockade of the Dardanelles with mines and nets to prevent submarines from operating out of Constantinople . Unable to return to Constantinople , Hersing instead took his U @-@ boat back to Cattaro . Germany would not be in a formal state of war with Italy until August 1916 . As a result , German U @-@ boats could not legally attack Italian ships , despite the fact that Italy was at war with Austria @-@ Hungary . To circumvent this restriction , German submarines operating in the Mediterranean were commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , though their German crews remained aboard . Following her arrival in Cattaro , U @-@ 21 was commissioned as the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 36 . She served under this name until Italy declared war on Germany on 27 August 1916 .
In the meantime , U @-@ 36 began to have further successes against Allied maritime trade . On 1 February 1916 , she sank the British steamer SS Belle of France . A week later , U @-@ 36 torpedoed and sank the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner off the Syrian coast . The cruiser sank quickly with heavy loss of life ; 427 men went down with their ship . In the spring of 1916 , while patrolling off Sicily , U @-@ 36 encountered an Allied Q @-@ ship , an auxiliary cruiser disguised as an unarmed merchant ship . U @-@ 36 fired a shot across the Q @-@ ship 's bow , but it refused to stop and returned fire with a small deck gun . Hersing decided to close and sink the ship , which then revealed her heavy armament . Wounded by shell splinters , Hersing withdrew his submarine under cover of a smoke screen before submerging .
On 30 April , Hersing sank the British steamer City of Lucknow . He sank three small , Italian sailing vessels off Corsica between 26 and 28 October , and on 31 October U @-@ 21 sent the 5 @,@ 800 t ( 5 @,@ 700 @-@ long @-@ ton ) steamship Glenlogan to the bottom . Over the next three days , another four Italian ships — the steamships Bernardo Canale and Torero and two small sailing vessels — were sunk off Sicily . On 23 December , U @-@ 21 torpedoed the British steamer SS Benalder east of Crete , but the ship managed to reach Alexandria .
= = = Return to the North Sea = = =
In early 1917 , U @-@ 21 was recalled to Germany to join the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign being waged against Britain . While en route , she stopped and sank a pair of British sailing vessels off Oporto on 16 February and another pair of Portuguese sailing ships the next day . On 20 February , U @-@ 21 sank the French steamer Cacique in the Bay of Biscay . Two days later in the Western Approaches , she finished off the Dutch steamer Bandoeng , which had been damaged by the submarine UC @-@ 5 on 15 February . Seven more ships followed Bandoeng that day . They included six more Dutch steamers — Eemland , Gaasterland , Jacatra , Noorderdijk , Zaandijk , and Menado — and the Norwegian steamer Normanna . On another patrol in late April , Hersing caught four more ships : the Norwegian Giskö and Theodore William on 22 April and Askepot on 29 April , along with the Russian Borrowdale on 30 April . Another Russian vessel , Lindisfarne , followed on 3 May . The British steamers Adansi and Killarney were sunk on 6 and 8 May , respectively . The Swedish Baltic , which proved to be Hersing 's last victory , was sunk on 27 June .
Hersing attacked a convoy of fifteen merchant ships escorted by fourteen destroyers in August south @-@ west of Ireland . He took U @-@ 21 between two of the escorting destroyers and briefly used his periscope to gauge the speed and course of the transports before firing two torpedoes and diving . Hersing reported both torpedoes hit and the destroyers immediately rushed to begin their depth charge attacks . After a five @-@ hour hunt , the destroyers withdrew to rejoin the convoy . The experience led Hersing to change tactics in future attacks on escorted convoys ; instead of attacking the ships from as far away as possible , he chose to fire his torpedoes at closer range and then dive under the transport ships , where the destroyers would be unable to launch their depth charges for fear of damaging the transports . As of 1918 , she was assigned to the III U @-@ boat Flotilla . Later in 1918 , the submarine was used as a training boat for new crews . She survived the war , but on 22 February 1919 , she accidentally sank in the North Sea while under tow to Britain , where she would be formally surrendered .
In the course of her commerce raiding , U @-@ 21 sank forty ships for a combined 113 @,@ 580 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and damaged two more for a total of 8 @,@ 918 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ships sunk included two battleships and two cruisers .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Homer the Whopper =
" Homer the Whopper " is the season premiere of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 27 , 2009 . In the episode , Comic Book Guy creates a new superhero called Everyman who takes powers from other superheroes . Homer is cast as the lead in the film adaptation . To get Homer into shape , the movie studio hires a celebrity fitness trainer , Lyle McCarthy , to help him . Homer gets into great shape and is really excited , but when McCarthy leaves to train another client , he starts over @-@ eating again and ultimately this leads to the film 's failure .
The episode was written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , who are " obsessed " fans of the show , and directed by Lance Kramer . " Homer The Whopper " was intended to be a commentary on how Hollywood treats superhero films . Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Ricky Gervais was the first . " Homer the Whopper " has received mixed reviews from television critics and acquired a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 3 in its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse convince Comic Book Guy to publish a comic book he wrote titled Everyman , in which the title character can absorb superpowers from the characters of comic books he touches . The comic becomes an instant hit , and many Hollywood studios become interested in making it into a movie . Comic Book Guy agrees to let Everyman become a movie , but only if he can pick the star . When Comic Book Guy sees Homer , he considers Homer perfect for the role , as he wants Everyman to be played by a middle @-@ aged fat man . But the studio executives realize that audiences want a physically fit actor for the role , so they hire celebrity fitness trainer Lyle McCarthy to get Homer into shape . After a month , Homer becomes fit and the movie begins production .
Soon afterward , however , McCarthy leaves Homer for another client . Without McCarthy to keep him in shape , Homer starts eating again and gains all the weight back . Homer can no longer fit into his costume or even his trailer , and the movie begins to go over budget . The studio executives and Comic Book Guy worry that the film will not be successful . The final version of the movie features scenes with the fat Homer and the physically fit Homer merged , upsetting and confusing the audience . After the premiere of the film , McCarthy returns and offers to get Homer into shape again , which Homer accepts . The studio executives offer to let Comic Book Guy direct the sequel , on the condition that Comic Book Guy lie to the fans and say he liked the film . Though pleased by the offer , Comic Book Guy rejects it and openly criticizes the movie online , and thus it becomes a box office failure and Everyman is never adapted again .
= = Production = =
Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , writers of the film Superbad , are " obsessed " fans of The Simpsons . After learning that The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks was a fan of Superbad , they decided to ask the producers of the show if they could write an episode . In 2006 , Ricky Gervais , co @-@ creator of The Office , received credit for writing the season 17 episode " Homer Simpson , This Is Your Wife " . Rogen and Goldberg " thought if [ Gervais ] got to write one , maybe [ they ] could try . " They were invited to The Simpsons writers room , where they pitched several episode ideas . One was accepted , and they wrote an outline with the help of some feedback from the regular writers .
Rogen commented that he and Goldberg wanted to show with the episode how Hollywood generally ruins superhero films . He said that " the whole joke is that Homer is cast to play a guy who 's an everyman and they try to make him into this physically fit guy . " Rogen also noted that the plot mirrors the situation he was in while working on the film The Green Hornet , when he had to lose weight and do physical training for his role . Show runner Al Jean commented that the writers tried not to repeat the comic book film theme from the " Radioactive Man " episode . Instead they decided to parody the fact that almost every comic book has been turned into a film . Jean commented that that scene in the episode in which the studio executives " are trying to think up an idea that hasn 't been done really is what they are doing these days [ in real life ] . "
The table read took place in August 2008 , and production on the episode began soon after that . Rogen later said that " we sat down for a read @-@ through and three hours later I 'm in a studio improv @-@ ing with Homer Simpson , it was the single greatest day of my life . " Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Gervais also appeared in the episode he wrote . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening also makes an appearance in the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast in the United States on September 27 , 2009 , " Homer The Whopper " was watched in 8 @.@ 31 million homes and acquired a 4 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating / 12 % share . The rating was down seven percent from the previous season 's premiere , which was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes the night it aired .
Since airing , " Homer The Whopper " has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Steve Fritz of Newsarama called the episode " amazing " and commented that the " overall comic book theme was perfect . " Reviewers for TV Guide cited Matt Groening 's cameo , the dinner table scene , Homer trying to lose weight at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , and the opening scene where Bart questions Comic Book Guy about Spider @-@ Man as the highlights of the episode .
Robert Canning of IGN was positive about " Homer The Whopper " , giving it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 rating . He commented that the first act of the episode was the strongest , while the others were weaker . Canning believed the reason for this was that the viewers have already seen Homer " struggle with his weight countless times , and Rogen 's trainer , though funny much of the time , will likely never be remembered as a classic guest role . " He added , however , that Rogen and Goldberg are able to find " a few new angles with the weight jokes , so it 's not a complete loss . " Overall , Canning thought " Homer The Whopper " was a good start to the twenty @-@ first season , and although the plot may not be very original , the writers added " freshness to the proceedings . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff did not think the script was as good as Gervais ' , but commented that Rogen and Goldberg " managed to make a mostly amusing season premiere . " He added that he thought the Hollywood satirizing featured in this episode had been overused on the show , but " the specificity of what the [ episode ] was making fun of — trainers who help stars slim down ( in this case , helping Homer slim down ) — went a long way toward making the episode palatable . " VanDerWerff concluded that while the episode " didn ’ t try anything new [ ... ] , [ he ] had fun with it all the same . "
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= Overhill Cherokee =
Overhill Cherokee was the term for the Cherokee people located in their historic settlements in what is now the U.S. state of Tennessee in the Southeastern United States , on the west side of the Appalachian Mountains . This name was used by 18th @-@ century European traders and explorers from British colonies along the Atlantic coast , as they had to cross the mountains to reach these settlements .
Situated along the lower Little Tennessee , lower Tellico , and lower Hiwassee rivers , the Overhill towns rose to prominence within the Cherokee Nation in the early 18th century , when they began to standardize trade with the British colonists . In the early part of the century , the Overhill towns ' remote location at the far end of the Trading Path meant they were reached only by those traders and explorers adventurous enough to make the difficult journey to the interior over the mountain range . By the middle of the century , the Overhill towns were consistently courted by both British and French emissaries , as the two powers struggled for the control of the continent and the lucrative fur trade .
During and following the American Revolutionary War , in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , the westward thrust of Euro @-@ American settlement led to the decline of the Overhill towns . The Cherokee were forced to cede most of their lands in this area through a series of unfavorable treaties with the United States , and they migrated to the south and west away from settler pressure for a time .
The Overhill town of Chota , in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , was recognized as the de facto capital of the entire Cherokee Nation for most of the 18th century , when it was the major settlement . The town of Tanasi became the namesake for the state of Tennessee . Many prominent Cherokee leaders , including Attakullakulla , Oconastota , Nancy Ward , and Sequoyah , were born and raised in Overhill towns .
In the 1970s , most of the former Overhill sites were submerged by the impoundment of the Little Tennessee River in a Tennessee Valley Authority project . But , archaeologists conducted extensive excavations prior to this , during which they identified most of the Overhill towns and extracted thousands of artifacts , helping them develop volumes of invaluable information regarding the region 's Cherokee and pre @-@ Cherokee inhabitants . Different cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the river for 12 @,@ 000 years .
= = Geographic area = =
The Overhill settlements were concentrated around three rivers at the base of the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains , in what are now Monroe and Polk counties in Tennessee . The northernmost of these three rivers , the Little Tennessee , was the locus for a string of prominent Overhill settlements situated between modern @-@ day Vonore and Calderwood Dam . Other important settlements were situated along the Hiwassee River south of modern Etowah and along the Tellico River in modern Tellico Plains .
Although Native Americans used most of the Tennessee side of the Great Smoky Mountains primarily as a hunting ground , early Euro @-@ American explorers recalled abandoned villages and temporary hunting camps scattered around the region . These were often found in the game @-@ rich coves of the northern part of the range and near the junctions of major streams .
= = = Prominent Overhill villages = = =
Mialoquo ( Amaye 'le 'gwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , on a now @-@ submerged island in the middle of the Little Tennessee River . This was just north of the modern U.S. Route 411 bridge . Mooney believed Mialoquo might have been the village of Nilaque , which the naturalist John Bartram recorded visiting . The term " Mialoquo " means " Great Island . " 35 @.@ 61534 ° N 84 @.@ 24048 ° W / 35 @.@ 61534 ; -84.24048
Tuskegee ( Taskigi ) – located at the confluence of the Tellico and Little Tennessee rivers south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . Tuskegee was the birthplace of Sequoyah , noted as the first person to independently create a written alphabet , which he did for the Cherokee language . 35 @.@ 59167 ° N 84 @.@ 20222 ° W / 35 @.@ 59167 ; -84.20222
Tomotley – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Toqua along the Little Tennessee River . Timberlake reported a councilhouse in Tomotley that would sound a " death hallow " to signify the return of a war party . 35 @.@ 57182 ° N 84 @.@ 18697 ° W / 35 @.@ 57182 ; -84.18697
Toqua ( Dakwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Toco Creek and the Little Tennessee River , just south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . 35 @.@ 56984 ° N 84 @.@ 17248 ° W / 35 @.@ 56984 ; -84.17248
Tanasi – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Chota along the Little Tennessee River . The town was the capital of the Overhill Cherokee c . 1721 – 1730 . The Little Tennessee was originally simply called the " Tennessee , " which was an alternate spelling of " Tanasi . " European @-@ American settlers eventually applied the name to the entire state . 35 @.@ 55005 ° N 84 @.@ 13374 ° W / 35 @.@ 55005 ; -84.13374
Chota ( Itsa 'sa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , along the Little Tennessee River , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of modern @-@ day Vonore . Chota was the de facto Cherokee capital in the mid @-@ 18th century , and birthplace of several prominent chiefs . At the time of Timberlake 's visit in 1761 , Chota consisted of a large councilhouse , which could seat 500 , and about 60 houses . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Echota . " 35 @.@ 55507 ° N 84 @.@ 13104 ° W / 35 @.@ 55507 ; -84.13104
Citico ( Si 'tiku ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Citico Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Settaco . " 35 @.@ 54887 ° N 84 @.@ 09891 ° W / 35 @.@ 54887 ; -84.09891
Chilhowee ( Tsu 'lun 'we ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The junction of modern U.S. Route 129 and Foothills Parkway is nearby . 35 @.@ 55231 ° N 84 @.@ 00737 ° W / 35 @.@ 55231 ; -84.00737
Tallassee ( Ta 'lasi ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties along the Little Tennessee River , a mile or so downstream from the modern Calderwood Dam . The modern town of Tallassee is situated much further downstream , and its location should not be confused with that of the ancient village . The Cherokee Tallassee is sometimes referred to as " Tallassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 50556 ° N 84 @.@ 00028 ° W / 35 @.@ 50556 ; -84.00028
Great Tellico ( Talikwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , in Tellico Plains , where the Tellico River levels out at the base of the Unicoi Mountains . Great Tellico rose to prominence in early 18th century under its chief Moytoy . Sir Alexander Cuming , who visited the town in 1730 , reported that Great Tellico had the fiercest warriors of all the Overhill towns . Great Tellico 's sister town , Chatuga , was also located in the valley . 35 @.@ 36627 ° N 84 @.@ 28745 ° W / 35 @.@ 36627 ; -84.28745
Great Hiwassee ( Ayouwasi ) – located in present @-@ day Polk County , Tennessee , along the Hiwassee River at the base of the Unicoi Mountains , where the river levels into a fertile plain . The site has been developed as farmland . The term Hiwassee means " savanna " or " plain . " Hiwassee is sometimes called " Hiwassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 24314 ° N 84 @.@ 58149 ° W / 35 @.@ 24314 ; -84.58149
= = = Trails and paths = = =
The Overhill settlements were connected by a series of well @-@ established Native American trails :
The Great Indian Warpath ran parallel to the base of the Appalachians , connecting the Overhill settlements to Cherokee villages in Georgia and Virginia .
The Trading Path ( later called the Unicoi Turnpike ) connected the Overhill towns with the Middle settlements in North Carolina , the Lower towns in South Carolina , and extended to Charleston , South Carolina .
The Warriors ' Path connected Hiwassee Old Town , Great Tellico , and Chota , which were the main villages along the three rivers in the Overhill country .
A branch of the Tuckaleechee and Southeastern Trail connected the Overhill towns along the Upper Little Tennessee with the Kitawha towns in North Carolina via Tuckaleechee Cove , Cades Cove and Ekaneetlee Gap ( near Gregory Bald ) .
The War Trace ran from the Upper Cherokee area , through southeast Kentucky , along Mason 's Creek or Mace 's Creek , and present @-@ day Viper , Kentucky , passing through the Overhill towns and reaching the Georgia Cherokee towns . It also had connections to the Warrior 's Path and the Cumberland Gap , Tennessee , area , and the Cherokee villages of Sullen Possum and Wildcat .
= = History = =
Early Euro @-@ American explorers in Southern Appalachia noted that the Cherokee were concentrated around three general regions . The " Lower Towns " were centered on the town of Keowee in the hills of South Carolina and northeastern Georgia . The " Middle Towns " were centered on Nequassee and Tassetchee amidst the Great Balsam Mountains and eastern Unicoi Mountains in western North Carolina . The Overhill Cherokee lived in settlements located between the Appalachian Mountains and the Tennessee Valley in what is now Tennessee . The Overhill capital , or " mother town , " shifted between Great Tellico , Tanasi , and Chota .
The Overhill settlements were established sometime between the late 16th century and the late 17th century , although scholars disagree as to a more exact timeframe . The major towns were well settled by the time the first Euro @-@ American explorers arrived in the late 17th century . The Overhill Cherokee were recognized as speaking a dialect distinctive from that found in the Middle and Lower towns , although all the people identified as Cherokee .
= = = Early accounts = = =
For most of the 17th century , the British colonies on the Atlantic coast dealt with the Cherokee via representatives of other tribes acting as middlemen . As the fur trade expanded in importance with rising demand in European markets , traders and trappers went to the Overhill settlements for direct contact with the Cherokee and other western tribes . In 1673 , Virginia merchants sent agents James Needham and Gabriel Arthur on a trip west of the Appalachians , hoping to open a direct trade route . While Needham was killed on the return trip , Arthur stayed behind . He later claimed to have accompanied the natives ( possibly the Cherokee ) on raids of Spanish settlements in Florida .
In 1725 , South Carolina sent Col. George Chicken on a diplomatic mission to the Overhill towns to address the issue of unlicensed traders , who were underselling merchants conducting business legally . Chicken arrived in Great Tellico in July . He described the village as " compact and thick settled ; " the town and tribe had long competed in the region with the Creek tribe . Chicken followed the Warriors ' Path north to the Little Tennessee River , where he met the " Head Warrior " of Tanasi and the chiefs of Citico and Tallassee .
= = = Alexander Cuming , 1730 = = =
Sir Alexander Cuming ( c . 1690 – 1775 ) arrived in Charleston , South Carolina in December 1729 . Although he lacked official diplomatic credentials , Cuming managed to convince several Charlestonians that he was an agent of King George II of Great Britain on a mission to gain the loyalty of the Cherokee . Cuming set out for the Overhill town of Tanasi in March 1730 , his stated goal being to gain the fabled " Crown of Tannassy . "
Cuming moved quickly along the Trading Path , interacting briefly with Lower and Middle chiefs . In just under a month , Cuming had crossed the Unicoi Mountains into the Overhill country , a dangerous place at the time due to the Cherokees ' ongoing war with the Creeks .
Years later colonial trader Ludovick Grant , who lived in Great Tellico and briefly accompanied Cuming during his tour , described the latter 's techniques . In each town , Cuming arranged a meeting with local Cherokee leaders . He arrived fully armed at the meeting at the town council house , in defiance of custom . There he made a prepared speech saying that he was a private citizen wishing only to see their country , and that if any Indians wished to return to England with him , he would take them . He asked them to join his party in a toast to the health of King George II , and to kneel in allegiance . He told his guides that he would have set fire to the townhouse and killed the assembled Indians if they refused .
During his stay in Great Tellico , Cuming was impressed by the display of its chief Moytoy . He described the encounter in his journal ( referring to his party in third person ) :
They arrived at great Telliquo in the Afternoon , saw the petrifying Cave , a great many Enemies Scalps brought in and put upon Poles at the Warriors Doors , made a Friend of the great Moytoy , and Jacob the Conjurer .
Cuming learned that Moytoy was trying to gain control of the entire Cherokee people , who were highly decentralized , with power associated with regional settlements . Cuming agreed to help Moytoy if the chief would help him get the Crown of Tanasi . On March 30 , 1730 , Cuming followed the Warriors ' Path from Great Tellico to Tanasi , which he found " pleasantly situated " along the Little Tennessee . Cuming met with the Tanasi Warrior , whom he understood to be the de facto leader of the Overhill at the time . After gaining the Tanasi Warrior 's allegiance , Cuming returned to Great Tellico . He accompanied Moytoy back across the Unicoi Mountains to Nequassee , and helped the chief be crowned as " Emperor of the Cherokee . "
Cuming returned to England on June 5 , 1730 , accompanied by several Cherokee and carrying a possum @-@ hair headdress , which he referred to as the " Crown of Tannassy . " Although he had planned to present the party and crown to King George II , a delegation from Charleston arrived claiming Cuming had defrauded them . While Cuming 's schemes led to his own downfall , his visit to the Overhill towns helped to solidify an alliance between the Cherokee and the English .
= = = Christian Priber , 1730s = = =
Around 1736 , Christian Priber , a German utopian idealist , reached Great Tellico . Although initially working as a French agent , Priber quickly abandoned his mission . He adopted Cherokee customs , learned the language , and quickly gained the tribe 's trust .
Priber attempted to organize Cherokee society in accordance with early 18th @-@ century European idealism . He promoted the idea that all things should be held in common , including wives and children . Claiming the English were fraudulent and greedy , he suggested moving the Cherokee capital to modern @-@ day Alabama , where it would be closer to the French colonial territory of La Louisiane . The English tried to arrest Priber in 1739 , but were prevented by the Cherokee . He was finally captured by the Creek people in 1743 and turned over to South Carolina authorities .
= = = Fort Loudoun , 1756 – 1760 = = =
At the outbreak of the Seven Years ' War ( or the French and Indian War as it was known in North America ) , the Cherokee aligned with the British . The Overhill towns agreed to provide military support , but asked that a fort be built to protect the area 's women and children while the warriors were away . In 1756 , the colonies dispatched Captain Raymond Demeré and engineer John DeBrahm to the area with several wagon loads of supplies for the construction of a fort along the Little Tennessee River . The fort , named after John Campbell , 4th Earl of Loudoun , stood at the junction of the Little Tennessee and the Tellico rivers . The Cherokee village of Tuskegee developed in its vicinity .
Shortly after the fort 's construction , relations between the English and the Cherokee soured . Several Cherokee returning home from battle were killed by settlers , and an increase in horse thefts created tension in Virginia . After a contingent of Cherokee chiefs were detained at Fort Prince George in late 1759 , the Cherokee , under Chief Standing Turkey , laid siege to Fort Loudoun . The fort 's garrison held out until August 1760 , when a lack of provisions forced them to surrender .
= = = Timberlake Expedition , 1761 = = =
The British colonies responded swiftly to the fall of Fort Loudoun . South Carolina sent Colonel James Grant against the Lower Towns , Virginia dispatched Colonel William Byrd to attack the Middle Towns in western North Carolina , and Colonel Adam Stephen detached from Byrd 's regiment and marched to Long Island on the Holston ( near modern @-@ day Kingsport , Tennessee ) with plans to attack the Overhill Towns . The Cherokee immediately sued for peace , which was granted . To help solidify the peace , Colonel Stephen dispatched Lieutenant Henry Timberlake and Sergeant Thomas Sumter to accompany a Cherokee delegation on a tour of the Overhill towns .
After a five @-@ day journey down the Holston , French Broad , and Little Tennessee rivers , Timberlake arrived in the Overhill town of Tomotley . There he was greeted by Ostenaco and witnessed a ceremonial return of a Cherokee war party . After smoking a peace pipe with Ostenaco , Timberlake proceeded southward to Chota , where he was met by some 400 Cherokee . Timberlake smoked a peace pipe with several tribal leaders , and recorded the layout and design of the town 's large council @-@ house .
The following day , Timberlake arrived in the town of Citico , where the residents greeted him with a long dance . After smoking a peace pipe with the town leader Cheulah , Timberlake proceeded southward to Chilhowee , where he gained similar assurances of peace . He returned via the trail to Long Island on the Holston . Timberlake 's journals , published in the 1760s , contain detailed descriptions of Cherokee councilhouses , residences , canoes , and other facets of everyday Cherokee life ; these were invaluable to historians .
= = = American Revolution = = =
At the close of the Seven Years ' War , Euro @-@ American settlers began trickling into east Tennessee from the eastern colonies . In 1772 , several pioneers negotiated a lease for Cherokee lands in northeast Tennessee and formed the Watauga Settlement . In spite of the agreement , tensions between the pioneers and the Cherokee rose steadily . By the outbreak of the American Revolution , the Cherokee were allied with the British against the rebellious American colonies , hoping to push the encroaching settlers out of their territory .
In 1776 , the Cherokee initiated a plan to drive the settlers out of the Washington District , North Carolina and invade Virginia . Virginia merchant , Isaac Thomas — later a co @-@ founder of Sevierville — was warned of the invasion by Nancy Ward , a Cherokee Beloved Woman . Thomas passed on the warning to the settlers , who prepared their defenses . The first prong of the attack , led by Dragging Canoe , was defeated by colonists at Heaton 's Station . The second prong , led by Abraham of Chilhowee , was routed at Fort Watauga . In response to these attacks , several thousand militia led by William Christian invaded the Overhill towns and burned Tuskegee and Citico . The Cherokee made peace shortly thereafter , under the Treaty of De Witt 's Corner . Chiefs Dragging Canoe and Ostenaco refused to sign another treaty , and fled south with their followers to continue the armed struggle , in what became known as the Cherokee – American wars .
In 1780 , while the North Carolina militia from the Washington District , often referred to as the " overhill militia " , were away at the Battle of Kings Mountain , the Cherokee launched sporadic raids against the settlers here . Upon returning , Colonel John Sevier , who had gained fame as a co @-@ commander at Kings Mountain , was dispatched , along with several thousand militia , to the south on a punitive expedition to the Overhill towns . After defeating the Cherokee in a fierce battle at Boyd 's Creek ( in modern @-@ day Sevier County ) , Sevier proceeded southward . He destroyed most of the remaining , lightly defended villages , including the capital of Chota .
= = = Cherokee – American wars = = =
After the Cherokee defeats at Heaton 's Station and Fort Watauga in 1776 , most Cherokee chiefs , including Attakullakulla and Oconastota , signed the Treaty of De Witt 's Corner . Dragging Canoe and Ostenaco refused to recognize this treaty , claiming the settlers were unlikely to abide by the treaty 's terms . Along with several renegade tribesmen from across the Cherokee tribes , they moved south to Chickamauga Creek , in the vicinity of what is now Chattanooga , and set up a series of villages .
Settlers called them the " Chickamauga Cherokee " after their location and to distinguish them from the greater Cherokee tribe . The Chickamauga ( or " Lower Cherokee " as they were also sometimes called ) proceeded to carry on an unconventional war against the encroaching Euro @-@ American settlers , ambushing small patrols and attacking small settlements . After Oconastota 's death in the early 1780s , Chief Old Tassel was recognized as the leader of the Overhill Cherokee . He sought more distance from the Chickamauga . After an expedition by Sevier destroyed the Chickamauga towns in 1782 , Dragging Canoe moved the Chickamaugas southwest to modern @-@ day Marion County , Tennessee , where he continued his struggle .
The end of the Revolutionary War released more energy for postwar settlement from the eastern states , and the Cherokee had to contend with new migrants in their territories . In 1788 , a renegade band of Cherokees massacred much of the family of John Kirk on Nine Mile Creek ( in modern Blount County , Tennessee ) , enraging the already uneasy settlers . Sevier rallied the militia at Hunter 's Station ( near Maryville ) and marched across Chilhowee Mountain to the Little Tennessee River . After capturing and burning Tallassee , Sevier entered Chilhowee and placed Abraham of Chilhowee and Old Tassel under arrest , while negotiating a truce . One of Kirk 's surviving sons got to the chiefs and tomahawked both of them to death . The killing of chiefs under a flag of truce was considered a grave insult by the Cherokee , and this event revived the dwindling power of the Chickamaugas for warfare .
After the massacre at Chilhowee , John Watts ( Old Tassel 's son ) and Doublehead ( Old Tassel 's brother ) aligned with Dragging Canoe ; together they carried on a protracted series of attacks against the settlers . Sevier again marched south , capturing and burning several villages before being forced to turn back . Although Dragging Canoe died in 1792 , John Watt and Doublehead continued to make sporadic attacks against Euro @-@ American settlements . Such raids gradually shifted and were conducted against settlements in the Cumberland region .
= = = Tellico Agency = = =
After the assassination of Old Tassel in 1788 , Chief Hanging Maw was recognized as the leader of the Overhill towns . With violence spiraling out of control , Hanging Maw petitioned the territorial governor , William Blount , for a fort to protect the peaceful Overhill villages from vengeful settlers . In 1794 , Hanging Maw donated land at the junction of Nine Mile Creek and the Little Tennessee River to the U.S. government for the construction of the Tellico Blockhouse .
Along with a small garrison of federal soldiers , the Tellico Blockhouse was the headquarters of the Tellico Agent , William Blountt , he official liaison between the U.S. and the Cherokee . On November 8 , 1794 , Blount met Hanging Maw ( representing the Overhill Cherokee ) and John Watt ( representing the Lower Cherokee ) to sign a treaty ending the Cherokee – American wars . Over the next ten years , the US made several other treaties with the Cherokee , persuading Cherokee leaders to cede large portions of land in East and Middle Tennessee , including the Overhill towns along the Little Tennessee , in an attempt to gain peace . With the cession of Overhill lands , the Cherokee Nation 's center of power shifted south to New Echota in Georgia . Settlers migrating throughout the Southeast kept up pressure to gain Cherokee lands .
= = Overhill sites today = =
In 1967 , the Tennessee Valley Authority began construction on Tellico Dam just above the mouth of the Little Tennessee . The impoundment created Tellico Lake and effectively flooded all of the original known Overhill sites along the Little Tennessee River . Before the flooding , the University of Tennessee conducted extensive archaeological excavations , identifying Chota 's townhouse and the grave of Oconastota . The site of Chota 's townhouse was covered with fill , raising it above water levels . A monument with eight pillars — one for the Cherokee Nation and each of its seven clans — was placed at the site along with the reinterred grave of Oconastota . Nearby , a small monument was erected marking the site of Tanasi , and recalling it as the root of the state 's name . Both sites are managed by the Eastern Band of the Cherokee .
Further upstream , Chilhowee Dam was named after the now @-@ submerged site of Chilhowee . Tennessee Reservoir Development Agency ( TRDA ) boat ramps have been named after the submerged former sites of Toqua and Tallassee . Abrams Creek , which traverses Cades Cove and empties into the Little Tennessee , is named after chief Abraham of Chilhowee .
In the 20th century , Fort Loudon was reconstructed by state teams , as well as a replica of a 17th @-@ century village dwelling of Tuskegee ; these are located within the Fort Loudoun State Park . The state park also manages the Tellico Blockhouse site , the foundations of which have been identified and marked . The Sequoyah Birthplace Museum , near Fort Loudoun in Vonore , is dedicated to the creator of the Cherokee alphabet . The Unicoi Trail , a cross @-@ country hiking trail , now connects the Sequoyah Museum with Murphy , North Carolina , roughly following the ancient Trading Path . The Frank H. McClung Museum at the University of Tennessee contains hundreds of Cherokee artifacts obtained from various excavations which the university has conducted in the Tennessee Valley over the past century .
= = Prominent Overhill Cherokee figures = =
Moytoy of Tellico ( c . 1687 – 1760 ) – headman at Great Tellico at the time of Cuming 's visit
Old Tassel ( Onitositaii ) ( c . 1700 – 1788 ) — headman of Toqua
Ostenaco ( c . 1700 – 1780 ) – head chief , Tomotley , at the time of Timberlake 's visit
Attakullakulla ( c.1710 – 1777 ) – born in Chota
Oconastota ( c . 1710 – 1783 ) – born and died in Chota
Jacob the Conjurer ( fl. ca . 1730 ) – in Great Tellico at the time of Cumming 's visit
Dragging Canoe ( c . 1738 – 1792 ) – born in Chota , onetime headman of Great Island Town
Nancy Ward ( c . 1738 – 1824 ) – born in Chota
John Watts ( 1753 – 1802 ) – nephew of Old Tassel , leader of the Chickamauga / Lower Cherokee after Dragging Canoe died in 1792 .
Moytoy of Citico ( 1759 – 1761 ) - began the Anglo @-@ Cherokee War
Sequoyah ( c . 1767 – 1843 ) – born in Tuskegee
Savanukah ; participated in the 1776 offensive into the Washington District , North Carolina , served as headman of the Overhills 1780 – 1781 .
Abraham of Chilhowee ( or Abram ) ( d . 1788 ) – led Cherokee assault against Fort Watauga in 1776
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= Least weasel =
The least weasel ( Mustela nivalis ) , or simply weasel in the UK , is the smallest member of the genus Mustela and of the family Mustelidae ( as well as the smallest of the Carnivora ) , native to Eurasia , North America and North Africa , though it has been introduced to New Zealand , Australia , Malta , Crete , Bermuda , Madeira Island , the Azores , the Canary Islands , Sao Tome , the Falkland Islands , Argentina and Chile . It is classed as being of least concern by the IUCN , due to its wide distribution and presumed large population .
Least weasels from various parts of its range vary greatly in size . The body is slender and elongated and the legs and tail are relatively short . The colour varies geographically , as does the pelage type and length of tail . The dorsal surface , flanks , limbs and tail of the animal are usually some shade of brown while the underparts are white . The line delineating the boundary between the two colours is usually straight . At high altitudes and in the northern part of its range , the coat becomes pure white in winter . Eighteen subspecies are recognised .
Small rodents form the largest part of the least weasel 's diet , but it also kills and eats rabbits and other mammals , and occasionally birds , birds ' eggs , fish and frogs . Males mark their territories with olfactory signals and have exclusive home ranges which may intersect with or include several female ranges . Least weasels use pre @-@ existing holes to sleep , store food and raise their young . Breeding takes place in the spring and summer , and there is a single litter of about six kits which are reared exclusively by the female . Due to its small size , fierce nature and cunning behaviour , the least weasel plays an important part in the mythology and legend of various cultures .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The least weasel was given its scientific name Mustela nivalis by Carl Linnaeus in his 12th edition of Systema Naturae in 1766 . The type locality was Westrobothnia in Sweden . As an animal with a very wide distribution , the morphology of the least weasel varies geographically . The species was reviewed by Reichstein in 1957 and again by van Zyll de Jong in 1992 and Reig in 1997 . Youngman ( 1982 ) placed it in the subgenus Mustela while Abramov ( 1999 ) considered it should be included in the subgenus Gale . Based on skull characteristics , Reig ( 1997 ) proposed that the taxon should be split into four species , M. subpalmata , M. rixosa , M. vulgaris and M. eskimo . Abrimov and Baryshinikov ( 2000 ) disagreed , recognising only M. subpalmata as a separate species .
Within the genus Mustela , the least weasel is a relatively unspecialised form , as evidenced by its pedomorphic skull , which occurs even in large subspecies . Its direct ancestor was Mustela praenivalis , which lived in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene and Villafranchian . M. praenivalis itself was probably preceded by M. pliocaenica of the Pliocene . The modern species probably arose during the Late Pleistocene . The least weasel is the product of a process begun 5 – 7 million years ago , when northern forests were replaced by open grassland , thus prompting an explosive evolution of small , burrowing rodents . The weasel 's ancestors were larger than the current form , and underwent a reduction in size to exploit the new food source . The least weasel throve during the Ice Age , as its small size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow , as well as hunt in burrows . It probably crossed to North America through the Bering land bridge 200 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The least weasel has a high geographic variation , a fact which has historically led to numerous disagreements among biologists studying its systematics . Least weasel subspecies are divided into 3 categories :
The pygmaea – rixosa group ( small weasels ) : Tiny weasels with short tails , pedomorphic skulls , and pelts that turn pure white in winter . They inhabit northern European Russia , Siberia , the Russian Far East , Finland , northern Scandinavian Peninsula , Mongolia , northeastern China , Japan and North America .
The boccamela group ( large weasels ) : Very large weasels with large skulls , relatively long tails and lighter coloured pelts . Locally , they either do not turn white or only partially change colour in winter . They inhabit Transcaucasia , from western Kazakhstan to Semirechye and in the flat deserts of Middle Asia . They are also found in Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia .
The nivalis group ( average weasels ) : Medium @-@ sized weasels , with tails of moderate length , representing a transitional form between the former two groups . They inhabit the middle and southern regions of European Russia , Crimea , Ciscaucasus , western Kazakhstan , southern and middle Urals and montane parts of Middle Asia , save for Koppet Dag .
As of 2005 , 18 subspecies are recognised .
= = Description = =
The least weasel has a thin , greatly elongated and extremely flexible body with a small , yet elongated , blunt @-@ muzzled head which is no thicker than the neck . The eyes are large , bulging and dark coloured . The legs and tail are relatively short , the latter constituting less than half the body length . The feet are armed with sharp , dark @-@ coloured claws , and the soles are heavily haired . The skull , especially that of the small rixosa group , has an infantile appearance when compared with that of other members of the genus Mustela ( in particular , the stoat and kolonok ) . This is expressed in the relatively large size of the cranium and shortened facial region . The skull is , overall , similar to that of the stoat , but smaller , though the skulls of large male weasels tend to overlap in size with those of small female stoats . There are usually four pairs of nipples but these are only visible in females . The baculum is short , 16 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) , with a thick , straight shaft . Fat is deposited along the spine , kidneys , gut mesentries and around the limbs . The least weasel has muscular anal glands under the tail , which measure 7 by 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 by 0 @.@ 2 in ) , and contain sulphurous volatiles , including thietanes and dithiacyclopentanes . The smell and chemical composition of these chemicals are distinct from those of the stoat . The least weasel moves by jumping , the distance between the tracks of the fore and hind limbs being 18 to 35 cm ( 7 to 14 in ) .
Dimensions vary geographically , to an extent rarely found among other mammals . Least weasels of the vulgaris group , for example , may outweigh the smaller races by almost four times . In some large subspecies , the male may be 1 @.@ 5 times longer than the female . Variations in tail length are also variable , constituting from 13 – 30 % of the length of the body . Average body length in males is 130 to 260 mm ( 5 to 10 in ) , while females average 114 to 204 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 0 in ) . The tail measures 12 to 87 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 4 in ) in males and 17 to 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in females . Males weigh 36 to 250 g ( 1 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 8 oz ) , while females weigh 29 to 117 g ( 1 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 1 oz ) .
The winter fur is dense , but short and closely fitting . In northern subspecies , the fur is soft and silky , but coarse in southern forms . The summer fur is very short , sparser and rougher . The upper parts in the summer fur are dark , but vary geographically from dark @-@ tawny or dark @-@ chocolate to light pale tawny or sandy . The lower parts , including the lower jaw and inner sides of the legs , are white . There is often a brown spot at the corner of the mouth . The dividing line between the dark upper and light lower parts is usually straight but sometimes forms an irregular line . The tail is brown , and sometimes the tip is a little darker but it is never black . In the northern part of its range and at high altitudes , the least weasel changes colour in the winter , the coat becoming pure white and exhibiting a few black hairs in rare circumstances .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The least weasel mates in April – July and there is a 34- to 37 @-@ day gestation period . In the Northern Hemisphere , the average litter size consists of 6 kits and these reach sexual maturity in 3 to 4 months . Males may mate during their first year of life , though this is usually unsuccessful . They are fecund in February – October , though the early stages of spermatogenesis do occur throughout the winter months . Anestrus in females lasts from September until February .
The female raises its kits without help from the male . They are 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 05 to 0 @.@ 16 oz ) in weight at birth . Newborn kits are born pink , naked , blind and deaf , but gain a white coat of downy fur at the age of 4 days . At 10 days , the margin between the dark upper parts and light under parts becomes visible . The milk teeth erupt at 2 to 3 weeks of age , at which point the young start to eat solid food , though lactation can last 12 weeks . The eyes and ears open at 3 to 4 weeks of age , and by 8 weeks , killing behaviour is developed . The family breaks up after 9 to 12 weeks . There is a single litter each year and least weasels can live for 7 or 8 years .
= = = Territorial and social behaviours = = =
The least weasel has a typical mustelid territorial pattern , consisting of exclusive male ranges encompassing multiple female ranges . The population density of each territory depends greatly on food supply and reproductive success , thus the social structure and population density of any given territory is unstable and flexible . Like the stoat , the male least weasel extends its range during spring or during food shortages . Its scent marking behaviour is similar to that of the stoat ; it uses faeces , urine and anal and dermal gland secretions , the latter two of which are deposited by anal dragging and body rubbing . The least weasel does not dig its own den , but nests in the abandoned burrow of another species such as a mole or rat . The burrow entrance measures about 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) across and leads to the nest chamber located up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) below ground . The nest chamber ( which is used for sleeping , rearing kits and storing food ) measures 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , and is lined with straw and the skins of the weasel 's prey .
The least weasel has four basic vocalisations ; a guttural hiss emitted when alarmed , which is interspersed with short screaming barks and shrieks when provoked . When defensive , it emits a shrill wail or squeal . During encounters between males and females or between a mother and kits , the least weasel emits a high @-@ pitched trilling . The least weasel 's way of expressing aggression is similar to that of the stoat . Dominant weasels exhibit lunges and shrieks during aggressive encounters , while subdominant weasels will emit submissive squeals .
= = = Diet = = =
The least weasel feeds predominantly on mouse @-@ like rodents , including mice , hamsters , gerbils and others . It usually does not attack adult hamsters and rats . Frogs , fish , small birds and bird eggs are rarely eaten . It can deal with adult pikas and gerbils , but usually cannot overcome brown rats and sousliks . Exceptional cases are known of least weasels killing prey far larger than themselves , such as capercaillie , hazel hen and hares . In England , a favoured prey item is the field vole ( Microtus agrestis ) . These have fluctuations in population size , and in years of abundance may form up to 54 % of the weasel 's diet . In years of scarcity , birds form a greater proportion of the diet and female least weasels may fail to breed .
Despite its small size , the least weasel is a fierce hunter , capable of killing a rabbit five to ten times its own weight . Although they are commonly taken , the rabbits are usually young specimens , and become an important food source during the spring , when small rodents are scarce and rabbit kits are plentiful . Male least weasels take a higher proportion of rabbits than females , as well as an overall greater variety of prey . This is linked to the fact that being larger , and having vaster territorial ranges than females , males have more opportunities to hunt a greater diversity of prey .
The least weasel forages undercover , to avoid being seen by foxes and birds of prey . It is adapted for pursuing its prey down tunnels , though it may also bolt prey from a burrow and kill it in the open . The least weasel kills small prey , such as voles , with a bite to the occipital region of the skull or the neck , dislocating the cervical vertebrae . Large prey typically dies of blood loss or circulatory shock . When food is abundant , only a small portion of the prey is eaten , usually the brain . The average daily food intake is 35 g ( 1 oz ) , which is equivalent to 30 – 35 % of the animal 's body weight .
= = = Predators and competitors = = =
The least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators . Least weasel remains have been found in the excrement of red foxes , sables , steppe and forest polecat , stoats , eagle owls and buzzards . The owls most efficient at capturing least weasels are barn , barred , and great horned owls . Other birds of prey threatening to the least weasel include broad @-@ winged and rough @-@ legged buzzards . Some snake species may prey on the least weasel , including the black rat snake and copperhead . Aside from its smaller size , the least weasel is more vulnerable to predation than the stoat because it lacks a black predator deflection mark on the tail .
In areas where the least weasel is sympatric with the stoat , the two species compete with each other for rodent prey . The weasel manages to avoid too much competition by living in more upland areas , feeding on smaller prey and being capable of entering smaller holes . It actively avoids encounters with stoats , though female weasels are less likely to stop foraging in the presence of stoats , perhaps because their smaller size allows them to quickly escape into holes .
= = = Diseases and parasites = = =
Ectoparasites known to infest weasels include the louse Trichodectes mustelae and the mites Demodex and Psoregates mustela . The species may catch fleas from the nests and burrows of its prey . Flea species known to infest weasels include Ctenophthalmus bisoctodentatus and Palaeopsylla m. minor , which they get from moles , P. s. soricis , which they get from shrews , Nosopsyllus fasciatus , which they get from rodents and Dasypsyllus gallinulae which they get from birds .
Helminths known to infest weasels include the trematode Alaria , the nematodes Capillaria , Filaroides and Trichinella and the cestode Taenia . Least weasels are commonly infected with the nematode Skrjabingylus nasicola , adults of which are found in the nasal sinuses and can damage the skull . There is no evidence that this has serious detrimental effects on even heavily infested animals .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The least weasel has a circumboreal , Holarctic distribution , encompassing much of Europe and North Africa , Asia and parts of northern North America , where it occurs mainly in places where the stoat is not found , though it has been introduced in New Zealand , Malta , Crete , the Azore Islands and also Sao Tome off west Africa . It is found throughout Europe and on many islands , including the Azores , Britain ( but not Ireland ) , and all major Mediterranean islands . It also occurs on Honshu and Hokkaido islands in Japan and on Kunashir , Iturup , and Sakhalin Islands in Russia .
The least weasel occupies a similar type of habitat as the stoat but it less often frequents wet places . It can be found in fields , open woodland , bushy or rocky areas , parks and gardens , and at altitudes of up to about 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) .
= = Conservation status = =
The least weasel has a very wide circumboreal range and a large total population and is therefore listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of " least concern " . Its chosen habitat is in areas of coarse vegetation and in some regions its numbers may be decreasing because of changes in agricultural practices , but altogether its population trend is thought to be steady . It is relatively common in Eurasia but less abundant in North America and is thought to be rare in the southeastern United States . It is subject to considerable variations in numbers in areas where its main rodent prey is liable to large population fluctuations . In years of rodent population booms , the least weasel numbers may rise by up to ten @-@ fold , only to slump again as prey becomes scarce again in the following years .
= = In folklore and mythology = =
The Ancient Macedonians believed that to see a least weasel was a good omen . In some districts of Macedon , women who suffered from headaches after having washed their heads in water drawn overnight would assume that a weasel had previously used the water as a mirror , but they would refrain from mentioning the animal 's name for fear that it would destroy their clothes . Similarly , a popular superstition in southern Greece had it that the least weasel had previously been a bride , who was transformed into a bitter animal which would destroy the wedding dresses of other brides out of jealousy . According to Pliny the Elder , the least weasel is the only animal capable of killing the basilisk ;
To this dreadful monster the effluvium of the weasel is fatal , a thing that has been tried with success , for kings have often desired to see its body when killed ; so true is it that it has pleased Nature that there should be nothing without its antidote . The animal is thrown into the hole of the basilisk , which is easily known from the soil around it being infected . The weasel destroys the basilisk by its odour , but dies itself in this struggle of nature against its own self .
The Chippewa believed that the least weasel could kill the dreaded wendigo giant by rushing up its anus . In Inuit mythology , the least weasel is credited with both great wisdom and courage , and whenever a mythical Inuit hero wished to accomplish a valorous task , he would generally change himself into a least weasel . According to Matthew Hopkins , a witch hunter general during the English Civil War , least weasels were the familiars of witches .
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= Aseroe coccinea =
Aseroe coccinea is a species of stinkhorn fungus in the genus Aseroe . First reported in Japan in 1989 , it was not formally validated as a species until 2007 , the delay related to a publication error . The receptacle , or fruit body , begins as a partially buried whitish egg @-@ shaped structure , which bursts open as a hollow white stipe with reddish arms , then erupts and grows to a height of up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) . It matures into a star @-@ shaped structure with seven to nine thin reddish tubular " arms " up to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long radiating from the central area . The top of the receptacle is covered with dark olive @-@ brown spore @-@ slime , or gleba . A. coccinea can be distinguished from the more common species A. rubra by differences in the color of the receptacle , and in the structure of the arms . The edibility of the fungus has not been reported .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described provisionally ( denoted by ad interim ) as Aseroe coccinea by the Japanese mycologists Yoshimi and Tsuguo Hongo in a 1989 publication with a Japanese description , based on a specimen collected on September 29 , 1985 in Utsunomiya , Tochigi Prefecture , Japan . The name , however , was not published validly ( nomen invalidum ) , according to Article 36 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , which requires that " in order to be validly published , a name of a new taxon ( algal and all fossil taxa excepted ) must ... be accompanied by a Latin description or diagnosis or by a reference to a previously and effectively published Latin description or diagnosis " . Taiga Kasuya reexamined the type specimen and validated the species in a 2007 Mycoscience publication . The holotype specimen is kept at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo .
The specific epithet coccinea is derived from the Latin word coccineus , and means " bright red " . The mushroom 's Japanese name is Aka @-@ hitode @-@ take ( アカヒトデタケ ) .
= = Description = =
Like all Phallaceae species , A. coccinea begins its development in the form of a roughly spherical whitish " egg " that is 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter , lying on or partially submerged in the substrate . On the base of the egg is a white strand of mycelium . The exoperidium ( the outer tissue layer ) is white to cream @-@ colored with a fibrous surface . The inner layer is membranous , with a hyaline ( translucent ) endoperidium ( inner tissue layer ) . The slimy spore @-@ bearing mass , the gleba , is olive @-@ brown to greenish @-@ black , with a slightly fetid odor . When the mushroom is mature , it covers the upper surface of a disc on the top of the receptacle . The receptacle has a cylindrical stipe , 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) tall , 7 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter at the top , somewhat fusiform ( tapered at both ends ) or sometimes just tapered towards the base . The stipe is pale pink near the top , white to cream at the base , spongy in texture , and hollow . The top of the receptacle is flattened to form a disc that bears 7 – 9 , narrow , tapering " arms " . The arms consist of a single bright red tube @-@ like chamber , that is 4 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) long and 0 @.@ 7 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 0 – 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick .
The thick @-@ walled spores are ellipsoid to cylindrical , and measure 4 – 5 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 μm . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , have a smooth surface , and are sometimes truncated at the base . The peridium of the " egg " is divided into two distinct layers of tissue . The outer is up to 250 – 400 μm thick , and made of filamentous , interwoven hyphae measuring 2 @.@ 5 – 5 μm in diameter . These hyphae are thick @-@ walled , septate , and hyaline . Also present in this outer layer are thick @-@ walled pseudoparenchymatous cells ( angular , randomly arranged , and tightly packed ) that are 7 – 50 μm thick , spherical or nearly so , and yellowish @-@ brown to pale brown . The inner tissue layer of the peridium is 100 – 250 μm thick and made of elongated filamentous hyphae that are 2 – 5 μm in diameter . These thick @-@ walled hyphae are arranged in a roughly parallel fashion , septate , and hyaline . The receptacle consists of thick @-@ walled , roughly spherical pseudoparenchymatous cells 5 – 15 @.@ 5 μm thick , that contain intracellular pigment .
= = = Similar species = = =
A. coccinea closely resembles A. arachnoidea , but may be distinguished from the latter by its bright red arms , and its larger spores ( 4 – 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 μm in A. coccinea compared with 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 5 μm in A. arachnoidea ) . A. arachnoidea is known from Asia and West Africa . A. rubra is a relatively common pantropical species , and differs from A. coccinea in its reddish receptacle ( compared with pink to cream @-@ colored in A. coccinea ) and bifurcating arms that are typically multichambered .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Although Kasuya did not explicitly define the mode of nutrition for A. coccinea , most Phallaceae species are suspected to be saprobic — decomposers of wood and plant organic matter . The fruit bodies of A. coccinea , known only from temperate regions of Japan ( Tochigi Prefecture ) , grow solitarily or in groups on rice husks , straw , or dung . They are found from summer to autumn .
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= Spit & Eggs =
" Spit & Eggs " is the ninth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ third episode overall . Written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , the episode premiered on November 28 , 2006 , on The CW . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , when the Greek system at Hearst College is suddenly reinstated , Veronica enlists the help of her friends in patrolling a party to look for date rape drugs . Eventually , she learns the identity of the Hearst serial rapist and puts herself in danger to catch him . In addition , Dean O 'Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) acts increasingly erratically before he mysteriously appears dead in his office with a gunshot wound to the head . Meanwhile , Veronica and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) both deal with the emotional aftereffects of O 'Dell 's death .
" Spit & Eggs " was the second episode to be both written and directed by Thomas , who included several camera and prop changes that were not originally in the script . Series regular Tina Majorino returns to the series beginning in this episode after an absence since " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " , a hiatus which was due to her filming Big Love . In addition , during production , the crew decided to change their narrative plan for the season , maintaining two of the shorter story arcs but removing the planned third .
The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 44 million viewers in its initial airing , a series high . The episode received critical acclaim , with many critics praising the return of Mac and the increased role of peripheral characters , the resolution to the rape mystery , and the setup of the next major story arc . Eric Goldman of IGN praised the various plotlines converging , while Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club wrote that the plot twist " plays on everyone 's expectations . "
= = Plot synopsis = =
Beginning in medias res , while Piz ( Chris Lowell ) and Mac ( Tina Majorino ) are at a party , a bloodied Veronica stumbles to Piz ’ s door and collapses . The episode flashes back to two days earlier . As the Lilith House celebrates the end of the Greek system , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) abruptly breaks up with Veronica . Weevil helps Dean O ’ Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) fix his TV . A man comes into the Dean ’ s office and implicitly threatens to remove his funding if the Greek system stays closed . The Dean tells Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) to track his wife , and Veronica sobs in the shower due to her breakup with Logan . The Dean unexpectedly reinstates the Greek system , to the delight of Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) . The Dean and Veronica spot a classified ad that states that a mysterious person will find his next victim at a party . After receiving an A on her paper , she visits Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) and sees an investigation board . Veronica enlists Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , Piz , and Mac for help in investigating an upcoming Pi Sig party .
At the party , Veronica notices that the “ rape coasters ” which test for date rape drugs do not actually work . Veronica , Mac , and Piz test various peoples ’ cups and find nothing . After Keith tells Dean O ’ Dell that his wife is cheating on him with Veronica ’ s criminology professor , he pulls out a gun . Wallace and Piz find a drink that was tested positive for GHB , and Wallace and Piz dash to her dorm . Dean O ’ Dell finds and enters into the room in which his wife and the criminology professor are carrying on their affair as Veronica learns that they have tracked the wrong girl . Just as Mercer ( Ryan Devlin ) ( the actual rapist ) is about to rape his next victim , he abruptly learns that Veronica has changed places with his victim . Veronica tases Mercer , and they have a quick fight before Veronica escapes . She is let into Moe ’ s ( Andrew McClain ) room .
Moe hands Veronica a drink . Immediately after discovering a picture of Mercer and Moe , Veronica experiences the effects of a date rape drug . She hides in the closet and struggles to remain conscious . Mercer and Moe enter the room and are about to miss her , but Veronica ’ s cell phone rings and they knock her out . Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) calls attention to Mercer . In addition to a bomb threat against Hearst , Dean O ’ Dell notices his window being egged before a mysterious man enters and the Dean asks “ What are you doing here ? ” Keith arrests Mercer and Moe . Logan intentionally gets himself arrested so he can go into the cell with Mercer and Moe .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The episode was written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , marking his seventh writing credit and second and final directing credit for the series ( after " Donut Run " ) . Starting with this episode , Thomas and the crew 's plan for the season changed — while they had initially scheduled three major story arcs for the season , this number was now bumped down to two , while the last few episodes would be standalone . The creative team decided that their choices for major mysteries had not worked since season one ; Thomas elaborated , " One feeling is that the big mysteries keep away the casual TV viewers , and the other is the thing that has been the least successful since season one [ … ] the big mysteries . " Thomas also recalled that his major design for the first season that was because Lilly had been murdered , everyone had a stake in the solving of the mystery and that the crew were finding it impossible to keep the same amount of emotional involvement since the first season ; Thomas thought that the new format would be a way of trying to return to a more emotionally driven format .
In addition , Thomas turned what was scheduled to be the third major mystery into a two @-@ episode storyline , with the last five episodes of the season being stand @-@ alone . He stated , " It seems like a good time to do it — a good fun test balloon . " Nevertheless , he confirmed that there would be ongoing stories in Veronica 's personal life . A week prior to the episode 's airing , Michael Ausiello received an advance screening of the episode , revealing several details that the network allowed him to divulge .
= = = Writing and directing = = =
On the Season Three DVD Commentary , Thomas remarks on his experience directing " Spit & Eggs " and shares his thoughts on several scenes of the episode . He called the scene in which Mercer attacks Veronica the one he was " happiest with for any number of reasons . " The scene was shot with 27 camera angles , the most for any Veronica Mars episode , and it took 10 or 11 hours to film . The scene also features a number of fake unicorns in various forms ; unicorns were an in @-@ joke among the cast and crew after one season 2 script involved Veronica calling a store " Unicornicopia . " While directing the scene , Thomas wanted to find an unusual weapon to be used , and " a unicorn struck [ him ] as funny . " The scene in which Moe removes the unicorn horn from Mercer 's leg was initially intended to be Moe bandaging Mercer , but Thomas thought that the final product would be more " interesting " while preparing for the scene .
Thomas included Piz dancing humorously at the fraternity party because he " could watch it over and over " , and there were roughly fifteen minutes of footage of him dancing . The band that plays at the party , the Diamond Smugglers , is from Thomas 's hometown of Austin , Texas , and they played at Thomas 's wedding and 40th birthday party . The scene near the end with Logan smashing a police car to get intentionally thrown in prison confused the crew , who doubted its artistic and technical plausibility . However , Thomas was pleased with the final output , and producer Dan Etheridge called it " one of the most compact and interesting visual storytelling pieces in the episode . " The episode went over budget . In this episode , Mac wears a shirt that says " Ask Me About My STD " , something which several critics commended for its comedic value . Thomas came up with the idea for the shirt and hired one of the other guest actors in the scene for another episode , commenting " It 's funny , I actually made that up , and I now have one , too . " In addition , because Thomas was so pleased with the acting in the scene from the boy who hands Mac a whiskey , he hired the actor for a role in a subsequent episode as an important witness to Dean O 'Dell 's death .
= = = Acting = = =
" Spit & Eggs " features the return of series regular Tina Majorino , who plays Mac on the show , after an absence of six episodes . Majorino had not appeared since the second episode of the season , " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " . At the time , Majorino was also a series regular on the HBO series Big Love , so her schedule was difficult to determine . She stated : " It 's a little tough , but Big Love and Veronica Mars have both been really great about juggling the schedule so I could do both shows . " On October 24 , 2006 , the cast and crew were filming the episode . Because of this other commitment , Majorino appeared in eleven episodes of the season instead of the scheduled twelve . On that same date , Majorino revealed that she would be returning in " Spit & Eggs " , that it resolved the Hearst rapist storyline , and that it would introduce the show 's next major story arc . On her role in the episode and in the season as a whole in light of the events in the second season finale , Majorino commented , " It 's not like all of the sudden she 's over everything that happened . "
" Spit & Eggs " features the reveal that Mercer Hayes , played by Ryan Devlin , is the Hearst serial rapist . Devlin was unaware that he would be the perpetrator until reading the episode 's script ; he stated , " To tell you the truth , I 'm not even sure the writers knew where my story was headed . But I was happy to do it – it 's way more fun being bad than good ! " The episode also marks the final appearance by Ed Begley , Jr . , after his character is killed . The mystery surrounding his murder would be the next major story arc .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , the episode received 3 @.@ 44 million viewers , marking a series high and ranking 88th of 97 in the weekly rankings . Thomas was very pleased by the ratings .
The episode received critical acclaim , with many critics praising the return of Mac and the increased role of peripheral characters , the resolution to the rape mystery , and the setup of the next major story arc . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He wrote that " Spit & Eggs " was a welcome episode for longtime fans , as it involved several plots converging in a way that he found satisfactory . He praised the final few scenes , writing that the episode transitions well into the next mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's death by developing it slowly over the course of the season 's prior episodes , but he was more mixed towards the reveal of Mercer as the rapist , commenting " the ultimate revelation can 't help but be a little underwhelming , since not enough time has been spent on any of the credible suspects to really have a good handle on them or be invested in them one way or another . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , who was quite critical of the rape storyline in earlier episodes , said that the conclusion made the storyline slightly better overall . He praised the double reveal of Mercer and Moe as accomplices , stating , " That twist overall is effective because it plays on everyone 's expectations . The characters all believe there is a single culprit here . [ … ] It makes the revelations more plausible , while also making the need for those revelations less intense ( the two are related ) . "
Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " . Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was also relatively positive towards the episode . While calling the reveal of the rapist " out of left field " , he noted that there was some material in " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " that pointed to this conclusion . In addition , he praised Parker rescuing Veronica and the start of the Dean O 'Dell mystery , writing " Rob quite cleverly threw the start of the new mystery into the tail end of the first one . " However , there were several plot issues that he found as well as that the nine @-@ episode storyline didn 't fully do the reveal justice , opining that Thomas and the crew had to rush to give the audience important information in this format . Cortney Martin of the Houston Chronicle enjoyed the major roles played by Wallace , Mac , Weevil , Piz , and Parker in the episode , writing " the show belongs to Veronica 's sidekicks this week . " Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune gave praise as well . While being lukewarm regarding the season as a whole , she thought that " Spit & Eggs " was " appropriately suspenseful . " In addition , she enjoyed that Veronica was less sarcastic and contemptuous in the episode , in contrast to previous episodes of the season .
Film.com praised the episode as well , lauding the in medias res opening scene , suspenseful tone , and Mac 's reappearance , and the setup for the next mystery arc , mong other aspects of the episode . Conversely , Keith McDuffee , writing for AOL TV , was more critical , calling it " way too fast for a partial season @-@ ender " , arguing that there were too many unanswered questions left after the episode 's conclusion .
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= United Nations =
The United Nations ( UN ) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co @-@ operation . A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict . At its founding , the UN had 51 member states ; there are now 193 . The headquarters of the United Nations is in Manhattan , New York City , and experiences extraterritoriality . Further main offices are situated in Geneva , Nairobi , and Vienna . The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states . Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security , promoting human rights , fostering social and economic development , protecting the environment , and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine , natural disaster , and armed conflict .
The United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April – June 1945 ; this charter took effect 24 October 1945 , and the UN began operation . The UN 's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies . The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo , as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947 . The organization 's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s , and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping . After the end of the Cold War , the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success .
The UN has six principal organs : the General Assembly ( the main deliberative assembly ) ; the Security Council ( for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ) ; the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) ( for promoting international economic and social co @-@ operation and development ) ; the Secretariat ( for providing studies , information , and facilities needed by the UN ) ; the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ ) ; and the United Nations Trusteeship Council ( inactive since 1994 ) . UN System agencies include the World Bank Group , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , UNESCO , and UNICEF . The UN 's most prominent officer is the Secretary @-@ General , an office held by South Korean Ban Ki @-@ moon since 2007 . Non @-@ governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN 's work .
The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 , and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize . Other evaluations of the UN 's effectiveness have been mixed . Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development , while others have called the organization ineffective , corrupt , or biased .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In the century prior to the UN 's creation , several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations , such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War , the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries . This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail , aviation , and opium control , some of which would later be absorbed into the UN . However , the League lacked representation for colonial peoples ( then half the world 's population ) and significant participation from several major powers , including the US , USSR , Germany , and Japan ; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 , the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War in 1935 , the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 , and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War .
= = = 1942 " Declaration of United Nations " by the Allies of World War II = = =
The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939 . The text of the " Declaration by United Nations " was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins , while meeting at the White House , 29 December 1941 . It incorporated Soviet suggestions , but left no role for France . " Four Policemen " was coined to refer four major Allied countries , United States , United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China , which was emerged in Declaration by United Nations . Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries . " On New Year 's Day 1942 , President Roosevelt , Prime Minister Churchill , Maxim Litvinov , of the USSR , and T. V. Soong , of China , signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty @-@ two other nations added their signatures . " The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration . One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom , which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted . By 1 March 1945 , 21 additional states had signed .
A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND , THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS , CHINA , AUSTRALIA , BELGIUM , CANADA , COSTA RICA , CUBA , CZECHOSLOVAKIA , DOMINICAN REPUBLIC , EL SALVADOR , GREECE , GUATEMALA , HAITI , HONDURAS , INDIA , LUXEMBOURG , NETHERLANDS , NEW ZEALAND , NICARAGUA , NORWAY , PANAMA , POLAND , SOUTH AFRICA , YUGOSLAVIA
The Governments signatory hereto ,
Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14 , 1941 , known as the Atlantic Charter ,
Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life , liberty , independence and religious freedom , and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands , and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world ,
DECLARE :
( 1 ) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources , military or economic , against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war .
( 2 ) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies .
The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are , or which may be , rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism .
During the war , the United Nations became the official term for the Allies . To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis .
= = = Founding the UN 1945 = = =
The United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union , the UK , the US and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 . After months of planning , the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco , 25 April 1945 , attended by 50 governments and a number of non @-@ governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter . " The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings : Anthony Eden , of Britain , Edward Stettinius , of the United States , T. V. Soong , of China , and Vyacheslav Molotov , of the Soviet Union . At the later meetings , Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden , Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong , and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov . " The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945 , upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council — France , the Republic of China , the Soviet Union , the UK and the US — and by a majority of the other 46 signatories .
The first meetings of the General Assembly , with 51 nations represented , and the Security Council took place in London beginning 6 January 1946 . The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the United Nations , and the facility was completed in 1952 . Its site — like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi — is designated as international territory . The Norwegian Foreign Minister , Trygve Lie , was elected as the first UN Secretary @-@ General .
= = = Cold War era = = =
Though the UN 's primary mandate was peacekeeping , the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization , generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War . ( A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US @-@ led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea , passed in the absence of the USSR . ) In 1947 , the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine , approving the creation of the state of Israel . Two years later , Ralph Bunche , a UN official , negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict . In 1956 , the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis ; however , the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR 's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country 's revolution .
In 1960 , the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo ( UNOC ) , the largest military force of its early decades , to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga , restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964 . While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict , Dag Hammarskjöld , often named as one of the UN 's most effective Secretaries @-@ General , died in a plane crash ; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . In 1964 , Hammarskjöld 's successor , U Thant , deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus , which would become one of the UN 's longest @-@ running peacekeeping missions .
With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s , the organization 's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations . In 1960 alone , 17 new states joined the UN , 16 of them from Africa . On 25 October 1971 , with opposition from the United States , but with the support of many Third World nations , the mainland , communist People 's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan ; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization . Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria , which briefly became a dominant power at the UN . In 1975 , a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution , over strenuous US and Israeli opposition , declaring Zionism to be racism ; the resolution was repealed in 1991 , shortly after the end of the Cold War .
With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East , Vietnam , and Kashmir , the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange . By the 1970s , the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget .
= = = Post @-@ Cold War = = =
After the Cold War , the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties , taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades . Between 1988 and 2000 , the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled , and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold . The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War , launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia , and oversaw democratic elections in post @-@ apartheid South Africa and post @-@ Khmer Rouge Cambodia . In 1991 , the UN authorized a US @-@ led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Brian Urquhart , Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General from 1971 to 1985 , later described the hopes raised by these successes as a " false renaissance " for the organization , given the more troubled missions that followed .
Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another , in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous , serious crises within nations such as Somalia , Haiti , Mozambique , and the former Yugoslavia . The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu , and the UN mission to Bosnia faced " worldwide ridicule " for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing . In 1994 , the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council .
Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War , American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption . In 1984 , the US President , Ronald Reagan , withdrew his nation 's funding from UNESCO ( the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , founded 1946 ) over allegations of mismanagement , followed by Britain and Singapore . Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , Secretary @-@ General from 1992 to 1996 , initiated a reform of the Secretariat , reducing the size of the organization somewhat . His successor , Kofi Annan ( 1997 – 2006 ) , initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues .
In the late 1990s and 2000s , international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms . The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991 – 2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines , and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003 , the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization , prompting a new round of questioning of the organization 's effectiveness . Under the current Secretary @-@ General , Ban Ki @-@ moon , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War . In 2013 , an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered " systemic failure " . One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the worst loss of life in the organization 's history .
= = Structure = =
The United Nations ' system is based on five principal organs : the General Assembly , the Security Council , the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) , the Secretariat , and the International Court of Justice . A sixth principal organ , the Trusteeship Council , suspended operations in 1994 , upon the independence of Palau , the last remaining UN trustee territory .
Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City . The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague , while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi . Other UN institutions are located throughout the world . The six official languages of the United Nations , used in intergovernmental meetings and documents , are Arabic , Chinese , English , French , Russian , and Spanish . On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations , the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate , safeguarding the UN 's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries .
Below the six organs sit , in the words of the author Linda Fasulo , " an amazing collection of entities and organizations , some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it " . These include specialized agencies , research and training institutions , programmes and funds , and other UN entities .
The United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle , which is binding on any organization that belongs to the united nations system . This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest , and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee 's nationality . Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations .
= = = General Assembly = = =
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations . Composed of all United Nations member states , the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions , but emergency sessions can also be called . The assembly is led by a president , elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis , and 21 vice @-@ presidents . The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations .
When the General Assembly votes on important questions , a two @-@ thirds majority of those present and voting is required . Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security ; election of members to organs ; admission , suspension , and expulsion of members ; and budgetary matters . All other questions are decided by a majority vote . Each member country has one vote . Apart from approval of budgetary matters , resolutions are not binding on the members . The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN , except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council .
Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees :
General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly 's president , vice @-@ president , and committee heads
Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation 's UN representatives
First Committee ( Disarmament and International Security )
Second Committee ( Economic and Financial )
Third Committee ( Social , Humanitarian , and Cultural )
Fourth Committee ( Special Political and Decolonization )
Fifth Committee ( Administrative and Budgetary )
Sixth Committee ( Legal )
= = = Security Council = = =
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries . While other organs of the United Nations can only make " recommendations " to member states , the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out , under the terms of Charter Article 25 . The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions .
The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states , consisting of five permanent members — China , France , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States — and ten non @-@ permanent members — Angola ( term ends 2016 ) , Chad ( 2015 ) , Chile ( 2015 ) , Jordan ( 2015 ) , Lithuania ( 2015 ) , Malaysia ( 2016 ) , New Zealand ( 2016 ) , Nigeria ( 2015 ) , Spain ( 2016 ) , and Venezuela ( 2016 ) . The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions , allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution , though not debate . The ten temporary seats are held for two @-@ year terms , with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis . The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month .
= = = Secretariat = = =
The UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary @-@ General , assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide . It provides studies , information , and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings . It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council , the General Assembly , the Economic and Social Council , and other UN bodies .
The Secretary @-@ General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN . The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization 's " chief administrative officer " . Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary @-@ General can bring to the Security Council 's attention " any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security " , a phrase that Secretaries @-@ General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage . The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues .
The Secretary @-@ General is appointed by the General Assembly , after being recommended by the Security Council , where the permanent members have veto power . There are no specific criteria for the post , but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years , that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation , and that the Secretary @-@ General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states . The current Secretary @-@ General is Ban Ki @-@ moon , who replaced Kofi Annan in 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016 .
= = = International Court of Justice = = =
The International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , located in The Hague , in the Netherlands , is the primary judicial organ of the UN . Established in 1945 by the UN Charter , the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice . The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9 @-@ year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly ; every sitting judge must be from a different nation .
It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague , sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law , a private centre for the study of international law . The ICJ 's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states . The court has heard cases related to war crimes , illegal state interference , ethnic cleansing , and other issues . The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions .
= = = Economic and Social Council = = =
The Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co @-@ operation and development . ECOSOC has 54 members , which are elected by the General Assembly for a three @-@ year term . The president is elected for a one @-@ year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC . The council has one annual meeting in July , held in either New York or Geneva . Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co @-@ ordinates , ECOSOC 's functions include information gathering , advising member nations , and making recommendations . Owing to its broad mandate of co @-@ ordinating many agencies , ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant .
ECOSOC 's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples ; the United Nations Forum on Forests , which co @-@ ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management ; the United Nations Statistical Commission , which co @-@ ordinates information @-@ gathering efforts between agencies ; and the Commission on Sustainable Development , which co @-@ ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working toward sustainable development . ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non @-@ governmental organizations ; by 2004 , more than 2 @,@ 200 organizations had received this status .
= = = Specialized agencies = = =
The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfill its duties . Some best @-@ known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Food and Agriculture Organization , UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) , the World Bank , and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) . The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies . Examples include mass vaccination programmes ( through WHO ) , the avoidance of famine and malnutrition ( through the work of the WFP ) , and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people ( for example , by UNHCR ) .
= = Membership = =
With the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011 , there are 193 United Nations member states , including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City . The UN Charter outlines the rules for membership :
Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace @-@ loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and , in the judgment of the Organization , are able and willing to carry out these obligations .
The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council . Chapter II , Article 4
In addition , there are two non @-@ member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly : the Holy See ( which holds sovereignty over Vatican City ) and the State of Palestine . The Cook Islands and Niue , both states in free association with New Zealand , are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their " full treaty @-@ making capacity " recognized by the Secretariat .
= = = Group of 77 = = =
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations , designed to promote its members ' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations . Seventy @-@ seven nations founded the organization , but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries . The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the " Joint Declaration of the Seventy @-@ Seven Countries " issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) . The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967 , where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures .
= = Objectives = =
= = = Peacekeeping and security = = =
The UN , after approval by the Security Council , sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities . Since the UN does not maintain its own military , peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states . These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed " Blue Helmets " for their distinctive gear . The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 .
In September 2013 , the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions . The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( MONUSCO ) , which included 20 @,@ 688 uniformed personnel . The smallest , United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan ( UNMOGIP ) , included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir . UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization ( UNTSO ) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948 , the longest @-@ running active peacekeeping mission .
A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts . It compared efforts at nation @-@ building by the United Nations to those of the United States , and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace , as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace . Also in 2005 , the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars , genocides , and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War , and presented evidence , albeit circumstantial , that international activism — mostly spearheaded by the UN — has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period . Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War ( 1950 – 53 ) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) .
The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures . In many cases , member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions . Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971 , the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s , and the Rwandan genocide in 1994 . Similarly , UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992 – 93 during the Somali Civil War . UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape , soliciting prostitutes , and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Haiti , Liberia , Sudan and what is now South Sudan , Burundi , and Ivory Coast . Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the 2010 – 13 Haiti cholera outbreak , which killed more than 8 @,@ 000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
In addition to peacekeeping , the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament . Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation . The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter , resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for " the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction " . The UN has been involved with arms @-@ limitation treaties , such as the Outer Space Treaty ( 1967 ) , the Treaty on the Non @-@ Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ( 1968 ) , the Seabed Arms Control Treaty ( 1971 ) , the Biological Weapons Convention ( 1972 ) , the Chemical Weapons Convention ( 1992 ) , and the Ottawa Treaty ( 1997 ) , which prohibits landmines . Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues : the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons , and the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission .
= = = Human rights = = =
One of the UN 's primary purposes is " promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race , sex , language , or religion " , and member states pledge to undertake " joint and separate action " to protect these rights .
In 1948 , the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights , drafted by a committee headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's widow , Eleanor , and including the French lawyer René Cassin . The document proclaims basic civil , political , and economic rights common to all human beings , though its effectiveness toward achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting . The Declaration serves as a " common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations " rather than a legally binding document , but it has become the basis of two binding treaties , the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . In practice , the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution , though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses .
In 1979 , the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women , followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 . With the end of the Cold War , the push for human rights action took on new impetus . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN , following the recommendation of that year 's World Conference on Human Rights . Jacques Fomerand , a scholar of the UN , describes this organization 's mandate as " broad and vague " , with only " meager " resources to carry it out . In 2006 , it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting of 47 nations . Also in 2006 , the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples , and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT people .
Other UN bodies responsible for women 's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the Status of Women , a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946 ; the United Nations Development Fund for Women , created in 1976 ; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women , founded in 1979 . The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples , held its first session in 2002 .
= = = Economic development and humanitarian assistance = = =
Another primary purpose of the UN is " to achieve international co @-@ operation in solving international problems of an economic , social , cultural , or humanitarian character " . Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal , primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC . In 2000 , the 192 United Nations member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goals by 2015 .
The UN Development Programme ( UNDP ) , an organization for grant @-@ based technical assistance founded in 1945 , is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development . The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index , a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty , literacy , education , life expectancy , and other factors . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) , also founded in 1945 , promotes agricultural development and food security . UNICEF ( the United Nations Children 's Fund ) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the Convention on the Rights of the Child .
The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) are independent , specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework , according to a 1947 agreement . They were initially formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944 . The World Bank provides loans for international development , while the IMF promotes international economic co @-@ operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries .
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) , which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication , is another of the UN 's largest agencies . In 1980 , the agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had been completed . In subsequent decades , WHO largely eradicated polio , river blindness , and leprosy . The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) , begun in 1996 , co @-@ ordinates the organization 's response to the AIDS epidemic . The UN Population Fund , which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV , is the world 's largest source of funding for reproductive health and family planning services .
Along with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , the UN often takes a leading role in co @-@ ordinating emergency relief . The World Food Programme ( WFP ) , created in 1961 , provides food aid in response to famine , natural disasters , and armed conflict . The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year . The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) , established in 1950 , works to protect the rights of refugees , asylum seekers , and stateless people . UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments , corporations , and individuals , though the UNHCR 's administrative costs are paid for by the UN 's primary budget .
= = = Other = = =
Since the UN 's creation , over 80 colonies have attained independence . The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers . The UN works toward decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization , created in 1962 . The committee lists seventeen remaining " Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories " , the largest and most populous of which is Western Sahara .
Beginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme ( UNEP ) in 1972 , the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda . A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which sought to give new impetus to these efforts . In 1988 , the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , another UN organization , established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which assesses and reports on research on global warming . The UN @-@ sponsored Kyoto Protocol , signed in 1997 , set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states .
The UN also declares and co @-@ ordinates international observances , periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern . Examples include World Tuberculosis Day , Earth Day , and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification .
= = Funding = =
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states . The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member . This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay , as measured by its gross national income ( GNI ) , with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income . The two @-@ year budget for 2012 – 13 was $ 5 @.@ 512 billion in total .
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations . Thus , there is a " ceiling " rate , setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget . In December 2000 , the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States . As part of that revision , the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25 % to 22 % . For the least developed countries ( LDCs ) , a ceiling rate of 0 @.@ 01 % is applied . In addition to the ceiling rates , the minimum amount assessed to any member nation ( or " floor " rate ) is set at 0 @.@ 001 % of the UN budget ( $ 55 @,@ 120 for the two year budget 2013 @-@ 2014 ) .
A large share of the UN 's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security , and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget . The peacekeeping budget for the 2015 – 16 fiscal year was $ 8 @.@ 27 billion , supporting 82 @,@ 318 troops deployed in 15 missions around the world . UN peace operations are funded by assessments , using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members , who must approve all peacekeeping operations . This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries . In 2013 , the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the United States ( 28 @.@ 38 % ) , Japan ( 10 @.@ 83 % ) , France ( 7 @.@ 22 % ) , Germany ( 7 @.@ 14 % ) , the United Kingdom ( 6 @.@ 68 % ) , China ( 6 @.@ 64 % ) , Italy ( 4 @.@ 45 % ) , the Russian Federation ( 3 @.@ 15 % ) , Canada ( 2 @.@ 98 % ) , and Spain ( 2 @.@ 97 % ) .
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget , such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme , are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments , corporations , and private individuals .
= = Evaluations , awards , and criticism = =
A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work . Two Secretaries @-@ General , Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan , were each awarded the prize ( in 1961 and 2001 , respectively ) , as were Ralph Bunche ( 1950 ) , a UN negotiator , René Cassin ( 1968 ) , a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull ( 1945 ) , the latter for his role in the organization 's founding . Lester B. Pearson , the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs , was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN 's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis . UNICEF won the prize in 1965 , the International Labour Organization in 1969 , the UN Peace @-@ Keeping Forces in 1988 , the International Atomic Energy Agency ( which reports to the UN ) in 2005 , and the UN @-@ supported Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013 . The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981 , becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice . The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001 , sharing it with Annan .
Since its founding , there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations but little consensus on how to do so . Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs , while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work . There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council 's membership to be increased , for different ways of electing the UN 's Secretary @-@ General , and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is " the North – South split " between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations . Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly , allowing them a greater voice in world affairs , while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez @-@ faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism .
After World War II , the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France , and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization . The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN , famously calling it a machin ( " contraption " ) , and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace , preferring direct defence treaties between countries . Throughout the Cold War , both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other . In 1953 , the USSR effectively forced the resignation of Trygve Lie , the Secretary @-@ General , through its refusal to deal with him , while in the 1950s and 1960s , a popular US bumper sticker read , " You can 't spell communism without U.N. " In a sometimes @-@ misquoted statement , President George W. Bush stated in February 2003 ( referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime ) that " free nations will not allow the United Nations to fade into history as an ineffective , irrelevant debating society . " In contrast , the French President , François Hollande , stated in 2012 that " France trusts the United Nations . She knows that no state , no matter how powerful , can solve urgent problems , fight for development and bring an end to all crises ... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance . " Critics such as Dore Gold , an Israeli diplomat , Robert S. Wistrich , a British scholar , Alan Dershowitz , an American legal scholar , Mark Dreyfus , an Australian politician , and the Anti @-@ Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel 's treatment of Palestinians to be excessive . In September 2015 , Saudi Arabia 's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts , a move criticized by human rights groups .
Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency , waste , and corruption . In 1976 , the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system . During the 1990s , the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced . In 1994 , the Office of Internal Oversight Services ( OIOS ) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog . In 1994 , former Special Representative of the Secretary @-@ General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published " Somalia : The Missed Opportunities " , a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia , showing that , between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991 , the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies ; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance , they were totally outperformed by NGOs , whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN 's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies . If radical reform was not undertaken , warned Mohamed Sahnoun , then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation . In 2004 , the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil @-@ for @-@ Food Programme — in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions — had suffered from widespread corruption , including billions of dollars of kickbacks . An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved , as well as raising " significant " questions about the role of Kojo Annan , the son of Kofi Annan .
In evaluating the UN as a whole , Jacques Fomerand writes that the " accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms . Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions . " Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN 's history , the author Stanley Meisler writes that " the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders , but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless " , citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts . The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks , " when all its aspects are considered , the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring benefits to our children 's and grandchildren 's generations as well . "
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= 12 Days =
12 Days is a debut graphic novel / global manga written and illustrated by June Kim . Basing the plot partially on a story told to her by a stranger , Kim began an early version of 12 Days as a sophomore in college to help herself cope with the end of a relationship . After moving on emotionally with her break @-@ up , she stopped developing the comic and later left South Korea to attend the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan , New York , United States , from which she graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in cartooning . Following her successful pitch of 12 Days to manga publisher Tokyopop , she resumed work on it in early 2005 and finished in the middle of August 2006 . 12 Days focuses on Jackie Yuen , who decides to drink the ashes of her former lover for twelve days in beverages as a way to cope with her grief over her death .
Tokyopop published 12 Days in North America on 7 November 2006 , to generally positive reviews . Critics praised the manga for its mature portrayal of grief and relationships , and its realistic artwork , although the choice of print for the dialogue was considered distracting . Reviewers also discussed the comic 's treatment of the issues of love , loss , and lesbian elements . In May 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its North American publishing branch , with the status of its original , global manga titles left unclear .
= = Plot = =
For the first eight chapters , 12 Days centers on Jackie Yuen , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old part Cantonese and part Korean editor . After the death of her former lover , the Korean American school nurse Noah Yoon , she decides to drink her ashes over twelve days in beverages as a way of coping with her grief . Nicholas " Nick " Yoon , Noah 's younger half brother , steals some of Noah 's ashes for her to use , and soon joins her in mourning . She reminisces on how she met her and became involved in a lesbian relationship ; however , Noah ended their relationship to marry a man to appease her father , and died returning from her honeymoon in a car accident a month ago . As Jackie continues her ritual , she begins to feel ill and eventually faints . Nick takes her to the hospital , where she recovers . On New Year 's Day , she parts from Nick and returns to her apartment to find that he has taken the engagement ring she had wanted to give Noah , and unknown to her , he mixes it in with the remaining ashes . 12 Days concludes with " Chapter 0 " , set before the events in the rest of the comic : Noah finds Nick studying for exams , and they briefly discuss Artemisia II of Caria , an ancient Greek queen who drank the ashes of her husband . Noah then hints that she has found someone whose ashes she would drink .
= = Style and issues = =
June Kim , the author and illustrator for 12 Days , primarily drew the artwork in the realism style , although she occasionally rendered characters as super @-@ deformed versions of themselves . While the cover art incorporates red and silver coloring , the artwork primarily appears in black and white , with occasional gray shading . Kim used pen and ink as the artistic medium , then toned her art with the software application ComicStudio . For the narrative , she explores the characters ' pasts through dreams , and periodic , nonlinear flashbacks . Several character traits , such as Jackie 's chocolate allergy , are presented to the reader through inference rather than exposition . Additionally , Kim uses a brief , untranslated Korean song alongside the predominantly English text .
Critics have focused on the issues of love and loss . 12 Days primarily deals with " a love affair and its aftermath , " according to Dirk Deppey of The Comics Journal . He considered it " a meditation on loss , " which explores " a relationship neither fully ended nor easily forgotten by either party . " Theron Martin of Anime News Network considered it a story about " trying to find a way to cope with a devastating loss " . According to Katherine Dacey , the former senior manga editor for PopCultureShock , 12 Days contains " lovely , quiet observations about the way we grieve , define family , express desire , and remember moments of hurt and betrayal . " Johanna Draper Carlson , a reviewer for Publishers Weekly , wrote that Jackie 's action of consuming the ashes serves as " a transition period , a way to indulge her grief and then a time to be able to be herself again . " AfterEllen.com 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief Karman Kregloe stated that the comic " explores the impact of loss , and how relationships are supported and broken in times of grief . "
To a lesser extent , critics also discussed the lesbian aspect . Martin felt that the lesbian element of 12 Days had been addressed , without becoming overstated . Casey Brienza , a fellow reviewer for Anime News Network , suggested that the shame Jackie and Noah felt as lesbians " ultimately destroyed their relationship . " In her comparison of Alison Bechdel 's 2006 graphic memoir Fun Home and 12 Days , Erica Friedman , the founder of the lesbian @-@ themed anime convention Yuricon , considered neither story to be " lesbian narratives " , but rather " narratives of grief , of relationships and of missed opportunities for communication and closeness . "
= = Production = =
Partially modeled on a story told to Kim by a stranger , 12 Days began during her sophomore year in college as a way of coping with the end of a relationship . Kim soon abandoned the unfinished comic after moving on emotionally from the breakup , and considered the early concept " poorly built . " After completing her junior year in college in Seoul , South Korea , where she had been studying Japanese language and literature , Kim moved to New York , United States . There , she attended the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan , New York , for four years , and graduated in 2002 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in cartooning . In addition to illustrating the cover of Australian rock band Jet 's 2003 debut album Get Born , she had three of her short comics published in anthologies : " SheepSheepSleep " ( 2003 ) in Broad Appeal , " B @-@ 612 " ( 2003 / 4 ) in New Thing Vol.2 , and " Repeat " ( 2005 ) in SheWolf Vol.1.
At the 2004 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , she encountered now @-@ former Tokyopop editors Mark Paniccia and Lillian M. Diaz @-@ Przybyl , who helped to pitch 12 Days to their publisher . Kim later expressed surprise for her successful pitch of 12 Days , and commented : " It made me believe there is room for diverse stories . " Resuming work on 12 Days in early 2005 , Kim felt that her " slow speed , other projects and family matters " delayed its production . Additionally , the South Korean @-@ native Kim , who speaks Korean , English , and Japanese fluently , would think of ideas in Korean that did not translate well over to English , ultimately leading her to change her method of thinking for the comic . She considered her creation of a global manga " a bit ironic , " because she " wanted to do something different from manhwa or manga , " which she had grown up around . Completed in the middle of August 2006 , 12 Days was published by Tokyopop in North America in November of the same year . However , in May 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its North American branch , with the status of global manga titles left unclear . 12 Days is also published in Germany by Tokyopop Germany .
= = Reception = =
12 Days received generally positive reviews from critics . Caroline Ryder of The Advocate , a LGBT @-@ interest magazine , highlighted 12 Days as " a dark , deeply emotional graphic novel . " Brienza complimented Kim 's artistic attention to the background and setting 's details , and summed up the comic as " a sensitive depiction of lesbians that strives for literariness " . While not personally enjoying the comic , Friedman considered it " excellent and well worth reading . " Noting the potentially confusing flashblacks , Martin stated : " 12 Days doesn 't easily fall into any of the normal manga ( or manga @-@ like ) categories . It avoids any kind of sensationalism in providing a mature piece about a difficult topic , which may limit its appeal but certainly makes it worth reading . " While Deppey praised it as " an ambitious and partly satisfying work that very nearly succeeds , " he considered it not " as daring or complex a work " as Fun Home . Although Dacey disliked the backgrounds and the " self @-@ consciously literary " ashes @-@ in @-@ beverages aspect , she enjoyed the plot and Kim 's use of naturalism in her artwork . She later placed it on her list of the top ten global manga . Draper Carlson recommended it , commenting : " The emotions the book carries will be familiar to anyone who ’ s suffered a loss in love . It ’ s a work to meditate on . " Conversely , A. E. Sparrow of IGN wrote that the story sacrificed its coherency in its attempt " for a deeper level of understanding " ; Sparrow concluded : " 12 Days is simply trying too hard , burying some absolutely beautiful illustrations in a sea of chaotic storytelling . "
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= Salesforce Marketing Cloud =
Salesforce Marketing Cloud ( formerly known as ExactTarget ) is a provider of digital marketing automation and analytics software and services . It was founded in 2000 under the name ExactTarget . The company filed for an IPO in 2007 , but then withdrew its filing two years later and raised $ 145 million in funding . It acquired CoTweet , Pardot , iGoDigital and Keymail Marketing . In 2012 , it raised $ 161 @.@ 5 million in an initial public offering , before being acquired by Salesforce for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 . ExactTarget was renamed to Salesforce Marketing Cloud in 2014 after the acquisition by Salesforce .
= = Corporate history = =
Salesforce Marketing Cloud was founded under the name ExactTarget in late 2000 by Scott Dorsey , Chris Baggott , and Peter McCormick with $ 200 @,@ 000 in financing.Joanna Milliken , joined ExactTarget as the first employee in 2001 . It raised $ 10 @.@ 5 million in funding from Insight Venture Partners in 2004 . The firm grew from $ 11 @.@ 5 million in its second year of operations to $ 41 @.@ 1 million in 2006 , which was its first profitable year . In December 2007 , ExactTarget filed an intent for an initial public offering with the Securities Exchange Commission , but withdrew its filing in May 2009 . Instead , it announced $ 70 million in venture funding had been raised for international expansion , which was followed by another $ 75 million round later that year . An office was established in London with the acquisition of a UK @-@ based ExactTarget reseller , Keymail Marketing , in September 2009 . The company also hired 200 additional employees . In 2010 , ExactTarget acquired CoTweet , a company founded in 2008 that develops and markets software for managing multiple Twitter accounts .
ExactTarget went public in March 2012 and raised $ 161 @.@ 5 million in funding on the New York Stock Exchange . In late 2012 , it acquired a marketing automation vendor , Pardot , for $ 96 million , and the developers of a product recommendation engine , iGoDigital , for $ 21 million . In 2012 , its revenues grew 40 percent over the preceding year . The following June , ExactTarget was acquired by salesforce.com for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion . A few months later , salesforce.com said it was laying off 200 staff due to overlaps after the ExactTarget acquisition . That September at the ExactTarget Connections conference , salesforce.com said it was integrating ExactTarget into a new division called Salesforce ExactTarget Marketing Cloud .
In May 2014 , Scott Dorsey stepped down as CEO of ExactTarget and was replaced by Scott McCorkle . The company was renamed in October 2014 to " Salesforce Marketing Cloud " , removing " ExactTarget " from its name , as part of its integration with Salesforce .
= = Software and services = =
Salesforce Marketing Cloud develops marketing automation and analytics software for email , mobile , social and online marketing . It also offers consulting and implementation services . The software is sold primarily on a multi @-@ year subscription basis . The price of the subscription is based on what features are enabled , number of users and level of customer service .
The software 's Interactive Marketing Hub was released in 2010 , when the software 's user interface was re @-@ done . It serves as the software 's primary user interface for managing communications and content through different mediums . The Salesforce Marketing Cloud software is offered in a hosted , online subscription model . The company owns the CoTweet , Pardot , and iGoDigital tools . Its mobile features , as well as many of its workflow and collaboration tools , were released in July 2013 .
Salesforce Marketing Cloud was originally founded as an email marketing vendor . Its email management software maintains mailing lists and schedules and modifies email messages based on what recipients read , click @-@ on or forward .
In September 2014 the company introduced the Journey Builder for Apps , which is intended to create customer lifecycle maps of mobile app users . That month , at the September 2014 ExactTarget Connections conference , they announced numerous updates to their software . This included integration with software products owned by Salesforce.com , such as Buddy Media and Social Studio , as well as improvements to workflow and content management tools .
In November 2014 the company released a new version of Social Studio . This release expanded Social Studio beyond Salesforce ’ s Marketing Cloud , where it started , integrating it with the Service Cloud and the Sales Cloud . This enabled sending leads over to the Sales Cloud — the salesperson can see the full context of the company ’ s social media interactions with the lead .
= = Operations = =
As of December 2012 , about two thirds of ExactTarget 's 1 @,@ 500 employees were located in Indianapolis . The company hosts an annual user conference called the ExactTarget Connections Event ; the first Connections event in 2007 attracted 500 attendees , and it has since grown into one of the largest conferences on digital marketing . The event was located in Indianapolis from 2007 until 2014 , New York City in 2015 , Atlanta in 2016 and is planned for Chicago in 2017 .
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= Belgian ship A4 =
Patrol vessel A4 ( French : Patrouilleur A4 ) was a small Mersey @-@ class naval trawler operated by Belgium during the Second World War . Originally built for the British Royal Navy , as HMS John Ebbs , the ship is notable for its role in evacuating Belgian gold reserves to England during the Battle of Belgium in May 1940 . The success of the operation not only allowed the Belgian government in exile to fund its operations but deprived the German occupiers of an important asset to support their war effort . After the Belgian surrender , the vessel and its crew interned themselves in neutral Spain . In 1946 , the vessel and its crew were released and the ship was scrapped soon afterwards .
= = Background = =
Pilote 4 ( later renamed Patrouilleur A4 ) was purchased by the Belgian Corps de Marine in 1920 , having previously served in the British Royal Navy during the First World War as HMS John Ebbs ( FY3566 ) . The vessel was a Mersey @-@ class naval trawler , built by Cochranes in Selby , North Yorkshire , and was launched on 2 October 1917 . Displacing 334 long tons ( 339 t ) , the vessel was 148 feet ( 45 m ) long , and had a draught of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . Fitted with engines that were capable of producing 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) , it could travel at between 9 and 10 knots . With a complement of 27 , the Belgians armed the ship with two Maxim machine guns on the bridge and a 47mm gun at the stern . In 1939 , A4 was waiting to be scrapped , but the deteriorating international situation caused by German expansionism led to its reactivation by the Ministry of National Defence .
Because of Belgium 's neutral status in the early stages of the Second World War , A4 had large Belgian tricolours painted on each side of its hull , as well as the word " BELGIË " ( Dutch for " Belgium " ) in white , to prevent it being mistaken for a belligerent ship . After Belgium was invaded by German forces on 10 May 1940 , it was not repainted .
= = Evacuation of Belgian gold = =
During the interwar period , Belgium had created a gold @-@ based currency , called the Belga , which ran parallel to the Belgian franc . The Belga was intended for international trading and meant that the National Bank of Belgium amassed considerable gold reserves , amounting to some 600 tonnes by 1940 .
During the escalating international tensions in the 1930s , the Belgian government began moving large amounts of gold to the United States , Great Britain and Canada , but was forced to retain some gold in the country to maintain the Belga 's value .
By the time the Germans invaded Belgium in May 1940 , there were still 40 tonnes of gold left in Belgium , held at the bank 's offices in the port of Ostend . The only ship available in the area was A4 , commanded by Lieutenant Van Vaerenbergh . On 19 May 1940 , the vessel was loaded with the gold and , avoiding Dunkirk which was being bombed by the Luftwaffe , headed for the British coast , accompanied by the ship P16 which was carrying refugees . After being transferred from port to port because of concerns for the safety of the cargo during unloading , the gold was landed at Plymouth on 26 May , two days before the Belgian surrender . The gold was finally deposited at the Bank of England . A4 also carried Hubert Ansiaux , the civil servant charged with overseeing the evacuation of the gold to England and the future Governor of the National Bank .
The fact that so much Belgian gold had been rescued before the German occupation allowed the Belgian government in exile to finance its own operations , unlike most other exiled governments which had to rely on British financial support .
= = Aftermath = =
Since Belgium had officially surrendered on 28 May and no official Belgian government yet existed in England , the crew of A4 took their ship to Bilbao in neutral Spain to avoid having to return to Belgium and become German prisoners of war . They arrived in Spain on 26 June and spent the rest of the war interned . Control of the ship was returned to Belgium in 1946 and it was scrapped in 1948 .
For his role in the evacuation of the gold , Lieutenant Van Vaerenbergh was awarded the Order of Leopold II .
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