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= Egypt at the 2012 Summer Olympics =
Egypt competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , from 27 July to 12 August 2012 , sending one of its largest delegations ever . A total of 110 Egyptian athletes participated in 83 events across 20 sports , with more women taking part than ever before . The nation 's flagbearer in the opening ceremonies was Hesham Mesbah , a judoka who was its only medalist from the 2008 Summer Olympics . Egypt won two medals in London : Alaaeldin Abouelkassem earned silver in the men 's foil , becoming the first competitor from an African nation to win a fencing medal , while Karam Gaber captured silver in the men 's 84 kg Greco @-@ Roman wrestling event . Among other achievements , Mostafa Mansour was the nation 's first competitor in sprint canoeing while fencer Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the first Egyptian female to appear in four editions of the Olympics .
Prior to 2012 , Egypt had sent athletes to nineteen editions of the Summer Olympic Games , the 1906 Intercalated Games , equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics , and the 1984 Winter Olympics . Before the Games began , the Egyptian Olympic Committee distributed counterfeit Nike gear to its athletes , due to its financial troubles following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Nike , however , ended up donating legitimate equipment to the Egyptians . In addition to the success of the silver medalists , one weightlifter , Tarek Yehia , finished just off the podium in fourth in the men 's 85 kg event , while three others , Ibrahim Ramadan , Abeer Abdelrahman , and Nahla Ramadan , were fifth in their respective events . Tamer Bayoumi , a 2004 Olympic bronze medalist and the nation ’ s most successful taekwondo practitioner at the 2012 edition , was chosen to carry Egypt ’ s flag at the closing ceremony .
Aside from the team sport of football , which had 16 participants , fencing and wrestling were the sports in which Egypt participated the most , sending 12 representatives to each . Of them , wrestling was almost exclusively male with only one female , Rabab Eid , taking part . The sport with the most Egyptian female participation was synchronized swimming , an all @-@ woman tournament at the Olympics , with eight , while the nation sent six women to fencing , the highest amount for a mixed sport . Among tournaments with the potential for both men and women to take part , Egypt qualified females , but not males , for badminton , and males , but not females , for track and field athletics , boxing , canoeing , equestrian , football , judo , and sailing .
= = Medalists = =
= = Background = =
Prior to 2012 , Egypt had sent athletes to nineteen editions of the Summer Olympic Games ( three times as the United Arab Republic ) , the 1906 Intercalated Games , equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics , and the 1984 Winter Olympics . With the exception of the Soviet @-@ boycotted 1984 Summer Olympics , Egypt 's 2012 delegation was the largest ever , and chose Hesham Mesbah , a 2008 Olympic medalist in judo , as its flagbearer in the opening ceremony . A total of 110 Egyptians , 76 men and 34 women , travelled to London and competed in 20 different sports . It was the largest delegation of women in the country 's Olympic history . Prior the start of the Olympic Games , the Egyptian Olympic Committee ( EOC ) distributed counterfeit Nike gear from a Chinese distributor to its athletes , due to its financial troubles following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Nike ended up donating equipment to the Egyptians , despite the EOC 's eventual willingness to pay .
= = Competitors = =
Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the nation 's first female to appear in her fourth Olympic games , while former Olympic medalists Tamer Bayoumi ( taekwondo ) , Karam Gaber ( Greco @-@ Roman wrestling ) , and Hesham Mesbah ( judo ) returned to compete again . Middleweight boxer Mohamed Hikal and skeet shooter Mostafa Hamdy also made a fourth appearance at the Games , while Gaber , Mesbah , and six other athletes made their third Olympic appearance : discus thrower Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly , modern pentathlete Aya Medany , table tennis player El @-@ sayed Lashin , Greco @-@ Roman wrestlers Ashraf El @-@ Gharably and Mohamed Abdelfatah , and judoka Islam El Shehaby . Skeet shooter Mona El @-@ Hawary , aged 49 , was the oldest athlete on the team , while sprint freestyle swimmer Farida Osman was the youngest at age 17 . Bayoumi was selected as Egypt 's flagbearer for the closing ceremony .
= = Archery = =
Two Egyptian archers , one male and one female , qualified for the Olympics , both of whom earned their berths at the 2012 African Archery Championships . Ahmed El @-@ Nemr finished second at that tournament , behind Philippe Kouassi of Côte d 'Ivoire , and entered the men 's individual event . El @-@ Nemr had won three medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , gold in the individual recurve 90 metres and silver in the individual recurve FITA and the team event . In London he scored 644 points in the ranking round and placed 57th overall out of 64 competitors . In the round of 64 he defeated eighth @-@ ranked Crispin Duenas of Canada three sets to one and then faced Kuo Cheng @-@ wei , who was representing Chinese Taipei . El @-@ Nemr lost this round three sets to one and was eliminated from the tournament , leaving with a final ranking of 17th . Nada Kamel , who had earned seven medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , won the women 's event at the 2012 African Championships and entered the individual tournament . There she scored 611 points in the ranking round and placed 56th overall out of 64 participants . She was defeated by Ksenia Perova of Russia three sets to none in the opening round and finished the event joint @-@ 33rd and last .
Key : W |
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; BM = Bronze medal match
= = Athletics = =
Seven Egyptian athletes , six men and one woman , qualified for the Olympics , although one did not compete . Noura Elsayed , the lone woman , was slated to run in the 800 metres , but withdrew due to injury . The only Egyptian to participate in more than one event was Amr Ibrahim Mostafa Seoud , a veteran of the 200 metre event at the 2008 Summer Olympics . Seoud , who had won gold medals in the 100 metres at the 2007 Pan Arab and 2011 All @-@ African Games , and the 200 metres at the 2007 Pan Arab and 2009 Mediterranean Games , as well as the 2010 African Championships , met the " A " qualifying standard for both the 100 metres and 200 metres . In the 100 he drew the same heat as world record @-@ holder and defending Olympic champion Usain Bolt of Jamaica and finished fourth , which was insufficient to advance . He had the same result in the opening heats of the 200 . Hamada Mohamed met the " A " qualifying standard for the 800 metres and won his opening heat in London , advancing to the semifinals . He was placed in the same heat as David Rudisha of Kenya , the world @-@ record holder and upcoming gold medalist , and finished eighth out of nine competitors , failing reach the final .
The remaining Egyptians , all of whom qualified through the B standard , competed in field events . Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly , in the discus , was the most experienced of the quartet , with senior international medals going back to bronze at the 2002 African Championships in Athletics , in addition to past Olympic appearances in 2004 and 2008 . In London he finished 26th among 41 participants with a best throw of 60 @.@ 26 meters . Ihab El @-@ Sayed , in the javelin throw , had missed the 2008 Summer Olympics , despite having been a silver medalist at the 2007 Pan Arab Games , but had won the event at the 2010 African Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he placed 29th out of 44 competitors with a best throw of 77 @.@ 35 meters . Mostafa Al @-@ Gamel , in the hammer throw , was the gold medalist from the 2011 All @-@ African Games and a silver medalist from the 2008 African Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he was 29th among 41 participants with a best throw of 71 @.@ 36 meters . Mohamed Fathalla Difallah , who had come in fourth at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , was 37th out of 41 competitors in the qualifying round of the long jump in London , with a distance of 7 @.@ 08 meters , and did not advance to the final .
Men
Track & road events
Field events
Women
Track & road events
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Key : Q |
= Qualified for the next round ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event ; DNS = Athlete failed to start the event
= = Badminton = =
One Egyptian badminton player qualified for the Olympics , Hadia Hosny El Said . A veteran of the 2008 Summer Games , she trained for London at the University of Bath , where she was a graduate student in bioscience . Ranked 102nd in the world , she qualified by being the top player on the African continent . In the women 's singles , she lost to Pi Hongyan of France and Chloe Magee of Ireland , finished in the bottom of her group , and was eliminated from the tournament .
Key : L |
= Competitor lost the match ; BM =
Bronze medal match
= = Boxing = =
Five Egyptian boxers qualified for the Olympics , all of whom were men and earned their spots at the 2012 African Boxing Olympic Qualification Tournament . The only Egyptian to win a bout in London was Hesham Yehia , in the flyweight division , who defeated Benson Gicharu of Kenya before losing to Jasurbek Latipov of Uzbekistan in the round of 16 . Yehia 's most successful major international tournament had been the 2011 Pan Arab Games , where he had been the flyweight runner @-@ up . The most experienced boxer was Mohamed Hikal , who had competed in the light @-@ middleweight , welterweight , and middleweight categories of the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 Summer Olympics respectively . Among his international boxing distinctions , he was 1999 and 2003 All @-@ African champion , 2005 Mediterranean champion , 2007 and 2011 Pan Arab champion , and 2007 African champion , and won a bronze medal at the 2005 World Championships . In 2012 he was once again representing Egypt as a middleweight and lost his first bout to Soltan Migitinov of Azerbaijan . Ramy Helmy El @-@ Awadi , a bronze medalist from the 2007 Pan Arab Games , received a bye in the opening round of the light flyweight class and was defeated by Ferhat Pehlivan of Turkey in the round of 16 . Mohamed Ramadan and Eslam El @-@ Gendy lost their first bouts to eventual silver medalist Han Soon @-@ Chul of South Korea and Gyula Káté of Hungary in the lightweight and light welterweight events respectively .
Men
Key : W |
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Canoeing = =
Egypt 's first ever Olympic competitor in canoe and kayak , Mostafa Mansour , qualified for the 2012 Games . Having taken up the sport in 2007 , after abandoning his initial pursuit of rowing , Mansour qualified for the K @-@ 1 200 metres by coming in third in the event at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . The Olympic spots were originally meant to go to the top two finishers , Greg Louw of South Africa and Mohamed Mrabet of Tunisia , but South Africa did not select Louw for the Games . Mansour 's best time in the K @-@ 1 1000 metres earned him a spot in that event as a continental wildcard . He was eliminated in the opening round of both events in London , after finishing last in his heats .
= = = Sprint = = =
= = Equestrian = =
One Egyptian equestrian qualified for show jumping for the Olympics . Karim El @-@ Zoghby , a veteran of the 2008 Games , qualified with his horse Wervel Wind due to his ranking at the 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games . In the months leading up to the Olympics , he trained full @-@ time in the Netherlands and won a silver medal in the team jumping event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London , Zoghby survived the first qualifying course by finishing joint @-@ 53rd with five penalties , but was eliminated after placing 51st in round two with an additional five penalties .
= = = Show jumping = = =
Key : Q = Qualified for the next round
= = Fencing = =
Twelve Egyptian fencers , six men and six women , qualified for the Olympics . Both the men and women qualified their foil teams by being the top African nation in this category , while Ayman Mohamed Fayez and Salma Mahran were selected as the second highest @-@ ranked Africans in the men 's épée and the women 's sabre respectively . The final competitors , Mona Hassanein in the women 's épée and Mannad Zeid in the men 's sabre , won an African qualifier to earn their spots . Both foil teams lost their opening rounds against Great Britain and were eliminated from the tournament .
In the men 's events , Alaaeldin Abouelkassem , who captured gold in the individual and team foil events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , won a silver medal in the men 's foil , after the losing the final against Lei Sheng of China . To qualify for the final he defeated American Miles Chamley @-@ Watson , Germany 's Peter Joppich , Italy 's Andrea Cassarà , and South Korea 's Choi Byung @-@ Chul , and became the first African to win an Olympic fencing medal . One of his teammates , Tarek Ayad , who had also been part of the gold medal @-@ winning foil team at the 2011 Pan Arab Games and had won bronze individually , defeated fellow Egyptian Anas Mostafa in the opening round , before losing to Aleksey Cheremisinov of Russia in the round of 32 . Fayez , who won gold in the individual and team épée events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , and Zeid were defeated in their opening rounds by eventual gold medalist Rubén Limardo of Venezuela and Malaysia 's Yu Peng Kean respectively . None of the women won any bouts in London , but Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the first Egyptian female to compete in four Olympics , having taken part in the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 editions .
Men
Women
Key : W |
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; BM |
= Bronze medal match ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Football = =
= = = Men 's tournament = = =
The Egyptian national football team qualified for the Olympics after its third @-@ place finish at the 2011 CAF U @-@ 23 Championship . It was the nation 's first Olympic appearance since the 1992 Games and they chose Mohamed Aboutrika , Ahmed Fathy , and Emad Moteab as their three over @-@ 23 players . The squad was coached by Hany Ramzy . In the tournament , Egypt was drawn into Group C. It lost its first match against Brazil 3 – 2 , but tied New Zealand 1 – 1 and defeated Belarus 3 – 1 to advance to the knockout stage . This was their fifth time in eleven tournaments that Egypt progressed out of the group stage . Egypt met Japan in the quarterfinals and lost 3 – 0 , eliminating them from the tournament .
Team roster
The following is the Egypt squad in the men 's football tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Coach : Hany Ramzy
* Indicates that player was born prior to 1 January 1989 . According to FIFA regulations , only three such players are permitted on an Olympic squad .
Group play
Quarterfinal
= = Gymnastics = =
Four Egyptian gymnasts , three artistic and one rhythmic , qualified for the Olympics . Mohamed El @-@ Saharty , the lone male , was invited to London as the highest @-@ ranked African in the individual all @-@ around at the 2011 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships . He was individual all @-@ around Arab Champion in 2011 and 2012 , African Champion in 2010 and 2012 , and Pan Arab Champion in 2011 . At the latter tournament , he had also taken gold in the horizontal bar , the pommel horse , the vault , and the team event . In London his best event was the vault , where he finished 12th . He was 52nd in the horizontal bar , 56th in the floor , 57th in the pommel horse , 61st in the rings , and 65th in the parallel bars . His final rank in the individual all @-@ around was 37th .
Salma El @-@ Said and Sherine El @-@ Zeiny qualified for the Olympics as the second and third @-@ ranked Africans at the 2011 World Championships , with El @-@ Zeiny having been offered a spot after the highest @-@ placed African , Nicole Szabo of South Africa , turned down the invitation due to injury . El @-@ Said had taken a break from active competition while recovering from an injury of her own and came back shortly before the World Championships . Since then she had taken the individual all @-@ around title at the 2011 Arab Games and the 2012 African Championships . El @-@ Zeiny was a veteran of the 2008 tournament and both had been a part of Egypt 's victorious all @-@ around team at the 2012 African Championships . In London , El @-@ Said 's best event was the balance beam , in which she placed 42nd . She was also 63rd in the uneven bars , 69th in the floor exercise , and was ranked 41st overall in the individual all @-@ around . El @-@ Zeiny was 53rd on the balance beam , but finished 82nd and last in the floor exercise after suffering an injury . Yasmine Rostom , the rhythmic gymnast , qualified by being the top performer from Africa at the 2011 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships . In London she was 23rd in the ball and the hoop , 20th in the clubs , and last in the ribbon to finish 23rd out of 24 competitors overall .
= = = Artistic = = =
Men
F |
= Floor exercise ; PH =
Pommel horse ; R |
= Rings ; V =
Vault ; PB |
= Parallel bars ; HB =
Horizontal bar ; N / A
= Round not applicable for the event
Women
F =
Floor exercise ; PH |
= Pommel horse ; UB =
Uneven bars ; BB |
= Balance beam ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
= = = Rhythmic = = =
= = Judo = =
Five Egyptian judoka qualified for the Olympics , all men , two of which advanced beyond the round of 32 . Ahmed Awad , who was the 2011 African and All @-@ Africa Games champion , as well as the runner @-@ up at the 2009 Mediterranean Games and a bronze medalist at the 2012 African Championships , earned a spot in the 66 kg event by being the highest ranked African in the division . He defeated Humaid Al @-@ Derei of the United Arab Emirates before losing against Tarlan Karimov of Azerbaijan in the round of 16 . Hussein Hafiz , who was the 2011 Pan Arab and 2012 African Champion , as well as the 2011 African runner @-@ up and a bronze medalist at the 2009 and 2010 editions and the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , qualified for London by being ranked 18th in the world in the 73 kg class . He won his opening match against Osman Murillo Segura of Costa Rica before being defeated by France 's Ugo Legrand , an eventual bronze medalist . Hesham Mesbah , who was Egypt 's only medalist at the 2008 Summer Olympics , returned to the 90 kg division by being ranked 13th in the world , but was eliminated his first match , against Timur Bolat of Kazakhstan .
Islam El Shehaby had participated in the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics and had international judo titles in the + 100 kg division as far back as the 1999 Pan Arab Games . He was most recentely African Champion in the + 100 kg and open classes at the 2011 African Championships , and was runner @-@ up in the former category at the 2012 edition . Coming into the 2012 Olympics he was ranked fourth in the world , but lost in the opening round against Ihar Makarau of Belarus . The final judoka , Ramadan Darwish , had won every African championship in the 100 kg class since 2009 , was the 2009 Mediterranean champion and 2011 All @-@ Africa Games runner @-@ up , and had earned a bronze medal at the 2009 World Judo Championships . He qualified for the 100 kg event at the Olympic Games by being ranked ninth worldwide , but was defeated in his first match by France 's Thierry Fabre .
Key : W |
= Competitor won the match ; L =
Competitor lost the match ; N / A |
= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Modern pentathlon = =
Three Egyptian athletes qualified for the Olympic modern pentathlon tournament , two men and one woman . Aya Medany , a veteran of the 2004 and 2008 Games , was the most experienced of the three , having competed internationally since 1999 at the age of 10 . She won the 2011 African Championships to earn her spot in London , which was her fifth title at the tournament since 2004 . In the women 's event in London , she won 20 of her fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ eighth after the first round . She was 18th in swimming , 19th in riding , and 21st in the combined running / shooting portion to finish 16th overall . On the men 's side , Yasser Hefny won the 2011 African Championships and entered the men 's event in London , where he won 17 of his fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ thirteenth after the first round . He was 19th in the swimming , 28th in riding , and 31st in the combined running / shooting competition to finish 28th overall .
Amro El Geziry was a veteran of the 2008 Games , having won the 2006 and 2007 African Championships , and was following his brother Emad , who had participated in the 2000 edition . He won a bronze medal with another brother , Omar , at the 2009 World Modern Pentathlon Championships and eventually qualified for the 2012 Olympics by virtue of his world ranking . He received a berth during the second round of Olympic allocations , when spots won by nations who qualified more than the maximum two athletes were redistributed . In London he was victorious in 18 of his fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ 11th after the first round , but then won the swimming event with an Olympic record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 70 . He placed 33rd and 34th in the riding and combined riding / shooting competition , however , and finished 33rd overall .
Key : MP Points |
= Points earned towards total score ; WR =
World record ; OR |
= Olympic record ; NR =
National record
= = Rowing = =
Five Egyptians in three events qualified for the Olympic rowing tournament , all of whom earned their places at the African Continental Qualification Regatta in November 2011 . A member of the national team since 2007 , Nour El Din Hassanein normally rowed in the double sculls and , with Moustafa Fathy , finished last in the " C " final and 15th overall in that event at the 2010 World Rowing Championships . In London , however , he competed in the men 's single sculls and placed second in the " D " final and 20th overall . In the men 's lightweight double sculls , Omar Emira and Mohamed Nofel , who were first in the " E " final and 25th overall at the 2011 World Rowing Championships , finished 20th overall and last . In the women 's version , Sara Baraka and Fatma Rashed , the latter of whom replaced Baraka 's regular partner Ingy Hassem El Din also finished last .
Men
Women
Key : FA |
= Qualified for final A ( medal ) ; FB =
Qualified for final B ( non @-@ medal ) ; FC |
= Qualified for final C ( non @-@ medal ) ; FD =
Qualified for final D ( non @-@ medal ) ; FE |
= Qualified for final E ( non @-@ medal ) ; FF =
Qualified for final F ( non @-@ medal ) ; SA / B |
= Qualified for semifinals A / B ; SC / D =
Qualified for semifinals C / D ; SE / F |
= Qualified for semifinals E / F ; QF =
Qualified for quarterfinals ; R |
= Qualified for repechage ; WR =
World record ; OR |
= Olympic record ; NR =
National record ; N / A |
= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Sailing = =
One Egyptian windsurfer qualified for the Olympics , Ahmed Habash , who took up the sport as a teenager , but quit prior to the 2008 Games due to a serious injury . He re @-@ entered competition in 2012 and won the Egyptian National Championships . This qualified him for the World Championships , where he performed well enough to earn a spot on the national delegation to London . In the sailboard , Habash finished last overall , with 334 net points , and was eliminated prior to the medal round .
Men
Key : M * |
= Medal race ; EL =
Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; X = Points from this race were discarded as being the competitor 's worst race
= = Shooting = =
Egypt earned seven quota places for shooting events , five of which went to men and two of which were for women . Mona El @-@ Hawary , competing in the women 's skeet , was 17th and last in her event , but still ranked higher than any other Egyptian shooter . She was also a veteran of the 2008 Summer Olympics . The other woman , Nourhan Amer , was 41st of 56 competitors in the 10 metre air rifle . She had won three medals in team events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . Egypt 's best @-@ ranked man was Mostafa Hamdy , a veteran of the 1996 , 2000 , and 2004 Olympic tournaments , who was 18th among 36 participants in the men 's skeet . Azmy Mehelba , the 2011 Pan Arab runner up , also competed in the skeet , but was last . Ahmed Zaher , in the trap , was 22nd of 34 competitors , while Karim Wagih was 38th of 44 participants in the 10 metre air pistol . Amgad Hosen , a team gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games , finished 29th out of 47 competitors in the 10 metre air rifle .
Men
Women
Key : WR |
= World record ; OR =
Olympic record ; NR = National record
= = Swimming = =
Three Egyptian swimmers , one female and two males , qualified for the Olympics . American @-@ born Farida Osman , the woman , was the youngest member of the 2012 national delegation and qualified for the Games based on having made the Olympic Standard Time in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle . In the lead up to the Olympics , she won seven gold medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , as well as the 50 @-@ metre butterfly title at that year 's All @-@ Africa Games and World Junior Championships . In London she was sixth in her heat in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle and was eliminated from the tournament , ranking 42nd overall . On the men 's side , Shehab Younis qualified for the 50 @-@ metre freestyle by meeting the Olympic Selection Time of 22 @.@ 88 at an international meet in Eindhoven , Netherlands , with a result of 22 @.@ 85 . Prior to the Olympics he had won a bronze medal in the event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he was third in his heat and 34th overall , failing to advance to the semifinals . Mazen Metwaly , a Saudi @-@ born Egyptian training and studying at Southern Illinois University Carbondale , made the team at an Olympic qualifier in Setúbal , Portugal in June 2012 , the second of his two opportunities ( his first having been the 2011 World Championships ) . At the Games , in the marathon 10 kilometre , he was 24th out of 25 competitors .
Men
Women
Key : Q |
= Qualified for the next round ; WR =
World record ; OR |
= Olympic record ; NR =
National record ; N / A |
= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =
Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Synchronized swimming = =
Egypt 's synchronized swimming team qualified for the Olympics by being the top African nation at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships . It was the second time that the nation had qualified for the team event , having previously appeared in 2008 . Shaza Abdelrahman and Dalia El @-@ Gebaly , veterans of the 2008 tournament , represented Egypt in the duet , where they placed 24th and last . In the team competition , the nation finished seventh out of eight nations , ranking higher than Australia .
Key : N / A = Round not applicable for the event
= = Table tennis = =
Six Egyptian table tennis players , three men and three women , qualified for the Olympics , four for the singles and an additional two for the team events . The four singles competitors , Omar Assar , El @-@ sayed Lashin , Nadeen El @-@ Dawlatly , and Dina Meshref , all qualified based on their achievements at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . At this tournament , Assar won the singles event , was part of the victorious Egyptian team , finished second in the doubles with Emad Moselhy , and placed third in the mixed doubles alongside Meshref . He also won silver in the singles and gold in the team event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he defeated Yaroslav Zhmudenko of Ukraine in the opening round , but lost to Greece 's Panagiotis Gionis in round two . Lashin was the runner @-@ up in the singles at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , as well as the winner of the doubles ( with Ahmed Saleh ) , a bronze medalist in the mixed doubles ( alongside El @-@ Dawlatly ) , and a member of the gold medal @-@ earning Egyptian team . His list of international medals stretched back to the 1996 African Championships , where he won a gold medal in the team event , and he had previously appeared in the Olympic Games in 2000 and 2008 . In London he defeated Pär Gerell of Sweden and Zoran Primorac of Croatia before losing to Japan 's Jun Mizutani in the third round . For the team event , Assar and Lashin were joined by Saleh , a 2008 Olympic veteran whose victories went as far back at the doubles event at the 1996 Arab Championships , but they were eliminated in the opening round .
El @-@ Dawlatly had been fourth in the singles at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , as well as third in the doubles and mixed doubles ( with Meshref and Lashin respectively ) , and was a member of the gold medal @-@ winning Egyptian team . She had also earned gold in the team event and the doubles and silver in the singles at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London she was defeated in the opening round by Denmark 's Mie Skov . Meshref had the same results as El @-@ Dawlatly at the 2011 All @-@ African Games , except for being fifth in the singles , and took gold in the singles , doubles , and team events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London she defeated Offiong Edem of Nigeria and Yana Noskova of Russia before being overcome by Romania 's Elizabeta Samara . For the team event , El @-@ Dawlatly and Meshref were joined by Raghd Magdy , who had been third in the doubles and mixed doubles , as well as runner @-@ up in the team competition , at the 2003 All @-@ Africa Games . The Egyptian women were defeated by the Dutch in the first round .
Men
Women
Key : BM |
= Bronze medal match ; N / A =
Round not applicable for the event ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Taekwondo = =
Four Egyptian taekwondo practitioners , two men and two women , qualified for the Olympics , all of whom finished first at the African Qualification tournament , except for Abdelrahman Ossama in the men 's 80 kg class , who was second behind Morocco 's Issam Chernoubi . Tamer Bayoumi , a bronze medalist from the 2004 Olympics , was the most successful of the quartet . In the 58 kg class he defeated Nursultan Mamayev of Kazakhstan in the round of 16 before losing in sudden death to Lee Dae @-@ Hoon of South Korea , the eventual silver medalist , in the quarterfinals . In the repechage he was defeated by Thailand 's Pen @-@ Ek Karaket . The only other Egyptian to win a match was Hedaya Malak , in the women 's 57 kg , who overcame Robin Cheong of New Zealand before being defeated by Marlène Harnois of France , an eventual bronze medalist . In his first bout , Ossama lost to Tommy Mollet of the Netherlands in sudden death , while Seham El @-@ Sawalhy , the 2010 and 2012 African champion , was eliminated by Sweden 's Elin Johansson in the round of 16 of the women 's 67 kg class .
Key : Bye |
= Athlete not required to compete in round ; SDP =
Decision by sudden death point
= = Weightlifting = =
Five Egyptian men , Ahmed Saad , Mohamed Abdelbaki , Ibrahim Ramadan , Ragab Abdelhay , and Tarek Yehia , qualified for the Olympic weightlifting tournament by ranking seventh overall after the 2010 and 2011 World Weightlifting Championships , and three women , Esmat Mansour , Abeer Abdelrahman , and Nahla Ramadan , by ranking fourteenth . For the women , Ramadan , a gold medalist at the 2003 World Weightlifting Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games , bronze medalist at the 2002 World Championships , and veteran of the 75 kg class at the 2004 Summer Olympics , finished fifth in the + 75 kg class . Abdelrahman , another gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games and veteran of the 69 kg class at the 2008 Summer Olympics , was fifth in the 75 kg division . Mansour , contesting the 69 kg class , was ninth in her event .
For the men , Yehia , a silver medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , bronze medalist at the 2010 World Championships , and veteran of the 69 kg class at the 2008 Summer Olympics , had the nation 's best result , with a fourth @-@ place finish in the 85 kg division . His countryman Abdelhay , the gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games , was sixth in the same event . Saad , a silver medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games who had taken part in the 56 kg class at the 2004 Summer Olympics , was ninth in the 62 kg event . Abdelbaki , another gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games and a veteran of the 62 kg event at the 2008 Summer Olympics , was tenth in the 69 kg class , while Ramadan , also a gold medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , was fifth in the 77kg event .
Men
Women
Key : WR |
= World record ; OR =
Olympic record ; NR = National record
= = Wrestling = =
Thirteen Egyptian wrestlers , twelve men and one woman , qualified for the Olympics . In the men 's freestyle tournament , only Hassan Madany in the 60 kg class defeated an opponent , winning his bout against Didier Pais of France in the round of 16 before losing to North Korea 's Ri Jong @-@ Myong in the quarterfinals . Madany was a veteran of the 2008 tournament , where he lost his first bout against eventual bronze medalist Morad Mohammadi of Iran , and qualified for the 2012 Games by winning the African and Oceania qualification tournament . Among numerous honors , he was a seven @-@ time African champion ( 2002 , 2005 – 2009 , and 2012 ) and also won gold medals at the 2005 and 2009 Mediterranean Games and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . The only other Egyptian freestyle wrestler to take part in more than one bout was Ibrahim Farag in the 55 kg class , who lost against eventual silver medalist Vladimer Khinchegashvili of Georgia in the qualification round and Bulgaria 's Radoslav Velikov in the repechage . He was African senior champion in 2010 and junior champion in 2009 .
Farag , along with Abdou Omar in the 66 kg class , Saleh Emara in the 96 kg class , and El @-@ Desoky Ismail in the 120 kg class , qualified by winning the African and Oceania qualification tournament . Omar , the 2009 and 2010 African champion and a gold medalist at the 2011 Pan American Games , and Emara , who won gold medals at the 2007 All @-@ Africa Games , the 2009 Mediterranean Games , and the 2011 Pan Arab Games , were disqualified after arriving late for their events , while Ismail , a four @-@ time African Champion and bronze medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , was eliminated in the opening round by Tervel Dlagnev of the United States . In women 's freestyle wrestling , Rabab Eid qualified for the 55 kg class by coming in second at the African and Oceania qualification tournament , behind Marwa Amri of Tunisia . At the Games , she was defeated by Ukraine 's Tetyana Lazareva in the round of 16 .
In Greco @-@ Roman wrestling , Karam Gaber , the gold medal winner in the 96 kg class at the 2004 Summer Olympics , won a silver medal in the 84 kg class after losing the final to Russia 's Alan Khugayev . Along the way he defeated Nenad Žugaj of Croatia , Mélonin Noumonvi of France , and Damian Janikowski of Poland . He qualified for the Gamea after winning the African and Oceania qualification tournament . The only other Egyptian wrestler to win a bout was Ashraf El @-@ Gharably in the 66 kg class . Gharably , who qualified for the Games after coming in second in the African and Oceania qualification tournament , behind Mohamed Serir of Tunisia , had held numerous international titles since 1997 , when he first won the African championships , and had participated in the 60 kg class at the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics . In 2012 he defeated Ecuador 's Orlando Huacón in the round of 16 before losing to eventual bronze medalist Manuchar Tskhadaia of Georgia in the quarterfinals .
Sayed Abdelmoneim , competing in the 60 kg class , and Abdelrahman El @-@ Trabely , competing in the 120 kg class , both lost in the first round against one of the eventual finalists and were defeated a second time in the repechage . Abdelmoneim had been the 2010 African champion and had qualified for the Olympics by winning the African and Oceania qualification tournament . In London he lost to Georgia 's Revaz Lashkhi and Russia 's Zaur Kuramagomedov , eventual silver and bronze medalists respectively . El @-@ Trabely was the 2011 African runner @-@ up and was second in the African and Oceania qualification tournament behind Tunisia 's Radhouane Chebbi . At the Games he lost against 2008 and 2012 Olympic champion Mijaín López of Cuba and Guram Pherselidze of Georgia . Mohamed Abouhalima , Islam Tolba , and Mohamed Abdelfatah all lost their opening bouts and were eliminated without appearing in the repechage . Abouhalima , competing in the 55kg class , was the 2011 junior and 2012 senior African champion and won the African and Oceania qualifying tournament . Tolba , competing in the 74 kg class , was the runner up at the 2011 African Championships , 2011 Pan Arab Games , and the African and Oceania qualifying tournament , behind Tunisia 's Zied Ayet Ikram of Tunisia all three times . Abdelfatah had accrued numerous international honors since winning the 83 kg class at the 1997 Pan Arab Games and was a veteran of the 85 kg class at the 2000 Summer Olympics and the 84 kg class at the 2004 edition . In London he competed in the 96 kg class and qualified by coming in fifth at the 2011 World Championships .
Men 's freestyle
Men 's Greco @-@ Roman
Women 's freestyle
Key : BM |
= Bronze medal match ; VT =
Victory by Fall ; PP |
= Decision by Points – the loser with technical points ; PO =
Decision by Points – the loser without technical points ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
|
= Siege of Sidney Street =
The Siege of Sidney Street of January 1911 , also known as the Battle of Stepney , was a gunfight in the East End of London between a combined police and army force and two Latvian revolutionaries . The siege was the culmination of a series of events that began in December 1910 , with an attempted jewellery robbery at Houndsditch in the City of London by a gang of immigrant Latvians which resulted in the murder of three policemen , the wounding of two others , and the death of George Gardstein , the leader of the Latvian gang .
An investigation by the Metropolitan and City of London Police forces identified Gardstein 's accomplices , most of whom were arrested within two weeks . The police were informed that the final two members of the gang were hiding at 100 Sidney Street in Stepney . The police evacuated local residents from the environs , and on the morning of 3 January a firefight broke out . Armed with inferior weapons , the police sought assistance from the army . The siege lasted for about six hours . Towards the end of the stand @-@ off , the building caught fire ; no single cause has been identified . One of the agitators in the building was shot before the fire took control . While the London Fire Brigade were damping down the ruins — in which they found the two bodies — the building collapsed , killing one of the firemen , Superintendent Charles Pearson .
The siege marked the first time that the police had requested army assistance in London to deal with an armed stand @-@ off . It was also the first siege in Britain to be caught on camera , as the events were filmed by Pathé News . Some of the footage included images of the then Home Secretary , Winston Churchill . His presence caused a political row over the level of his operational involvement . At the subsequent trial in May 1911 of those arrested for the Houndsditch jewellery robbery , all but one of the accused were acquitted ; the sole conviction was subsequently overturned on appeal . The events were fictionalised in film — in The Man Who Knew Too Much ( 1934 ) and The Siege of Sidney Street ( 1960 ) — and novels . On the centenary of the events two tower blocks in Sidney Street were named after Peter the Painter , one of the minor members of the gang who was probably not present at either Houndsditch or Sidney Street . The murdered policemen and the fireman who died are commemorated by memorial plaques .
= = Background = =
= = = Immigration and demographics in London = = =
In the 19th century Tsarist Russia was home to about five million Jews , the largest Jewish community at the time . Subjected to religious persecution and violent pogroms , many emigrated and between 1875 and 1914 around 150 @,@ 000 arrived in the United Kingdom , mostly in England . The influx reached its peak in the late 1890s when large numbers of Jewish immigrants — mostly poor and semi @-@ skilled or unskilled — settled in the East End of London . The concentration of Jewish immigrants into some areas was almost 100 per cent of the population , and a study undertaken in 1900 showed that Houndsditch and Whitechapel were both identified as a " well @-@ defined intensely Jewish district " .
Some of the expatriates were revolutionaries , many of whom were unable to adapt to life in the politically less oppressive London . The social historian William J. Fishman writes that " the meschuggena ( crazy ) Anarchists were almost accepted as part of the East End landscape " , although the terms " socialist " and " anarchist " had been conflated in the minds of the British press , who used the terms interchangeably to refer to those with revolutionary beliefs . A leading article in The Times described the Whitechapel area as one that " harbours some of the worst alien anarchists and criminals who seek our too hospitable shore . And these are the men who use the pistol and the knife . "
From the turn of the century , gang warfare persisted in the Whitechapel and Aldgate areas of London between groups of Bessarabians and refugees from Odessa , and various revolutionary factions were active in the area . One event , the Tottenham Outrage of January 1909 , by two revolutionary Russians in London — Paul Helfeld and Jacob Lepidus — was an attempt to rob a payroll van , which left two dead and twenty injured . The event used a tactic often employed by revolutionary groups in Russia : the expropriation or theft of private property to fund radical activities .
The influx of émigrés , and the rising rates of violent crime associated with it , led to popular concerns and comments in the press . The government passed the Aliens Act 1905 in an attempt to reduce immigration . The popular press reflected the opinions of many at the time ; a leading article in the Manchester Evening Chronicle supported the bill to bar " the dirty , destitute , diseased , verminous and criminal foreigner who dumps himself on our soil . " The journalist Robert Winder , in his examination of immigration into Britain , opines that the Act " gave official sanction to xenophobic reflexes which might ... have remained dormant " .
= = = Latvian émigré gang = = =
By 1910 Russian émigrés met regularly at the Anarchist Club in Jubilee Street , Stepney . Many of its members were not anarchists , and the club became a meeting and social venue for the Russian émigré diaspora , most of whom were Jewish . The small group of Latvians who became involved in the events at Houndsditch and Sidney Street were not anarchists — although anarchist literature was later found among their possessions . Members of the group were probably revolutionaries who had been radicalised by their experiences in Russia . All had extreme left @-@ wing political views and believed the expropriation of private property was a valid practice .
The probable leader of the group was George Gardstein , whose real name was likely to have been Poloski or Poolka , although he used the aliases Garstin , Poloski , Poolka , Morountzeff , Mourimitz , Maurivitz , Milowitz , Morintz , Morin and Levi . Gardstein , who probably was an anarchist , had been accused of murder and acts of terrorism in Warsaw in 1905 before his arrival in London . Another member of the group , Jacob ( or Yakov ) Peters , had been an agitator in Russia while in the army and later as a dockyard worker . He had served a term in prison for his activities and had been tortured by the removal of his fingernails . Yourka Dubof was another Russian agitator who had fled to England after being flogged by Cossacks . Fritz Svaars was a Latvian who had been arrested by the Russian authorities three times for terrorist offences , but escaped each time . He had travelled through the United States , where he undertook a series of robberies , before arriving in London in June 1910 .
Another member was " Peter the Painter " , a nickname for an unknown figure , possibly named Peter Piaktow ( or Piatkov , Pjatkov or Piaktoff ) , or Janis Zhaklis . Bernard Porter , in a brief sketch in the Dictionary of National Biography , writes that no firm details are known of the anarchist 's background and that " None of the ... biographical ' facts ' about him ... is altogether reliable . " William ( or Joseph ) Sokoloff ( or Sokolow ) was a Latvian who had been arrested in Riga in 1905 for murder and robbery before travelling to London . Another of the group 's members was Karl Hoffman — whose real name was Alfred Dzircol — who had been involved in revolutionary and criminal activities for several years , including gun @-@ running . In London he had practiced as a decorator . John Rosen — real name John Zelin or Tzelin — came to London in 1909 from Riga and worked as a barber , while another member of the gang was Max Smoller , also known as Joe Levi and " Josepf the Jew " . He was wanted in his native Crimea for several jewel robberies .
= = = Policing in the capital = = =
Following the Metropolitan Police Act 1829 and the City of London Police Act 1839 , the capital was policed by two forces , the Metropolitan Police , who held sway over most of the capital , and the City of London Police , who were responsible for law enforcement within the historic City boundaries . The events in Houndsditch in December 1910 fell into the purview of the City of London service , and the subsequent actions at Sidney Street in January 1911 were in the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan force . Both services came under the political control of the Home Secretary , who in 1911 was the 36 @-@ year @-@ old rising politician Winston Churchill .
While on the beat , or in the course of their normal duties , the officers of both the City of London and Metropolitan forces were provided with only with a short wooden truncheon for protection . When they faced armed opponents — as was the case in Sidney Street — the police were issued with Webley and Bull Dog revolvers , shotguns and small @-@ bore rifles fitted with .22 Morris @-@ tube barrels , the last of which were more commonly used on small indoor shooting galleries .
= = Houndsditch murders , December 1910 = =
At the beginning of December 1910 Smoller , using the name Joe Levi , visited Exchange Buildings , a small cul @-@ de @-@ sac that backed onto the properties of Houndsditch . He rented No. 11 Exchange Buildings ; a week later Svaars rented number 9 for a month , saying he needed it for storage . The gang were unable to rent number 10 , which was directly behind their target , 119 Houndsditch , the jeweller 's shop owned by Mr H S Harris . The safe in the jeweller 's was reputed to contain between £ 20 @,@ 000 and £ 30 @,@ 000 worth of jewellery , although Harris 's son later stated the total was only around £ 7 @,@ 000 . Over the next two weeks the gang brought in various pieces of necessary equipment , including a 60 foot ( 18 @.@ 25 m ) length of India rubber gas hose , a cylinder of compressed gas and a selection of tools , including diamond @-@ tipped drills .
With the exception of Gardstein , the identities of the gang members present in Houndsditch on the night of 16 December 1910 have never been confirmed . Bernard Porter , writing in the Dictionary of National Biography , considers that Sokoloff and Peters were present and , in all likelihood , were two of those that shot the policemen who interrupted their burglary . Porter opines that Peter the Painter was probably not at the property that night , while the journalist J P Eddy suggests that Svaars was among those present . Donald Rumbelow , a former policeman who wrote a history of the events , considers that those present consisted of Gardstein , Smoller , Peters and Dubof , with a second group in case the work needed to continue into the following day , which included among their number Sokolow and Svaars . Rumbelow considers a third group on standby , staying at Hoffman 's lodgings , to have comprised Hoffman , Rosen and Osip Federoff , an unemployed locksmith . Rumbelow also considers that present at the events — either as lookouts or in unknown capacities — were Peter the Painter and Nina Vassilleva .
On 16 December , working from the small yard behind 11 Exchange Buildings , the gang began to break through the back wall of the shop ; number 10 had been unoccupied since 12 December . At around 10 : 00 that evening , returning to his home at 120 Houndsditch , Max Weil heard curious noises coming from his neighbour 's property . Outside his house Weil found Police Constable Piper on his beat and informed him of the noises . Piper checked at 118 and 121 Houndsditch , where he could hear the noise , which he thought was unusual enough to investigate further . At 11 : 00 he knocked at the door of 11 Exchange Buildings — the only property with a light on in the back . The door was opened in a furtive manner and Piper became suspicious immediately . So as not to rouse the man 's concerns , Piper asked him " is the missus in ? " The man answered in broken English that she was out , and the policeman said he would return later .
Piper reported that as he was leaving Exchange Buildings to return to Houndsditch he saw a man acting suspiciously in the shadows of the cul @-@ de @-@ sac . As the policeman approached him , the man walked away ; Piper later described him as being approximately 5 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) , pale and fair @-@ haired . When Piper reached Houndsditch he saw two policemen from the adjoining beats — constables Woodhams and Choate — who watched 120 Houndsditch and 11 Exchange Buildings while Piper went to the nearby Bishopsgate Police Station to report . By 11 : 30 seven uniformed and two plain clothes policemen had gathered in the locality , each armed with his wooden truncheon . Sergeant Bentley from Bishopsgate police station knocked at number 11 , unaware that Piper had already done so , which alerted the gang . The door was answered by Gardstein , who made no response when Bentley asked if anyone was working there . Bentley asked him to fetch someone who spoke English ; Gardstein left the door half @-@ closed and disappeared inside . Bentley entered the hall with Sergeant Bryant and Constable Woodhams ; as they could see the bottom of his trouser legs , they soon realised that someone was watching them from the stairs . The police asked the man if they could step into the back of the property , and he agreed . As Bentley moved forward , the back door opened and one of the gang exited , firing from a pistol as he did so ; the man on the stairs also began firing . Bentley was shot in the shoulder and the neck — the second round severing his spine . Bryant was shot in the arm and chest and Woodhams was wounded in the leg , which broke his femur ; both collapsed . Although they survived , neither Bryant or Woodhams fully recovered from their injuries .
As the gang exited the property and made to escape up the cul @-@ de @-@ sac , other police intervened . Sergeant Charles Tucker from Bishopsgate police station was hit twice , once in the hip and once in the heart by Peters : he died instantly . Choate grabbed Gardstein and wrestled for his gun , but the Russian managed to shoot him in the leg . Other members of the gang ran to Gardstein 's assistance , shooting Choate twelve times in the process , but Gardstein was also wounded ; as the policeman collapsed , Gardstein was carried away by his accomplices , who included Peters . As these men , aided by an unknown woman , made their escape with Gardstein they were accosted by Isaac Levy , a passer @-@ by , whom they threatened at pistol @-@ point . He was the only witness to the escape who was able to provide firm details ; other witnesses confirmed they saw a group of three men and a woman , and thought one of the men was drunk as he was being helped by his friends . The group , which included Peters , went to Svaars ' and Peter the Painter 's lodgings at 59 Grove Street ( now Goldring Street ) , off Commercial Road , where Gardstein was tended by two of the gang 's associates , Luba Milstein ( Svaars ' mistress ) and Sara Trassjonsky . As they left Gardstein on the bed , Peters left his Dreyse pistol under the mattress , either to make it seem the wounded man was the one who had killed Tucker , or to enable him to defend himself against a possible arrest .
Other policemen arrived in Houndsditch , and began to attend to the wounded . Tucker 's body was put into a taxi and he was taken to the London Hospital ( now the Royal London Hospital ) in Whitechapel Road . Choate was also taken there , where he was operated on , but he died at 5 : 30 am on 17 December . Bentley was taken to St Bartholomew 's Hospital . He was half @-@ conscious on arrival , but recovered enough to be able to have a conversation with his pregnant wife and answer questions about the events . At 6 : 45 pm on 17 December his condition worsened , and he died at 7 : 30 . The killings of Tucker , Bentley and Choate remain one of the largest multiple murders of police officers carried out in Britain in peacetime .
= = Investigation , 17 December 1910 – 2 January 1911 = =
The City of London police informed the Metropolitan force , as their protocol demanded , and both services issued revolvers to the detectives involved in the search . The subsequent investigation was challenging for the police because of the cultural differences between the British police and the largely foreign residents of the area covered by the search . There was a lack of foreign language skills in the police , who did not have any Russian , Latvian or Yiddish speakers on the force .
In the early hours of the morning of 17 December Milstein and Trassjonsky became increasingly concerned as Gardstein 's condition worsened , and they sent for a local doctor , explaining that their patient had been wounded accidentally by a friend . The doctor thought the bullet was still in the chest — it was later found to be touching the right ventricle of the heart . The doctor wanted to take Gardstein to the London Hospital , but he refused ; with no other course open to him , the doctor sold them pain medication and left . The Russian was dead by 9 : 00am that morning . The doctor returned at 11 : 00 am and found the body . He had not heard of the events at Exchange Buildings the night before , and so reported the death to the coroner , not the police . At mid @-@ day the coroner reported the death to the local police who , led by Divisional Detective Inspector Frederick Wensley , went to Grove Street and discovered the corpse . Trassjonsky was in the next room when they entered , and she was soon found by the police , hastily burning papers ; she was arrested and taken to the police headquarters at Old Jewry . Many of the papers recovered linked the suspects to the East End , particularly to the anarchist groups active in the area . Wensley , who had extensive knowledge of the Whitechapel area , subsequently acted as a liaison officer to the City of London force throughout the investigation .
Gardstein 's body was removed to a local mortuary where his face was cleaned , his hair brushed , his eyes opened and his photograph taken . The picture , and descriptions of those who had helped Gardstein escape from Exchange Buildings , were distributed on posters in English and Russian , asking locals for information . About 90 detectives vigorously searched the East End , spreading details of those they were looking for . A local landlord , Isaac Gordon , reported one of his lodgers , Nina Vassilleva , after she had told him she had been one of the people living at Exchange Buildings . Wensley questioned the woman , finding anarchist publications in her rooms , along with a photograph of Gardstein . Information began to come in from the public and the group 's associates : on 18 December Federoff was arrested at home , and on 22 December Dubof and Peters were both captured .
On 22 December a public memorial service took place for Tucker , Bentley and Choate at St Paul 's Cathedral . King George V was represented by Edward Wallington , his Groom in Waiting ; also present were Churchill and the Lord Mayor of London . The crime had shocked Londoners and the service showed evidence of their feelings . An estimated ten thousand people waited in St Paul 's environs , and many local businesses closed as a mark of respect ; the nearby London Stock Exchange ceased trading for half an hour to allow traders and staff to watch the procession along Threadneedle Street . After the service , when the coffins were being transported on an eight @-@ mile ( 13 km ) journey to the cemeteries , it was estimated that 750 @,@ 000 people lined the route , many throwing flowers onto the hearses as they passed .
Identity parades were held at Bishopsgate police station on 23 December . Isaac Levy , who had seen the group leaving Exchange Buildings , identified Peters and Dubof as the two he had seen carrying Gardstein . It was also ascertained that Federoff had been witnessed at the events . The following day Federoff , Peters and Dubof all appeared at the Guildhall police court where they were charged with being connected to the murder of the three policemen , and with conspiracy to burgle the jewellery shop . All three pleaded not guilty .
On 27 December the poster bearing Gardstein 's picture was seen by his landlord , who alerted police . Wensley and his colleagues visited the lodgings on Gold Street , Stepney and found knives , a gun , ammunition , false passports and revolutionary publications . Two days later there was another hearing at the Guildhall police court . In addition to Federoff , Peters and Dubof , present in the dock were Milstein and Trassjonsky . With some of the defendants having a low standard of English , interpreters were used throughout the proceedings . At the end of the day the case was adjourned until 6 January 1911 .
On New Year 's Day 1911 the body of Léon Beron , a Russian Jewish immigrant , was found on Clapham Common in South London . He had been badly beaten and two S @-@ shaped cuts , both two inches long , were on his cheeks . The case became connected in the press with the Houndsditch murders and the subsequent events at Sidney Street , although the evidence at the time for the link was scant . The historian F G Clarke , in his history of the events , located information from another Latvian who stated that Beron had been killed not because he was one of the informers who had passed on information , but because he was planning to pass the information on , and the act was a pre @-@ emptive one , designed to scare the locals into not informing on the anarchists .
The posters of Gardstein proved effective , and late on New Year 's Day a member of the public came forward to provide information about Svaars and Sokoloff . The informant told police that the men were hiding at 100 Sidney Street , along with a lodger , Betty Gershon , who was Sokoloff 's mistress . The informant was persuaded to visit the property the following day to confirm the two men were still present . A meeting took place on the afternoon of 2 January to decide the next steps . Wensley , high @-@ ranking members of the Metropolitan force and Sir William Nott @-@ Bower , the Commissioner of the City Police , were present .
= = Events of 3 January = =
Just after midnight on 3 January , 200 police officers from the City of London and Metropolitan forces cordoned off the area around 100 Sidney Street . Armed officers were placed at number 111 , directly opposite number 100 , and throughout the night the residents of the houses on the block were roused and evacuated . Wensley woke the ground floor tenants at number 100 and asked them to fetch Gershon , claiming that she was needed by her sick husband . When Gershon appeared she was grabbed by the police and taken to the City of London police headquarters ; the ground floor lodgers also evacuated . Number 100 was now empty of all residents , apart from Svaars and Sokoloff , neither of whom seemed to be aware of the evacuation .
The police 's operating procedure — and the law which governed their actions — meant they were unable to open fire without being fired upon first . This , along with the structure of the building , with a narrow , winding stairwell up which police would have to pass , meant any approach to the gang members was too perilous to attempt . It was decided to wait until dawn before taking any action . At about 7 : 30 am a policeman knocked on the door of number 100 , which elicited no response ; stones were then thrown at the window to wake the men . Svaars and Sokoloff appeared at the window and opened fire at the police . A police sergeant was wounded in the chest : he was evacuated under fire across the rooftops , and taken to the London Hospital . Some members of the police returned fire , but their guns were only effective over shorter ranges , and proved ineffective against the comparatively advanced automatic weapons of Svaars and Sokoloff .
By 9 : 00 am it was apparent that the two gunmen possessed superior weapons and ample ammunition . The police officers in charge on the scene , Superintendent Mulvaney and Chief Superintendent Stark , contacted Assistant Commissioner Major Frederick Wodehouse at Scotland Yard . He telephoned the Home Office and obtained permission from Churchill to bring in a detachment of Scots Guards , who were stationed at the Tower of London . It was the first time that the police had requested military assistance in London to deal with an armed siege . Twenty @-@ one volunteer marksmen from the Guards arrived at about 10 : 00 am and took firing positions at each end of the street and in the houses opposite . The shooting continued without either side gaining any advantage .
Churchill arrived on the scene at 11 : 50 am to observe the incident at first hand ; he later reported that he thought the crowd were unwelcoming to him , as he heard people asking " Oo let ' em in ? " , in reference to the Liberal Party 's immigration policy that had allowed the influx from Russia . Churchill 's role during the siege is unclear . His biographers , Paul Addison and Roy Jenkins , both consider that he gave no operational commands to the police , although a Metropolitan police history of the event states that the events of Sidney Street were " a very rare case of a Home Secretary taking police operational command decisions " . In a subsequent letter to The Times , Churchill clarified his role while he was present :
I did not interfere in any way with the dispositions made by the police authorities on the spot . I never overruled those authorities nor overrode them . From beginning to end the police had an absolutely free hand . ... I did not send for the Artillery or the Engineers . I was not consulted as to whether they should be sent for .
Shooting between the two sides reached a peak between 12 : 00 and 12 : 30 pm , but at 12 : 50 smoke was seen coming from the building 's chimneys and from the second floor windows ; it has not been established how the fire was started , whether by accident or design . The fire slowly spread , and by 1 : 30 it had taken a firm hold and had spread to the other floors . A second detachment of Scots Guards arrived , bringing with them a Maxim machine gun , which was never used . Shortly afterwards Sokoloff put his head out of the window ; he was shot by one of the soldiers and he fell back inside . The senior officer of the London Fire Brigade present on the scene sought permission to extinguish the blaze , but was refused . He approached Churchill in order to have the decision overturned , but the Home Secretary approved the police decision . Churchill later wrote :
I now intervened to settle this dispute , at one moment quite heated . I told the fire brigade officer on my authority as Home Secretary that the house was to be allowed to burn down and that he was to stand by in readiness to prevent the conflagration from spreading .
By 2 : 30 pm the shooting from the house had ceased . One of the detectives present walked close to the wall and pushed the door open , before retreating . Others police officers , and some of the soldiers , came out and waited for the men to exit . None did , and as part of the roof collapsed , it was clear to onlookers that the men were both dead ; the fire brigade was allowed to start extinguishing the fire . At 2 : 40 Churchill left the scene , at about the time the Royal Horse Artillery arrived with two 13 @-@ pounder field artillery pieces . When the firemen entered the property to douse the flames , they soon located Sokoloff 's body , which was extracted . A wall collapsed on a group of five firemen , who were all taken to the London Hospital . One of the men , Superintendent Charles Pearson , had a fractured spine ; he died six months after the siege as a result of his injuries . After shoring up the building , the firemen resumed their search of the premises . At around 6 : 30 pm the second body — that of Svaars — was found ; it was taken to the mortuary .
= = Aftermath = =
The siege was captured by Pathé News cameras — one of their earliest stories and the first siege to be captured on film — and it included footage of Churchill in attendance . When the newsreels were screened in cinemas , Churchill was booed with shouts of " shoot him " from audiences . His presence was controversial to many and the Leader of the Opposition , Arthur Balfour , remarked , " He [ Churchill ] was , I understand , in military phrase , in what is known as the zone of fire — he and a photographer were both risking valuable lives . I understand what the photographer was doing , but what was the right hon . Gentleman doing ? That I neither understood at the time , nor do I understand now . " Jenkins suggests that he went simply because " he could not resist going to see the fun himself " .
An inquest was held in January into the deaths at Houndsditch and Sidney Street . The jury took fifteen minutes to reach the conclusion that the two bodies located were those of Svaars and Sokoloff , and that Tucker , Bentley and Choate had been murdered by Gardstein and others in the course of the burglary attempt . Rosen was arrested on 2 February at work in Well Street , Hackney , and Hoffman was taken into custody on 15 February . The committal proceedings spread from December 1910 — with Milstein and Trassjonsky appearing — to March 1911 , and included Hoffman from 15 February . The proceedings consisted of 24 individual hearings . In February Milstein was discharged on the basis there was insufficient evidence against her ; Hoffman , Trassjonsky and Federoff were released in March on the same basis . The case against the four remaining arrested gang members was heard at the Old Bailey by Mr Justice Grantham in May . Dubof and Peters were accused with Tucker 's murder , Dubof , Peters , Rosen and Vassilleva were charged with " feloniously harbouring a felon guilty of murder " , and for " conspiring and agreeing together and with others unknown to break and enter the shop of Henry Samuel Harris with intent to steal his goods . " The case lasted for eleven days ; there were problems with the proceedings because of the language difficulties and the chaotic personal lives of the accused . The case resulted in acquittals for all except Vassilleva , who was convicted of conspiracy in the burglary . She was sentenced to two years ' imprisonment , although her conviction was later overturned on appeal .
After the high levels of criticism aimed at the Aliens Act , Churchill decided to strengthen the legislation , and proposed the Aliens ( Prevention of Crime ) Bill under the Ten Minute Rule . The MP Josiah C Wedgwood objected , and wrote to Churchill to ask him not to introduce the hard @-@ line measures " You know as well as I do that human life does not matter a rap in comparison with the death of ideas and the betrayal of English traditions . " The bill did not become law .
= = Legacy = =
The inadequacy of the police 's firepower led to criticism in the press , and on 12 January 1911 several alternative weapons were tested . The trials resulted in the decision by the Metropolitan Police to replace the Webley revolver with the Webley & Scott .32 calibre MP semi @-@ automatic pistol later that year ; the City of London Police followed suit with the same choice in 1912 .
The members of the group dispersed after the events . Peter the Painter was never seen or heard from again . It was assumed he left the country , and there were several possible sightings in the years afterwards , although none were confirmed . Jacob Peters returned to Russia , rose to be deputy head of the Cheka , the Soviet secret police , and was executed in Joseph Stalin 's 1938 purge . Trassjonsky had a mental breakdown and was confined for a time at Colney Hatch Lunatic Asylum . Her eventual fate and date of death are not known . Dubof , Federoff and Hoffmann disappeared from the records , although Vassilleva remained living in the East End for the remainder of her life and died at Brick Lane in 1963 . Smoller left the country in 1911 and travelled to Paris , after which he disappeared ; Milstein later emigrated to live in the United States .
The siege was the inspiration for the final scene in Alfred Hitchcock 's original 1934 version of The Man Who Knew Too Much , while the whole story was heavily fictionalised in the 1960 film The Siege of Sidney Street . The siege has also been the fictional inspiration for two novels , The Siege of Sidney Street ( 1960 ) by F Oughton and A Death Out of Season ( 1973 ) by Emanuel Litvinoff .
In September 2008 Tower Hamlets London Borough Council named two tower blocks in Sidney Street , Peter House and Painter House , even though Peter the Painter was only involved in a minor capacity in the events , and was not present at the siege . The name plaques on the buildings call Peter the Painter an " anti @-@ hero " . The decision angered the Metropolitan Police Federation , although a council spokesman said that " There is no evidence that Peter the Painter killed the three policemen , so we knew we were not naming the block after a murderer . ... but he is the name that East Enders associate with the siege and Sidney Street . " In December 2010 , on the centenary of the events at Houndsditch , a memorial plaque for the three murdered policemen was unveiled near the location . Three weeks later , on the anniversary of the siege , a plaque was unveiled in honour of Pearson , the fireman who died as the building collapsed on him .
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= Delaware Route 41 =
Delaware Route 41 ( DE 41 ) is a highway in northwestern New Castle County , Delaware . Its southern terminus is at DE 2 and DE 62 in Prices Corner . From DE 2 , the road passes through suburban areas along Newport Gap Pike , intersecting DE 34 in Brandywine Springs and DE 48 in Hockessin . Its northern terminus is the Pennsylvania state line just north of Hockessin , and it continues on as Pennsylvania Route 41 ( PA 41 ) to Gap .
DE 41 was originally chartered as the Gap and Newport Turnpike in the 19th century . In the 1920s and 1930s , this road was upgraded to a state highway . DE 41 was designated by 1936 to run from U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 , now DE 9 / DE 273 ) in New Castle north to the Pennsylvania border in Hockessin . In the 1950s , DE 141 became concurrent with the route from New Castle to north of Newport . DE 41 was removed from the DE 141 concurrency in the 1970s and was realigned to follow DE 2 east to an interchange with DE 141 in the 1980s , with the old alignment south of DE 2 becoming DE 62 . In 2015 , the southern terminus was cut back to its current location , removing the concurrency with DE 2 .
= = Route description = =
DE 41 begins at an intersection with DE 2 in Prices Corner , heading northwest along Newport Gap Pike . South of DE 2 , Newport Gap Pike continues southeast as DE 62 . DE 41 is a two @-@ lane divided highway before it crosses the Wilmington and Western Railroad and the Red Clay Creek . The route becomes an undivided road and continues through a mix of residential neighborhoods and woodland . The road comes to an intersection with DE 34 ( Faulkland Road ) in Brandywine Springs . Past this junction , DE 41 continues northwest , with stretches alternating between divided and undivided highway , towards Hockessin .
In Hockessin , DE 41 meets the western terminus of DE 48 ( Lancaster Pike ) , onto which it merges . The Lancaster Pike alternates between a divided highway and a two @-@ lane undivided road . DE 41 turns to the west @-@ northwest and passes to the northeast of the Sanford School befoee it enters business areas and becomes a three @-@ lane divided highway with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes . The median turns into a center left @-@ turn lane as the road runs past more development and crosses the Wilmington and Western Railroad again . The southbound direction narrows to one lane at the Yorklyn Road intersection . The road briefly becomes a divided highway at the Valley Road junction . After leaving the center of Hockessin , the route becomes a three @-@ lane undivided road , with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane . The road passes homes , eventually narrowing back to two lanes . DE 41 reaches the Pennsylvania border , where Gap Newport Pike continues northwest as PA 41 .
DE 41 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 20 @,@ 665 vehicles at the Yorklyn Road intersection to a low of 12 @,@ 611 vehicles at the McKennans Church Road intersection . The entire length of DE 41 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 41 was originally chartered as the Gap and Newport Turnpike on January 30 , 1808 , an extension of the 1807 @-@ chartered turnpike in Pennsylvania that was to run from Gap , Pennsylvania southeast to Newport , Delaware . By 1920 , this road was maintained by the county . The road north of Lancaster Pike was proposed as a state highway four years later . A year later , a state highway was completed on what would become DE 41 between New Castle and Prices Corner . Plans were underway in 1927 to replace the outdated swing bridge over the Christina River in Newport . Contracts for this project were awarded the following year . The replacement bridge over the Christina River , a bascule bridge , opened on December 1 , 1929 . In 1927 , plans were made to replace the grade crossing at the Pennsylvania Railroad line ( now Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor ) in Newport with an underpass under the tracks . Work on this underpass began in 1929 . The crossing under the Pennsylvania Railroad was finished and opened to traffic in June 1930 . In 1929 , the Gap Road was upgraded to a state highway .
DE 41 was designated to run from US 40 ( now DE 9 / DE 273 ) in New Castle north to PA 41 at the Pennsylvania border in Hockessin by 1936 . It followed Basin Road north to Newport , James Street through Newport , and the Newport Gap Pike north of there . By 1952 , DE 141 was designated to run concurrent with DE 41 from New Castle to north of Newport . In 1954 , plans were made to replace the intersection with US 13 / US 40 in Basin Corner with a modified cloverleaf interchange in an effort to reduce traffic congestion . Construction on the interchange began in September of that year . The interchange between US 13 / US 40 and DE 41 / DE 141 was completed in 1956 .
In April 1954 , work began to improve DE 41 between the DE 48 intersection and the Pennsylvania border . These improvements constructed a bypass of Hockessin and added truck lanes on steep grades . This project was scheduled for completion in July 1955 . The new northbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 through the I @-@ 95 interchange opened in November 1962 , at which point construction on the southbound lanes began . The southbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 opened in June 1964 , enabling directional flow of DE 41 / DE 141 through the interchange .
The southern terminus of DE 41 was truncated to DE 141 north of Newport by 1971 , eliminating the concurrency with that route . By 1981 , DE 41 was realigned to follow DE 2 to end at an interchange with DE 141 , with DE 62 being designated along the former DE 41 south of DE 2 . In 2015 , the Delaware Department of Transportation proposed cutting back the southern terminus of DE 41 from the interchange with DE 141 to the intersection with DE 2 and Newport Gap Pike , eliminating the concurrency with DE 2 . This change was made in order to reduce sign clutter and also reduce truck traffic along the southern portion of DE 41 . A public workshop on the proposal was held and changes were made in summer 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= In Marge We Trust =
" In Marge We Trust " is the twenty @-@ second episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 27 , 1997 . It was written by Donick Cary and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The episode guest stars Sab Shimono as Mr. Sparkle , Gedde Watanabe as the factory worker , Denice Kumagai and Karen Maruyama as dancers , and Frank Welker as the baboons . In the episode , Marge replaces Reverend Lovejoy as the town 's moral adviser while Homer explores the mystery of why his face appears on a Japanese @-@ language detergent box .
= = Plot = =
Reverend Lovejoy 's sermon on " constancy " almost sends the entire congregation to sleep . After church Homer takes Bart and Lisa to the Springfield dump to dispose of their old Christmas tree , where they find a box of Japanese dishwasher detergent known as Mr. Sparkle . The face of the character on the box of the detergent strongly resembles Homer . Meanwhile , Marge becomes concerned with Lovejoy 's lack of enthusiasm about helping people . He explains to Marge that he was enthusiastic about the ministry and helping his fellow man when he first arrived in Springfield . However , his passion for helping people gradually degraded as he dealt with Ned Flanders and his constant complaints over trivial and common issues . Marge begins working for the Church as " The Listen Lady " , listening to people 's problems and helping solve them . Reverend Lovejoy soon realizes his inadequacy and begins to feel depressed . While he is alone in the church the stained glass images of saints appear and chastise him for doing little to inspire his congregation .
Homer , disturbed by the box of Mr. Sparkle , contacts the manufacturer in Hokkaidō , Japan for information . He is sent a promotional video for Mr. Sparkle , which consists of a TV commercial . At the end of the video , the mascot is shown to be a result of a joint venture between two large Japanese conglomerates , Matsumura Fishworks and Tamaribuchi Heavy Manufacturing Concern . Their mascots , a smiling anime fish and light bulb , merge to form Mr. Sparkle . Thus , Homer discovers the similarity was a mere coincidence .
Ned Flanders calls Marge for help . Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney are hanging around outside the Leftorium , making Ned worried that they will start causing trouble . Marge suggests that he shoo them away . The trio are about to leave , but when he goes and asks them to , they decide to harass him instead . Ned calls Marge again , whilst he is standing on a chair with the three boys circling him on their minibikes , so she suggests that he " lay down the law " , and when one of the boys snips the phone cord , Marge assumes that Ned has hung up and that everything is fine .
The next morning , Maude informs Marge that Ned is missing , having been chased around by the boys throughout the night . Marge realizes that she may be partially responsible for his disappearance . Marge goes to Reverend Lovejoy for help , and the two of them track Ned to the zoo , where Japanese tourists think Homer is Mr. Sparkle . Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney have abandoned their pursuit , but now Ned is trapped in the baboon exhibit . While the Simpson family looks on , Reverend Lovejoy rescues Ned in the baboons ' food cart . Now that he feels useful again , Reverend Lovejoy rediscovers his passion for his job , regaling his congregation with the tale of Ned 's rescue .
= = Production = =
By season 8 , the show had begun to explore episodes revolving around secondary characters . Reverend Lovejoy was selected for this episode because , aside from being noted as " the priest who didn 't care " , he had not had much character development . This was the first episode that Donick Cary wrote for The Simpsons . He was disappointed that his first story was about " Marge 's crisis with faith . " The trip to the dump was inspired by Donick Cary 's youth , in which he would often go " dump picking " . This led to the writers deciding to have Homer 's face on a discarded box , which became the Mr. Sparkle subplot . To help create the advertisement , the writers watched videos of many Japanese commercials . An original scene from Lovejoy 's flashback showed that Jasper Beardley preceded him as minister of the First Church of Springfield . The solution for how Mr. Sparkle resembles Homer was written by George Meyer , after hours of time had been spent trying to come up with a realistic ending . Matsumura Fishworks was named after Ichiro Matsumura , a friend of David X. Cohen .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " In Marge We Trust " finished 25th in ratings for the week of April 21 – 27 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 8 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said : " A rare case of both storylines being worthy of full episodes in their own right , this is a cracking episode which highlights the unduly neglected Rev. Lovejoy and makes you realize Homer isn 't the only one ready to kill Ned Flanders ! Great stuff . " In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article , Matt Groening ranked it as his fifth favorite in the history of the show . Josh Weinstein described it as one of the best of the season , as well as being one of the most underrated episodes of all time . He also described the Mr. Sparkle commercial as his all @-@ time favorite sequence . The fake Fruity Oaty Bar commercial from the film Serenity was partially inspired by the Mr. Sparkle advertisement . Since 2009 , the show 's new opening sequence includes Mr. Sparkle detergent with Marge 's supermarket purchases .
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= George Brett ( general ) =
George Howard Brett ( 7 February 1886 – 2 December 1963 ) was a United States Army Air Forces General during World War II . An Early Bird of Aviation , Brett served as a staff officer in World War I. In 1941 , following the outbreak of war with Japan , Brett was appointed Deputy Commander of a short @-@ lived major Allied command , the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDACOM ) , which oversaw Allied forces in South East Asia and the South West Pacific . In early 1942 , he was put in charge of United States Army Forces in Australia , until the arrival of Douglas MacArthur . Brett then commanded all Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area . In November 1942 , he was appointed commander of the US Caribbean Defense Command and remained in this post for the rest of the war .
= = Early life = =
George Howard Brett was born in Cleveland , Ohio on 7 February 1886 , the second of five children of William Howard Brett , a notable librarian , and his wife Alice née Allen . George 's older brother Morgan graduated with the United States Military Academy at West Point class of 1906 , and served for many years as an ordnance officer , retiring in 1932 as a colonel . The family was unable to secure a second West Point appointment , so George Brett graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1909 and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Philippine Scouts on 22 March 1910 . While in the Philippines he transferred to the US Cavalry on 10 August 1911 , joining the 2nd Cavalry .
Brett returned to the United States in May 1912 and was first stationed at Fort Bliss . In December 1913 , he moved to Fort Ethan Allen where he became friends with a fellow lieutenant of the 2nd Cavalry , Frank M. Andrews , who was engaged to the daughter of Brigadier General James Allen . While serving as one of Andrews ' groomsmen , Brett met Mary Devol , one of the bridesmaids , and the daughter of another Army officer , Major General Carroll A. Devol . Brett married Mary Devol in Denver on 1 March 1916 . Influenced by Allen and Andrews , Brett transferred to the Aviation Section , U.S. Signal Corps on 2 September 1916 . He attended aviation school and on graduation in 1916 was assigned to the office of the Chief Signal Officer in Washington , D.C. where he was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 July 1916 and captain on 15 May 1917 .
= = World War I = =
Brett departed for the Western Front in November 1917 but suffered a case of appendicitis , resulting in the loss of his flight status . After making a partial recovery , he served in France as senior materiel officer under Brigadier General Billy Mitchell , attaining the temporary rank of major on 7 June 1918 . After briefly returned to the United States to serve in Office of the Director of Military Aeronautics in Washington , D.C. from 1 August to 23 September 1918 , Brett went to England to command the United States Army Air Service Camp at Codford .
= = Between the wars = =
Brett was posted to Kelly Field , Texas , in December 1918 , where he commanded the Aviation General Supply Depot until February 1919 , when he became the maintenance and supply officer at the Air Service Flying School . He commanded the Air Service depot in Morrison , Virginia for a month in October 1919 before being assigned to the office of the Director of the Air Service in Washington , DC , where his rank of major became permanent in 1920 . That year he took command of Crissy Field . His first son , the future United States Air Force Lieutenant General Devol " Rock " Brett , was born at nearby Letterman Army Hospital at the Presidio of San Francisco in 1923 .
From 1924 to 1927 Brett was stationed at the intermediate depot at Fairfield , Ohio , where he was the officer in charge of the field service section . Starting in June 1927 he attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field , Virginia , after which he was selected for the two @-@ year Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . He commanded Selfridge Field , Michigan for time before returned to Fort Leavenworth as an Air Corps instructor from 1933 to 1935 . After 16 years as a major , he was finally promoted to lieutenant colonel and was selected to attend the Army War College . On graduation , he became commander of the 19th Wing , then stationed in the Panama Canal Zone , with the temporary rank of brigadier general . While he was stationed there , his eldest daughter Dora married his aide , the future general , Bernard A. Schriever .
On his return from Panama , Brett reverted to his permanent rank of lieutenant colonel . He was briefly stationed in Menlo Park , California , before moving to Langley , Virginia , where he became chief of staff to his old friend Frank Andrews , now the commander of GHQ Air Force . In February 1939 Brett moved to Wright Field as assistant to the chief of the United States Army Air Corps , also serving as commandant of the Air Corps Engineering School and the chief of the Materiel Division . Once again he held the rank of brigadier general before being promoted to major general on 1 October 1940 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Middle East = = =
When his immediate superior , Major General Henry H. " Hap " Arnold , was temporarily transferred to the Army General Staff in November 1939 , Brett acted as Chief of the Air Corps . In May 1941 , he formally became Chief of the Air Corps for a four @-@ year term , but the June 1941 reorganisation that made Arnold the Chief of United States Army Air Forces made the post of Chief of the Air Corps somewhat redundant . Brett was sent to the United Kingdom to determine how the Army Air Forces could better support Royal Air Force Lend @-@ Lease requirements . His recommendation that American labor and facilities be established in the United Kingdom to handle the repair , assembly , and equipping of American aircraft created a stir on both sides of the Atlantic , and was ultimately disapproved by Arnold on the grounds that the personnel and equipment were not available . Brett next paid a visit to the Middle East where his outspoken criticism of arrangements there antagonised his hosts to the extent that the British Ambassador to Egypt , Sir Miles Lampson , complained about him to the Foreign Secretary , Sir Anthony Eden . Air Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder noted that " the charms of General Brett ’ s company were beginning to pall . After a talk with him on the afternoon of 25 September I wondered in my journal how he and all the American visitors could lay down the law about things of which they knew next to nothing . " As a result , Brett was ordered to return to the United States in December .
= = = East Indies = = =
The outbreak of war between the United States and Japan in December 1941 changed things and Brett received new orders . He first flew to Rangoon and then , in the company of the Sir Archibald Wavell , the British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , India , on to Chungking where the two met with Generalissimo Chiang Kai @-@ shek . They obtained a promise of Chinese troops to assist in the defence of Burma . Near Rangoon , Wavell 's and Brett ’ s aircraft was attacked by Japanese aircraft and they were forced to make an emergency landing at a friendly aerodrome in Burma . The area was then bombed by the Japanese , but neither general was harmed . Brett was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander of the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDA ) , under Wavell , on 1 January 1942 , and was promoted to lieutenant general on 7 January 1942 . He arrived in Darwin on 28 December 1941 . In January he moved to Lembang in West Java , where Wavell established his headquarters . The rapid advance of Japanese forces through South East Asia had soon split the Allied @-@ controlled area in two . Brett departed Java for Australia on 23 February 1942 , reaching Melbourne the next day , where he resumed command of US Army Forces in Australia . ABDA was formally dissolved on 25 February .
= = = Australia = = =
Already , General Douglas MacArthur had also been ordered to Australia . Brett received warning from the Chief of Staff , General George Marshall that MacArthur would call on him to send a flight of long @-@ range bombers to Mindanao . The only aircraft that Brett could find were B @-@ 17s of the 19th Bombardment Group which had seen hard service in the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies campaigns . Brett approached Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary , the commander of naval forces in the Anzac Area , to ask for a loan of some of twelve newly arrived navy B @-@ 17s . Leary refused . Brett therefore sent four of the 19th Bombardment Group 's old planes . Only one , a B @-@ 17 with no brakes piloted by Lieutenant Harl Pease , made it to Mindanao ; two turned back with engine trouble , while a fourth ditched in the sea , its crew managing to escape . MacArthur was incensed and sent a message to Marshall . A message from Washington , D.C. persuaded Leary to release four new B @-@ 17s to Brett and these aircraft reached Mindanao on 16 March 1942 and managed to bring MacArthur and his party to Australia . Despite the lack of brakes , Pease also made it back , carrying sixteen refugees .
It fell to Brett to telephone Prime Minister John Curtin and inform him of MacArthur 's arrival . Although Curtin was unaware of MacArthur 's impending arrival , and had expected that Brett would command American forces in Australia , he was persuaded to issue a recommendation that MacArthur be made Supreme Commander South West Pacific Area . While Brett considered that he was on " very friendly terms " with Curtin , Brett felt that Curtin was " more interested in keeping the party line on wages , hours and working conditions than in the threat posed by the Japanese . " General George Kenney later recalled that
I think he [ Brett ] made his initial mistake in sort of spurning this Labor government crowd and taking up with the conservative crowd , who had been ousted by the Labor Party and who were not going to get back into power . But Brett figured they were , so he accepted entertainment from them and entertained them in return and became quite close to them . They , in turn , kidded him along and told him they knew he was going to be the commanding general of all the Allied Forces in Australia ... Yes , and he believed it , which was too bad .
The April 1942 reorganisation that established the Southwest Pacific Area reduced the United States Army Forces in Australia to a supply and administrative organisation that would soon be renamed the Services of Supply . Brett instead became commander of Allied Air Forces , Southwest Pacific Area , with his headquarters in Melbourne . One of MacArthur 's first orders to Brett was for a bombing mission to the Philippines , an order which was delivered personally by MacArthur 's chief of staff , Major General Richard K. Sutherland . Brett protested that his planes were worn out , his men were tired , losses might be high , and the Philippines were lost anyway . Sutherland told him the MacArthur wanted the mission carried out . Brett delegated it to Brigadier General Ralph Royce , who led the mission in person . Brett awarded Royce the Distinguished Service Cross . Henceforth , communications with Sutherland would be handled by Brett 's chief of staff , Air Vice Marshal William Bostock . MacArthur personally wrote a reprimand to Brett . Further disagreements between MacArthur and Brett followed . On 6 July 1942 Marshall radioed MacArthur to offer him Major General George Kenney or Brigadier General Jimmy Doolittle as a replacement for Brett . MacArthur selected Kenney . Brett returned to the United States in his B @-@ 17 , " The Swoose " , on 4 August 1942 . The day before , General MacArthur awarded him the Silver Star " for gallantry in action in air reconnaissance in the combat zone , Southwest Pacific Area , during the months of May , June and July 1942 . "
= = = Panama = = =
After a time with no command , Brett was appointed commander of the US Caribbean Defense Command and the US Army 's Panama Canal Department in succession to Lieutenant General Frank M. Andrews in November 1942 . In 1945 , the Inspector General , Lieutenant General Daniel Isom Sultan , investigated a series of allegations against Brett regarding the misuse of Army funds and property . He reported to the General Marshall that most of the charges were distortions of mission @-@ related events and expenditures , that the remaining allegations had no basis in fact , and that no further action be taken . Brett requested voluntary retirement and retired on 30 April 1945 with the rank of major general , only to be immediately recalled to active duty the next day as a temporary lieutenant general and as Commanding General of the Caribbean Defense Command and Panama Canal Department . On 10 October 1945 , Brett handed over command to Lieutenant General Willis D. Crittenberger . For his service in Panama , Brett was awarded a second Distinguished Service Medal . The citation noted " his broad grasp of military strategy and superior knowledge of air and ground tactics " and that " he succeeded admirably in impressing the republics of Central and South America with the importance and necessity of hemispheric solidarity , imbued them with American ideals , coordinated their use of arms and equipment and indoctrinated them with American training methods — all of which fostered continued improvement in the relations between all America republics . " After spending time as a patient in Brooke General Hospital , he reverted to retired status on 10 May 1946 but was later advanced to the grade of lieutenant general on the United States Air Force retired list by an Act of Congress on 29 June 1948 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
The B @-@ 17D , " The Swoose " , which Brett used extensively for his personal transport during World War II , and which he often piloted , is today the oldest , intact , surviving B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress and the only " D " model still in existence . It was transferred from the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum to the National Museum of the United States Air Force on 15 July 2008 .
Brett served on several committees and Air Force boards , including Flying Pay Board , the Air Force Association Board , and the President 's Service Academy Board between 1949 and 1950 . When his son Rock Brett was deployed in the Korean War , George Brett took in his daughter @-@ in @-@ law and grandchildren and cared for them . Brett lived in Winter Park , Florida until his death at age 77 . He died of cancer on 2 December 1963 at the hospital at Orlando Air Force Base . Survived by his wife , children , and grandchildren , he was buried in Winter Park , Florida .
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= Pale crag martin =
The pale crag martin ( Ptyonoprogne obsoleta ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family that is resident in northern Africa and in southwestern Asia east to Pakistan . It breeds mainly in the mountains , but also at lower altitudes , especially in rocky areas and around towns . Unlike most swallows , it is often found far from water . It is 12 – 13 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) long , with mainly brown plumage , paler @-@ toned on the upper breast and underwing coverts , and with white " windows " on the spread tail in flight . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale fringes to the upperparts and flight feathers . It was formerly considered to be the northern subspecies of the rock martin of southern Africa , although it is smaller , paler , and whiter @-@ throated than that species . The pale crag martin hunts along cliff faces for flying insects using a slow flight with much gliding . Its call is a soft twitter .
This martin builds a deep bowl nest on a sheltered horizontal surface , or a neat quarter @-@ sphere against a vertical rock face or wall . The nest is constructed with mud pellets and lined with grass or feathers , and may be built on natural sites under cliff overhangs or on man @-@ made structures such as buildings and bridges . It is often reused for subsequent broods or in later years . This species is often a solitary breeder , but small groups may breed close together in suitable locations . The two or three eggs of a typical clutch are white with brown and grey blotches , and are incubated by both adults for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching . Both parents then feed the chicks . Fledging takes another 22 – 24 days , although the young birds will return to the nest to roost for a few days after the first flight .
The pale crag martin is caught in flight by several fast , agile falcon species , such as hobbies , and it sometimes carries parasites , but it faces no major threats . Because of its range of nearly 6 million km2 ( 2 @.@ 3 million sq mi ) and a large and apparently increasing population , it is not seen as vulnerable and is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The pale crag martin was first formally described in 1850 by German ornithologist Jean Cabanis as Cotyle obsoleta , using a specimen collected from near Cairo , Egypt . It was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne , created by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach , in the same year . The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific name obsoleta means " worn " in Latin .
The Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . These groups are the " core martins " , including burrowing species like the sand martin ; the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities ; and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct open mud nests and therefore belong to the last group . Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo , and is sometimes included within it since the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resemble those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow . However , a DNA analysis showed that if Hirundo is enlarged to contain the crag martins , it should include all the mud @-@ builder genera . Conversely , if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus , as is normally the case , Cecropis , Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off . The pale crag martin 's nearest relatives are the other members of the genus , the dusky crag martin P. concolor of southern Asia , the rock martin P. fuligula of Southern Africa , and the Eurasian crag martin P. rupestris .
The pale crag martin was formerly often treated as the small , pale northern subspecies of the rock martin , but it is now usually considered to be a separate species . The changes in size and colour are continuous , so the evidence for separate species is not strong , although some rock martins can weigh more than twice as much as the smallest subspecies of the pale crag martin . The average weight for P. o. fusciventris is 22 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 79 oz ) against 10 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) for P. o. obsoleta . There do not appear to be any intermediate forms where pale crag martins and rock martin populations breed close to each other in Somalia and Ethiopia .
In areas of Pakistan where its range overlaps with that of the dusky crag martin , the pale crag martin breeds at a higher altitude . Its range does not overlap there with the Eurasian crag martin , which is found high in the Himalayas , but where both occur in Iran , the pale crag martin favours more arid habitats . In North Africa , the Eurasian species is again found at a higher level . The separation by altitude and aridity means that it is not known whether the closely related Ptyonoprogne martins could hybridise . If they were shown to do so , it would cast doubts on their specific distinctness .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are several subspecies differing in plumage shade or size , although the differences are clinal , and races interbreed where their ranges meet .
= = Description = =
The pale crag martin of the nominate subspecies P. o. obsoleta is 12 – 13 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) long with light brown upperparts , becoming paler on the lower back , and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . It has a pale grey throat , upper breast and underwing coverts , and the rest of the underparts are a dirty white . The eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The wing length averages 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 4 @.@ 55 in ) and the tail averages 4 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers . The other subspecies differ from the nominate form as detailed in the table above .
This martin moults early , with adults having completely replaced their feathers by late August . Juveniles moult somewhat later , and their old primary feathers are retained even when the body has mainly adult plumage .
The pale crag martin 's flight is slow , with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides , and it is more acrobatic than the larger Eurasian crag martin . It is a quiet bird ; the song is a muffled twitter , and other calls include a trrt resembling the call of the common house martin , a nasal vick , and a high pitched twee contact call .
The pale crag martin is much drabber than most African swallows , and confusion is unlikely except with other crag martins or with sand martins of the genus Riparia . It is 15 % smaller , paler and greyer than the Eurasian crag martin , and has smaller tail spots . It is smaller , paler , and has a more contrasting throat than the rock martin . In the far east of its range , the pale crag martin always has lighter underparts than the dusky crag martin . Although only slightly larger than the sand martin and brown @-@ throated sand martin , the pale crag martin is more robust , has white tail spots , and lacks a breast band . Separation of similar species in flight may be complicated by the difficulty of judging colours accurately in strong desert light , particularly with juveniles . The fast flight of the brown @-@ throated sand martin also makes identification more difficult .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The pale crag martin breeds in suitable habitats throughout northern Africa and through the Middle East as far as Afghanistan and Pakistan . It is largely resident apart from local movements or a descent to lower altitudes after breeding . In addition , there is some short @-@ range movement , including martins from southern Arabia crossing the Red Sea and wintering alongside the local breeding birds in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa , and non @-@ breeding P. f. spatzi and P. f. presaharica joining rock martins in Mali and Mauritania . In Pakistan , the breeding range of the subspecies P. f. peloplasta overlaps with that of the dusky crag martin , although that species breeds at much lower levels , and in North Africa P. f. obsoleta occupies desert habitats whilst the Eurasian crag martin is found in the mountains . The pale crag martin has been recorded as a vagrant in Bahrain , Qatar , Kuwait , and Sri Lanka , although its occurrence in the last country is treated as unproven in a 2011 field guide . The martin has been claimed to visit Turkey , but this is also disputed .
The natural breeding habitat is hilly or mountainous country with cliffs , gorges and caves up to 3 @,@ 700 m ( 12 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level , but this martin also breeds in lowlands , especially if rocks or buildings are available , and may be found far from water . This species readily uses man @-@ made structures as a substitute for natural precipices , and has bred on houses in southern Israel since the 1970s . In Egypt it may breed near monuments like Abu Simbel or in desert towns such as Aswan . It uses towns , bridges and cliffs in Ethiopia , and tower blocks in Arabia . In the breeding season , the martin needs mud or wet soil to construct its nests , and this is normally readily found near human habitations . This species appears to be scarce in some forested and coastal areas with high humidity , in which the red @-@ rumped swallow tends to be the common hirundine .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Pale crag martin pairs often nest alone , especially in the Sahara , although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form . This martin aggressively defends its nesting territory against conspecifics and other species . In Africa breeding dates vary geographically and with local weather conditions , but in northwest Africa February to April is normal , and in Asia nesting is from April to June . Two broods are common , and three have been raised in a season .
The nest , built by both adults over several weeks , is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with feathers and soft , dry grass , hair , sheep ’ s wool or plant down . It may be a half @-@ cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff , or shaped as a bowl like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge . The nest may be built on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or on a man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . Caves are found in limestone formations and in the lava flows which cover much of western Saudi Arabia , and their ceilings are a favoured location for nesting pale crag martins , red @-@ rumped swallows , and the little swifts which may appropriate the hirundines ' nests . In buildings , nests are usually constructed against concrete , which provides adhesion similar to that of rock , but metal walls are sometimes used , and nests may be supported on beams or other horizontal supports . Birds sometimes breed in occupied buildings , and there is a record of a pair nesting in a busy restaurant kitchen . Artificial nests are readily used , and halved coconut shells have been successfully occupied in Abu Dhabi .
The clutch is usually two or three buff @-@ white eggs blotched with sepia or grey @-@ brown , particularly at the wide end . The average egg size for Asian birds was 19 @.@ 3 x 12 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 76 x 0 @.@ 51 in ) with a weight of 1 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 06 oz ) . Both adults incubate the eggs for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching and feed the chicks about ten times an hour until they fledge and for several days after they can fly . The fledging time can vary from 22 – 24 days to 25 – 30 days , though the latter estimates probably take into account fledged young returning to the nest for food . If a nest is destroyed , or the breeding attempt otherwise fails , a replacement clutch may be laid , typically with fewer eggs . Two nests in Arabia were used in spring and again in the autumn , but it is not known if the same pair were involved .
= = = Feeding = = =
The pale crag martin feeds mainly on insects caught in flight , although it will occasionally feed on the ground . Breeding birds often feed close to their nesting territory , flying back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt , relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns . When not breeding , they may also hunt low over open ground . The insects caught depend on what is locally available , but may include mosquitoes , flies , Hymenoptera , ants and beetles . This martin often feeds alone , but sizeable groups may gather at grass fires to feast on the fleeing insects , and outside the breeding season flocks of up to 300 may form where food is abundant , such as agricultural areas , wetlands and sewage works . The pale crag martin drinks in flight as it skims the water surface , although at least some of its water requirement is obtained from the insects it consumes . Wintering hirundines of other species are not normally found in the dry , rocky areas in which the pale crag martin nests , so there is little competition for food .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Some falcons have the speed and agility to catch swallows and martins in flight , and pale crag martins may be hunted by species such as the peregrine falcon , Taita falcon , African hobby and wintering Eurasian hobby . Pale crag martins often share their nesting sites with little swifts , which sometimes forcibly take over martins ' nests .
The argasid tick Hyalomma marginatum was found in pale crag martin nests on a sarcophagus and an ancient tomb in Egypt . This tick has been implicated in the transmission of Bahig virus , a pathogenic arbovirus previously thought to be transmitted only by mosquitoes . Another argasid tick , Argas africolumbae , was found in a nest of the closely related rock martins in Kenya . The nasal mite Ptilonyssus echinatus was found in a pale crag martin in the Tibesti Mountains of northern Chad .
= = Status = =
The pale crag martin has a very large range of 5 @.@ 9 million km2 ( 2 @.@ 29 million sq mi ) . The total population is unknown , but the bird is described as very common in Jordan and common in Egypt . It has an expanding range and increasing population . Its large range and presumably high numbers mean that the pale crag martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
This species is locally common in Algeria , scarce in Morocco , and scarce in Pakistan . It has colonised southern Israel , where it breeds on houses , in the 1970s , and large numbers may occur outside the breeding season in Saudi Arabia and Oman . Population estimates include 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 pairs breeding in Egypt , 10 @,@ 000 pairs in the United Arab Emirates , and an Arabian winter population of up to 150 @,@ 000 birds in flocks that sometimes contain 300 – 500 birds . A large breeding range expansion in the Arabian Peninsula has been aided by the use of high @-@ rise buildings as nesting sites , and possibly a greater supply of insects from agricultural land . Breeding is now regular in Abu Dhabi , and Qatar 's tall buildings may be the next site for colonisation . The pale crag martin first bred in Iraq in 2009 .
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= Grus ( constellation ) =
Grus ( / ˈɡrʌs / , or colloquially / ˈɡruːs / ) is a constellation in the southern sky . Its name is Latin for the crane , a type of bird . It is one of twelve constellations conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman . Grus first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm ( 14 in ) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer 's star atlas Uranometria of 1603 . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille gave Bayer designations to its stars in 1756 , some of which had been previously considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus . The constellations Grus , Pavo , Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the " Southern Birds " .
The constellation 's brightest star , Alpha Gruis , is also known as Alnair and appears as a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ magnitude blue @-@ white star . Beta Gruis is a red giant variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2 @.@ 3 and a maximum magnitude of 2 @.@ 0 . Six star systems have been found to have planets : the red dwarf Gliese 832 is one of the closest stars to Earth to have a planetary system . Another — WASP @-@ 95 — has a planet that orbits every two days . Deep @-@ sky objects found in Grus include the planetary nebula IC 5148 , also known as the Spare Tyre Nebula , and a group of four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet .
= = History = =
The stars that form Grus were originally considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus ( the southern fish ) , with Gamma Gruis seen as part of the fish 's tail . The stars were first defined as a separate constellation by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius , who created twelve new constellations based on the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman , who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition , known as the Eerste Schipvaart , to the East Indies . Grus first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius . Its first depiction in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer 's Uranometria of 1603 . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name Den Reygher , " The Heron " , but Bayer followed Plancius and Hondius in using Grus .
An alternative name for the constellation , Phoenicopterus ( Latin " flamingo " ) , was used briefly during the early 17th century , seen in the 1605 work Cosmographiae Generalis by Paul Merula of Leiden University and a c . 1625 globe by Dutch globe maker Pieter van den Keere . Astronomer Ian Ridpath has reported the symbolism likely came from Plancius originally , who had worked with both of these people . Grus and the nearby constellations Phoenix , Tucana and Pavo are collectively called the " Southern Birds " .
The stars that correspond to Grus were generally too far south to be seen from China . In Chinese astronomy , Gamma and Lambda Gruis may have been included in the tub @-@ shaped asterism Bàijiù , along with stars from Piscis Austrinus . In Central Australia , the Arrernte and Luritja people living on a mission in Hermannsburg viewed the sky as divided between them , east of the Milky Way representing Arrernte camps and west denoting Luritja camps . Alpha and Beta Gruis , along with Fomalhaut , Alpha Pavonis and the stars of Musca , were all claimed by the Arrernte .
= = Characteristics = =
Grus is bordered by Piscis Austrinus to the north , Sculptor to the northeast , Phoenix to the east , Tucana to the south , Indus to the southwest , and Microscopium to the west . Bayer straightened the tail of Piscis Austrinus to make way for Grus in his Uranometria . Covering 366 square degrees , it ranks 45th of the 88 modern constellations in size and covers 0 @.@ 887 % of the night sky . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " Gru " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined as a polygon of 6 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 21h 27.4m and 23h 27.1m , while the declination coordinates are between − 36 @.@ 31 ° and − 56 @.@ 39 ° . Grus is located too far south to be seen by observers in the British Isles and the northern United States , though it can easily be seen from Florida or California ; the whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 33 ° N.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Keyser and de Houtman assigned twelve stars to the constellation . Bayer depicted Grus on his chart , but did not assign its stars Bayer designations . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Phi in 1756 with some omissions . In 1879 , American astronomer Benjamin Gould added Kappa , Nu , Omicron and Xi , which had all been catalogued by Lacaille but not given Bayer designations . Lacaille considered them too faint , while Gould thought otherwise . Xi Gruis had originally been placed in Microscopium . Conversely , Gould dropped Lacaille 's Sigma as he thought it was too dim .
Grus has several bright stars . Marking the left wing is Alpha Gruis , a blue @-@ white star of spectral type B6V and apparent magnitude 1 @.@ 7 , around 101 light @-@ years from Earth . Its traditional name , Alnair , means " the bright one " and refers to its status as the brightest star in Grus . Alnair is around 380 times as luminous and has over 3 times the diameter of the Sun . Lying 5 degrees west of Alnair , denoting the Crane 's heart is Beta Gruis , a red giant of spectral type M5III . It has a diameter of 0 @.@ 8 astronomical units ( AU ) ( if placed in the Solar System it would extend to the orbit of Venus ) located around 170 light @-@ years from Earth . It is a variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2 @.@ 3 and a maximum magnitude of 2 @.@ 0 . An imaginary line drawn from the Great Square of Pegasus through Fomalhaut will lead to Alnair and Beta Gruis .
Lying in the northwest corner of the constellation and marking the crane 's eye is Gamma Gruis , a blue @-@ white subgiant of spectral type B8III and magnitude 3 @.@ 0 lying around 211 light @-@ years from Earth . Also known as Al Dhanab , it has finished fusing its core hydrogen and has begun cooling and expanding , which will see it transform into a red giant .
There are several naked @-@ eye double stars in Grus . Forming a triangle with Alnair and Beta , Delta Gruis is an optical double whose components — Delta1 and Delta2 — are separated by 45 arcseconds . Delta1 is a yellow giant of spectral type G7III and magnitude 4 @.@ 0 , 309 light @-@ years from Earth , and may have its own magnitude 12 orange dwarf companion . Delta2 is a red giant of spectral type M4.5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3 @.@ 99 and 4 @.@ 2 , located 325 light @-@ years from Earth . It has around 3 times the mass and 135 times the diameter of our sun . Mu Gruis , composed of Mu1 and Mu2 , is also an optical double — both stars are yellow giants of spectral type G8III around 2 @.@ 5 times as massive as the Sun with surface temperatures of around 4900 K. Mu1 is the brighter of the two at magnitude 4 @.@ 8 located around 275 light @-@ years from Earth , while Mu2 the dimmer at magnitude 5 @.@ 11 lies 265 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Pi Gruis , an optical double with a variable component , is composed of Pi1 Gruis and Pi2 . Pi1 is a semi @-@ regular red giant of spectral type S5 , ranging from magnitude 5 @.@ 31 to 7 @.@ 01 over a period of 191 days , and is around 532 light @-@ years from Earth . One of the brightest S @-@ class stars to Earth viewers , it has a companion star of apparent magnitude 10 @.@ 9 with sunlike properties , being a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V . The pair make up a likely binary system . Pi2 is a giant star of spectral type F3III @-@ IV located around 130 light @-@ years from Earth , and is often brighter than its companion at magnitude 5 @.@ 6 . Marking the right wing is Theta Gruis , yet another double star , lying 5 degrees east of Delta1 and Delta2 .
RZ Gruis is a binary system of apparent magnitude 12 @.@ 3 with occasional dimming to 13 @.@ 4 , whose components — a white dwarf and main sequence star — are thought to orbit each other roughly every 8 @.@ 5 to 10 hours . It belongs to the UX Ursae Majoris subgroup of cataclysmic variable star systems , where material from the donor star is drawn to the white dwarf where it forms an accretion disc that remains bright and outshines the two component stars . The system is poorly understood , though the donor star has been calculated to be of spectral type F5V . These stars have spectra very similar to novae that have returned to quiescence after outbursts , yet they have not been observed to have erupted themselves . The American Association of Variable Star Observers recommends watching them for future events . CE Gruis ( also known as Grus V @-@ 1 ) is a faint ( magnitude 18 – 21 ) star system also composed of a white dwarf and donor star ; in this case the two are so close they are tidally locked . Known as polars , material from the donor star does not form an accretion disc around the white dwarf , but rather streams directly onto it .
Six star systems are thought to have planetary systems . Tau1 Gruis is a yellow star of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 located around 106 light @-@ years away . It may be a main sequence star or be just beginning to depart from the sequence as it expands and cools . In 2002 the star was found to have a planetary companion . HD 215456 , HD 213240 and WASP @-@ 95 are yellow sunlike stars discovered to have two planets , a planet and a remote red dwarf , and a hot Jupiter respectively ; this last — WASP @-@ 95b — completes an orbit round its sun in a mere two days . Gliese 832 is a red dwarf of spectral type M1.5V and apparent magnitude 8 @.@ 66 located only 16 @.@ 1 light @-@ years distant ; hence it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System . A Jupiter @-@ like planet — Gliese 832 b — orbiting the red dwarf over a period of 9 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 4 years was discovered in 2008 . WISE 2220 − 3628 is a brown dwarf of spectral type Y , and hence one of the coolest star @-@ like objects known . It has been calculated as being around 26 light @-@ years distant from Earth .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Nicknamed the spare @-@ tyre nebula , IC 5148 is a planetary nebula located around 1 degree west of Lambda Gruis . Around 3000 light @-@ years distant , it is expanding at 50 kilometres a second , one of the fastest rates of expansion of all planetary nebulae .
Northeast of Theta Gruis are four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet . These galaxies are NGC 7552 , NGC 7590 , NGC 7599 , and NGC 7582 . The latter three galaxies occupy an area of sky only 10 arcminutes across and are sometimes referred to as the " Grus Triplet , " although all four are part of a larger loose group of galaxies called the IC 1459 Grus Group . NGC 7552 and 7582 are exhibiting high starburst activity ; this is thought to have arisen because of the tidal forces from interacting . Located on the border of Grus with Piscis Austrinus , IC 1459 is a peculiar E3 giant elliptical galaxy . It has a fast counterrotating stellar core , and shells and ripples in its outer region . The galaxy has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 9 and is around 80 million light years distant .
NGC 7424 is a barred spiral galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 4 @.@ located around 4 degrees west of the Grus Triplet . Approximately 37 @.@ 5 million light years distant , it is about 100 @,@ 000 light years in diameter , has well defined spiral arms and is thought to resemble the Milky Way . Two ultraluminous X @-@ ray sources and one supernova have been observed in NGC 7424 . SN 2001ig was discovered in 2001 and classified as a Type IIb supernova , one that initially showed a weak hydrogen line in its spectrum , but this emission later became undetectable and was replaced by lines of oxygen , magnesium and calcium , as well as other features that resembled the spectrum of a Type Ib supernova . A massive star of spectral type F , A or B is thought to be the surviving binary companion to SN 2001ig , which was believed to have been a Wolf – Rayet star .
Located near Alnair is NGC 7213 , a face @-@ on type 1 Seyfert galaxy located approximately 71 @.@ 7 million light years from Earth . It has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 1 . Appearing undisturbed in visible light , it shows signs of having undergone a collision or merger when viewed at longer wavelengths , with disturbed patterns of ionized hydrogen including a filament of gas around 64 @,@ 000 light @-@ years long . It is part of a group of ten galaxies .
NGC 7410 is a spiral galaxy discovered by British astronomer John Herschel during observations at the Cape of Good Hope in October 1834 . The galaxy has a visual magnitude of 11 @.@ 7 and is approximately 122 million light years distant from Earth .
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= Pedro del Valle =
Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle ( August 28 , 1893 — April 28 , 1978 ) was a United States Marine Corps officer who became the first Hispanic to reach the rank of Lieutenant General . His military career included service in World War I , Haiti and Nicaragua during the Banana Wars of the 1920s , in the seizure of Guadalcanal , and later as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division during World War II .
= = Early years = =
Del Valle was born on August 28 , 1893 in San Juan , Puerto Rico when the island was still under Spanish colonial rule . He was related to Dr. Francisco del Valle , a surgeon who had served as mayor of San Juan from 1907 to 1910 . In 1900 , two years after the Spanish – American War , the del Valle family moved to Maryland where they became U.S. citizens ( The Jones Act of 1917 later gave United States Citizenship to all Puerto Ricans born on the island ) . He received his primary and secondary education in Maryland .
On June 17 , 1911 , after he graduated from high school , del Valle received an appointment by George Radcliffe Colton , who served from 1909 to 1913 as the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico , to attend the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland . Del Valle graduated from the academy in June 1915 and was commissioned a second lieutenant of the Marine Corps on June 5 , 1915 .
= = Military career = =
= = = The Banana Wars & pre @-@ World War II = = =
Pedro del Valle helped the Marine Corps in the capture of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic , in 1916 , for which he was awarded his first Legion of Merit . Del Valle commanded the Marine detachment on board the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919 , he participated in the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet . Later he served as " Aide @-@ de @-@ camp " to Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton after serving on a tour of sea duty aboard the USS Wyoming ( BB @-@ 32 ) . His job included an inspection tour of the West Indies in the company of General Pendleton .
In 1926 , del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and , during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto César Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1929 , he returned to the United States and attended the Field Officers Course at the Marine Corps School in MCB Quantico , Virginia .
In 1931 , Brigadier General Randolph C. Berkeley appointed del Valle to the " Landing Operations Text Board " in Quantico , the first organizational step taken by the Marines to develop a working doctrine for amphibious assault . In 1932 , he wrote an essay titled " Ship @-@ to @-@ Shore in Amphibious Operations " which was published in the Marine Corps Gazette . In his essay , he stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault and of an execution of an opposed landing .
He worked as an intelligence officer in Havana , Cuba in 1933 under Admiral Charles Freeman , following the Cuban Sergeant 's Revolt . From 1935 – 1937 , del Valle was Assistant Naval Attache , attached to the American Embassy to Italy in Rome . While on duty , del Valle participated as an observer with the Italian Forces during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War . The experiences which del Valle gained as an observer led him to author the book " Roman Eagles Over Ethiopia " where he describes the events leading up to the Italian expedition and the complete movements of combat operations by the Italian Army under Generals De Bono , Badoglio , and Graziani . In 1939 , he was ordered to attend the Army War College in Washington , D.C. and after graduating was named Executive Officer of the Division of Plans and Policies , USMC .
= = = World War II = = =
On March 1941 , del Valle became the commanding officer of the 11th Marine Regiment , ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment and participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers before they ever reached the Marine positions . The attackers were killed almost to the last man . The outcome of the battle was so stunning that the Japanese commander , Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . Major General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a brigadier general . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the regiment has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands .
On April 1 , 1944 , del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded an award star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead , each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle which was carried in their record books .
In late October 1944 , he succeeded Major General William H. Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted in his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa . He subsequently led the division throughout the campaign . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
After World War II ended , del Valle was ordered back to Headquarters Marine Corps , where he was named Inspector General , a position which he held until he retired on January 1 , 1948 . On February 19 , 1946 New Mexico Senator Dennis Chavez and del Valle held a meeting with President Harry S. Truman in the White House , in which Chavez recommended del Valle for the position of governor of Puerto Rico . From 1898 to 1942 , the governors of the island were officials appointed by the President of the United States . Local Puerto Rican politicians , such as Luis Muñoz Marín , opposed the naming of del Valle in favor of Jesús T. Piñero ; to which Del Valle eventually asked President Truman to withdraw his name among those considered for the position . The first civilian and native Puerto Rican appointed governor of Puerto Rico thus became Piñero in 1946 . If Congress had not approved legislation in 1947 allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor , del Valle may have been appointed to the governorship .
= = Later years = =
After retiring from the Marine Corps , del Valle worked as a representative of ITT in the company 's office in Cairo , Egypt . After some time with the company he was named president of ITT for all South America in Buenos Aires , Argentina , a position that he held until 1951 .
Believing that the United States was in danger of a communist threat , del Valle tried to convince the Central Intelligence Agency and Department of Defense to form a vigilante minuteman group . He also believed that the CIA should operate behind Russian and Chinese lines . After his ideas were turned down , he decided to form his own group . In 1953 , del Valle met with LtCol John H. Hoffman , LtCol Eugene Cowles Poneroy , Brigadier General Bonner Fellers , and Major General Claire Chennault ( USAF ) to form the " Defenders of the American Constitution " ( DAC ) . DAC 's main goal was to purge the United States of any communist influence . The idea behind the group was to organize the citizens in each state as vigilantes against sabotage and other forms of treason , then link them up in some national headquarters . Del Valle ran for governor of Maryland in 1953 and was defeated in his attempt to be nominated in the Republican primary election . The controversial views shared by some of the members of " DAC " was to blame for the organization 's decline in popularity . On April 12 , 1961 , del Valle invoked The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( an antisemitic hoax ) during a speech before the United States Daughters of 1812 , in an attempt to " prove " that Communism and Socialism were introduced to Russia by an " Invisible Government " whose intention was to destroy that country . Del Valle also belonged to a group known as the Sons of Liberty , established in 1967 in Annapolis , Maryland and named after the secret patriotic society which directed the actions of the Boston Tea Party on December 13 , 1773 .
Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle was married to Katharine Nelson ( 1890 – 1983 ) . He died on April 28 , 1978 in Annapolis , Maryland and was buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery and Columbarium . After del Valle ’ s death at age 85 , the DAC ceased to exist .
= = Written Works by Pedro del Valle = =
Books
Diary and reports of the U.S. naval observer of Italian Operations in East Africa : March 1937 ( Washington : Government Printing Office , 1937 ) .
Roman Eagles Over Ethiopia ( Harrisburg , PA : Military service Pub . Co . , 1940 ) .
Semper fidelis : An autobiography ( Hawthorne , CA : Christian Book Club of America , 1976 ) .
Lieutenant General Pedro A. del Valle , U.S. Marine Corps ( retired ) ( Oral history program ) .
Articles
" Guam , the Classical Amphibious Operation " Military Review ( 1944 ) .
" Massed Fires on Guam " Marine Corps Gazette ( 1944 ) .
= = Awards and recognitions = =
Among Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle 's decorations and medals were the following :
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= September 11 attacks =
The September 11 attacks ( also referred to as 9 / 11 ) were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al @-@ Qaeda on the United States on the morning of September 11 , 2001 . The attacks killed 2 @,@ 996 people and injured over 6 @,@ 000 others and caused at least $ 10 billion in property and infrastructure damage and $ 3 trillion in total costs .
Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers ( United Airlines and American Airlines ) — all of which departed from airports on the northeastern United States bound for California — were hijacked by 19 al @-@ Qaeda terrorists . Two of the planes , American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 , were crashed into the North and South towers , respectively , of the World Trade Center complex in New York City . Within an hour and 42 minutes , both 110 @-@ story towers collapsed , with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex , including the 47 @-@ story 7 World Trade Center tower , as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures . A third plane , American Airlines Flight 77 , was crashed into the Pentagon ( the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense ) in Arlington County , Virginia , leading to a partial collapse of the building 's western side . The fourth plane , United Airlines Flight 93 , initially was steered toward Washington , D.C. , but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers . A total of 2 @,@ 996 people , including the 19 hijackers , were killed and more than 6 @,@ 000 others injured . It was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States , with 343 and 72 killed respectively .
Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al @-@ Qaeda . The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban , which had harbored al @-@ Qaeda . Many countries strengthened their anti @-@ terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks . Although al @-@ Qaeda 's leader , Osama bin Laden , initially denied any involvement , in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks . Al @-@ Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel , the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , and sanctions against Iraq as motives . Having evaded capture for almost a decade , bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U.S. military in May 2011 .
The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets , closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13 . Many closings , evacuations , and cancellations followed , out of respect or fear of further attacks . Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002 , and the Pentagon was repaired within a year . On November 18 , 2006 , construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site . The building was officially opened on November 3 , 2014 . Numerous memorials have been constructed , including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City , the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County , Virginia , and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania .
= = Background = =
= = = Al @-@ Qaeda = = =
The origins of al @-@ Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan . Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets . Under the guidance of Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , bin Laden became more radical . In 1996 , bin Laden issued his first fatwā , calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia .
In a second fatwā in 1998 , bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel , as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War . Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed . Muslim legal scholars " have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries " , according to bin Laden .
= = = = Osama bin Laden = = = =
Bin Laden , who orchestrated the attacks , initially denied but later admitted involvement . Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16 , 2001 , stating , " I stress that I have not carried out this act , which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation . " In November 2001 , U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad , Afghanistan . In the video , bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al @-@ Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks . On December 27 , 2001 , a second bin Laden video was released . In the video , he said , " It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam . ... It is the hatred of crusaders . Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice , aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel , which kills our people . ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent , whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead , for the awakening of the Muslim umma ( nation ) has occurred " , but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks . The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims .
Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004 , in a taped statement , bin Laden publicly acknowledged al @-@ Qaeda 's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks . He said that the attacks were carried out because , " we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation . As you undermine our security we undermine yours . " Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon . Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , as well as two hijackers , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi and Wail al @-@ Shehri , as they make preparations for the attacks . The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9 / 11 attacks but he was on the FBI 's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , and Nairobi , Kenya . After a 10 @-@ year manhunt , bin Laden was killed by American special forces in a compound in Abbottabad , Pakistan on May 2 , 2011 .
= = = = Khalid Sheikh Mohammed = = = =
The journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that , in April 2002 , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement , along with Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh . The 9 / 11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed , the principal architect of the 9 / 11 attacks , stemmed from his " violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel " . Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef , the lead bomber in that attack .
Mohammed was arrested on March 1 , 2003 , in Rawalpindi , Pakistan , by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA , then transported to Guantanamo Bay and interrogated using methods including waterboarding . During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007 , Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks , stating he " was responsible for the 9 / 11 operation from A to Z " and that his statement was not made under duress .
= = = = Other al @-@ Qaeda members = = = =
In " Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed " from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui , five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation 's details . They are bin Laden , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , Abu Turab al @-@ Urduni , and Mohammed Atef . To date , only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks .
On September 26 , 2005 , the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9 / 11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al @-@ Qaeda . At the same time , another 17 al @-@ Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years . On February 16 , 2006 , the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven .
Also , in 2006 , Moussaoui , who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker , was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy . He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States . Mounir el @-@ Motassadeq , an associate of the Hamburg @-@ based hijackers , is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks .
The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9 / 11 attacks . Mohamed Atta , Marwan al @-@ Shehhi , Ziad Jarrah , Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , and Said Bahaji were all members of al @-@ Qaeda 's Hamburg cell .
= = = Motives = = =
Osama bin Laden 's declaration of a holy war against the United States , and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others , calling for the killing of Americans , are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation . In bin Laden 's November 2002 " Letter to America " , he explicitly stated that al @-@ Qaeda 's motives for their attacks include :
U.S. support of Israel
support for the " attacks against Muslims " in Somalia
support of Russian " atrocities against Muslims " in Chechnya
pro @-@ American governments in the Middle East ( who " act as your agents " ) being against Muslim interests
support of Indian " oppression against Muslims " in Kashmir
the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia
the sanctions against Iraq
After the attacks , bin Laden and al @-@ Zawahiri released additional video tapes and audio tapes , some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks . Two particularly important publications were bin Laden 's 2002 " Letter to America " , and a 2004 video tape by bin Laden .
Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the " permanent presence of infidels in Arabia " . In 1996 , bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia . In 1998 , al @-@ Qaeda wrote , " for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places , the Arabian Peninsula , plundering its riches , dictating to its rulers , humiliating its people , terrorizing its neighbors , and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples . "
In a December 1999 interview , bin Laden said he felt that Americans were " too near to Mecca " , and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world . One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , al @-@ Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions .
In the 1998 fatwā , al @-@ Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans , condemning the " protracted blockade " among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against " Allah , his messenger , and Muslims . " The fatwā declared that " the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it , in order to liberate the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip , and in order for their [ the Americans ' ] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam , defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim . "
Bin Laden claimed , in 2004 , that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982 , when he witnessed Israel 's bombardment of high @-@ rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War . Some analysts , including Mearsheimer and Walt , also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel . In 2004 and 2010 , bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel , although most of the letter expressed bin Laden 's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden 's hope to " destroy and bankrupt " the U.S.
Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda , including western support of Islamic and non @-@ Islamic authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia , Iran , Egypt , Iraq , Pakistan and northern Africa , and the presence of western troops in some of these countries . Some authors suggest the " humiliation " resulting from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy rendered especially visible by the globalization trend and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al @-@ Qaeda . Similarly , others have argued that 9 / 11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan @-@ Islamic revolution .
= = = Planning of the attacks = = =
The idea for the attacks came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996 . At that time , bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda were in a period of transition , having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan . The 1998 African Embassy bombings and bin Laden 's 1998 fatwā marked a turning point , as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States .
In late 1998 or early 1999 , bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot . A series of meetings occurred in early 1999 , involving Mohammed , bin Laden , and his deputy Mohammed Atef . Atef provided operational support for the plot , including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers . Bin Laden overruled Mohammed , rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles because , " there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation " .
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support for the plot , and was involved in selecting participants . Bin Laden initially selected Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia . Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid @-@ January 2000 . In spring 2000 , Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego , California , but both spoke little English , performed poorly with flying lessons , and eventually served as secondary – or " muscle " – hijackers .
In late 1999 , a group of men from Hamburg , Germany arrived in Afghanistan , including Mohamed Atta , Marwan al @-@ Shehhi , Ziad Jarrah , and Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh . Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated , could speak English , and had experience living in the West . New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al @-@ Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot 's license . Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing .
Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8 , 2000 , joining Hazmi . They soon left for Arizona , where Hanjour took refresher training . Marwan al @-@ Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000 , while Atta arrived on June 3 , 2000 , and Jarrah arrived on June 27 , 2000 . Bin al @-@ Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States , but as a Yemeni , he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa and remain as an illegal immigrant . Bin al @-@ Shibh stayed in Hamburg , providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed . The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida .
In spring 2001 , the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States . In July 2001 , Atta met with bin al @-@ Shibh in Spain , where they coordinated details of the plot , including final target selection . Bin al @-@ Shibh also passed along bin Laden 's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible . Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members , or used fraudulent passports to gain entry .
= = = Intelligence before the attacks = = =
In late 1999 , al @-@ Qaeda associate Khallad contacted Mihdhar , telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia ; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance . The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting , Mihdhar , and the name " Nawaf " ( Hazmi ) . While the agency feared that " Something nefarious might be afoot , " it took no further action . The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al @-@ Qaeda members , and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar 's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa . While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact , it did not share this information with the FBI . The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5 , 2000 , meeting of the two al @-@ Qaeda members , and informed the CIA that Mihdhar , Hazmi , and Khallad were flying to Bangkok , but the CIA never notified other agencies of this , nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist . An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting , but was told that " ' This is not a matter for the FBI . ' "
By late June , senior counter @-@ terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were " convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come , " although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel . In early July , Clarke put domestic agencies on " full alert , " telling them that " Something really spectacular is going to happen here ... soon . " He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments , and the Defense Department to go to " Threat Condition Delta . " Clarke would later write that " Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States ... in [ the ] FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States ... They had specific information about individual terrorists ... None of that information got to me or the White House . "
On July 13 , Tom Wilshire , a CIA agent assigned to the FBI 's international terrorism division , emailed his superiors at the CIA 's Counterterrorism Center ( CTC ) , requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa . However , the CIA never responded .
The same day in July , Margarette Gillespie , an FBI analyst working in the CTC , was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting . She was not told of the participants ' presence in the U.S. However , the CIA did give Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism , but did not tell her their significance . The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting to criminal investigators . When shown the photos , the FBI were refused more details on their significance , and also did not receive Mihdhar 's date of birth or passport number . In late August 2001 , Gillespie told the INS , the State Department , the Customs Service , and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists , but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in the search for the duo , which hindered their efforts .
Also in July , a Phoenix @-@ based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters , Alec Station , and to FBI agents in New York , alerting them to " the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges . " The agent , Kenneth Williams , suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training . In July , Jordan alerted the U.S. that al @-@ Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S. ; " months later , " Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack 's codename was " The Big Wedding , " and that it involved airplanes .
On August 6 , the CIA 's Presidential Daily Brief , designated " For the President Only , " was entitled " Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S. " The memo noted that " The FBI information ... indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks . "
In mid @-@ August , one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI to Zacarias Moussaoui , who had asked " suspicious questions . " The FBI found that he was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan , and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa . However , their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause .
The failures in intelligence @-@ sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing , combined with CIA and NSA reluctance in revealing " sensitive sources and methods " such as tapped phones . Testifying before the 9 / 11 Commission in April 2004 , then @-@ Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the " single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents . " Clarke also wrote that " There were failures in the organizations ... failures to get information to the right place at the right time ... "
= = Attacks = =
Early on the morning of September 11 , 2001 , 19 hijackers took control of four commercial airliners ( two Boeing 757 and two Boeing 767 ) en route to California ( three headed to LAX in Los Angeles , and one to SFO in San Francisco ) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston , Massachusetts ; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark , New Jersey ; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia . Large planes with long flights were selected for hijacking because they would be heavily fueled .
The four flights were :
American Airlines Flight 11 : a Boeing 767 aircraft , departed Logan Airport at 7 : 59 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8 : 46 a.m.
United Airlines Flight 175 : a Boeing 767 aircraft , departed Logan Airport at 8 : 14 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9 : 03 a.m.
American Airlines Flight 77 : a Boeing 757 aircraft , departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8 : 20 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers , not including five hijackers . The hijackers flew the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , at 9 : 37 a.m.
United Airlines Flight 93 : a Boeing 757 aircraft , departed Newark International Airport at 8 : 42 a.m. en route to San Francisco , with a crew of seven and 33 passengers , not including four hijackers . As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers , the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , at 10 : 03 a.m.
Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath , beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center .
= = = Events = = =
At 8 : 46 a.m. , five hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern façade of the World Trade Center 's North Tower ( 1 WTC ) , and at 9 : 03 a.m. , another five hijackers crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower ( 2 WTC ) . Five hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9 : 37 a.m. A fourth flight , United Airlines Flight 93 , under the control of four hijackers , crashed near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , southeast of Pittsburgh , at 10 : 03 a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers . Flight 93 's target is believed to have been either the Capitol or the White House . Flight 93 's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11 , 77 , and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning . Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane , the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it .
Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details : several hijackers were aboard each plane ; they used mace , tear gas , or pepper spray to overcome attendants ; and some people aboard had been stabbed . Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots , flight attendants , and one or more passengers . According to the 9 / 11 Commission 's final report , the hijackers had recently purchased multi @-@ function hand tools and assorted Leatherman @-@ type utility knives with locking blades , which were not forbidden to passengers at the time , but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers . A flight attendant on Flight 11 , a passenger on Flight 175 , and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs , but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake . The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites , and the 9 / 11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake .
Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire @-@ induced structural failure . The South Tower collapsed at 9 : 59 a.m. after burning for 56 minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel . The North Tower collapsed at 10 : 28 a.m. after burning for 102 minutes . When the North Tower collapsed , debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building ( 7 WTC ) , damaging it and starting fires . These fires burned for hours , compromising the building 's structural integrity , and 7 WTC collapsed at 5 : 21 p.m. The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage .
At 9 : 42 a.m. , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S. , and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately . All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico , and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days . The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers . Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day , one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department 's headquarters in Washington , D.C. Another jet — Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 — was suspected of having been hijacked , but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland , Ohio .
In an April 2002 interview , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh , who are believed to have organized the attacks , said Flight 93 's intended target was the United States Capitol , not the White House . During the planning stage of the attacks , Mohamed Atta , the hijacker and pilot of Flight 11 , thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour ( who hijacked and piloted Flight 77 ) . Mohammed said al @-@ Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon , but decided against it , fearing things could " get out of control " . Final decisions on targets , according to Mohammed , were left in the hands of the pilots .
= = = Casualties = = =
The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2 @,@ 996 people and the injuries of 6 @,@ 000 + others . The death toll included 265 on the four planes ( from which there were no survivors ) , 2 @,@ 606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area , and 125 at the Pentagon . Nearly all of those who perished were civilians with the exceptions of 343 firefighters , 72 law enforcement officers , 55 military personnel , and the 19 terrorists who died in the attacks . After New York , New Jersey lost the most state citizens , with the city of Hoboken having the most citizens that died in the attacks . More than 90 countries lost citizens in the September 11 attacks . The attacks of September 11 , 2001 , marked it the worst terrorist attack in world history and the deadliest foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 .
In Arlington County , Virginia , 125 Pentagon workers lost their lives when Flight 77 crashed into the western side of the building . Of these , 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel , many of them who worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy . The Army lost 47 civilian employees , six civilian contractors , and 22 soldiers , while the Navy lost six civilian employees , three civilian contractors , and 33 sailors . Seven Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) civilian employees were also among the dead in the attack , as well as an Office of the Secretary of Defense ( OSD ) contractor . Lieutenant General Timothy Maude , an Army Deputy Chief of Staff , was the highest @-@ ranking military official killed at the Pentagon .
In New York City , more than 90 % of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact . In the North Tower , 1 @,@ 355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped and died of smoke inhalation , fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames , or were killed in the building 's eventual collapse . The destruction of all three staircases in the tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape . 107 people below the point of impact died as well .
In the South Tower , one stairwell , Stairwell A , was left intact after Flight 175 hit , allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact ( including one man who saw the plane coming at him ) and four more from the floors above to escape . New York City 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result , told callers not to descend the tower on their own . In total 630 people died in that tower , fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower . Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced by some occupants deciding to start evacuating as soon as the North Tower was struck .
At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers ( as exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man ) , landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below . Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue , but the roof access doors were locked . No plan existed for helicopter rescues , and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching . A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires . The New York City Fire Department ( FDNY ) lost 343 firefighters , including a chaplain and two paramedics . The New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) lost 23 officers . The Port Authority Police Department ( PAPD ) lost 37 officers . Eight emergency medical technicians ( EMTs ) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed .
Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. , an investment bank on the 101st – 105th floors of the North Tower , lost 658 employees , considerably more than any other employer . Marsh Inc . , located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 – 100 , lost 358 employees , and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed . The National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) estimated that about 17 @,@ 400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks . Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14 @,@ 154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8 : 45 a.m. Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings .
Weeks after the attack , the death toll was estimated to be over 6 @,@ 000 , more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed . The city was only able to identify remains for about 1 @,@ 600 of the World Trade Center victims . The medical examiner 's office collected " about 10 @,@ 000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead " . Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building . In 2010 , a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill , where seventy @-@ two more human remains were recovered , bringing the total found to 1 @,@ 845 . DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims . The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park , outside the New York City Medical Examiner 's facilities . It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9 / 11 museum . In July 2011 , a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains , in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims . On March 20 , 2015 , the 1,640th victim was identified . There are still 1 @,@ 113 victims who have not been identified .
= = = Damage = = =
Along with the 110 @-@ floor Twin Towers , numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged , including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church . The North Tower , South Tower , the Marriott Hotel ( 3 WTC ) , and 7 WTC were completely destroyed . The U.S. Customs House ( 6 World Trade Center ) , 4 World Trade Center , 5 World Trade Center , and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged . The Deutsche Bank Building on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later , starting in 2007 . The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage .
The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower , and was deconstructed . The Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks , and is being rebuilt . Other neighboring buildings ( including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building ) suffered major damage but have been restored . World Financial Center buildings , One Liberty Plaza , the Millenium Hilton , and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored . Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed , but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts .
The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires , causing one section of the building to collapse . As the airplane approached the Pentagon , its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building . The plane hit the Pentagon at the first @-@ floor level . The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact , while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second . Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building , breaking through 310 feet ( 94 m ) of the three outermost of the building 's five rings .
= = = Rescue efforts = = =
The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units ( half of the department ) to the World Trade Center . Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off @-@ duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians . The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel , and deployed its aviation unit . Once on the scene , the FDNY , the NYPD , and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians . As conditions deteriorated , the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders , who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers ; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed . With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies , warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders .
After the first tower collapsed , FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings ; however , due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems , many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders . 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene . Within hours of the attack , a substantial search and rescue operation was launched . After months of around @-@ the @-@ clock operations , the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Immediate response = = =
At 8 : 32 a.m. , FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they in turn notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) . NORAD scrambled two F @-@ 15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8 : 53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials , NORAD had 9 minutes ' notice that Flight 11 had been hijacked , and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed . After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit , more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9 : 30 a.m. At 10 : 20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked . However , these instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action . Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition , knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets , the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes , possibly ejecting at the last moment .
For the first time in U.S. history , SCATANA was invoked , thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world . The FAA closed American airspace to all international flights , causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries . Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers .
The 9 / 11 attacks had immediate effects upon the American people . Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence , traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers . Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9 / 11 .
The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3 @,@ 000 children losing a parent . Subsequent studies documented children 's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life , the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks , and effects on surviving caregivers .
= = = Domestic reactions = = =
Following the attacks , President Bush 's approval rating soared to 90 % . On September 20 , 2001 , he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts , and described his intended response to the attacks . New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani 's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally .
Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks , with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the families of victims . By the deadline for victim 's compensation on September 11 , 2003 , 2 @,@ 833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed .
Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks . However , Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002 .
In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history , the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002 , creating the Department of Homeland Security . Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act , saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes . Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act , saying it allows law enforcement to invade the privacy of citizens and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence . In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism , the National Security Agency ( NSA ) was given broad powers . NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications , which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency " to eavesdrop on telephone and e @-@ mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant " . In response to requests by various intelligence agencies , the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking , obtaining , and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non @-@ U.S. people from around the world .
= = = = Hate crimes = = = =
Shortly after the attacks , President Bush made a public appearance at Washington 's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the " incredibly valuable contribution " that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them " to be treated with respect . " However , numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks . Sikhs were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear turbans , which are stereotypically associated with Muslims . There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings ( including the firebombing of a Hindu temple ) , and assaults on people , including one murder : Balbir Singh Sodhi , a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim , was fatally shot on September 15 , 2001 , in Mesa , Arizona .
According to an academic study , people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time . The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims , Arabs , and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin . A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together , documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17 . Various crimes such as vandalism , arson , assault , shootings , harassment , and threats in numerous places were documented .
= = = = Muslim American response = = = =
Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called " upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families " . These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America , American Muslim Alliance , American Muslim Council , Council on American @-@ Islamic Relations , Islamic Circle of North America , and the Shari 'a Scholars Association of North America . Along with monetary donations , many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance , food , and shelter for victims .
= = = International reactions = = =
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide . Across the globe , nations offered pro @-@ American support and solidarity . Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries , and Afghanistan , condemned the attacks . Iraq was a notable exception , with an immediate official statement that , " the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity " . While the government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks , privately many Saudis favored bin Laden 's cause . As in the United States , the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non @-@ Muslims .
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks , and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter . Numerous countries introduced anti @-@ terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al @-@ Qaeda ties . Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists .
British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood " shoulder to shoulder " with the United States . A few days later , Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States . In a speech to Congress , nine days after the attacks , which Blair attended as a guest , President Bush declared " America has no truer friend than Great Britain . " Subsequently , Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action ; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40 @,@ 000 miles ( 60 @,@ 000 km ) .
Tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan following the attacks , fearing a response by the United States . Pakistan , already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts , closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17 , 2001 . Approximately one month after the attacks , the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al @-@ Qaeda . Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban , they permitted the coalition access to their military bases , and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al @-@ Qaeda members .
The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as " illegal enemy combatants " . The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations .
On September 25 , 2001 , Iran 's fifth president , Mohammad Khatami meeting British Foreign Secretary , Jack Straw , said : " Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11 . " He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran ( since 1979 ) , the Iranians instead felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities . He also stated that " Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists . " According to Radio Farda 's website , when the attacks ' news was released , some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran , which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran ( US interests protecting office in Iran ) , to express their sympathy and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning . This piece of news at Radio Farda 's website also states that in 2011 , on the anniversary of the attacks , United States Department of State , published a post at its blog , in which the Department thanked Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that they would never forget Iranian people 's kindness on those harsh days . After the attacks , both the President and the Supreme Leader of Iran , condemned the attacks . BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens at their websites . According to Politico magazine , following the attacks , Sayyed Ali Khamenei , the Supreme Leader of Iran , " suspended the usual ' Death to America ' chants at Friday prayers " temporarily .
= = = Military operations = = =
At 2 : 40 p.m. in the afternoon of September 11 , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement . According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone , Rumsfeld asked for , " Best info fast . Judge whether good enough hit S.H. " ( Saddam Hussein ) " at same time . Not only UBL " ( Osama bin Laden ) . Cambone 's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying , " Need to move swiftly – Near term target needs – go massive – sweep it all up . Things related and not . " In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to 9 / 11 .
The NATO council declared the attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations which satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter . This marked the first invocation of Article 5 , which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind . Australian Prime Minister John Howard who was in Washington D.C. during the attacks invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty . The Bush administration announced a War on Terror , with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al @-@ Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks . These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists , and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing .
On September 14 , 2001 , the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists . Still in effect , it grants the President the authority to use all " necessary and appropriate force " against those whom he determined " planned , authorized , committed or aided " the September 11th attacks , or who harbored said persons or groups .
On October 7 , 2001 , the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda camps , then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces . This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan on December 9 , 2001 by U.S. led coalition forces . Conflict in Afghanistan between the Taliban insurgency and the Afghan forces backed by NATO Resolute Support Mission is ongoing . The Philippines and Indonesia , among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism , also increased their military readiness .
The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow Taliban regime which had had conflicts with the government of Iran . Iran 's Quds Force helped US forces and Afghan rebels in 2001 uprising in Herat .
= = Effects = =
= = = Health issues = = =
Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2 @,@ 500 contaminants , including known carcinogens , were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers . Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at ground zero . The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks , citing national security , but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre @-@ September 11 levels until June 2002 .
Health effects extended to residents , students , and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown . Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust , and the victims ' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial . Approximately 18 @,@ 000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust . There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development . A notable children 's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse , and were living or working nearby . A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions , and that 30 – 40 % were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack .
Years after the attacks , legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system . On October 17 , 2006 , a federal judge rejected New York City 's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers , allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city . Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks . Christine Todd Whitman , administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks , was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe . Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area .
The United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act on December 22 , 2010 , and President Barack Obama signed the act into law on January 2 , 2011 . It allocated $ 4 @.@ 2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program , which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long @-@ term health problems related to the 9 / 11 attacks . The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9 / 11 @-@ related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program .
According to a new study , pregnant women living near the World Trade Center during the 9 / 11 terror attacks experienced higher @-@ than @-@ normal negative birth outcomes . The study by Princeton University 's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs found that these mothers were more likely to give birth prematurely and deliver babies with low birth weights . Their babies were also more likely to be admitted to neonatal intensive care units after birth ( especially baby boys ) , according to the study led by the Wilson School 's Janet Currie and Hannes Schwandt .
= = = Economic = = =
The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets . The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17 . Reopening , the Dow Jones Industrial Average ( DJIA ) fell 684 points , or 7 @.@ 1 % , to 8921 , a record @-@ setting one @-@ day point decline . By the end of the week , the DJIA had fallen 1 @,@ 369 @.@ 7 points ( 14 @.@ 3 % ) , at the time its largest one @-@ week point drop in history . In 2001 dollars , U.S. stocks lost $ 1 @.@ 4 trillion in valuation for the week .
In New York City , about 430 @,@ 000 job @-@ months and $ 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks . The economic effects were mainly on the economy 's export sectors . The city 's GDP was estimated to have declined by $ 27 @.@ 3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002 . The U.S. government provided $ 11 @.@ 2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001 , and $ 10 @.@ 5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs . Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center , 18 @,@ 000 of which were destroyed or displaced , resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages . Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans , federal government Community Development Block Grants , and Economic Injury Disaster Loans . Some 31 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 960 @,@ 000 m2 ) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed . Many wondered whether these jobs would return , and if the damaged tax base would recover . Studies of the economic effects of 9 / 11 show the Manhattan office real @-@ estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared , because of the financial services industry 's need for face @-@ to @-@ face interaction .
North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening , leading to a nearly 20 % cutback in air travel capacity , and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry .
The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , as well as additional homeland security spending , totaling at least $ 5 trillion .
= = = Cultural = = =
The impact of 9 / 11 extends beyond geopolitics into society and culture in general . Immediate responses to 9 / 11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family , higher church attendance , and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of flags . The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists , and the attacks have subsequently been used as background , narrative or thematic elements in film , television , music and literature . Already @-@ running television shows as well as programs developed after 9 / 11 have reflected post @-@ 9 / 11 cultural concerns . 9 / 11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena , despite lack of support from expert scientists , engineers , and historians . 9 / 11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals ; for some it strengthened , to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief ; others started to question their faith or lost it entirely , because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion .
The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof , as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation . Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel .
= = = Government policies toward terrorism = = =
As a result of the attacks , many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism . In Germany , where several of the 9 / 11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country 's liberal asylum policies , two major anti @-@ terrorism packages were enacted . The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany . The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement . Canada passed the Canadian Anti @-@ Terrorism Act , that nation 's first anti @-@ terrorism law . The United Kingdom passed the Anti @-@ terrorism , Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 . New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 .
In the United States , the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act to coordinate domestic anti @-@ terrorism efforts . The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers , including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge , to monitor telephone communications , e @-@ mail , and Internet use by terror suspects , and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions . The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes , and assigned sky marshals to flights . Further , the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government , rather than airports , responsible for airport security . The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage , causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy .
= = Investigations = =
= = = FBI = = =
Immediately after the attacks , the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM , the largest criminal inquiry in the history of the United States . At its height , more than half of the FBI 's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half @-@ million leads . The FBI concluded that there was " clear and irrefutable " evidence linking al @-@ Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks .
The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers , including leader Mohamed Atta , when his luggage was discovered at Boston 's Logan Airport . Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19 @-@ seat commuter flight he took to Boston . Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays , the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned . The luggage contained the hijackers ' names , assignments and al @-@ Qaeda connections . " It had all these Arab @-@ language ( sic ) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation " , said one FBI agent . Within hours of the attacks , the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers . On September 27 , 2001 , they released photos of all 19 hijackers , along with information about possible nationalities and aliases . Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia , two from the United Arab Emirates , one from Egypt , and one from Lebanon .
By midday , the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden . Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000 and hijacker Mohammed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan . He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg . One of the members of the Hamburg cell was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheik Mohammed who was identified as a member of al @-@ Qaeda .
Authorities in the United States and Britain also obtained electronic intercepts , including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers , which indicate that Mohammed Atef , a bin Laden deputy , was a key figure in the planning of the 9 / 11 attacks . Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan . In those conversations , the two referred to " an incident that would take place in America on , or around , September 11 " and they discussed potential repercussions . In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan , bin Laden discussed the " scale and effects of a forthcoming operation . " These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center or Pentagon , or other specifics .
= = = CIA = = =
The Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) conducted an internal review of the agency 's pre @-@ 9 / 11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism . He criticized their failure to stop two of the 9 / 11 hijackers , Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI . In May 2007 , senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public . One of the backers , Senator Ron Wyden said , " The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9 / 11 . "
= = = Congressional inquiry = = =
In February 2002 the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community . Their 832 page report released in December 2002 detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information , including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States , in order to disrupt the plots . The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non @-@ classified sources . Nevertheless , the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified . In December 2002 the inquiry 's chair Bob Graham ( D @-@ FL ) revealed in an interview that there was " evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States . " September 11th victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission . September 11th victim families , members of congress and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents . In June 2016 , CIA chief John Brennan says that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9 / 11 will soon be made public , and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks .
= = = 9 / 11 Commission = = =
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States ( 9 / 11 Commission ) , chaired by Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton , was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks , including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks . On July 22 , 2004 , the Commission issued the 9 / 11 Commission Report . The report detailed the events of 9 / 11 , found the attacks were carried out by members of al @-@ Qaeda , and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks . Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators , Representatives , and Governors , the commissioners explained , " We believe the 9 / 11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures : in imagination , policy , capabilities , and management " . The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks , and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented .
= = = Collapse of the World Trade Center = = =
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC . The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place , and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction . The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008 .
NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers ' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that , had this not occurred , the towers likely would have remained standing . A 2007 study of the north tower 's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that , since the plane 's impact had stripped off much of the structure 's thermal insulation , the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact .
The director of the original investigation stated that , " the towers really did amazingly well . The terrorist aircraft didn 't bring the buildings down ; it was the fire which followed . It was proven that you could take out two thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand . " The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors , making the floors sag . The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward . With the damage to the core columns , the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings , causing them to collapse . Additionally , the report found the towers ' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones . NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently " caused a critical support column to fail , initiating a fire @-@ induced progressive collapse that brought the building down " .
= = Rebuilding = =
On the day of the attacks , New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated : " We will rebuild . We 're going to come out of this stronger than before , politically stronger , economically stronger . The skyline will be made whole again . "
The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks . The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006 . Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing . The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27 , 2006 , and reached its full height on May 20 , 2013 . The spire was installed atop the building at that date , putting 1 WTC 's height at 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere . One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3 , 2014 .
On the World Trade Center site , three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood . Construction has begun on all three of these towers .
= = Memorials = =
In the days immediately following the attacks , many memorials and vigils were held around the world , and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero . A witness described being unable to " get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed . Their pictures are everywhere , on phone booths , street lights , walls of subway stations . Everything reminded me of a huge funeral , people quiet and sad , but also very nice . Before , New York gave me a cold feeling ; now people were reaching out to help each other . "
One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light , an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers . In New York , the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site . The winning design , Reflecting Absence , was selected in August 2006 , and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers , surrounded by a list of the victims ' names in an underground memorial space .
The Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008 . It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon . When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001 – 2002 , a private chapel and indoor memorial were included , located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building .
In Shanksville , a permanent Flight 93 National Memorial is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site , bisected by the plane 's path , while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims . A temporary memorial is located 500 yards ( 457 m ) from the crash site . New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon . It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25 , 2008 . Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere . Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims ' families , and by many other organizations and private figures .
On every anniversary , in New York City , the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music . The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon , and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence . Smaller services are held in Shanksville , Pennsylvania , which are usually attended by the President 's spouse .
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= Loyalty to Loyalty =
Loyalty to Loyalty is the second studio album by American indie rock band Cold War Kids . It was released on September 23 , 2008 by Downtown Records .
Following the success of their debut album Robbers & Cowards and spending the rest of 2007 touring across North America and Europe , the band started recording new material for their next album over the course of four months . Taking its title from the paper of the same name by American philosopher Josiah Royce , Loyalty to Loyalty carries a darker tone than its previous album by having a more experimental sound throughout and songs that deal with philosophies and politics , including suicide , crisis of faith , public security and job satisfaction .
The album received a generally positive reception but critics said it was uneven in terms of songwriting and performance . Loyalty to Loyalty debuted at number 21 on the Billboard 200 and spawned two singles : " Something Is Not Right with Me " and " I 've Seen Enough " , the former was voted number 38 in the Triple J Hottest 100 in 2008 . To promote the album , the band toured across North America , Europe and Australia with appearances at music festivals and talk shows .
= = Background = =
Cold War Kids released their debut album Robbers & Cowards on October 11 , 2006 . The album garnered a largely positive reception from critics , but Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media criticized the band for its songwriting , melodies and Christian symbolism , saying that " Robbers and Cowards insults our intelligence a few times too often . " Cat Dirt Sez of the San Diego CityBeat said that Hogan 's review was an example of lazy journalism , with lead guitarist Jonnie Russell saying that the reviewer wanted a wittier approach to the album rather than a thoughtful assessment of it . To promote the album , the band spent most of 2007 touring across North America and Europe through appearances at music festivals and talk shows . Bassist Matt Maust said that touring exhausted the band and that they were eager to return to the studio to write new material for their next album .
Loyalty to Loyalty 's title comes from a paper of the same name by American philosopher Josiah Royce , in which he challenged Friedrich Nietzsche 's ideas about " will to power " and the übermensch , " saying that the ultimate pursuit of mankind should be to live in community and embrace each other , not to try to trample each other and rise to the top . " Maust said that he could relate to that phrase with the band saying that it 's " very similar to how [ we ] conduct ourselves , the way that [ we ] write songs and the way that [ we ] view each other in the band . No one person is writing for the other person , but we are loyal to each other . We 're loyal to loyalty . " For the recording process , Maust explained that they took four months to experiment with deeper and grittier sounds they were comfortable with , compared to the first record that took eight days to create that carried " a much more polished , for @-@ radio sound . " He also commented that the overall dark tone throughout the album was the cause of constant touring across Europe , but said that it did more good than harm for the band because it led to them crafting songs that weren 't written from the perspective of being on the road .
= = Music and lyrics = =
For the techniques used to craft the overall sound of the album , August Brown of the Los Angeles Times described the band foregoing the use of full chords and verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse structures in favor of " distant guitar effects , crunchy bass grooves and smatterings of percussion . " Regarding the songs from the album , Maust said that lead singer Nathan Willett 's lyrics were a mixture of folk tales and topical stories , stating that " a lot of people say the last record was more about yesteryear . This [ new record ] has some of that , but it 's much more today . The characters are people from today . " The thirteen tracks off the album deal with a variety of philosophies and politics that range from contemplating suicide , crisis of faith , alienation , anonymity , public security and job satisfaction .
Opening track " Against Privacy " was described by Willett as a " bohemian manifesto " made by a person with an affinity for the arts and wanting to live on an art commune . " Mexican Dogs " was written by the band during a trip in Mexico City where they saw a pack of unnamed three @-@ legged dogs running wild across the field . Maust said that he saw it as a metaphor for how the band operates as a whole , saying it 's " the way we conduct business as a band and art as a band . The way we write songs is very community oriented and very democratic . " The overall sound of the track is reminiscent of boogie rock . The track " Every Valley Is Not a Lake " was a song that was left off Robbers & Cowards . It tells the story about a mother lecturing her daughter about going wild in the world and the consequences she may face if not careful . The song utilizes jazz piano for its melodies . " Something Is Not Right with Me " is an upbeat track about a person losing touch with the revolving world and its constant changes from people to technology . Critics described the song as having " Stones @-@ styled bluesy licks " and " Lodger @-@ era Bowie rhythms . "
" Welcome to the Occupation " is about a teacher limited with his career who strives to be an artist . Willett was inspired by his job as an English high school teacher in Torrance to write the song , saying that it didn 't give him " a lot of creative space to really be very inspired to be a teacher . " " Golden Gate Jumpers " is about a woman who goes to the Golden Gate Bridge and contemplates taking her life away . The tracks " Avalanche in B " and " I 've Seen Enough " were originally conceived by the band as one @-@ long track but instead cut into two songs . The former uses snow as a metaphor for how bleak and empty life is when it is coming straight towards you . The latter was created during a jam session in which the band played one continuous chord progression that stuck with them throughout the session . " Every Man I Fall For " is about a woman 's perspective on relationships . Inspired by his own mother 's relationship with men , Willett saw something he could craft from that emotion , saying that it 's " important to me in ways , because it was something I always saw in relationships ; like my mom being a single mother and seeing how men treat these women and how they operate in relationships . "
" Dreams Old Men Dream " was inspired by the Ingmar Bergman film Wild Strawberries and Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's short story The Dream of a Ridiculous Man . It tells the story of an elderly man reflecting back on the life he had and what he wished he had done before . " On the Night My Love Broke Through " was the last song made for the album that was recorded live . It was inspired by the works of German @-@ American poet Charles Bukowski . " Relief " is written from the perspective of a person that questions God 's way of controlling the Earth and handling its inhabitants . God himself answers the person 's question when Willett sings , " Flash flood , you got too comfortable , so I showed you , who 's really in control . " The overall sound of the track is described as electronica in the vein of " mid @-@ era Radiohead . " The album closer , " Cryptomnesia " , was inspired by a case involving Russian @-@ American novelist Vladimir Nabokov being accused of plagiarism involving his 1955 novel Lolita . Willett said that it is " an apt word for the way history seeps into his songwriting today . "
= = Singles and promotion = =
The band released a one @-@ minute long " teaser " for the album on their YouTube page on June 25 , 2008 . The album 's lead single , " Something Is Not Right with Me " , first appeared on the Cold War Kids Myspace page in July 2008 and was given an official release on September 1 , 2008 through iTunes . It debuted and peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart ; their second top 40 hit on that chart . A music video directed by Sophie Muller was created for the single and premiered on the band 's YouTube page on September 17 , 2008 . The song was voted number 38 in the Triple J Hottest 100 , 2008 . A second single , " I 've Seen Enough " , was released on October 22 , 2008 but failed to chart . Two music videos were created to promote the single . The first video was directed by Vern Moen and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , premiering on the band 's YouTube page on February 23 , 2009 . The second video was a collaboration with director Sam Jones ( who had previously directed I Am Trying to Break Your Heart : A Film About Wilco ) and his production company Tool of North America . The video was interactive and involved each band member playing his instrument solo on a dark stage , with the viewers given free rein to choose which instruments were played and to make their own mixes of the song . The video was nominated in the ' Online Film & Video ' category for Best Use of Interactive Video at the 2010 Webby Awards and won the People 's Choice Award .
On July 25 , the band announced a 55 @-@ city nationwide tour to promote Loyalty to Loyalty ahead of its release , beginning with Byron Bay 's Splendour in the Grass festival and finishing at Paris ' Bataclan . The tour was marked with several festival appearances at Belladrum and Outside Lands . During that tour , they made television appearances on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson .
= = Critical reception = =
Loyalty to Loyalty received generally favorable reviews but music critics were divided by the band 's musical departure and Nathan Willett 's delivery in terms of performance and songwriting . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 66 , based on 20 reviews .
James McMahon of NME praised the band for their production and songwriting , concluding with " Almost in defiance of poor sales and cult following , CWK and their charming second album embody everything you hoped music might be . " Bart Blasengame of Paste found the album " [ to be ] more interesting than Robbers and Cowards , " praising the band for the new direction in their sound and calling it " a better @-@ than @-@ solid album from a band that seemed equipped to someday make a classic one . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone commended the band for continuing with their blues rock sound , saying that " Cold War Kids attack their songs with unusual intensity , infusing even the most nourish , unsettling songs – fractured narratives about hipster bohemia and suicide – with a feeling enchantment . "
Rudy Klap of Sputnikmusic gave praise to the production and songwriting , singling out " Golden Gate Jumpers " with having " one of the record 's best lyrics and melodies , " but was critical of Willett 's performance saying that " his voice can turn from interesting and fresh to grating and intolerable with just a few misplaced falsettos . " Heather Phares of AllMusic was also critical about Willett throughout the album , finding his voice " unfettered to the point of grating ( " Something Is Not Right with Me " ) " and lyrics to be " overworked instead of clever ( " Against Privacy " ) " but found some of the songs carried sharp songwriting skills ( " Golden Gate Jumpers " ) and flair ( " I 've Seen Enough " ) concluding that " Cold War Kids deserve credit for their ambitions , but there 's a fine line between trying hard and trying too hard . More often than not , Loyalty to Loyalty takes a disappointing stumble on it . "
Chris Mincher of The A.V. Club was disappointed with the album , finding it stripped of its songwriting and control in lead singer Nathan Willett 's voice from their debut album . Blake Solomon of AbsolutePunk found the album lacking in terms of instrumentals and songwriting saying , " It 's easy to see the great ideas from previous songs at work here , but there seems to be an intentional restraint placed on the band 's likeable pop inclinations . " The Guardian criticized the album for its lackluster blues rock production and Willett 's performance , saying " his voice is too drearily clean @-@ cut to deliver a true emotional punch . " Ian Cohen of Pitchfork Media felt that the album was hampered by the band 's uninspired musicianship and songwriting and the hype surrounding them , saying that " Proponents raved that Cold War Kids arrived fully formed , but as the band continues to stubbornly emphasize their weaknesses , Loyalty To Loyalty is proof that their detractors can say the same thing . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Loyalty to Loyalty was the band 's first album to reach the top 50 on the Billboard 200 , debuting at number 21 with 22 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It later dropped to number 74 the next week before leaving the chart . It additionally charted within the top 40 of several additional territories , surpassing what Robbers & Cowards achieved previously . The record debuted at number 20 in Australia before dropping to number 35 the next week and leaving the chart . It debuted at numbers 29 and 48 in Belgium and France respectively ( whereas their previous album charted at numbers 43 and 79 ) . However , it charted thirty @-@ three spots lower than Robbers & Cowards in the United Kingdom , entering at number 68 in that country for one week .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Cold War Kids .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from the Loyalty to Loyalty inlay notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Lice ( The Office ) =
" Lice " is the tenth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode was written by Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright and directed by Rodman Flender . It originally aired on NBC on January 10 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Julius " Dr. J " Erving as himself .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) accidentally brings lice into the office but lets Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) take the fall while Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) vows to destroy the parasites . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) spends a great day in Philadelphia with a potential business associate ( Erving ) ; Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) interfere with Darryl Philbin 's ( Craig Robinson ) love life .
" Lice " received mixed reviews from television critics ; many reviewers enjoyed the emphasis the episode placed on Flannery 's character , although others felt the story did not work . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 54 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot . The episode ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) finds managing her household without her husband Jim ( John Krasinski ) to be more difficult than anticipated , as she struggles with duties such as taking out the trash . Her already frazzled condition worsens when she finds lice on her daughter Cece , leaving her no choice but to wash all the clothing in the house . At work the next day , she notices Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) frantically scratching her head , and realizes she may have transferred the lice from Cece to the office . She initiates an investigation and Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) finds that all of the employees except Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) have lice . Given her disregard for cleanliness , the employees assume Meredith is responsible ; Pam defends her but neglects to admit her guilt . To eliminate the lice , Meredith shaves her head . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) also overreacts , donning a hazmat suit and accidentally exposing himself to a hallucinogenic bug bomb that causes him to faint . On Erin 's advice , the other infected employees pair up to put mayonnaise on each other 's hair to suffocate the lice , which allows Pete ( Jake Lacy ) and Erin to spend time together and Angela Martin to prank Oscar Martinez in retaliation for his affair with her husband . Pam 's mother calls to inform her that Cece still has lice ; the other staff overhear and realize Pam is responsible for the lice infestation , much to Meredith 's delight .
Meanwhile , Jim goes to Philadelphia to meet with a potential investor in his sports marketing company ; the investor is none other than Julius " Dr. J " Erving , a personal hero of Jim 's . Being sensitive to how difficult it must be to manage the house and kids by herself , Jim doesn 't tell her who the investor is during their phone conversations and pretends to be stressed over the meeting ; Pam , in turn , affects to be having no problems so that she won 't add to Jim 's supposed stress . Back at the office , Pam apologizes to Meredith , and the two go out for a beer . While at the bar , Pam tells Meredith — who is a single parent — she now realizes how hard it is to handle children without a husband .
The uninfected workers are sent down to the warehouse to avoid contracting lice . Darryl had recently manipulated the warehouse foreman Val ( Ameenah Kaplan ) into breaking up with him because he wanted to have a new start when he moves to Philadelphia for his job at Jim 's new sports marketing company . Darryl tells the others about this so that they will be careful what they say to Val . Nellie , Phyllis , and Kevin confront Val and try to convince her to take Darryl back , to no avail . However , when Kevin then tries to get a date with Val , she is so mortified at her apparent dating prospects that she decides to get back together with Darryl , much to his annoyance .
= = Production = =
" Lice " was written by story editor Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright , marking her debut writing credit for the series . It was directed by Rodman Flender . This marked his second directorial effort for the series , after the earlier ninth season entry " The Whale " . As mentioned before , the episode guest starred Erving as himself . In addition , " Lice " featured performances by Ameenah Kaplan , who reprised her role as Val ; and Linda Purl as Pam 's mother , whose voice was heard on the phone . Kate Flannery did not actually shave her head for the episode . According to her Twitter account , make @-@ up artist Ed French was responsible for the bald cap and Kim M. Ferry designed the shaved hair effect . According to the actress , the prosthetics took three hours to apply . Afterwards , she joked that she has " newfound respect for the actors in Planet of the Apes ! " This is the third episode to not feature Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) or Clark ( Clark Duke ) . Helms left the show temporarily in the season 's sixth episode " The Boat " in order to film The Hangover Part III , whereas Duke left for a few episodes to film Kick @-@ Ass 2 .
The scenes at the end of the episode take place at The Bog ; this is an actual bar in Scranton . In addition , the exterior shots were all actually filmed in Scranton . In order to secure permission , the series ' production staff phoned the bar 's co @-@ owner , Brian Craig , and requested that the bar be featured on the show . Reportedly , parts of the scenes were filmed with an iPhone .
= = Cultural references = =
Jim compares spending a day with Julius Erving to a hypothetical situation wherein Pam would spend the day with John Stamos . Pam and Meredith bond over karaoke , and the two sing the song " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " , which was made famous by Cyndi Lauper in 1983 .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Lice " originally aired on NBC on January 10 , 2013 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 54 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The Office ranked third in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS series Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 percent rating , and an entry of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 percent rating . In addition , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program on the night it aired . The episode was the twenty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched episode of television for the week it aired in the 18 – 49 demographic , with 2 @.@ 772 million viewers in the age group .
= = = Reviews = = =
USA Today writer Whitney Matheson called the episode " the funniest ep this season " and that " it also ranks as one of the best since Steve Carell 's departure in 2011 " . She lauded Flannery 's performance , writing that " the actress has never made me laugh harder than on last night 's episode " . Mark Trammell of TV Equals called the episode " excellent " ; he was particularly pleased with the episode 's humor . Michael Tedder of Vulture awarded the episode four out of five stars and said that it allowed Meredith , who until the episode had been " a mostly one @-@ dimensional source of promiscuity jokes " to have " two dimensions for once " . He also applauded Fischer 's performance , writing that it " would make for a terrific Emmy submission episode " .
Farihah Zaman of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " and criticized its excessive narrative threads . She felt that Pam and Jim 's separation brought " out the worst in them " , but that " the same situations that force Jim and Pam to confront their flaws reveal the overlooked strengths of a couple of less prominent characters " . She also wrote that the ending was " touching " because it humanized Meredith and made her out as a " badass " . Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a score of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , denoting a " good " episode . She felt that the final scenes with Pam and Meredith singing were " a nice callback to the show 's glory days " and made the ending feel " layered and grounded " . White also applauded the short sequence that showed many of the office staff mundanely going about their day with mayonnaise on their heads , noting that the pacing was reminiscent of the first season when the episodes " had room to breathe " . White , however , did feel that Jim 's storyline was too reminiscent of the story arc in the fifth season when Pam went to art school .
Nick Campbell of TV.com wrote an extremely negative review of the episode and called it " terrible " . He felt that Pam 's behavior due to Jim being gone was uncalled for . Furthermore , he felt that Dwight " swung too far into the territory that is known as ' annoying caricature ' " . Campbell did , however , write highly of Ellie Kemper , saying that " she 's played [ her character ] funnily and warmly as anyone else " . Several reviewers argued that the episode functioned as a filler episode . Brett Davinger of The California Literary Review called it the " epitome of filler " . ScreenCrush reviewer Damon Houx wrote that " if everyone were in the same location this would be a bottle episode " . Furthermore , Darryl 's subplot was mostly criticized . Tedder wrote that while " it 's fine to have a story line where someone pursues something and then realizes it wasn 't what it was cracked up to be " he wished that the show had actually developed Val as a character . White wrote that she did not enjoy seeing " this manipulative version of Darryl " because it contrasted with his earlier characterization in episodes like " The Deposition " . Zaman called the subplot " surprising " .
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= Christina Milian ( album ) =
Christina Milian is the self @-@ titled debut studio album by American singer Christina Milian released by Def Soul on October 9 , 2001 . Its release was postponed because of the September 11 attacks , which occurred just two weeks before its release date . Her label opted to release it later that year in Europe , but due to changing music trends , Milian decided not to release the album domestically .
Milian made her first professional musical appearance on Ja Rule 's single " Between Me and You " , which led to a record deal with Def Soul and The Inc . Records in 2000 . Milian traveled to Sweden where she collaborated with several producers , most notably Bloodshy & Avant , who helmed five tracks . Milian co @-@ wrote eleven of the twelve songs on the album , taking inspiration from personal experiences . The album 's musical style is mostly dance and R & B , and critics noted similarities to her contemporaries Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . Milian was displeased by Def Soul 's portrayal of her image , which she felt was constantly changing and confusing the audience .
The critical response to Christina Milian was mixed ; critics who gave a positive review enjoyed the catchy tracks and lead single " AM to PM " , while others found that it lacked original ideas . The album peaked at number 23 in the UK , selling a total of 101 @,@ 986 copies , and achieved Silver certification . Internationally , the album also charted in the Netherlands , Sweden and France . The album spawned two singles , " AM to PM " and When You Look at Me " , which charted worldwide .
= = Background = =
When Milian moved to Los Angeles at the age of 13 , she wanted to be in the record business , but did not know how to obtain a recording contract . After living in Los Angeles for six months , Milian moved into the same apartment complex as songwriter and producer Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins . Jerkins heard about Milian from a boy band he was working with and once he heard her sing , they began working together . For a year and a half , Milian went into a studio everyday and worked with Jerkins , which is where she started meeting people in the record business .
Milian began writing songs at the age of seventeen because she needed a demo to help her obtain a recording contract . According to Milian , every time she recorded a song , the producer would refuse to give her the demo , or would write lyrics that she did not agree with . She felt that she had to write a song , record a demo , and send it out on her own .
Milian made her first professional musical appearance on Ja Rule 's second studio album Rule 3 : 36 , performing vocals on the song " Between Me and You " . The song was released as the album 's lead single in 2000 , peaking at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 , and in the top thirty of the UK Singles Chart . Milian then co @-@ wrote and performed backing vocals for the track " Play " for Jennifer Lopez 's album J.Lo ( 2001 ) . " Play " was released as the second single from the album and was a commercial success , peaking at number 3 in the UK and number 18 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Production and composition = =
Following her collaboration with Ja Rule , Milian signed a deal with Island Def Jam Music Group in 2000 . Milian traveled to Sweden and recorded her self @-@ titled debut album , working with the popular producers of that time . Milian collaborated with Bloodshy & Avant , Jermaine Dupri , Focus , Irv Gotti , Mark Hill , Montell Jordan and Evan Rogers . Soren Baker of the Los Angeles Times later suggested that instead of launching her career off the success of " Between Me and You " , and by recording in Sweden without the " platinum production touch " of Irv Gotti , the owner of The Inc . Records , the momentum created by the song had evaporated . Milian received writing credit for eleven of the twelve songs on the album . It was during the production of the album that Milian had first started to write songs , and wrote about things that she could relate to at the time .
Milian described the sound of the album as " hip hop under @-@ toned with nice , pop melodies " , and later said the genre of the album was " bubble @-@ gum pop " . She described lead single " AM to PM " as a " very pop " and " fun , party / club song " . The genre of the album was described by one critic as " light @-@ hearted , energetic R & B pop tunes " . Critics compared Milian to Janet Jackson and Aaliyah . Sonically , the album was said to stick " rigidly to the sherbert @-@ snorting pop formula of Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera " . One reviewer compared Milian to other singers of her generation , and found that " while Spears has gone raunchy with ' I Love Rock ' n ' Roll ' , Christina Aguilera down and dirty on Stripped , and even clean @-@ cut Mandy Moore has brashly cut her hair Felicity @-@ style , Milian still seems young and real . " The critic also compared Milian to Beyoncé Knowles , " while Beyonce is shaking her bootylicious body like crazy on ' Crazy In Love ' , Milian is simply enjoying becoming a young star . "
Many live instruments were used during the album 's production , especially violin . Milian named " You Make Me Laugh " one of her favorite songs on the album . It was the first song written by Milian for the album , and she worked with Bloodshy for the song 's production . The album 's second and final single , " When You Look at Me " , was written by Milian . Using her school days as the inspiration for the song , Milian said that " when I was growing up , I found people were always trying to label me . The first day of school it would be like ' Here comes this girl all dressed up . She thinks she 's all that ' and they didn 't even know me . The message behind ' When You Look At Me ' is never judge a book by its cover . " Milian asked Ja Rule to appear on her album , however she did not want to put him " on just any song " , and wanted to make sure it was the right song for him . Milian hoped Ja Rule would appear on the track " A Girl Like Me " , but he ended up rapping on " Get Away " . Milian co @-@ wrote the track " Twitch " with R & B singer Montell Jordan , which explains that men have a certain twitch of their shoulders whenever they tell lies .
= = Critical reception = =
The critical response to the album was mixed to generally positive . Imran Ahmed of the New Musical Express enjoyed " genius single ' AM to PM ' " , and praised the tracks " Got to Have You " and " When You Look at Me " . Ahmed guessed that " beneath the froth , there 's a certain depth of soul " in Milian , and thought " Get Away " had similar excellent results to her previous collaboration with Ja Rule , " Between Me and You " . The reviewer also commended the lyrics of " Twitch " , which he thought was " remarkable for being what may be the first ever song about someone with a facial tic " . Ahmed was impressed that alongside the impressive production credit list , it was " still Milian 's name that tops the list of executive producers " , and predicted , " genius can 't be more than a few albums away " . Contrastingly , Andrew Lynch of entertainment.ie described the album as " relentlessly ordinary " , and suggested that Milian needed original ideas . The reviewer felt that apart from " AM to PM " and " You Make Me Laugh " there was nothing above the average . Lynch said that if Milian " really wants to compete with the big girls , she badly needs to spice up her tired formula . "
A reviewer for Dawn commended the album for being " full of danceable , likeable tracks , and even the occasional , successful ballad like ' Until I Get Over You ' " . The reviewer called the album to be " a refreshing change with its charming lyrics and teen outlook " . " AM to PM " was said to hint at " quite a lot of talent " , and was praised for its " slick lyrics , a fast pace , and a phat vibe " . The reviewer also praised " When You Look at Me " , " Get Away " , and " Got to Have You " . Carmen Meyer of iafrica.com found the " smooth , groovy and refreshing " album to be filled " with light @-@ hearted and catchy tracks , which can be enjoyed either in a club , your car or even when chilling at home . " She commented on the album 's tracks , which ranged from " melodic and heart @-@ rending ballads to funky dance beats that are bound to keep you moving " . Meyer praised the " infectious " " AM to PM " , the " exciting " " A Girl Like Me " , and " Till I Get Over You " , which is " guaranteed to pull at your heartstrings and make you want to pull your loved ones closer " .
= = Release and commercial performance = =
The album was released on October 21 , 2001 in the United Kingdom . It peaked at number 23 in the UK , selling a total of 101 @,@ 986 copies , and achieved Silver certification . Internationally , the album peaked at number 36 in the Netherlands , 98 in Sweden , and 138 in France . Two weeks before the album 's release in the U.S. , the September 11 attacks occurred and the release date was postponed , eventually released three years later . The album 's lead single , " AM to PM " , peaked at number three in the UK , the top five in Denmark , the top 10 in the Netherlands , and the top 30 in Australia and the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . The album 's second and final single , " When You Look at Me " , reached number three in the UK and in the Netherlands , the top 10 in Australia , and the top 20 in Denmark and France . A music video for the track " Get Away " was filmed in Paris , although it was not officially released as a single . To promote the album , Milian toured with NSYNC , serving as the opening act . Band member JC Chasez said , " she was like the cute , spunky kid sister . Not everyone could take Justin 's practical jokes or my teasing . "
Milian believed that the public expected " a certain thing " from her when she first appeared with Ja Rule , however she wanted to record the type of music she was signed to do . She said that " AM to PM " was a " cool record " , but it was not what the public expected . Milian felt that her record label was confused as to how they wanted her image to be portrayed ; one second she was young and singing " AM to PM " , and next she was a grown woman singing " Get Away " . She realized that the change confused the audience , and that " nobody was buying it " . To explain that she was serious about her musical career , Milian approached the executives at Island Def Jam , and " cussed them all out " , telling them that they were not listening to her .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
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= The Old Man and the " C " Student =
" The Old Man and the " C " Student " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 25 , 1999 . In the episode , after offending the Olympic committee during their visit to Springfield Elementary , the school 's students are committed to 20 hours of community service . Bart , along with his sister Lisa , is put in charge of Springfield 's retirement home , where Bart notices the doldrums that the old people go through every day . Meanwhile , Bart and Lisa 's father Homer tries to sell springs .
" The Old Man and the " C " Student " was directed by Mark Kirkland and was the first episode Julie Thacker wrote for The Simpsons . While Bart 's storyline was pitched by Thacker , the B @-@ story , involving Homer , was conceived by Thacker 's husband Mike Scully , who also was an executive producer and the showrunner for the episode . Jack Lalanne guest @-@ starred as himself in the episode .
On its original broadcast , " The Old Man and the " C " Student " was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 9 million viewers . Following the release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
When Lisa writes a letter to the International Olympic Committee , they decide that Springfield will be home to the next Olympics . To honor the Olympics , there is a contest for the games ' mascot . Homer creates a mascot for the Olympic Games named Springy , the Springfield Spring , which becomes the mascot ( much to Patty and Selma 's dismay , who created a mascot named Ciggy the Cigarette ) and everyone in Springfield prepares for the games . When the IOC inspects the town , things go well until Bart does a stand @-@ up comedy routine that insults foreign nations , which only Principal Skinner , Homer , and the children find funny . In response , the IOC decides not to let Springfield have the Olympics anymore ( they award it to Shelbyville , who presumably and chronologically lost it to Sydney ) , and Superintendent Chalmers blames Skinner for putting Bart on stage with his racy jokes . Skinner initially keeps his case strong by telling Chalmers that the comedy worked well during rehearsal , but to prevent losing his job , he makes every one of the school 's students do 20 hours of community service . After sending Milhouse to collect medical waste on the beach and leaving Martin to start a basketball program between inter @-@ city gangs , Skinner has Bart assigned to work at the Springfield Retirement Castle , where Lisa also works voluntarily . Bart is dismayed at how little the seniors are allowed to do .
Meanwhile , Homer gets 1 @,@ 000 springs he intended to sell as Olympic mascots . He uses various get @-@ rich @-@ quick schemes to sell off the mascots , but fails miserably due to Springfield 's hatred of Bart 's comedy routine . Ultimately , he is forced to flush the mascots down the toilet . At the time Lisa leads the seniors in " imagination time " , but when she departs , Bart makes the seniors escape to get a taste of freedom . Bart takes the seniors on a trip on the town and on a boat ride , and Lisa is initially shocked to see these things happen , but nevertheless , she is quite impressed by what Bart does for the seniors . The seniors have fun until their boat crashes into Mr. Burns 's schooner . The boat begins to sink and the seniors turn on Bart , but Grampa defends him , saying Bart gave them the best fun they have had in years . However , the springs that Homer flushed down the toilet save them , causing the boat to bob up at the surface long enough for the Coast Guard to rescue everyone . Bart finishes his community service time , but decides to help the seniors still enjoy themselves .
= = Production = =
" The Old Man and the " C " Student " was directed by Mark Kirkland and was the first episode Julie Thacker wrote for The Simpsons . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on April 25 , 1999 . The episode 's plot was based on a " disastrous " school program , in which students had to participate in community service in order to be allowed to advance to the next grade . Thacker , whose oldest daughter was a student at the school , was signed up to do community service at an old folks home in the town they lived in . It became the inspiration for the episode 's A @-@ story , while the B @-@ story , which involved Homer selling springs , was conceived by Thacker 's husband Mike Scully , an executive producer and the showrunner for the episode .
In a scene in the episode , Lenny gets one of Homer 's springs stuck in his eye . Lenny 's eye injuries have since become a running gag , and " The Old Man and the " C " Student " " started the trend " , according to Thacker . The " clunky , Up With People @-@ type " dance that the students perform for the Olympic jury was partly demonstrated during the animatic by Simpsons writer George Meyer . When Meyer later watched the episode , he found out , to his " horror " , that he had been given a choreographer credit at the end of the episode . The episode features American fitness expert Jack Lalanne as himself . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that Lalanne was " very funny " and that he " gave a great performance " . Lalanne 's lines were recorded separately from the series main cast members .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode title is a reference to the novel and film " The Old Man and the Sea " . In the beginning of the episode , a sign reading " International Olympic Committee " can be seen . The logo below the text parodies the logo of the real International Olympic Committee . Because they did not want to " upset " the committee , the Simpsons staff slightly altered the logo by changing the colors and not making the rings interlock . In a scene in the episode , the old people can be seen watching an edited and over @-@ dubbed version of the 1939 film Gone With the Wind . The nurse that works in the old folks home is based on Nurse Ratched from the American drama film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . The film is referenced again in a scene where Bart takes the old folks on a boat trip and a scene where a Native American chief in the old folk 's home throws a dishwasher through a window , and jumps out , mirroring the last scene in the film . The character then returns , and hands Lisa a pamphlet that reads " Prop 217 " . The pamphlet is a reference to Proposition 217 , a proposition that allowed Native Americans to operate casinos in certain states . It is also a reference to the day Scully and Thacker met , which was on February 17 . The scene in which Smithers is drawing a portrait of Mr Burns is a reference to the 1997 drama film Titanic . The scene where the old people celebrate their escape from the home is a reference to a sequence from The Beatles ' 1964 film A Hard Day 's Night . Both are set to the group 's song " Can 't Buy Me Love " , although in the episode the song is a cover performed by NRBQ . During the end credits , an album cover reading " A Bart Day 's Night " , a reference to The Beatles ' album A Hard Day 's Night , the film 's soundtrack , is shown . " Can 't Buy Me Love " also plays over the end credits .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 25 , 1999 , " The Old Man and the " C " Student " received a 6 @.@ 9 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode finished in 41st place in the ratings for the week of April 19 – 25 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Julie Thacker , Ron Hauge , Nancy Cartwright and Mark Kirkland participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " The Old Man and the " C " Student " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Aaron Roxby of Collider gave it a positive review , calling it one the season 's best episodes . He wrote " The Simpsons has always been great about addressing / mocking the way that out culture treats the elderly . " He added that Lenny 's eye injury gave the episode " Extra points " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide described the episode as " A marvellous feel @-@ good story " and " Very sweet , very endearing . " They added that the " stereotyped Olympic Committee debate " at the beginning of the episode is " marvellous " , and concluded by describing the episode as " terrific " . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide was positive as well , writing " I gotta admit I like Springy , the Olympic mascot , and the spring @-@ related aspects of the show entertain . " He added that the story involving Bart " offer more than a few good moments , " and concluded by writing " Though the episode never quite excels , it ’ s pretty solid . " James Plath of DVD Town called it an " okay " episode . Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News described the episode as " not @-@ so @-@ good , " adding that " by this point , this show has expended just about every old folks joke there is . " However , he also wrote that " ' I want some taquitos ' never grows old . "
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= Lynching of Jesse Washington =
Jesse Washington , a teenage black farmhand , was lynched in Waco , Texas , on May 15 , 1916 , in what became a well @-@ known example of racially motivated lynching . Washington was convicted of raping and murdering Lucy Fryer , the wife of his white employer in rural Robinson , Texas . There were no eyewitnesses to the crime , but during his interrogation by the McLennan County sheriff he signed a confession and described the location of the murder weapon .
Washington was tried for murder in Waco , in a courtroom filled with furious locals . He entered a guilty plea and was quickly sentenced to death . After his sentence was pronounced , he was dragged out of the court by observers and lynched in front of Waco 's city hall . Over 10 @,@ 000 spectators , including city officials and police , gathered to watch the attack . There was a celebratory atmosphere at the event , and many children attended during their lunch hour . Members of the mob castrated Washington , cut off his fingers , and hung him over a bonfire . He was repeatedly lowered and raised over the fire for about two hours . After the fire was extinguished , his charred torso was dragged through the town and parts of his body were sold as souvenirs . A professional photographer took pictures as the event unfolded , providing rare imagery of a lynching in progress . The pictures were printed and sold as postcards in Waco .
Although the lynching was supported by many Waco residents , it was condemned by newspapers around the United States . The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) hired Elisabeth Freeman to investigate ; she conducted a detailed probe in Waco , despite the reluctance of many residents to speak about the event . After receiving Freeman 's report on the lynching , NAACP co @-@ founder and editor W. E. B. Du Bois published an in @-@ depth report featuring photographs of Washington 's charred body in The Crisis , and the NAACP featured his death in their anti @-@ lynching campaign . Although Waco had been regarded as a modern , progressive city , the lynching demonstrated that it still tolerated racial violence ; the event was nicknamed the " Waco horror " . The city subsequently gained a reputation for racism , but city leaders prevented violence on several occasions in subsequent decades . Historians have noted that Washington 's death helped alter the way that lynching was viewed ; the publicity it received curbed public support for the practice , which became viewed as barbarism rather than as an acceptable form of justice . In the 1990s and 2000s , some Waco residents lobbied for a monument to the lynching , an idea that has failed to garner wide support in the city .
= = Background = =
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a significant number of lynchings occurred in the Southern United States , primarily of African Americans in the states of Georgia , Mississippi , and Texas . Between 1890 and 1920 , about 3 @,@ 000 African Americans were killed by lynch mobs , usually after whites were the victims of crimes purportedly committed by blacks . Supporters of lynching justified the practice as a way to assert dominance over African Americans , to whom they attributed a criminal nature . Lynching also provided a sense of white solidarity in a culture with changing demographics and power structures . Although lynching was tolerated by much of southern society , opponents of the practice emerged , including some religious leaders and the nascent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) .
In 1916 , Waco , Texas , was a prosperous city with a population of more than 30 @,@ 000 . After it became associated with crime in the 19th century , community leaders sought to change its reputation , sending delegations across the U.S. to promote it as an idyllic locale . By the 1910s , Waco 's economy had become strong and the city had gained a pious reputation . A black middle class had emerged in the area , along with two black colleges . In the mid @-@ 1910s , blacks comprised about twenty percent of the Waco population . In her 2006 study of lynching , journalist Patricia Bernstein describes the city as then having a " thin veneer " of peace and respectability . Racial tension was present in the city : local newspapers often emphasized crimes committed by African Americans , and Sank Majors , a black man , was hanged from a bridge near downtown Waco in 1905 . A small number of anti @-@ lynching activists lived in the area , including the president of Waco 's Baylor University . In 1916 , several factors led to an increase in local racism , including the screening of The Birth of a Nation , a movie that promoted white supremacy and glorified the Ku Klux Klan , and the sale of photographs of a recently lynched black man in Temple , Texas .
= = Murder and arrest = =
In Robinson , Texas , Lucy Fryer was murdered while alone at her house on May 8 , 1916 . She and her husband George were English immigrants , and had become well respected in the rural community where they operated a farm . News of the death quickly reached the McLennan County sheriff , Samuel Fleming , who immediately investigated with a team of law enforcement officers , a group of local men , and a doctor . The doctor determined that Fryer had been killed by blunt @-@ force trauma to the head . The local men suspected that Jesse Washington , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old black man who had worked on the Fryers ' farm for five months , was responsible ; one of them stated that he had seen Washington near the Fryer house a few minutes before Lucy 's body was discovered . That night , sheriff 's deputies traveled to Washington 's home , finding him in front of the house wearing blood @-@ stained overalls . He attributed the stains to a nosebleed . Jesse , his brother William , and their parents were taken to nearby Waco to be questioned by the sheriff 's department ; although Jesse 's parents and brother were released after a short time , he was held for further interrogation . His questioners in Waco reported that he denied complicity in Fryer 's death , but offered contradictory details about his actions . Rumors spread after his arrest that he had been in an altercation with a white man a few days before the murder .
On May 9 , Fleming took Washington to Hill County to prevent vigilante action . The Hill County sheriff , Fred Long , questioned Washington with Fleming ; Washington told them he had killed Fryer following an argument about her mules , and described the murder weapon and its location . Long brought Washington to Dallas , Texas , while Fleming returned to Robinson . Fleming soon reported that he found a bloody hammer where Washington had indicated . In Dallas , Washington dictated and signed a statement that described the rape and murder of Fryer ; the confession was published the next day in Waco newspapers . Newspapers sensationalized the murder , describing Fryer 's attempts to resist Washington 's attack , although the doctor who had examined her body concluded that she was killed before she could resist . A lynch mob assembled in Waco that night to search the local jail , but dispersed after they did not find Washington . Nevertheless , a local paper praised their effort . That night , a small private funeral and burial were held for Lucy Fryer .
On May 11 , a grand jury was assembled in McLennan County and quickly returned an indictment against Washington ; the trial was scheduled for May 15 . The Times @-@ Herald of Waco published a notice on May 12 requesting that residents let the justice system determine Washington 's fate . Fleming traveled to Robinson on May 13 to ask residents to remain calm ; his address was well received . Washington was assigned several inexperienced lawyers . His lawyers prepared no defense , and noted that he appeared placid in the days before the trial .
= = Trial and lynching = =
On the morning of May 15 , Waco 's courthouse quickly filled to capacity in anticipation of the trial : the crowd nearly prevented some jurors from entering . Observers also filled the sidewalks around the courthouse ; over two thousand spectators were present . Attendees were almost entirely white , but a few quiet members of Waco 's black community were present . As Washington was led into the courtroom , one audience member pointed a gun at him , but was quickly overpowered . As the trial commenced , the judge attempted to keep order , insisting that the audience remain silent . Jury selection proceeded quickly : the defense did not challenge any selections of the prosecution . Bernstein states that the trial had a " kangaroo @-@ court atmosphere " . The judge asked Washington for a plea , and explained the potential sentences . Washington muttered a response , possibly " yes " , interpreted by the court as a guilty plea . The prosecution described the charges , and the court heard testimony from law enforcement officers and the doctor who examined Fryer 's body . The doctor discussed how Fryer died , but did not mention rape . The prosecution rested , and Washington 's attorney asked him whether he had committed the offense . Washington replied , " That 's what I done [ sic ] " and quietly apologized . The lead prosecutor addressed the courtroom and declared that the trial had been conducted fairly , prompting an ovation from the crowd . The jury was then sent to deliberate .
After four minutes of deliberation , the jury 's foreman announced a guilty verdict and a sentence of death . The trial lasted about one hour . Court officers approached Washington to escort him away , but were pushed aside by a surge of spectators , who seized Washington and dragged him outside . Washington initially fought back , biting one man , but was soon beaten . A chain was placed around his neck and he was dragged toward city hall by a growing mob ; on the way downtown , he was stripped , stabbed , and repeatedly beaten with blunt objects . By the time he arrived at city hall , a group had prepared wood for a bonfire next to a tree in front of the building . Washington , semiconscious and covered in blood , was doused with oil , hung from the tree by a chain , and then lowered to the ground . Members of the crowd cut off his fingers , toes , and genitals . The fire was lit and Washington was repeatedly raised and lowered into the flames until he burned to death . German scholar Manfred Berg posits that the executioners attempted to keep him alive to increase his suffering . Washington attempted to climb the chain , but was unable to , owing to his lack of fingers . The fire was extinguished after two hours , allowing bystanders to collect souvenirs from the site of the lynching , including Washington 's bones and links of the chain . One attendee kept part of Washington 's genitalia ; a group of children snapped the teeth out of Washington 's head to sell as souvenirs . By the time that the fire was extinguished , parts of Washington 's arms and legs had been burned off and his torso and head were charred . His body was removed from the tree and dragged behind a horse throughout the town . Washington 's remains were transported to Robinson , where they were publicly displayed until a constable obtained the body late in the day and buried it .
The lynching drew a large crowd , including the mayor and the chief of police , although lynching was illegal in Texas . Sheriff Fleming told his deputies not to stop the lynching , and no one was arrested after the event . Bernstein speculates that his actions were motivated by a desire to harshly deal with crime to help his candidacy for re @-@ election that year . Mayor John Dollins may have also encouraged the mob owing to the belief that a lynching would be politically beneficial . The crowd numbered 15 @,@ 000 at its peak . Telephones helped spread word of the lynching , allowing spectators to gather more quickly than was previously possible . Local media reported that " shouts of delight " were heard as Washington burned , although they noted that some attendees disapproved . The Waco Semi @-@ Weekly Tribune maintained that a number of black Waco residents attended , a claim that historian Grace Hale of the University of Virginia sees as dubious . Waco residents , who likely had no connection with the rural Fryer family , comprised most of the crowd . Some people from nearby rural communities traveled to the city before the trial to witness the events . As the lynching occurred at midday , children from local schools walked downtown to observe , some climbing into trees for a better view . Many parents approved of their children 's attendance , hoping that the lynching would reinforce a belief in white supremacy . Some Texans saw participation in a lynching as a rite of passage for young men .
= = Aftermath = =
Fred Gildersleeve , a Waco @-@ based professional photographer , arrived at city hall shortly before the lynching , possibly at the mayor 's request , and photographed the event . His photographs provide rare depictions of a lynching in progress , rather than typical lynching photography , which only shows dead victims . Gildersleeve 's photographs include views of the crowd shot from a building and close images of Washington 's body ; some may have been taken by an assistant . Gildersleeve produced postcards featuring images of adolescents , some as young as twelve , gathered around Washington 's body . The individuals in the photographs made no attempts to hide their identities . Berg believes that their willingness to be photographed indicates that they knew that no one would be prosecuted for Washington 's death . Although some Waco residents sent the cards to out @-@ of @-@ town relatives , several prominent local citizens persuaded Gildersleeve to stop selling them , fearing that the images would come to characterize the town .
In the days after the lynching , newspapers fiercely condemned the event . Within a week , news of the lynching was published as far away as London . A New York Times editorial opined that , " in no other land even pretending to be civilized could a man be burned to death in the streets of a considerable city amid the savage exultation of its inhabitants " . In the New York Age , James Weldon Johnson described the members of the lynch mob as " lower than any other people who at present inhabit the earth " . Although many southern newspapers had previously defended lynching as a defense of civilized society , after Washington 's death , they did not cast the practice in such terms . The Montgomery Advertiser wrote that , " no savage was ever more cruel ... than the men who participated in this horrible , almost unbelievable episode " . In Texas , the Houston Chronicle and the Austin American criticized the lynch mob , but spoke highly of Waco . The Morning News of Dallas reported the story , but did not publish an accompanying editorial . In Waco , the Times @-@ Herald refrained from editorializing about the lynching . The Waco Morning News briefly noted their disapproval of the lynching , focusing their criticism on papers they felt had attacked the city unfairly . They cast the condemnatory editorials in the aftermath of the lynching as " Holier than thou " remarks . A writer for the Waco Semi @-@ Weekly Tribune defended the lynching , stating that Washington deserved to die and that blacks should view Washington 's death as a warning against crime . The paper later carried an editorial from the Houston Post condemning the lynching , characterizing the column as part of an attack on the city .
Some Waco residents condemned the lynching , including local ministers and leaders of Baylor University . The judge who presided over Washington 's trial later stated that members of the lynch mob were " murderers " ; the jury 's foreman told the NAACP that he disapproved of their actions . Some people who witnessed the lynching recorded persistent nightmares and psychological trauma . A few citizens contemplated staging a protest against the lynching , but declined to do so owing to concerns about reprisals or the appearance of hypocrisy . After the lynching , town officials maintained that it was attended by a small group of malcontents . Although their claim is contradicted by photographic evidence , several histories of Waco have repeated this assertion . There were no negative repercussions for Dollins or Police Chief John McNamara : although they made no attempt to stop the mob , they remained well respected in Waco . As was common with such attacks , no one was prosecuted for the lynching .
Although leaders of Waco 's black community gave public condolences to the Fryer family , they complained about Washington 's lynching only in private . One exception was the Paul Quinn Weekly newspaper , of Texas ' Paul Quinn College — an all @-@ black institution — which published several articles that criticized the lynch mob and city leadership . In one article , the author proclaimed that Jesse Washington was innocent and George Fryer was guilty . A. T. Smith , the paper 's editor , was subsequently convicted of libel . George Fryer also sued the college for libel ; his vehemence caused some Robinson residents to suspect that he played a part in his wife 's death . Bernstein states that it is " highly unlikely " that George Fryer played a role in Lucy 's murder , but notes that there is the " shadow of a possibility " that he bore some guilt .
= = NAACP investigation and campaign = =
The NAACP hired Elisabeth Freeman , a women 's suffrage activist from New York City , to investigate the lynching . She had traveled to Texas in late 1915 or early 1916 to help organize the suffrage movement there . After attending a suffrage convention in Dallas in early May , she began her assignment in Waco , posing as a journalist and attempting to interview people about the lynching . She found that almost all residents were reluctant to discuss the event . She spoke with town officials and obtained pictures of the lynching from Gildersleeve , who was initially reluctant to provide them . Although she feared for her safety , she enjoyed the challenge of the investigation . When speaking with city leaders , Freeman convinced them that she planned to defend Waco against criticism when she returned to the north . Some journalists soon grew suspicious of her presence and warned residents not to talk to outsiders . Local African Americans , however , gave her a warm reception .
Fleming and the judge who presided over the trial each spoke with her ; both argued that they did not deserve blame for the lynching . A schoolteacher who had known Washington told Freeman that Washington was illiterate , and that all attempts to teach him to read had been futile . Freeman concluded that white residents were generally supportive of Washington 's lynching , although many disliked that his body was mutilated . She determined that the mob was led by a bricklayer , a saloonkeeper , and several employees of an ice company . The NAACP did not publicly identify them . Freeman concluded that Washington killed Fryer , and that he was motivated by her domineering attitude towards him .
W. E. B. Du Bois was incensed by news of the attack , saying " any talk of the triumph of Christianity , or the spread of human culture , is idle twaddle as long as the Waco lynching is possible in the United States " . After receiving Freeman 's report , he placed an image of Washington 's body on the cover of an issue of The Crisis , the NAACP 's newsletter , which discussed the event . The issue was titled " The Waco Horror " and was published as an eight @-@ page supplement to the July edition . Du Bois popularized " Waco Horror " as a name for Washington 's lynching ; the Houston Chronicle and the New York Times had previously used the word " horror " to describe the event . In 1916 , The Crisis had a circulation of about 30 @,@ 000 , three times the size of the NAACP 's membership . Although the paper had campaigned against lynching in the past , this issue was the first that contained images of an attack . The NAACP 's board was initially hesitant to publish such graphic content , but Du Bois insisted on doing so , arguing that uncensored coverage would push white Americans to support change . In addition to images , the issue included accounts of the lynching that Freeman obtained from Waco residents . Du Bois wrote The Crisis ' article on the lynching ; he edited and organized Freeman 's report for publication , although she was not named in the issue . The article concluded with a call to support the anti @-@ lynching movement . The NAACP distributed the report to hundreds of newspapers and politicians , a campaign that led to wide condemnation of the lynching . Many white observers were disturbed by the southerners who celebrated the lynching . The Crisis included more images of lynchings in subsequent issues . Washington 's death received continued discussion in The Crisis . Oswald Garrison Villard wrote in a later edition of the paper that " the crime at Waco is a challenge to our American civilization " .
Other black newspapers also carried significant coverage of the lynching , as did liberal papers such as The New Republic and The Nation . Freeman traveled around the U.S. to speak to audiences about her investigation , maintaining that a shift in public opinion could accomplish more than legislative actions . Although there were other lynchings as brutal as Washington 's , the availability of images and the setting of his death made it a cause célèbre . Leaders of the NAACP hoped to launch a legal battle against those responsible for Washington 's death , but abandoned the plan owing to the projected cost .
The NAACP had struggled financially around that time . Their anti @-@ lynching campaign saw some success in raising funds , but it was scaled back as the U.S. entered World War I. NAACP president Joel Elias Spingarn later stated that the group 's campaign placed " lynching into the public mind as something like a national problem " . In her 2006 study of lynching , Bernstein describes this anti @-@ lynching campaign as the " barest beginnings of a battle that would last many years " .
The number of lynchings in the U.S. increased in the late 1910s . Additional lynchings occurred in Waco in the 1920s , partially owing to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan . By the late 1920s , however , Waco authorities had begun to protect blacks from lynching , as in the case of Roy Mitchell . Authorities feared that negative publicity generated by lynchings — such as the NAACP 's campaign following Washington 's death — would hinder their efforts to attract investors . The NAACP fought to portray lynching as a savage , barbaric practice , an idea which eventually gained traction in the public mind . Bernstein credits the group 's efforts with helping to end " the worst public atrocities of the racist system " in the Waco region .
= = Analysis and legacy = =
In 2011 , Berg concluded that Washington probably murdered Fryer , but doubted that he raped her . The same year , Julie Armstrong of the University of South Florida argued that Washington was probably innocent of both charges . Bernstein notes that Washington 's motives have never been established . She also states that his confession could have been coerced , and that the murder weapon — perhaps the strongest evidence against him — could have been planted by authorities .
Bernstein states that Washington 's lynching was a unique event because it occurred in a city with a reputation for progressiveness , but was attended by thousands of people who were excited by the brutal torture . Similar acts of mob violence typically occurred in smaller towns with fewer spectators . William Carrigan of Rowan University argues that the culture of central Texas had glorified retributive mob violence for decades before Washington 's lynching , maintaining that this culture of violence explains how such a brutal attack could be publicly celebrated . Hale posits that Washington 's death signaled a transition in the practice of lynching , demonstrating its acceptance in modernized , 20th @-@ century cities . She notes that Washington 's lynching illustrates how technological innovations , such as telephones and inexpensive photographs , could empower lynch mobs but also increase society 's condemnation of their actions .
In their 2004 study of lynching , Peter Ehrenhaus and A. Susan Owen compare the lynching to a blood sacrifice , arguing Waco residents felt a sense of collective righteousness after Washington 's death , as they saw him as the presence of evil in the community . Bernstein compares the public brutality of the lynch mob to the medieval English practice of hanging , drawing , and quartering people convicted of high treason .
Amy Louise Wood of Illinois State University writes that the event was " a defining moment in the history of lynching , " arguing that with Washington 's death , " lynching began to sow the seeds of its own collapse . " Although the spectacle of violent mob attacks had previously benefited white supremacists , Wood contends that after Washington 's death was publicized , the anti @-@ lynching movement included images of racially motivated brutality in their campaigns . Carrigan notes that Washington 's death may have received more public attention than any other lynching in the United States , and sees the event as a " turning point in the history of mob violence in Central Texas " . Although the outcry it provoked did not end the practice , it helped bring an end to public support of such attacks by city leaders . Carrigan states that the lynching was " the most infamous day in the history of central Texas " until the Waco siege of 1993 .
After the practice of lynching was suppressed in central Texas , it received little attention from local historians . However , Waco developed a reputation for racism — propagated in part by American history textbooks — to the vexation of the city 's white residents . In the years following the lynching , African Americans often held Waco in disdain , and some viewed the 1953 Waco tornado outbreak as divine retribution . White leaders of Waco took a non @-@ violent approach in response to demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement , possibly owing to a desire to avoid stigmatizing the city again .
Blues musician Sammy Price recorded a version of " Hesitation Blues " that referenced Washington 's lynching . Price lived in Waco as a child , possibly at the time of Washington 's death . Waco @-@ based novelist Madison Cooper featured a lynching , thought to be based on Washington 's death , as a key event in his 1952 novel Sironia , Texas .
In the 1990s , Lawrence Johnson , a member of Waco 's city council , viewed pictures of the Washington lynching at the National Civil Rights Museum , and began to lobby for a monument to the lynching . In 2002 , Lester Gibson , another member of the city council , proposed that a plaque be installed at the courthouse where Washington was lynched . He further stated that the plaque should carry an apology from the city . The ideas were discussed , but proved unfruitful . In the 2000s , the idea of a memorial was revived by a McLennan County commissioner and the Waco Chamber of Commerce ; the Waco Herald Tribune has editorialized in support of a historical marker on the site of the lynching . Some descendants of Fryer objected to the proposed memorial .
= = = Books = = =
Apel , Dora ( 2004 ) . Imagery of Lynching : Black Men , White Women , and the Mob . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 3459 @-@ 6 .
Armstrong , Julie Buckner ( 2011 ) . Mary Turner and the Memory of Lynching . University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8203 @-@ 3765 @-@ 4 .
Berg , Manfred ( 2011 ) . Popular Justice : A History of Lynching in America . Government Institutes . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56663 @-@ 802 @-@ 9 .
Bernstein , Patricia ( 2006 ) . The First Waco Horror : The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .
Bernstein , Patricia ( 2007 ) . " Waco Lynching " . In Paul Finkelman . Encyclopedia of African American History , 1896 to the Present : From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty @-@ First Century 5 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 516779 @-@ 5 .
Carrigan , William D. ( 2006 ) . The Making of a Lynching Culture : Violence and Vigilantism in Central Texas , 1836 – 1916 . University of Illinois Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 07430 @-@ 1 .
DuRocher , Kristina ( 2011 ) . Raising Racists : The Socialization of White Children in the Jim Crow South . University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8131 @-@ 3001 @-@ 9 .
Gussow , Adam ( 2002 ) . Seems Like Murder Here : Southern Violence and the Blues Tradition . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 31098 @-@ 5 .
Hale , Grace Elizabeth ( 1998 ) . Making Whiteness : the Culture of Segregation in the South , 1890 – 1940 . Vintage Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 77620 @-@ 8 .
Nevels , Cynthia Skove ( 2007 ) . Lynching to Belong : Claiming Whiteness Through Racial Violence . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 589 @-@ 9 .
Rice , Anne P. ( 2003 ) . Witnessing Lynching : American Writers Respond . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 3330 @-@ 8 .
SoRelle , James M. ( 2007 ) . " The " Waco Horror " : The Lynching of Jesse Washington " . In Bruce A. Glasrud and James Smallwood . The African American Experience in Texas : An Anthology . Texas Tech University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89672 @-@ 609 @-@ 3 .
Waldrep , Christopher ( 2009 ) . African Americans Confront Lynching : Strategies of Resistance from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Era . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7425 @-@ 5272 @-@ 2 .
Wood , Amy Louise ( 2009 ) . Lynching and Spectacle : Witnessing Racial Violence in America , 1890 – 1940 . University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 3254 @-@ 7 .
Zangrando , Robert L. ( 1980 ) . The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching , 1909 – 1950 . Temple University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87722 @-@ 174 @-@ 6 .
= = = Journals = = =
Francis , Megan Ming ( 2011 ) . " The Battle for the Hearts and Minds of America " . Souls : A Critical Journal of Black Politics , Culture , and Society 13 ( 1 ) : 46 – 71 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 10999949 @.@ 2011 @.@ 551477 .
Ehrenhaus , Peter ; Owen , A. Susan ( July – October 2004 ) . " Race Lynching and Christian Evangelicalism : Performances of Faith " . Text and Performance Quarterly 24 ( 3 / 4 ) : 276 – 301 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 1046293042000312779 .
Wood , Amy Louise ( 2005 ) . " Lynching Photography and the Visual Reproduction of White Supremacy " . American Nineteenth Century History 6 ( 3 ) : 373 – 99 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 14664650500381090 .
= = = Newspapers = = =
Blumenthal , Ralph ( May 1 , 2005 ) . " Fresh Outrage in Waco at Grisly Lynching of 1916 " . The New York Times . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 .
Moreno , Sylvia ( April 26 , 2006 ) . " In Waco , a Push To Atone for The Region 's Lynch @-@ Mob Past " . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 .
= = = Websites = = =
" The Crisis Vol . 12 , No. 3 " . Digitized Journals . Modernist Journals Project . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 .
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= Love Kraft =
Love Kraft is the seventh studio album by Welsh indie rock band Super Furry Animals , released on 22 August 2005 through Epic Records in the United Kingdom . The album was recorded in Spain with producer Mario Caldato Jr and was something of a departure for the band , with all members contributing songs and lead vocals alongside Gruff Rhys who had been main songwriter for the Super Furries until this point . In selecting tracks for Love Kraft a conscious effort was made by the band not to choose songs on their individual merit but rather to pick those which went well together in order to create as cohesive an album as possible . The album 's name was taken from a sex shop , Love Craft , near the Cardiff offices of the Super Furries ' management team and is also a nod to American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft .
Critical response was generally positive with some reviews claiming the album was the best of the group 's career . However , a few reviewers expressed reservations that Love Kraft was " merely a very good Super Furry Animals effort " and was not as impressive as the band 's previous records . The track " Lazer Beam " was released as a single and reached # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Recording = =
Love Kraft was recorded in Figueres , a small city in Catalonia , Spain . According to Rhys the band found themselves in the " unusual " position of recording their seventh album together and began looking at groups who had made lots of records , such as Fleetwood Mac and The Beach Boys . These bands had made " foreign records " ( Tusk and Holland respectively ) so the Super Furries decided to do the same although on " a much tighter budget . " Leaving their usual Cardiff studio behind had an effect on the songs according to Rhys :
The band did a lot of experimenting and arranging in Cardiff before going into the studio , as a result of which Love Kraft was recorded in just three weeks . Drummer Dafydd Ieuan also attributes the album sessions ' speedy conclusion to producer Mario Caldato Jr. who was very good at keeping the group together and on the right track .
The album represented a departure from the band 's previous working methods : although all five members had always contributed to the development of the songs , Gruff Rhys had been the main songwriter . On Love Kraft this was no longer the case , as Rhys , Huw Bunford , Dafydd Ieuan and Cian Ciaran all contributed songs and lead vocals . The group also abandoned their usual practise of picking songs on their individual merit , instead choosing tracks that would work well together and " create a sound that was as cohesive as possible " . Of the " 30 @-@ 40 " songs written by band members the group chose " the more introspective ones " which meant that some of Rhys 's tracks were left off the album as they were " energetic and poppy " and " didn 't really fit in with everybody else 's work " .
Several ' found sounds ' were recorded and used on the album including the buzzing of a Brazilian electrical substation , the sound of pool balls being rubbed against each other and a recording of Huw Bunford jumping into a swimming pool . The latter opens the album , preceding the intro to " Zoom ! " .
Love Kraft was mixed in a suburb of Rio de Janeiro at the request of Brazilian born Caldato . According to Rhys the band toyed with the idea of using Latin musical elements and had fantasies of " Marcos Valle doing backing vocals , and getting Rogerio Duprat to arrange the strings " but ultimately thought it would be a " bit too embarrassing " and actively tried not to make a " Brazilian sounding " record . This point was echoed by Guto Pryce in an interview with Birmingham 's Metro although he conceded that " in Rio music is everywhere . The beats and rhythms are non @-@ stop so that probably seeped into our minds as a subconscious influence . "
The album is named after a sex shop , Lovecraft Limited , near the Ankst Management offices on Cowbridge Road , Cardiff and is also a reference to American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft . In a 2005 interview with The Daily Telegraph , Gruff Rhys explained that the name also stems from the fact that the record has " a general warm glow of love " and that it was originally conceived as a " love record " before " some of the lyrics went completely off the rails " .
= = Release = =
Love Kraft was released on CD , SACD , vinyl and as a digital download on 22 August 2005 in the United Kingdom and was the band 's last release for Sony 's Epic imprint before they moved to independent label Rough Trade . The album reached # 19 in the UK Albums Chart . In America the album was released on 13 September 2005 by Beggars Banquet US . " Lazer Beam " was the only track to be released as a single from the album , reaching # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
= = Critical response = =
The album received a generally positive reaction from critics . British newspaper The Guardian described Love Kraft as the band 's " best album yet " and musicOMH claimed it to be " the greatest realisation of the Super Furry vision to date " . Uncut was similarly impressed calling the album " perhaps the defining record of [ the band 's ] career " while Yahoo Music UK thought Love Kraft was " perfect pop " .
The NME had reservations however , stating that although the album is " easily as engaging and full of the wild possibilities of pop music as anything else in their peerless canon " it is " not quite up there with Radiator due to its brace of shonky ballad filler ( " Cloudberries " and " Cabin Fever " ) " . Writing for Allmusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine was largely impressed with Love Kraft but admitted to being disappointed that it is " merely a very good Super Furry Animals effort , with few surprises outside of its alluring sleek " . The band 's singer , Gruff Rhys , has described the album as " the most beautiful record we 've made ... really orchestral and fairly timeless " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Tour = =
The Super Furry Animals played numerous festivals in Great Britain prior to Love Kraft 's release including Scotland 's T in the Park , Oxegen , the Secret Garden Party in Cambridge and the V Festival , warming up for these dates with a small show at Barry Memorial Hall on 22 July 2005 . A gig at Somerset House in London on 8 July 2005 went ahead despite coming just one day after the 7 / 7 bombings caused Queens of the Stone Age to cancel their show at the venue .
Following the release of Love Kraft in the United Kingdom the Super Furry Animals played Bestival on the Isle of Wight before embarking on an 11 date tour of the UK and Ireland , beginning at the University of East Anglia in Norwich on 14 September 2005 and ending on 27 September at Dublin 's Olympia Theatre venue . A month long tour of Canada and the United States followed , starting on 1 November in Montreal and ending in San Diego on 1 December .
The band experienced a " very different atmosphere " at initial shows on the Love Kraft tour , when they played the " slow " songs from the album . This contributed to their decision to make follow up Hey Venus ! a " rowdy pop record " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Love Kraft :
= = = Band = = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals , guitar
Huw Bunford – guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on " The Horn " , " Oi Frango " , and " Back on a Roll "
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Walk You Home " and " Cabin Fever "
Dafydd Ieuan – drums , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Atomik Lust " and " Cabin Fever "
= = = Additional musicians = = =
= = = Recording personnel = = =
Mario Caldato Jr . – production , mixing , engineering
Super Furry Animals – production , mixing , surround sound mix
Richard Jackson – engineering ( Stir Studios )
Greg Jackman – engineering ( The Dairy )
Jordi – recording assistant ( Musician )
Jordan – recording assistant ( Musician )
Luizao Dantas – recording assistant ( AR Studios )
Leo Moreira – recording assistant ( AR Studios )
Sam Wetmore – surround sound mix
= = = Artwork = = =
Pete Fowler – artwork
Mark James – artwork
Alexis West – photography
Leon West – photography
= = Album chart positions = =
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= SS Fort Stikine =
Fort Stikine was a British Fort ship which was built in Canada in 1942 . Owned by the American War Shipping Administration , she was leased under charter to the Ministry of War Transport under the Lend @-@ Lease scheme and operated under the management of the Port Line . Fort Stikine only had a short career , and was destroyed in an explosion at Bombay , India , in April 1944 that caused the loss of a further thirteen ships .
= = Construction = =
Fort Stikine was 441 feet 5 inches ( 134 @.@ 54 m ) long , with a beam of 57 feet 2 inches ( 17 @.@ 42 m ) . She had a depth of 35 feet 0 inches ( 10 @.@ 67 m ) and a draught of 26 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 22 m ) . The ship was propelled by a 505 NHP triple expansion steam engine which was built by the Dominion Engineering Works , Montreal , Quebec , Canada . It had cylinders of 241 ⁄ 2 inches ( 62 cm ) , 37 inches ( 94 cm ) and 70 inches ( 180 cm ) bore by 48 inches ( 120 cm ) stroke .
= = History = =
Fort Stikine was built by Prince Rupert Drydock & Shipyard , Prince Rupert , British Columbia , Canada as yard number 43 . She was built under auspices of the Wartime Merchant Shipping Ltd . , a Canadian government corporation coordinating wartime shipbuilding in Canada , and on completion on 31 July 1942 delivered by that corporation to the United States War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) which then delivered the ship to the Ministry of War Transport under Lend Lease at Vancouver , British Columbia on the same date . Ownership was retained by WSA with the Ministry of War Transport placing her under the management of the Port Line . The United Kingdom Official Number 168351 and Code Letters BKLG were allocated . Her port of registry was London .
Fort Stikine departed from New Westminster , British Columbia , Canada on 7 September 1942 and arrived at Vancouver the next day . She then sailed to Comox , British Columbia , arriving on 10 September . She sailed two days later for Victoria , British Columbia arriving on 13 September . Fort Stikine sailed that day for Los Angeles , California , United States , where she arrived on 23 September . She sailed five days later for Balboa , Panama , arriving on 10 October . After transiting the Panama Canal , Fort Stikine departed from Cristobal , Panama on 17 October with Convoy ZG8 . The convoy consisted eighteen merchant vessels escorted by six United States Navy warships . It arrived at Guantanamo Bay , Cuba on 21 October .
Fort Stikine departed from Guantanamo Bay on 23 October as a member of Convoy GN 14 . The unescorted convoy consisted of 33 merchant ships ; it arrived at New York on 30 October . She departed on 3 November with Convoy HX 214 . The convoy consisted of 33 merchant ships , escorted by a total of seventeen warships over the duration of the convoy . Fort Stikine carried general cargo and mails . The convoy arrived at Liverpool , Lancashire , United Kingdom on 14 December . She then sailed to the Clyde , arriving on 16 December .
Fort Stikine departed from the Clyde on 24 December with Convoy KMS 6G . The convoy comprised 60 merchant ships escorted by a total of 22 warships over the duration of the convoy . The CAM ship Empire Darwin also provided some protection to the convoy . Two merchant ships were lost to enemy action and another was damaged . The convoy arrived at Bône , Algeria on 8 January 1943 , but Fort Stikine had split from the convoy the previous day and arrived at Oran , Algeria . She sailed on 21 January to join Convoy MKS 6 , which had departed from Philippeville , Algeria on 19 January and arrived back at Liverpool on 1 February . The convoy consisted of 50 merchant ships escorted by a total of 30 warships over the duration of the convoy , which also included Empire Darwin . One merchant vessel was lost to enemy action . The convoy arrived at Liverpool on 1 February . Fort Stikine had left the convoy off Ireland and arrived at the Clyde on 31 January .
Fort Stikine was a member of Convoy KMS 10G , which departed from the Clyde on 26 February . It consisted of 62 merchant ships , escorted by a total of nineteen warships over the duration of the convoy . One merchant ship was sunk and three were damaged by enemy action . On 4 March U @-@ 87 attacked the convoy , but was attacked with depth charges and sunk by HMCS Shediac and HMCS St. Croix . The convoy arrived at Bône on 11 March . As with Convoy KMS 6G , Fort Stikine left the convoy and arrived at Oran a day earlier . She sailed on 31 March to join Convoy ET 16 , which had departed from Bône earlier that day . The unescorted convoy included fifteen merchant vessels , two of which were sunk by enemy action . ET 16 arrived at Gibraltar on 1 April . The Fort Stikine then joined Convoy RS 4 , which departed on 14 April . The unescorted convoy , comprising nineteen merchant ships , arrived at Freetown , Sierra Leone on 25 April . Laden with a cargo of iron ore , Fort Stikine departed with Convoy SL 129 on 11 May . The convoy , comprising 47 merchant ships and nine warships , combined at sea with Convoy MKS 13 on 24 May . The combined convoy arrived at Liverpool on 1 June . Fort Stikine left the convoy before arrival at Liverpool and entered Loch Ewe . She then sailed to Middlesbrough , Yorkshire , via convoys WN 436 and FS 1133 .
Fort Stikine departed from Middlesbrough on 20 June to join Convoy FN 1051 , which had departed from Southend , Essex the previous day and arrived at Methil on 21 June . She then joined Convoy EN 246 which sailed the next day and arrived at Loch Ewe on 24 June . Fort Stikine joined Convoy ON 190 , which had departed from Liverpool on 24 June . The convoy consisted of 85 merchant ships escorted by 23 warships over the duration of the convoy , which arrived at New York on 9 July . Fort Stikine sailed on to Baltimore , Maryland , arriving the next day . She departed from Baltimore on 3 August for the Hampton Roads , off the coast of Virginia . Fort Stikine sailed on 7 August with Convoy UGS 14 . The convoy consisted of 106 merchant ships escorted by 31 warships over the duration of the convoy . Two merchant ships were lost to enemy action . The convoy arrived at Alexandria , Egypt on 2 September . Fort Stikine departed from Alexandria on 22 September and sailed via Port Said and Suez to Aden , where she arrived on 30 September .
On 10 October , Fort Stikine departed from Aden with Convoy AKD 3 . The unescorted convoy , consisting eighteen merchant vessels , arrived at Durban , South Africa on 29 October . She left the convoy at Beira , Mozambique , arriving on 26 October . Fort Stikine sailed on 11 November and joined Convoy DKA 6 . The unescorted convoy , consisting 20 merchant ships in total , had departed from Durban five days earlier and arrived at Aden on 28 November , but Fort Stikine had put in to Dar es Salaam , Tanganyika , where she arrived on 17 November . She sailed on 20 November for Mombasa , Kenya , arriving the next day . She sailed a week later for Aden , from where she departed on 9 December for Suez and Port Said , arriving at the latter port on 19 December . Fort Stikine was a member of Convoy GUS 25 , which departed from Port Said on 16 December . The convoy , consisting 106 merchant ships escorted by sixteen warships over its duration , arrived at the Hampton Roads on 17 January 1944 . One merchant vessel was lost to enemy action . Fort Stikine left the convoy at Gibraltar , where she arrived on 28 December 1943 .
Laden with copper , sisal and general cargo , Fort Stikine departed from Gibraltar on 11 January 1944 as a member of Convoy MKS 36G . The convoy , of twenty merchant ships and five escorting warships , made a rendezvous at sea with Convoy SL 145 the next day . The combined convoy arrived at Liverpool on 24 January .
Fort Stikine loaded at Birkenhead , Cheshire . Her cargo was described as general cargo ; it consisted 1 @,@ 396 long tons ( 1 @,@ 418 t ) of flares and signal rockets , incendiary bombs , mines , shells and torpedoes . These were bound for Bombay , India . A container with 31 crates each containing four gold bars was loaded in № 2 hold . Each gold bar weighed 28 pounds ( 12 @.@ 70 kg ) . She was also carrying twelve Supermarine Spitfire aircraft , some gliders and a further quantity of explosives that were destined to be offloaded at Karachi , India .
Fort Stikine joined Convoy OS 69KM , which departed from Liverpool on 23 February 1944 . The convoy , consisting of 49 merchant ships escorted by twelve warships , split at sea on 5 March . The two convoys thus formed were OS 69 , which arrived at Freetown on 15 March ; and Convoy KMS 43G , which arrived at Gibraltar on 6 March . During the voyage to Gibraltar , a stowaway was discovered . He was put to work under the charge of the ship 's Chief Engineer .
Fort Stikine continued her voyage as part of Convoy KMS 43 , which departed from Gibraltar that day . The convoy , consisting 81 merchant ships and 4 escorting warships , arrived at Port Said on 16 March , having evaded an attack by four Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft . She sailed on to Suez , from where she departed the next day for Aden . The stowaway was offloaded at Port Tawfiq , Suez . Having reached Aden on 23 March , she sailed the same day for Karachi , arriving on 30 March .
To replace the cargo offloaded at Karachi , 8 @,@ 700 bales of raw cotton were loaded , along with various quantities of fish manure , resin , rice , scrap iron , sulphur , and timber . Added to this were 1 @,@ 000 barrels of lubricating oil . The ship 's captain was concerned about having to take the flammable items but was told that they had to go . A proposal to add 750 drums of turpentine was refused . The ship 's officers also expressed concerns over mixing the cargoes of cotton and the oil and explosives , but were unable to find paperwork that advised against this practice . In 1942 , the United States Government had published a book which advised against the carriage of raw cotton . A common myth at the time was that wet cotton bales could spontaneously combust . This was not the case , although cotton soaked in oil would readily do so . Before the ship sailed , the crew discovered that the barrels of lubricating oil leaked . Tarpaulins were nailed over the lower hold covers and the firefighting equipment on board was thoroughly tested . Extra fire drills were scheduled during the voyage to Karachi . Fort Stikine sailed on 9 April to join Convoy PB 74 , which had departed from Bandar Abbas , Iran on 6 April . The unescorted convoy arrived at Bombay on 12 April .
= = Loss = =
Fort Stikine arrived at Bombay in the early morning of 12 April . Having taken on a pilot shortly before 10 : 00 she was docked at the Victoria Dock at midday . The practice of flying a red flag to signify dangerous cargo on board had been discontinued in wartime as doing so would identify such vessels in the event of an enemy air raid on a port . Also , the practice on unloading such vessels into lighters offshore had also been discontinued due to the war . At the time , explosives were graded as Category A , B , or C. Category A explosives , such as those carried on board Fort Stikine , were the most dangerous . These were only allowed to be offloaded onto lighters , and not directly to the quayside .
Unloading of Fort Stikine began with the lubricating oil , followed by the fish manure . An extra gang of stevedores were employed on this task , which continued through the night of 13 – 14 April . At midday on 13 April , lighters arrived for the explosives . Minor engine repairs also started at that time , rendering the ship unable to move under her own power . At 12 : 30 , the Chief Officer of Fort Crevier noticed smoke issuing from the ventilators of the № 2 hold of Fort Stikine . This was also seen a short time later by a DEMS gunner on board Iran . Despite being seen by these ( and other ) witnesses , everyone assumed that the situation was under control . The alarm was not raised until 13 : 45 . The fire pump in the ship 's engine room was started and the firefighting operation began .
With crew members and stevedores abandoning ship , it was realised by the dock authorities that there was a problem on board Fort Stikine . A fire crew was sent on board and an order was given for more fire engines to be sent for . Due to difficulties in contacting the fire control centre , initially only two engines were sent . Those on board Fort Stikine were unable to discover the seat of the fire and water was poured blindly into the hold . With the arrival of the two fire appliances , there were now eleven hoses in use . Captain Oberst , of the Indian Army Ordnance Corps arrived a few minutes later to assess the situation . He was in charge of the explosives only after they had been landed . A meeting was held on board between the ship 's officers , Oberst , and Commander Longmore of the Royal Indian Navy , the Chief Salvage Officer in Bombay . It was stated by Oberst that Fort Stikine had explosives equivalent to 150 Blockbuster bombs on board and that the ship should be scuttled . Her captain countered that the boiler room and engine room could be flooded , but he doubted that the ship would sink in that condition . More fire appliances arrived , bringing the total number of hoses in use to 32 @.@ by 14 : 45 , ammunition in № 2 hold was exploding . Colonel Sadler , the General Manager of the docks at Bombay , was sent for . He arrived at 14 : 50 and suggested that Fort Stikine should be removed from the docks , which would have required the use of tugs due to Fort Stikine being disabled . An argument developed and Colonel Sadler 's parting remark was that the ship would probably explode before she could be taken out of port .
Shortly after 15 : 00 , two fireboats , the Doris and Panwell , arrived . A further nine hoses were played on the ship . Neither of the two people who could have taken overall charge of the situation were contactable , and none of those on board Fort Stikine were willing to take charge . Firefighting continued , but at 15 : 50 a flame erupted from the hold , reaching higher than the ship 's mast . The order was given to abandon ship , with some jumping from the ship onto the quayside , and others into the water . At 16 : 06 , an explosion occurred on board Fort Stikine . The ship was split in two , with her boiler found half a mile ( 800m ) away . The explosion caused a tsunami within the dock , which deposited one vessel on the quayside . At 16 : 33 , a second explosion occurred . The cargo ship Jalapadma had her stern blown off . It landed about 200 yards ( 180 m ) away . This explosion also wrecked the cargo liner Baroda .
= = = Investigation = = =
The accident was investigated by the authorities at Bombay . The report was released on 11 September 1944 and concluded that the fire and subsequent explosion on Fort Stikine was an accident . Sabotage was ruled out . The death toll was given as 231 service and port personnel killed , with 476 injured . Civilian casualties were in excess of 500 killed , with 2 @,@ 408 treated in hospital .
= = = Ships lost or severely damaged = = =
Apart from Fort Stikine , the following vessels were sunk or severely damaged .
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= A Trip to the Moon =
A Trip to the Moon ( French : Le Voyage dans la Lune ) is a 1902 French silent film directed by Georges Méliès . Inspired by a wide variety of sources , including Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon , the film follows a group of astronomers who travel to the Moon in a cannon @-@ propelled capsule , explore the Moon 's surface , escape from an underground group of Selenites ( lunar inhabitants ) , and return to Earth with a captive Selenite . It features an ensemble cast of French theatrical performers , led by Méliès himself in the main role of Professor Barbenfouillis , and is filmed in the overtly theatrical style for which Méliès became famous .
The film was an internationally popular success on its release , and was extensively pirated by other studios , especially in the United States . Its unusual length , lavish production values , innovative special effects , and emphasis on storytelling were markedly influential on other film @-@ makers and ultimately on the development of narrative film as a whole . Scholars have commented upon the film 's extensive use of pataphysical and anti @-@ imperialist satire , as well as on its wide influence on later film @-@ makers and its artistic significance within the French theatrical féerie tradition . Though the film disappeared into obscurity after Méliès 's retirement from the film industry , it was rediscovered around 1930 , when Méliès 's importance to the history of cinema was beginning to be recognized by film devotees . An original hand @-@ colored print was discovered in 1993 and restored in 2011 .
A Trip to the Moon was named one of the 100 greatest films of the 20th century by The Village Voice , ranked 84th . The film remains the best @-@ known of the hundreds of films made by Méliès , and the moment in which the capsule lands in the Moon 's eye remains one of the most iconic and frequently referenced images in the history of cinema . It is widely regarded as the earliest example of the science fiction film genre and , more generally , as one of the most influential films in cinema history .
= = Plot = =
At a meeting of the Astronomic Club , its president , Professor Barbenfouillis , proposes a trip to the Moon . After addressing some dissent , five other brave astronomers — Nostradamus , Alcofrisbas , Omega , Micromegas , and Parafaragaramus — agree to the plan . They build a space capsule in the shape of a bullet , and a huge cannon to shoot it into space . The astronomers embark and their capsule is fired from the cannon with the help of " marines " , most of whom are played by a bevy of young women in sailors ' outfits . The Man in the Moon watches the capsule as it approaches , and it hits him in the eye .
Landing safely on the Moon , the astronomers get out of the capsule ( without the need of space suits ) and watch the Earth rise in the distance . Exhausted by their journey , they unroll their blankets and sleep . As they sleep , a comet passes , the Big Dipper appears with human faces peering out of each star , old Saturn leans out of a window in his ringed planet , and Phoebe , goddess of the Moon , appears seated in a crescent @-@ moon swing . Phoebe causes a snowfall that awakens the astronomers , and they seek shelter in a cavern where they discover giant mushrooms . One astronomer opens his umbrella ; it promptly takes root and turns into a giant mushroom itself .
At this point , a Selenite ( an insectoid alien inhabitant of the Moon , named after one of the Greek moon goddesses , Selene ) appears , but it is killed easily by an astronomer , as the creatures explode if they are hit with force . More Selenites appear and it becomes increasingly difficult for the astronomers to destroy them as they are surrounded . The Selenites capture the astronomers and take them to the palace of their king . An astronomer lifts the Selenite King off his throne and throws him to the ground , causing him to explode .
The astronomers run back to their capsule while continuing to hit the pursuing Selenites , and five get inside . The sixth astronomer , Barbenfouillis himself , uses a rope to tip the capsule over a ledge on the Moon and into space . A Selenite tries to seize the capsule at the last minute . Astronomer , capsule , and Selenite fall through space and land in an ocean on Earth , where they are rescued by a ship and towed ashore . The final sequence ( missing from some prints of the film ) depicts a celebratory parade in honor of the travelers ' return , including a display of the captive Selenite and the unveiling of a commemorative statue bearing the motto " Labor omnia vincit " .
= = Cast = =
When A Trip to the Moon was made , film actors performed anonymously and no credits were given ; the practice of supplying opening and closing credits in films was a later innovation . Nonetheless , the following cast details can be reconstructed from available evidence :
Georges Méliès as Professor Barbenfouillis . Méliès , a pioneering French film @-@ maker and magician now generally regarded as the first person to recognize the potential of narrative film , had already achieved considerable success with his film versions of Cinderella ( 1899 ) and Joan of Arc ( 1900 ) . His extensive involvement in all of his films as director , producer , writer , designer , technician , publicist , editor , and often actor makes him one of the first cinematic auteurs . Speaking about his work late in life , Méliès commented : " The greatest difficulty in realising my own ideas forced me to sometimes play the leading role in my films ... I was a star without knowing I was one , since the term did not yet exist . " All told , Méliès took an acting role in at least 300 of his 520 films .
Bleuette Bernon as Phoebe ( the woman on the crescent moon ) . Méliès discovered Bernon in the 1890s , when she was performing as a singer at the cabaret L 'Enfer . She also appeared in his 1899 adaption of Cinderella .
François Lallement as the officer of the marines . Lallement was one of the salaried camera operators for the Star Film Company .
Henri Delannoy as the captain of the rocket
Jules @-@ Eugène Legris as the parade leader . Legris was a magician who performed at Méliès 's theater of stage illusions , the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in Paris .
Victor André , Delpierre , Farjaux , Kelm , and Brunnet as the astronomers . André worked at the Théâtre de Cluny ; the others were singers in French music halls .
Ballet of the Théâtre du Châtelet as stars and as cannon attendants
Acrobats of the Folies Bergère as Selenites
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
When asked in 1930 what inspired him for A Trip to the Moon , Méliès credited Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon . Cinema historians , the mid @-@ 20th @-@ century French writer Georges Sadoul first among them , have frequently suggested H. G. Wells 's The First Men in the Moon , a French translation of which was published a few months before Méliès made the film , as another likely influence . Sadoul argued that the first half of the film ( up to the shooting of the projectile ) is derived from Verne and that the second half ( the travelers ' adventures on and in the moon ) is derived from Wells .
In addition to these literary sources , various film scholars have suggested that Méliès was heavily influenced by other works , especially Jacques Offenbach 's operetta Le voyage dans la lune ( an unauthorized parody of Verne 's novels ) and the A Trip to the Moon attraction at the 1901 Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . The French film historian Thierry Lefebvre hypothesizes that Méliès drew upon both of these works , but in different ways : he appears to have taken the structure of the film — " a trip to the moon , a moon landing , an encounter with extraterrestrials with a deformity , an underground trek , an interview with the Man in the Moon , and a brutal return to reality back on earth " — directly from the 1901 attraction , but also incorporated many plot elements ( including the presence of six astronomers with pseudo @-@ scientific names , telescopes that transform into stools , a moonshot cannon mounted above ground , a scene in which the moon appears to approach the viewer , a lunar snowstorm , an earthrise scene , and umbrella @-@ wielding travelers ) , not to mention the parodic tone of the film , from the Offenbach operetta .
= = = Filming = = =
As the science writer Ron Miller notes , A Trip to the Moon was one of the most complex films that Méliès had made , and employed " every trick he had learned or invented " . It was his longest film at the time ; both the budget and filming duration were unusually lavish , costing ₣ 10 @,@ 000 to make and taking three months to complete . The camera operators were Théophile Michault and Lucien Tainguy , who worked on a daily basis with Méliès as salaried employees for the Star Film Company . In addition to their work as cameramen , Méliès 's operators also did odd jobs for the company such as developing film and helping to set up scenery , and another salaried operator , François Lallement , appeared onscreen as the marine officer . By contrast , Méliès hired his actors on a film @-@ by @-@ film basis , drawing from talented individuals in the Parisian theatrical world , with which he had many connections . They were paid one Louis d 'or per day , a considerably higher salary than that offered by competitors , and had a full free meal at noon with Méliès .
Méliès 's film studio , which he had built in Montreuil , Seine @-@ Saint @-@ Denis in 1897 , was a greenhouse @-@ like building with glass walls and a glass ceiling to let in as much sunlight as possible , a concept used by most still photography studios from the 1860s onward ; it was built with the same dimensions as Méliès 's own Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin ( 13 @.@ 5 × 6.6m ) . Throughout his film career , Méliès worked on a strict schedule of planning films in the morning , filming scenes during the brightest hours of the day , tending to the film laboratory and the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in the late afternoon , and attending performances at Parisian theaters in the evening .
According to Méliès 's recollections , much of the unusual cost of A Trip to the Moon was due to the mechanically operated scenery and the Selenite costumes in particular , which were made for the film using cardboard and canvas . Méliès himself sculpted prototypes for the heads , feet , and kneecap pieces in terra cotta , and then created plaster molds for them . A specialist in mask @-@ making used these molds to produce cardboard versions for the actors to wear . One of the backdrops for the film , showing the inside of the glass @-@ roofed workshop in which the space capsule is built , was painted to look like the actual glass @-@ roofed studio in which the film was made .
Many of the special effects in A Trip to the Moon , as in numerous other Méliès films , were created using the substitution splice technique , in which the camera operator stopped filming long enough for something onscreen to be altered , added , or taken away . Méliès carefully spliced the resulting shots together to create apparently magical effects , such as the transformation of the astronomers ' telescopes into stools or the disappearance of the exploding Selenites in puffs of smoke . Other effects were created using theatrical means , such as stage machinery and pyrotechnics . The film also features transitional dissolves .
The pseudo @-@ tracking shot in which the camera appears to approach the Man in the Moon was accomplished using an effect Méliès had invented the previous year for the film The Man with the Rubber Head . Rather than attempting to move his weighty camera toward an actor , he set a pulley @-@ operated chair upon a rail @-@ fitted ramp , placed the actor ( covered up to the neck in black velvet ) on the chair , and pulled him toward the camera . In addition to its technical practicality , this technique also allowed Méliès to control the placement of the face within the frame to a much greater degree of specificity than moving his camera allowed . A substitution splice allowed a model capsule to suddenly appear in the eye of the actor playing the Moon , completing the shot . Another notable sequence in the film , the plunge of the capsule into real ocean waves filmed on location , was created through multiple exposure , with a shot of the capsule falling in front of a black background superimposed upon the footage of the ocean . The shot is followed by an underwater glimpse of the capsule floating back to the surface , created by combining a moving cardboard cutout of the capsule with an aquarium containing tadpoles and air jets . The descent of the rocket from the Moon was covered in four shots , taking up about twenty seconds of film time .
= = = Coloring = = =
As with at least 4 % of Méliès 's output ( including major films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies , The Impossible Voyage , and The Barber of Seville ) , some prints of A Trip to the Moon were individually hand @-@ colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's coloring lab in Paris . Thuillier , a former colorist of glass and celluloid products , directed a studio of two hundred people painting directly on film stock with brushes , in the colors she chose and specified . Each worker was assigned a different color in assembly line style , with more than twenty separate colors often used for a single film . On average , Thuillier 's lab produced about sixty hand @-@ colored copies of a film .
= = = Music = = =
Though Méliès 's films were of course silent , they were not intended to be seen silently ; exhibitors often used a bonimenteur , or narrator , to explain the story as it unfolded on the screen , accompanied by sound effects and live music . Méliès himself took considerable interest in musical accompaniment for his films , and prepared special film scores for several of them , including The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Barber of Seville . However , Méliès never required a specific musical score to be used with any film , allowing exhibitors freedom to choose whatever accompaniment they felt most suitable . When the film was screened at the Olympia music hall in Paris in 1902 , an original film score was reportedly written for it .
In 1903 , the English composer Ezra Read published a piano piece called A Trip to the Moon : Comic Descriptive Fantasia , which follows Méliès 's film scene by scene and may have been used as a score for the film ; it may have been commissioned by Méliès himself , who had likely met Read on one of his trips to England . More recent composers who have recorded scores for A Trip to the Moon include Nicolas Godin and Jean @-@ Benoit Dunckel of Air ( for the 2011 restoration ; see the Hand @-@ colored version section below ) , Frederick Hodges , Robert Israel , Eric Le Guen , Lawrence Lehérissey ( a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Méliès ) , Donald Sosin , and Victor Young ( for an abridged print featured as a prologue to the 1956 film Around the World in 80 Days ) .
= = Style = =
The film 's style , like that of most of Méliès 's other films , is deliberately theatrical . The mise en scéne is highly stylized , recalling the traditions of the 19th @-@ century stage , and is filmed by a stationary camera , placed to evoke the perspective of an audience member sitting in a theatre . This stylistic choice was one of Méliès 's first and biggest innovations . Although he had initially followed the popular trend of the time by making mainly actuality films ( short " slice of life " documentary films capturing actual scenes and events for the camera ) , in his first few years of filming Méliès gradually moved into the far less common genre of fictional narrative films , which he called his scènes composées or " artificially arranged scenes . " The new genre was extensively influenced by Méliès 's experience in theatre and magic , especially his familiarity with the popular French féerie stage tradition . In an advertisement he proudly described the difference between his innovative films and the actualities still being made by his contemporaries : " these fantastic and artistic films reproduce stage scenes and create a new genre entirely different from the ordinary cinematographic views of real people and real streets . "
Because A Trip to the Moon preceded the development of narrative film editing by filmmakers such as Edwin S. Porter and D. W. Griffith , it does not use the cinematic vocabulary to which American and European audiences later became accustomed , a vocabulary built on the purposeful use of techniques such as varied camera angles , intercutting , juxtapositions of shots , and other filmic ideas . Rather , each camera setup in Méliès 's film is designed as a distinct dramatic scene uninterrupted by visible editing , an approach fitting the theatrical style in which the film was designed . Similarly , film scholars have noted that the most famous moment in A Trip to the Moon plays with temporal continuity by showing an event twice : first the capsule is shown suddenly appearing in the eye of an anthropomorphic moon ; then , in a much closer shot , the landing occurs very differently , and much more realistically , with the capsule actually plummeting into believable lunar terrain . This kind of nonlinear storytelling — in which time and space are treated as repeatable and flexible rather than linear and causal — is highly unconventional by the standards of Griffith and his followers ; before the development of continuity editing , however , other filmmakers performed similar experiments with time . ( Porter , for instance , used temporal discontinuity and repetition extensively in his 1903 film Life of an American Fireman . ) Later in the twentieth century , with sports television 's development of the instant replay , temporal repetition again became a familiar device to screen audiences .
Because Méliès does not use a modern cinematic vocabulary , some film scholars have created other frameworks of thought with which to assess his films . For example , some recent academicians , while not necessarily denying Méliès 's influence on film , have argued that his works are better understood as spectacular theatrical creations rooted in the 19th @-@ century stage tradition of the féerie . Similarly , Tom Gunning has argued that to fault Méliès for not inventing a more intimate and cinematic storytelling style is to misunderstand the purpose of his films ; in Gunning 's view , the first decade of film history may be considered a " cinema of attractions , " in which filmmakers experimented with a presentational style based on spectacle and direct address rather than on intricate editing . Though the attraction style of filmmaking declined in popularity in favor of a more integrated " story film " approach , it remains an important component of certain types of cinema , including science fiction films , musicals , and avant @-@ garde films .
= = Themes = =
With its pioneering use of themes of scientific ambition and discovery , A Trip to the Moon is sometimes described as the first science fiction film . A Short History of Film argues that it codified " many of the basic generic situations that are still used in science fiction films today " . However , several other genre designations are possible ; Méliès himself advertised the film as a pièce à grand spectacle , a term referring to a type of spectacular Parisian stage extravaganza popularized by Jules Verne and Adolphe d 'Ennery in the second half of the nineteenth century . Richard Abel describes the film as belonging to the féerie genre , as does Frank Kessler . It can also be described simply as a trick film , a catch @-@ all term for the popular early film genre of innovative , special @-@ effects @-@ filled shorts — a genre Méliès himself had codified and popularized in his earlier works .
A Trip to the Moon is highly satirical in tone , poking fun at nineteenth @-@ century science by exaggerating it in the format of an adventure story . The film makes no pretense whatsoever to be scientifically plausible ; the real waves in the splashdown scene are the only concession to realism . The film scholar Alison McMahan calls A Trip to the Moon one of the earliest examples of pataphysical film , saying it " aims to show the illogicality of logical thinking " with its satirically portrayed inept scientists , anthropomorphic moon face , and impossible transgressions of laws of physics . The film historian Richard Abel believes Méliès aimed in the film to " invert the hierarchal values of modern French society and hold them up to ridicule in a riot of the carnivalesque " . Similarly , the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht described the film as a work " satirizing the pretensions of professors and scientific societies while simultaneously appealing to man 's sense of wonder in the face of an unexplored universe . "
There is also a strong anti @-@ imperialist vein in the film 's satire . The film scholar Matthew Solomon notes that the last part of the film ( the parade and commemoration sequence missing in some prints ) is especially forceful in this regard . He argues that Méliès , who had previously worked as an anti @-@ Boulangist political cartoonist , mocks imperialistic domination in the film by presenting his colonial conquerors as bumbling pedants who mercilessly attack the alien lifeforms they meet and return with a mistreated captive amid fanfares of self @-@ congratulation . The statue of Barbenfouillis shown in the film 's final shot even resembles the pompous , bullying colonialists in Méliès 's political cartoons . The film scholar Elizabeth Ezra agrees that " Méliès mocks the pretensions of colonialist accounts of the conquest of one culture by another , " and adds that " his film also thematizes social differentiation on the home front , as the hierarchical patterns on the moon are shown to bear a curious resemblance to those on earth . "
= = Release = =
Méliès , who had begun A Trip to the Moon in May 1902 , finished the film in August of that year and began selling prints to French distributors in the same month . From September through December 1902 , a hand @-@ colored print of A Trip to the Moon was screened at Méliès 's Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin in Paris . The film was shown after Saturday and Thursday matinee performances by Méliès 's colleague and fellow magician , Jules @-@ Eugène Legris , who appeared as the leader of the parade in the two final scenes . Méliès sold black @-@ and @-@ white and color prints of the film through his Star Film Company , where the film was assigned the catalogue number 399 – 411 and given the descriptive subtitle Pièce à grand spectacle en 30 tableaux . In France , black @-@ and @-@ white prints sold for ₣ 560 , and hand @-@ colored prints for ₣ 1 @,@ 000 . Méliès also sold the film indirectly through Charles Urban 's Warwick Trading Company in London .
Many circumstances surrounding the film — including its unusual budget , length , and production time , as well as its similarities to the 1901 New York attraction — indicate that Méliès was especially keen to release the film in the United States . Because of rampant film piracy , Méliès never received most of the profits of the popular film . One account reports that Méliès sold a print of the film to the Paris photographer Charles Gerschel for use in an Algiers theatre , under strict stipulation that the print only be shown in Algeria . Gerschel sold the print , and various other Méliès films , to the Edison Manufacturing Company employee Alfred C. Abadie , who sent them directly to Edison 's laboratories to be duplicated and sold by Vitagraph . Copies of the print spread to other firms , and by 1904 Siegmund Lubin , the Selig Polyscope Company , and Edison were all redistributing it . Edison 's print of the film was even offered in a hand @-@ colored version available at a higher price , just as Méliès had done . Méliès was often uncredited altogether ; for the first six months of the film 's distribution , the only American exhibitor to credit Méliès in advertisements for the film was Thomas Lincoln Tally , who chose the film as the inaugural presentation of his Electric Theater .
In order to combat the problem of film piracy that became clear during the release of A Trip to the Moon , Méliès opened an American branch of the Star Film Company , directed by his brother Gaston Méliès , in New York in 1903 . The office was designed to sell Méliès 's films directly and to protect them by registering them under United States copyright . The introduction to the English @-@ language edition of the Star Film Company catalog announced : " In opening a factory and office in New York we are prepared and determined energetically to pursue all counterfeiters and pirates . We will not speak twice , we will act ! "
In addition to the opening of the American branch , various trade arrangements were made with other film companies , including American Mutoscope and Biograph , the Warwick Trading Company , the Charles Urban Trading Co . , Robert W. Paul 's studio , and Gaumont . In these negotiations , a print sale price of US $ 0 @.@ 15 per foot was standardized across the American market , which proved useful to Méliès . However , later price standardizations by the Motion Picture Patents Company in 1908 hastened Méliès 's financial ruin , as his films were impractically expensive under the new standards . In addition , in the years following 1908 his films suffered from the fashions of the time , as the fanciful magic films he made were no longer in vogue .
= = Reception = =
According to Méliès 's memoirs , his initial attempts to sell A Trip to the Moon to French fairground exhibitors met with failure because of the film 's unusually high price . Finally , Méliès offered to let one such exhibitor borrow a print of the film to screen for free . The applause from the very first showing was so enthusiastic that fairgoers kept the theater packed until midnight . The exhibitor bought the film immediately , and when he was reminded of his initial reluctance he even offered to add ₣ 200 to compensate " for [ Méliès 's ] inconvenience . " The film was a pronounced success in France , running uninterrupted at the Olympia music hall in Paris for several months .
A Trip to the Moon was met with especially large enthusiasm in the United States , where ( to Méliès 's chagrin ) its piracy by Lubin , Selig , Edison and others gave it wide distribution . Exhibitors in New York City , Washington D.C. , Cleveland , Detroit , New Orleans , and Kansas City reported on the film 's great success in their theaters . The film also did well in other countries , including Germany , Canada , and Italy , where it was featured as a headline attraction through 1904 .
A Trip to the Moon was one of the most popular films of the first few years of the twentieth century , rivaled only by a small handful of others ( similarly spectacular Méliès films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Impossible Voyage among them ) . Late in life , Méliès remarked that A Trip to the Moon was " surely not one of my best , " but acknowledged that it was widely considered his masterpiece and that " it left an indelible trace because it was the first of its kind . " The film which Méliès was proudest of was Humanity Through the Ages , a serious historical drama now presumed lost .
= = Rediscovery = =
= = = Black @-@ and @-@ white print = = =
After Méliès 's financial difficulties and decline , most copies of his prints were lost . In 1917 , his offices were occupied by the French military , who melted down many of Méliès 's films to gather the traces of silver from the film stock and make boot heels from the celluloid . When the Théâtre Robert @-@ Houdin was demolished in 1923 , the prints kept there were sold by weight to a vendor of second @-@ hand film . Finally , in that same year , Méliès had a moment of anger and burned all his remaining negatives in his garden in Montreuil . In 1925 , he began selling toys and candy from a stand in the Gare Montparnasse in Paris . A Trip to the Moon was largely forgotten to history and went unseen for years .
Thanks to the efforts of film history devotées , especially René Clair , Jean @-@ George Auriol , and Paul Gilson , Méliès and his work were rediscovered in the late 1920s . A " Gala Méliès " was held at the Salle Pleyel in Paris on 16 December 1929 in celebration of the filmmaker , and he was awarded the Legion of Honor in 1931 . During this renaissance of interest in Méliès , the cinema manager Jean Mauclaire and the early film experimenter Jean Acme LeRoy both set out independently to locate a surviving print of A Trip to the Moon . Mauclaire obtained a copy from Paris in October 1929 , and LeRoy one from London in 1930 , though both prints were incomplete ; Mauclaire 's lacked the first and last scenes , and LeRoy 's was missing the entire final sequence featuring the parade and commemorative statue . These prints were occasionally screened at retrospectives ( including the Gala Méliès ) , avant @-@ garde cinema showings , and other special occasions , sometimes in presentations by Méliès himself .
Following LeRoy 's death in 1932 , his film collection was bought by the Museum of Modern Art in 1936 . The museum 's acquisition and subsequent screenings of A Trip to the Moon , under the direction of MoMA 's film curator Iris Barry , opened the film up once again to a wide audience of Americans and Canadians and established it definitively as a landmark in the history of cinema . LeRoy 's incomplete print became the most commonly seen version of the film and the source print for most other copies , including the Cinémathèque française 's print . A complete version of the film , including the entire celebration sequence , was finally reconstructed in 1997 from various sources by the Cinémathèque Méliès , a foundation set up by the Méliès family .
= = = Hand @-@ colored print = = =
No hand @-@ colored prints of A Trip to the Moon were known to survive until 1993 , when one was given to the Filmoteca de Catalunya by an anonymous donor as part of a collection of two hundred silent films . It is unknown whether this version , a hand @-@ colored print struck from a second @-@ generation negative , was colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's lab , but the perforations used imply that the copy was made before 1906 . The flag waved during the launching scene in this copy is colored to resemble the flag of Spain , indicating that the hand @-@ colored copy was made for a Spanish exhibitor .
In 1999 , Anton Gimenez of the Filmoteca de Catalunya mentioned the existence of this print , which he believed to be in a state of total decomposition , to Serge Bromberg and Eric Lange of the French film company Lobster Films . Bromberg and Lange offered to trade a recently rediscovered film by Segundo de Chomón for the hand @-@ colored print , and Gimenez accepted . Bromberg and Lange consulted various specialist laboratories in an attempt to restore the film , but because the reel of film had apparently decomposed into a rigid mass , none believed restoration to be possible . Consequently , Bromberg and Lange themselves set to work separating the film frames , discovering that only the edges of the film stock had decomposed and congealed together , and thus that many of the frames themselves were still salvageable . Between 2002 and 2005 , various digitization efforts allowed 13 @,@ 375 fragments of images from the print to be saved . In 2010 , a complete restoration of the hand @-@ colored print was launched by Lobster Films , the Groupama Gan Foundation for Cinema , and the Technicolor Foundation for Cinema Heritage . The digitized fragments of the hand @-@ colored print were reassembled and restored , with missing frames recreated with the help of a black @-@ and @-@ white print in the possession of the Méliès family , and time @-@ converted to run at an authentic silent @-@ film speed , 14 frames per second . The restoration was completed in 2011 at Technicolor 's laboratories in Los Angeles .
The restored version premiered on 11 May 2011 , eighteen years after its discovery and 109 years after its original release , at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , with a new soundtrack by the French band Air . The restoration was released by Flicker Alley in a 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ Ray and DVD edition also including The Extraordinary Voyage , a feature @-@ length documentary by Bromberg and Lange about the film 's restoration , in 2012 . In The New York Times , A. O. Scott called the restoration " surely a cinematic highlight of the year , maybe the century . "
= = Legacy = =
As A Short History of Film notes , A Trip to the Moon combined " spectacle , sensation , and technical wizardry to create a cosmic fantasy that was an international sensation . " It was profoundly influential on later filmmakers , bringing creativity to the cinematic medium and offering fantasy for pure entertainment , a rare goal in film at the time . In addition , Méliès 's innovative editing and special effects techniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium . The film also spurred on the development of cinematic science fiction and fantasy by demonstrating that scientific themes worked on the screen and that reality could be transformed by the camera . In a 1940 interview , Edwin S. Porter said that it was by seeing A Trip to the Moon and other Méliès films that he " came to the conclusion that a picture telling a story might draw the customers back to the theatres , and set to work in this direction . " Similarly , D. W. Griffith said simply of Méliès : " I owe him everything . " Since these American directors are widely credited with developing modern film narrative technique , the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht once summed up Méliès 's importance to film history by commenting that Méliès " profoundly influenced both Porter and Griffith and through them the whole course of American film @-@ making . "
It remains Méliès 's most famous film as well as a classic example of early cinema , with the image of the capsule stuck in the Man in the Moon 's eye particularly well @-@ known . The film has been evoked in other creative works many times , ranging from Segundo de Chomón 's 1908 unauthorized remake Excursion to the Moon through the extensive tribute to Méliès and the film in the Brian Selznick novel The Invention of Hugo Cabret and its 2011 Martin Scorsese film adaptation Hugo . Film scholar Andrew J. Rausch includes A Trip to the Moon among the " 32 most pivotal moments in the history of [ film ] , " saying it " changed the way movies were produced . " Chiara Ferrari 's essay on the film in 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die , which places A Trip to the Moon as the first entry , argues that the film " directly reflects the histrionic personality of its director " , and that the film " deserves a legitimate place among the milestones in world cinema history . "
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= Rivadavia @-@ class battleship =
The Rivadavia class consisted of two battleships designed by the American Fore River Shipbuilding Company for the Argentine Navy . Named Rivadavia and Moreno after important figures in Argentine history , they were Argentina 's entry in the South American dreadnought race and a counter to Brazil 's two Minas Geraes @-@ class battleships .
In 1904 , Brazil scrapped a previous naval building program in favor of an order that included three warships of the new " dreadnought " type , despite signs that such an action would spark a South American naval arms race . To counter this acquisition by a major rival , Argentina began seeking bids for at least two dreadnoughts in 1908 . Over the next two years , shipbuilders from five countries vied for the contracts , complemented by efforts from their respective governments . Argentina was able to play this hyper @-@ competitive environment to its own advantage by rejecting all of the initial proposals and calling for new ones that required the best aspects of each . They then repeated this process , despite complaints from shipbuilders that their trade secrets were being given away . The contracts were awarded to the lowest bidder , Fore River , in early 1910 . This move shocked the European bidders , but could partly be explained by the American steel trust 's ability to produce steel at a lower cost than any other country .
With increasing tensions in Europe that would eventually lead to the First World War , newspapers speculated that the Argentine dreadnoughts would be sold to another country . Under diplomatic pressure , Argentina kept the ships . Throughout their careers , Rivadavia and Moreno were based in Puerto Belgrano and served principally as training ships and diplomatic envoys . They were modernized in the United States in 1924 and 1925 and were inactive for much of the Second World War due to Argentina 's neutrality . Struck from the navy lists on 1 February 1957 , Rivadavia was scrapped in Italy beginning in 1959 . Moreno was struck on 1 October 1956 and was towed to Japan in 1957 for scrapping in what was then the world 's longest tow ( 96 days ) .
= = Background = =
The raison d 'être for the Rivadavia class can be traced back to Argentine – Chilean territorial disputes over the boundary of Patagonia and control of the Beagle Channel going back to the 1840s . It nearly led to war in 1878 and kindled a naval arms race from 1887 to 1902 which was only settled via British mediation . As part of the three pacts which ended the dispute , restrictions were placed on the navies of both countries . The British Royal Navy bought two Swiftsure @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan . Meanwhile , beginning in the late 1880s , Brazil 's navy fell into obsolescence after an 1889 revolution , which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II , and a 1893 civil war . By the turn of the 20th century it was lagging behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total tonnage , despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times the population of Chile .
By 1904 , however , Brazil began to seriously consider upgrading its navy to compete with Argentina and Chile . Soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought the Brazilian economy an influx of revenue , which paid for a US $ 31 @.@ 25 million naval repair scheme , a substantial amount for the time period . The bill authorized 28 ships , including three battleships and three armored cruisers . It was not possible to lay down the battleships until 1906 , the same year the trend @-@ setting HMS Dreadnought was constructed . This ship prompted the Brazilians to cancel their battleship plans in favor of two Minas Geraes @-@ class dreadnoughts . The ordering of these powerful ships — designed to carry the heaviest armament in the world at the time — shocked Argentina and Chile . Historian Robert Scheina comments that the dreadnoughts alone " outclassed the entire [ elderly ] Argentinian fleet . "
Debates raged in Argentina over the wisdom of acquiring dreadnoughts to counter Brazil 's . The National Autonomist Party cabinet was in favor , despite a probable cost of nearly $ 10 million , but a specific plan for two 14 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 14 @,@ 225 t ) battleships and ten destroyers was not popular with the public . Alarmed , the American ambassador to Brazil sent a cablegram to his Department of State , warning them of the destabilizing effects that would occur if the situation devolved into a full naval arms race .
Despite American entreaties to preclude the naval arms race , Brazil continued development on the ships . This , combined with renewed border disputes , particularly in the River Plate ( Río de la Plata , literally " Silver River " ) area , spurred Argentina to move forward with plans for their own battleships . Inflamed by newspaper editors , the public was now fully supportive of a naval building program . While an early plan called for $ 35 million to be invested — $ 7 million from foreign loans — a $ 55 million plan was adopted in August 1908 . Hoping to end the arms race , Argentina made an offer to purchase one of the two Brazilian ships , but the refusal prompted the dispatch of an Argentine naval commission to Europe to acquire dreadnoughts .
= = Bidding = =
Proposals from shipbuilders for two dreadnoughts ( along with a possible third , to match Brazil should a third ship be ordered ) and twelve destroyers were solicited in 1908 by open tender . In order to ensure that the designs reflected the most modern practices , the requirements were intentionally vague .
Fifteen shipyards from the United States , Great Britain , Germany , France , and Italy began bidding on the battleships . Diplomatic pressure to give the contracts was brought to bear from all these countries , especially the first three . Even with this assistance , industry leaders in the United States believed that they had no chance in the bidding without active cooperation from their government , as Europe was the traditional arms supplier to Argentina ( and to all of South America ) . Even when this was given , including the removal of import tariffs on hides from Argentina , promises for additional concessions if American shipbuilders were selected , and an offer to include the most technologically advanced fire @-@ control system and torpedo tubes available on the Argentine battleships , the United States was widely viewed as a non @-@ contender . Historian Seward W. Livermore remarked that " opposition to the United States was formidable . The naval commission was pro @-@ British ; the vice @-@ president of the republic , Roque Sáenz Peña , favored Italy , where he had been the Argentine envoy for many years ; and the minister of war wanted the contracts to go to Germany , so as to standardize the military and naval equipment of the country . "
The president of the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company believed that the United States would not receive contracts due to what he saw as a large amount of European meddling in Argentina :
The political influence of foreign powers is being exerted in a very forceful manner to turn the business to English and Continental firms ; the King of Italy , the German Emperor , and the force of English diplomacy are being made use of ; and American firms will have very little consideration , I fear , unless our government will exert some very powerful influence in favor of this country .
The United States , however , found an ally in Buenos Aires ' main daily newspaper , La Prensa . The owner , editor , and naval editor were all in favor of acquiring American @-@ designed dreadnoughts . In addition , the paper found evidence of British wrongdoing in a related naval contract . Under public pressure , the naval commission was forced to reconsider its original list , which had placed Italy first and Britain second . It now featured the United States first , Britain second , and Italy last .
In a surprise move , the Argentine naval commission then threw out all of the opening tenders and called for another round of bidding ; they simultaneously updated the specifications to include what were judged to be the best aspects of all the plans . The competitors were given three weeks to come up with new designs and cost estimates . After diplomatic protests , this was modified slightly ; the original bids were kept , but alterations to attempt to conform to the new desired characteristics were allowed .
The commission found that the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company bid was lowest on one battleship , and the Fore River Shipbuilding Company was lowest on the other . Despite a British attempt to allow the Armstrong Whitworth @-@ Vickers team to lower their price by $ 570 @,@ 000 , prompt American diplomacy granting various assurances regarding recent events between the United States and Brazil , the upcoming 1910 Pan @-@ American Conference , and a guarantee of American participation in the Argentine centennial celebrations secured the battleship contracts for Fore River on 21 January 1910 . The maximum price Fore River tendered , $ 10 @.@ 7 million , underbid the British by more than $ 973 @,@ 000 , but their ship 's displacement was 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) smaller , the belt armor was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thinner , and the top speed was slightly lower . Orders for the twelve destroyers were divided among Britain , France , and Germany .
Rivadavia was built by Fore River at its shipyard in Massachusetts , but they were contractually obligated to subcontract the second ship to a different shipyard in the hope that both would be completed faster , so Moreno was constructed by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden , New Jersey . The steel for the ships was largely supplied by the Bethlehem Steel Company of Pennsylvania , which , due to their ability to produce steel at a lower price than other nations , was an integral cost @-@ saving measure . The Secretary of the Argentine Naval Commission , the body which chose the final design , said the reason the American tender was lower than that of the English was that " steel for construction work and armor @-@ plating is a great deal cheaper in the United States than in England . Wages are higher there , but the contractors ... are able to obtain it more cheaply owing to the manipulations of the Steel Trust . "
A third dreadnought , provided for in the contract , was strongly supported by Argentina and by U.S. diplomats during 1910 , while the Minas Geraes class was still under construction . La Prensa and one of its rivals , La Argentina , heavily advocated a third ship ; the latter even started a petition to raise money for a new battleship . An American diplomat wrote back to the United States that " this newspaper rivalry promises the early conclusion of a movement which means a third battleship whether by public subscription or by Government funds . " However , Brazil 's 21 – 26 November Revolt of the Lash — in which the three most powerful ships in the fleet ( the battleships Minas Geraes , São Paulo , and the cruiser Bahia ) and several smaller warships violently rebelled — crushed the previous sentiment for a new battleship . About two years later in October 1912 , a third dreadnought was authorized by Argentina in case Brazil 's Rio de Janeiro was completed and delivered . The ship was never named or built , as Rio de Janeiro was sold to the Ottoman Empire due to monetary issues , and a later planned Brazilian ship ( Riachuelo ) was canceled due to the beginning of the First World War .
= = International reaction = =
The choice of Fore River came as a complete surprise to the European bidders . Britain 's reaction in particular was scathing : Sir John H. Biles , a professor and well @-@ known naval architect , decried the bidding process as " unethical " :
... it may be presumed that everything ... good in the first proposals [ was ] seized upon by the Argentine authorities and asked for in the new design . This second request went not only to British builders but to all the builders of the world , and in this way it is exceedingly probable that a serious leakage of ideas and practice of our ships was disseminated through the world by the Argentine government .... The third inquiry that was issued showed to all the builders of the world what has been eliminated or modified in the second inquiry ; and so the process of leakage went merrily on , and with it that of the education of foreign builders and the Argentine government .
Various British newspapers also cried foul . The Evening Standard believed that as " Argentina 's greatest creditor and greatest client " , Britain ought to have been awarded the two ships . The Times took a different track , accusing American shipbuilders of slashing prices to an obscene degree , and accusing the government of exerting undue diplomatic pressure to obtain the contracts .
New Zealand 's Evening Post noted that the United States had previously built major warships for other countries , including Russia , and Britain 's ally Japan , and commented , " The severity of the blow to England rests in ... the amount of English capital in [ Argentina ] " , possibly echoing the Evening Standard 's argument . They referred to a " startling " fact printed by the Daily Mail : the steel used for the armor of the American design was obtained for a much lower price . With Bethlehem 's ability to produce it at £ 8 less per ton than British foundries , a cost savings of more than 10 % in steel over the British ship could be realized .
Germany asserted that the United States was given the opportunity to view the other nations ' tenders and lower their price accordingly . Germany also alleged that the United States had secured the deal by pledging to come to Argentina 's defense should they become embroiled in a military conflict .
The New York Times noted that with Argentina 's and Brazil 's dreadnought orders , countries in North and South America were building the five biggest capital ships in the world ( Brazil 's Rio de Janeiro , Argentina 's Rivadavia and Moreno , and the United States ' New York and Texas ) in addition to seven of the ten largest ( including the United States ' Wyoming and Arkansas ) . Shortly after Rivadavia had completed its trials , the U.S. Navy 's Board of Inspection and Survey remarked that the ship " handle [ d ] remarkably well ... with comparatively minor modifications the vessel would practically meet the requirements of our own vessels . " The Board of Inspection was less pleased with the wing turrets , stating that " while theoretically the Rivadavia has an ahead and astern fire of six guns , this is not so in reality , as it is almost certain that the blast from the waist turrets would dish in the smokepipes and damage the uptakes . "
= = Possible sale = =
After Brazil sold Rio de Janeiro to the Ottoman Empire , Argentina began to actively seek a buyer for their two ships so the profits could be invested in education . In the tension that preceded the First World War , there were many suitors . The United States , however , abhorred the idea of their latest technological advances falling into the hands of a possible future combat opponent . While the contract allowed the United States Navy an option to acquire the ships if a deal was reached with a third nation , the Navy did not want the ships ; with the rapid advances in dreadnought technology , such as the " all or nothing " armor arrangement , even new ships like Rivadavia and Moreno were seen as outmoded .
Three bills directing that the battleships be sold were introduced into the Argentine National Congress in the summer of 1914 , but all were defeated . Still , soon after the beginning of the First World War , the German ambassador to Argentina alleged to the U.S. State Department that Britain 's Royal Navy was going to take over the ships as soon as the ships reached the River Plate , and the British put diplomatic pressure on the United States to try to ensure the ships were not sold to any other country ( as this new country could in turn sell them to Germany ) . Italy , the Ottomans , and Greece were all reportedly interested in buying both ships , the latter as a counter to the Ottoman purchase of Rio de Janeiro . The United States , worried that its neutrality would not be respected and its technology would be released for study to a foreign competitor , put diplomatic pressure on Argentina to keep the ships , which it eventually did .
= = Design influences = =
The Rivadavia design was very similar to a 1906 proposal from Fore River for an American dreadnought class . This ship would have mounted a main battery of fourteen 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns in dual turrets ( two superfiring fore , two wing , and three non @-@ superfiring aft ) , a secondary battery of twenty 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and four torpedo tubes on a hull of 22 @,@ 000 long tons ( 22 @,@ 000 t ) that would be capable of 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) . Foreign practices also bore a large influence on the design ; most were acquired through the unique design process of rejecting multiple bids and calling for the best aspects of each . For example , the superfiring arrangement of the main battery was an American innovation , while the wing turrets were similar to British designs of the time . The secondary battery of 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns and the three @-@ shaft system were influenced by German design practices , while the engine and boiler layout was reminiscent of the Italian battleship Dante Alighieri .
= = Service histories = =
Rivadavia was named after Bernardino Rivadavia , the first president of Argentina , and was built by Fore River Shipyard . The ship was laid down on 25 May 1910 , launched on 26 August 1911 , and completed in December 1914 . Moreno was named after Mariano Moreno , a member of the first Argentine government ; laid down on 10 July 1910 by New York Shipbuilding Corporation , it was launched on 23 September 1911 and completed in February 1915 . Both ships had engine trouble soon after completion : Rivadavia 's completion was delayed due to a damaged turbine , while Moreno had an entire turbine fail while on its trials .
The ships finally arrived in Argentina in February and May 1915 , respectively . In the early 1920s , both ships spent time in the reserve fleet due to an economic depression , but enough money was available by 1924 to have the dreadnoughts modernized in the United States . Both refits included a conversion from coal to fuel oil , a new fire @-@ control system , and other minor improvements . In the 1930s they participated in training cruises and diplomatic trips , including :
Moreno 's 1933 visit to Brazil with Argentine president Agustín Pedro Justo aboard ;
A second visit in 1934 to mark the centennial of Brazilian independence ;
Rivadavia 's and Moreno 's 1937 voyage to Europe , where they visited Brest ( France ) , Wilhelmshaven , Bremen , and Hamburg ( Germany ) ;
Moreno 's additional participation on the same voyage in the British Spithead Naval Review , where the New York Times ' Hanson Baldwin described it as a " a strange vestigial sea monster in this company of more modern fighting ships " ;
Rivadavia 's and Moreno 's 1939 training cruise to Brazil with naval cadets embarked ; with the beginning of the Second World War in September , destroyers had to be sent from Argentina to escort them home .
During the war , both ships were mainly inactive due to Argentine neutrality . Rivadavia undertook a last diplomatic cruise to Trinidad , Venezuela , and Colombia in 1946 , but both ships were immobile by 1948 . Moreno was stricken from the naval register on 1 October 1956 and was brought to Japan in 1957 for scrapping in a then @-@ world @-@ record 96 @-@ day tow . Rivadavia was stricken on 1 February 1957 and scrapped in Italy beginning in 1959 . The money gained from selling the two dreadnoughts along with an older armored cruiser , Pueyrredón , was used to buy an aircraft carrier from the United Kingdom , Independencia ( ex @-@ Warrior ) .
= = Specifications = =
The two ships of the Rivadavia class were 594 feet 9 inches ( 181 @.@ 28 m ) overall and 585 feet ( 178 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a beam of 98 feet 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 29 @.@ 985 m ) , a normal draft of 27 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 446 m ) , and displaced 27 @,@ 500 long tons ( 27 @,@ 900 t ) normally and 30 @,@ 100 long tons ( 30 @,@ 600 t ) at full load . The ships were staffed by 130 officers and about 1000 enlisted men .
For armament , the Rivadavia class was equipped with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns , a secondary battery of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 155 mm ) / 50 and twelve 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 QF , and two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes .
The 12 " / 50 was a Bethlehem development . It was most likely based on the weapon used in the United States ' Wyoming @-@ class battleship , the 12 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 gun . The twelve guns were mounted in six dual turrets . Four turrets were superfiring fore and aft , while the other two were located en echelon in wing turrets . The latter weapons could , in theory , fire on a 180 ° range on their respective sides of the hull and 100 ° on the other , but in reality this was not possible , as the blast damage from the weapons would damage the ship . A more reasonable estimate would be 90 ° on their sides . The 6 @-@ inch secondary armament was placed in casemates , with six on either side of the ship . For protection , they were provided with 6 inches of armor . The 4 @-@ inch weaponry , intended for use against marauding destroyers , was mounted unarmored in various places around the ship , including the main deck , superstructure , and far up near the bow . As originally built , there were sixteen 4 @-@ inch guns , but four of those were replaced with four 3 @-@ inch AA guns and four 3 @-@ pounders during the 1924 @-@ 1926 modernization . The torpedo tubes were located underneath the waterline and were loaded in a dedicated compartment .
Full ammunition loads were 1 @,@ 440 rounds for the 12 @-@ inch guns ( 120 per gun ) , 3 @,@ 600 rounds for the 6 @-@ inch ( 300 ) , 5 @,@ 600 rounds for the 4 @-@ inch ( 350 ) , and 16 torpedoes manufactured by Whitehead . To assist the main battery with targeting during a battle , the two ships were equipped with two Barr & Stroud rangefinders that were located above the conning towers .
Rivadavia and Moreno used Brown – Curtis geared steam turbines , powered by 18 Babcock & Wilcox boilers and connected to three propellers . With a total output of about 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , the ships were designed to travel at a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) and may have been capable of slightly more . At speeds of 11 to 15 knots ( 20 to 28 km / h ; 13 to 17 mph ) , their endurance ranged from 11 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 20 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 700 to 8 @,@ 100 mi ) , respectively . Their fuel was a coal – oil mix and the ships carried 3 @,@ 900 long tons ( 4 @,@ 000 t ) of the former and 590 long tons ( 600 t ) of the latter .
Typical of American @-@ designed dreadnoughts at the time , the Rivadavia class included substantial armor protection . A 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) belt was fitted amidships , covering 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the designed waterline , gradually decreasing towards the bow and stern to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) and 4 inches ( 100 mm ) , respectively . The gun turrets received heavy armor , including 12 inches ( 300 mm ) on the front , 9 inches ( 230 mm ) on the sides , 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 240 mm ) on the back , and 4 inches ( 100 mm ) on the top . Deck armor consisted of .5 inches ( 13 mm ) medium steel and 2 inches ( 51 mm ) nickel steel .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Cyclogenesis =
Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere ( a low @-@ pressure area ) . Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for at least three different processes , all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone , and at any size from the microscale to the synoptic scale .
Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core .
Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones .
Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear .
The process in which an extratropical cyclone undergoes a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure ( 24 millibars or more ) in a 24 @-@ hour period is referred to as explosive cyclogenesis , and is usually present during the formation of a nor 'easter . The anticyclonic equivalent , the process of formation of high pressure areas , is anticyclogenesis . The opposite of cyclogenesis is cyclolysis .
= = Meteorological scales = =
There are four main scales , or sizes of systems , dealt with in meteorology : the macroscale , the synoptic scale , the mesoscale , and the microscale . The macroscale deals with systems with global size , such as the Madden – Julian oscillation . Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent , such as extratropical cyclones , with dimensions of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ 2 @,@ 500 km ( 620 @-@ 1 @,@ 550 mi ) across . The mesoscale is the next smaller scale , and often is divided into two ranges : meso @-@ alpha phenomena range from 200 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 km ( 125 @-@ 1 @,@ 243 mi ) across ( the realm of the tropical cyclone ) , while meso @-@ beta phenomena range from 20 – 200 km ( 12 @-@ 125 mi ) across ( the scale of the mesocyclone ) . The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales , with a size under two kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) ( the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts ) . These horizontal dimensions are not rigid divisions but instead reflect typical sizes of phenomena having certain dynamic characteristics . For example , a system does not necessarily transition from meso @-@ alpha to synoptic scale when its horizontal extent grows from 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 001 km ( 1 @,@ 243 mi ) .
= = Extratropical cyclones = =
= = = Norwegian Cyclone Model = = =
The Norwegian Cyclone Model is an idealized formation model of cold @-@ core cyclonic storms developed by Norwegian meteorologists during the First World War . The main concept behind this model , relating to cyclogenesis , is that cyclones progress through a predictable evolution as they move up a frontal boundary , with the most mature cyclone near the northeast end of the front and the least mature near the tail end of the front .
= = = Precursors for development = = =
A preexisting frontal boundary , as defined in surface weather analysis , is required for the development of a mid @-@ latitude cyclone . The cyclonic flow begins around a disturbed section of the stationary front due to an upper level disturbance , such as a short wave or an upper @-@ level trough , near a favorable quadrant of the upper level jet . However , enhanced along @-@ frontal stretching rates in the lower troposphere can suppress the growth of extratropical cyclones .
= = = Vertical motion affecting development = = =
Cyclogenesis can only occur when temperature decreases polewards ( to the north , in the northern hemisphere ) , and pressure perturbation lines tilt westward with height . Cyclogenesis is most likely to occur in regions of cyclonic vorticity advection , downstream of a strong westerly jet . The combination of vorticity advection and thermal advection created by the temperature gradient and a low pressure center cause upward motion around the low . If the temperature gradient is strong enough , temperature advection will increase , driving more vertical motion . This increases the overall strength of the system . Shearwise updrafts are the most important factor in determining cyclonic growth and strength .
= = = Modes of development = = =
The surface low could have a variety of causes for forming . Topography can force a surface low when dense low @-@ level high pressure system ridges in east of a north @-@ south mountain barrier . Mesoscale convective systems can spawn surface lows which are initially warm core . The disturbance can grow into a wave @-@ like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest . Around the low , flow will become cyclonic , by definition . This rotational flow will push polar air equatorward west of the low via its trailing cold front , and warmer air will push poleward low via the warm front . Usually the cold front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and “ catch up ” with it due to the slow erosion of higher density airmass located out ahead of the cyclone and the higher density airmass sweeping in behind the cyclone , usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector . At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed upwards into a trough of warm air aloft , which is also known as a trowal ( a trough of warm air aloft ) . All developing low pressure areas share one important aspect , that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere . Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air , which lower surface pressure .
= = = Maturity = = =
Maturity is after the time of occlusion when the storm has completed strengthening and the cyclonic flow is at its most intense . Thereafter , the strength of the storm diminishes as the cyclone couples with the upper level trough or upper level low , becoming increasingly cold core . The spin @-@ down of cyclones , also known as cyclolysis , can be understood from an energetics perspective . As occlusion occurs and the warm air mass is pushed upwards over a cold air airmass , the atmosphere becomes increasingly stable and the centre of gravity of the system lowers . As the occlusion process extends further down the warm front and away from the central low , more and more of the available potential energy of the system is exhausted . This potential energy sink creates a kinetic energy source which injects a final burst of energy into the storm 's motions . After this process occurs , the growth period of the cyclone , or cyclogenesis , ends , and the low begins to spin down ( fill ) as more air is converging into the bottom of the cyclone than is being removed out the top since upper @-@ level divergence has decreased .
Occasionally , cyclogenesis will re @-@ occur with occluded cyclones . When this happens a new low center will form on the triple @-@ point ( the point where the cold front , warm front , and occluded front meet ) . During triple @-@ point cyclogenesis , the occluded parent low will fill as the secondary low deepens into the main weathermaker .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
Tropical cyclones exist within a mesoscale alpha domain . As opposed to mid @-@ latitude cyclogenesis , tropical cyclogenesis is driven by strong convection organised into a central core with no baroclinic zones , or fronts , extending through their center . Although the formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood , there are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sea surface temperatures that are warm enough , atmospheric instability , high humidity in lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . These warm core cyclones tend to form over the oceans between 10 and 30 degrees of the equator .
= = Mesocyclones = =
Mesocyclones range in size from mesoscale beta to microscale . The term mesocyclone is usually reserved for mid @-@ level rotations within severe thunderstorms , and are warm core cyclones driven by latent heat of its associated thunderstorm activity .
Tornadoes form in the warm sector of extratropical cyclones where a strong upper level jet stream exists . Mesocyclones are believed to form when strong changes of wind speed and / or direction with height ( " wind shear " ) sets parts of the lower part of the atmosphere spinning in invisible tube @-@ like rolls . The convective updraft of a thunderstorm is then thought to draw up this spinning air , tilting the rolls ' orientation upward ( from parallel to the ground to perpendicular ) and causing the entire updraft to rotate as a vertical column .
As the updraft rotates , it may form what is known as a wall cloud . The wall cloud is a spinning layer of clouds descending from the mesocyclone . The wall cloud tends to form closer to the center of the mesocyclone . It should be noted the wall clouds do not necessarily need a mesocyclone to form and do not always rotate . As the wall cloud descends , a funnel @-@ shaped cloud may form at its center . This is the first stage of tornado formation . The presence of a mesocyclone is believed to be a key factor in the formation of the strong tornadoes associated with severe thunderstorms .
= = Tornadoes = =
Tornadoes exist on the microscale or low end of the mesoscale gamma domain . The cycle begins when a strong thunderstorm develops a rotating mesocyclone a few miles up in the atmosphere , becoming a supercell . As rainfall in the storm increases , it drags with it an area of quickly descending air known as the rear flank downdraft ( RFD ) . This downdraft accelerates as it approaches the ground , and drags the rotating mesocyclone towards the ground with it .
As the mesocyclone approaches the ground , a visible condensation funnel appears to descend from the base of the storm , often from a rotating wall cloud . As the funnel descends , the RFD also reaches the ground , creating a gust front that can cause damage a good distance from the tornado . Usually , the funnel cloud begins causing damage on the ground ( becoming a tornado ) within minutes of the RFD reaching the ground .
= = Waterspouts = =
Waterspouts exist on the microscale . While some waterspouts are strong ( tornadic ) like their land @-@ based counterparts , most are much weaker and caused by different atmospheric dynamics . They normally develop in moisture @-@ laden environments with little vertical wind shear along lines of convergence , such as land breezes , lines of frictional convergence from nearby landmasses , or surface troughs . Their parent cloud can be as innocuous as a moderate cumulus , or as significant as a thunderstorm . Waterspouts normally develop as their parent clouds are in the process of development , and it is theorized that they spin up as they move up the surface boundary from the horizontal wind shear near the surface , and then stretch upwards to the cloud once the low level shear vortex aligns with a developing cumulus or thunderstorm . Weak tornadoes , known as landspouts , across eastern Colorado have been witnessed to develop in a similar manner . An outbreak occurred in the Great Lakes in late September and early October 2003 along a lake effect band . September is the peak month of landspout and waterspout occurrence around Florida and for waterspout occurrence around the Great Lakes .
= = Related terms = =
Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis , which concerns the weakening of surface cyclones . The term has an anticyclonic ( high pressure system ) equivalent — Anticyclogenesis , which deals with the formation of surface high pressure systems .
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= Tartu Offensive =
The Tartu Offensive Operation ( Russian : Тартуская наступательная операция ) , also known as the Battle of Tartu ( Estonian : Tartu lahing ) and the Battle of Emajõgi ( Estonian : Emajõe lahingud , German : Schlacht am Embach ) was a campaign fought over southeastern Estonia in 1944 . It took place on the Eastern Front during World War II between the Soviet 3rd Baltic Front and parts of the German Army Group North .
The Soviet tactical aim was to defeat the 18th Army and to capture the city of Tartu . The strategic goal was a quick occupation of Estonia . The Soviet command planned to reach the coast of the Gulf of Riga and trap the Army Detachment " Narwa " . The German side involved Estonian conscripts , which fought to defend their country against the looming Soviet annexation . The 3rd Baltic Front captured Tartu . The conquest caused the destruction of the Estonian National Museum and 40 million rubles worth of damage to the University of Tartu . Kampfgruppe " Wagner " stabilised the front at the Emajõgi River . The XXVIII Army Corps supported by Omakaitse militia stalled the front at the Väike Emajõgi and Gauja Rivers , preventing the 3rd Baltic Front from cutting off the " Narwa " .
= = Background = =
Attacks of the Leningrad Front had pushed the Army Group North to the west of Lake Peipus resulting in a series of operations around Narva . The German Command considered it important to maintain control over the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland , which eased the situation in Finland and kept the Soviet Baltic Fleet in its eastern bay . From a military economy viewpoint , the preservation of the oil shale reserves and oil shale industry in Ida @-@ Viru was also important . In the south , Soviet forces advanced towards the Baltic seacoast at the end of their Operation Bagration of June – August 1944 against the German Army Group Centre .
= = = Comparison of forces = = =
At the beginning of the Soviet Tartu Operation , the ratio of Soviet to German strength was 4 @.@ 3 : 1 for troops , 14 @.@ 8 : 1 for artillery and 4 @.@ 1 : 1 for armour . The German forces were mostly battle groups from various formations and smaller units from different branches . A significant proportion of the German side was constituted of Omakaitse militia battalions with poor weaponry and little fighting ability .
= = Combat activities = =
The main thrust of the Soviet operation was first aimed at the southern Petseri County . On 10 August , the Soviet 67th Army broke through the defence of the XXVIII Army Corps and captured the town of Võru on 13 August . The XXVIII Army Corps were forced to the banks of the Väike Emajõgi and Gauja Rivers in the west where they were supported by the Viljandi County Omakaitse militia battalion . While the defence prevented the 3rd Baltic Front from cutting off the retreat of the Army Detachment " Narwa " from Estonia , there was open ground towards the city of Tartu , the capital of Southeast Estonia . Army Group North created a Kampfgruppe ( an ad @-@ hoc combat formation ) , led by SS @-@ Brigadeführer Jürgen Wagner and manned by the army detachment , for the defence of the new line . The Soviet tank units forced a wedge between the Kampfgruppe and the XXVIIIth Army Corps ; Wagner had insufficient troops ahead of the city . On 16 August , Lieutenant General Alexey Grechkin 's group launched an amphibious assault over Lake Peipus behind the German left ( east ) flank , beating the Omakaitse defence and forming a bridgehead in the village of Mehikoorma . In fierce battles , a local border guard regiment stopped their advance .
The 3rd Baltic Front launched an artillery barrage at the positions of the 2nd Battalion , 45 Waffen SS Grenadier Regiment ( 1st Estonian ) covering the German right flank in the village of Nõo southeast of Tartu on 23 August . The Soviet 282nd Rifle Division backed by the 16th Single Tank Brigade and two self @-@ propelled artillery regiments bypassed the defence on the west side and captured the Kärevere Bridge across the Emajõgi River west of Tartu . Being one of only four bridges across the 100 kilometres long marshy floodplains of the river , it was of high strategic importance . After sappers failed to destroy the bridge , Sturmbannführer Leon Degrelle improvised a defence line of the 5th SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade Wallonien , avoiding a Soviet breakthrough to Tartu . As a result , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves .
A heavy German tank assault had been planned to attack behind the western flank of the Soviet lines in Elva on 24 August . On the night before the attack , the designated commander of the operation Brigadeführer Hyazinth von Strachwitz had a serious car accident . The Soviet tank squadrons repulsed the German attack on the following day . Four Soviet rifle divisions launched an attack at Tartu with the support of armour and artillery . After fierce street battles , the Soviet forces conquered the city and established a bridgehead on the north bank of the Emajõgi on 25 August . Due to " Wagner " ' s inability to hold back the Soviet offensive , the headquarters of the Army Group North turned over command of the Emajõgi Front to the II Army Corps , commanded by Infantry General Wilhelm Hasse . At the end of August , the III . Battalion , 1st Estonian Regiment was formed from the 1st Battalion of the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 , recently returned to Estonia . As their largest operation , supported by Estonian Police Battalions No. 37 , 38 and Mauritz Freiherr von Strachwitz 's tank squadron , they destroyed the bridgehead of two Soviet divisions and recaptured Kärevere Bridge by 30 August . The operation shifted the entire front back to the southern bank of the Emajõgi and encouraged the II Army Corps to launch an operation attempting to recapture Tartu . The attack of 4 – 6 September reached the northern outskirts of the city but was repulsed by units of four Soviet rifle divisions . Relative calm settled on the front for the subsequent thirteen days .
= = Losses = =
The property of the University of Tartu suffered heavy losses in the campaign , accounting for 40 million rubles of damage ( equalling to the purchasing power of 90 million U.S. dollars in 2008 ) . The university lost fifteen buildings permanently . The damage done to the roofs , interiors , doors , windows , heating systems , study cabinets and laboratories was three times the damage to the ruined buildings . The Museum of Zoology lost all of its wet preparations . The interiors of the laboratories of chemistry , physics , pathology and dairy , and a large amount of instruments for the observatories of astronomy and geophysics were destroyed by shrapnel or looted . Bombing destroyed Raadi Manor the main building of the Estonian National Museum .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Baltic Offensive = = =
The 2nd Shock Army crossed Lake Peipus in 5 – 11 September and acquired command over the Emajõgi front . In the Riga Offensive Operation on 14 – 16 September , the 3rd Baltic Front attacked the German XXVIII Army Corps and the Omakaitse militia battalions in the front segment from the Valga railway junction to Lake Võrtsjärv . In fierce battles , the German and Estonian units held their positions .
The Soviet Tallinn Offensive of the 2nd Shock and 8th Armies commenced on the early morning of 17 September . The 2nd Shock Army forced its way through the II Army Corps divisional headquarters and artillery positions along the Emajõgi . The Army Detachment " Narwa " and the XXVIII Army Corps , the northernmost elements of Army Group North , were at risk of being encircled and destroyed . The headquarters of the Army Group North ordered the II Army Corps to abandon the defence of the Emajõgi line and to move quickly around the northern tip of Lake Võrtsjärv to Latvia .
The code name for the withdrawal of the Army Detachment " Narwa " from mainland Estonia was Operation " Aster " . Beginning on 17 September 1944 , a naval force under Vice @-@ Admiral Theodor Burchardi evacuated elements of the Army Detachment and Estonian civilians . Within six days , around 50 @,@ 000 troops , 20 @,@ 000 civilians and 1 @,@ 000 prisoners were evacuated . The remaining elements of the Army Detachment were ordered to withdraw into Latvia by way of Pärnu and Viljandi . The III SS ( Germanic ) Panzer Corps reached Pärnu by September 20 , while the II Army Corps retreated south of Viljandi to form the 18th Army 's rearguard . As they retreated , the Soviet 2nd Shock and 8th Armies advanced and took Tallinn on September 22 .
= = = Soviet reoccupation = = =
Soviet rule of Estonia was re @-@ established by force , and sovietisation followed , which was mostly carried out in 1944 – 1950 . The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947 , and was completed after the mass deportation of Estonians in March 1949 . All private farms were confiscated , and farmers were made to join the collective farms . An armed resistance movement of ' forest brothers ' was active until the mass deportations . A total of 30 @,@ 000 participated or supported the movement ; 2 @,@ 000 were killed . The Soviet authorities fighting the forest brothers suffered also hundreds of deaths . Among those killed on both sides were innocent civilians . Besides the armed resistance of the forest brothers , a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active . Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment . The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953 ; from 1956 – 58 , a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to Estonia . Political arrests and numerous other crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s . After all , the attempt to integrate Estonian society into the Soviet system failed . Although the armed resistance was defeated , the population remained anti @-@ Soviet . This helped the Estonians to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s , regain their independence in 1991 , and then rapidly develop a modern society .
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= Tropical Storm Gabrielle ( 1995 ) =
Tropical Storm Gabrielle caused moderate flooding in northeastern Mexico and southern Texas in August 1995 . The eighth tropical cyclone and seventh named storm of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season , Gabrielle developed from a tropical wave in the west @-@ central Gulf of Mexico on August 9 . Initially a tropical depression , the system gradually intensified and by the following day , it became a tropical storm . Favorable conditions caused Gabrielle to continue to strengthen , with the storm nearly reaching hurricane status late on August 11 . However , it soon made landfall near La Pesca , Tamaulipas , thus halting further intensification . Once inland , Gabrielle rapidly weakened and dissipated by early on August 12 .
As Gabrielle was impacting the east coast of Mexico , Hurricane Flossie in the Eastern Pacific was brushing the Baja Peninsula . The storm produced torrential rainfall in northeastern Mexico , totaling to 19 @.@ 44 inches ( 494 mm ) . As a result , numerous reservoirs were filled , forcing dozens in southern Nuevo Leon to evacuate their homes . Additionally , highway infrastructure and streets in the region were affected . Damage in Mexico is unknown , though six fatalities were reported . Rainfall up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) brought minor flooding to Texas , mainly damaging unharvested cotton . Three days after dissipation , the remnants of Gabrielle also produced heavy thunderstorms in New Mexico on August 15 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the west coast of Africa during the last week of July . As it tracked across the Atlantic , it remained a well @-@ defined system , but never organized into a tropical cyclone . On August 8 , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico , and by the following day , it developed a weak low @-@ level circulation . The circulation became better defined later that day , and was confirmed by Reconnaissance aircraft that afternoon , when it was declared Tropical Depression Eight while east of Tamaulipas .
From the outset , the cyclone 's motion was altered by Hurricane Flossie off the Pacific coast of Mexico . Initially , deep convection fired up gradually as the depression slowly tracked westward in the Gulf of Mexico . At 1200 UTC on August 10 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gabrielle , as the storm curved southward . Gabrielle then strengthened slowly over the warm sea surface temperatures in a low wind shear environment , although land interaction slowed the intensification somewhat . The storm shifted once again onto a west @-@ northwest course on August 11 , moving very slowly towards the coast .
The storm made landfall at 2000 UTC on August 11 , just south of La Pesca in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas , about 175 miles ( 280 km ) south of the United States @-@ Mexico border and about 90 miles ( 145 km ) north of Tampico . Simultaneously , Gabrielle attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . After landfall , the storm rapidly weakened , deteriorating to tropical depression status by early on August 12 over northeast Mexico . Six hours later , the surface circulation of Gabrielle dissipated over the mountains of the Sierra Madre Oriental , although its cloud pattern transited Mexico intact , moving into the Gulf of California before it sheared across northwest Mexico on August 15 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Starting at 2100 UTC on August 9 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Baffin Bay , Texas to La Pesca , Tamaulipas while Gabrielle was still Tropical Depression Eight . By 0900 UTC on the following day , the warning was expanded to include areas south to Tampico , Tamaulipas and extended further to Tuxpan , Veracruz twelve hours later . As the latter was occurring , the tropical storm warning was discontinued for Texas . Early on August 12 , all the warnings in Mexico were discontinued , as the storm had already moved inland . 800 people were evacuated in Soto la Marina and San Fernando in Tamaulipas . People in poor villages in the Rio Grande Valley were given sandbags with Tropical Storm Gabrielle approaching .
Overall damage was generally minor . There were no reports of wind damage , although tropical storm @-@ force winds affected the northern coast of Tamaulipas . A newspaper in Mexico reported up to 24 inches ( 600 mm ) of precipitation across much of Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon ; this figure is in dispute , however , as the rainfall database maintained by Mexico 's National Weather Service shows the maximum amount to lie under 20 inches ( 508 mm ) . The heavy rainfall from the storm filled nearly half the reservoirs in Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas , which were almost empty due to drought conditions in the region . As a result , dozens in southern Nuevo Leon were forced to evacuation their homes . Rains from Gabrielle flooded streets and destroyed bridges and highways in northern Mexico . No storm surge recordings were taken in Mexico , although it is estimated by the National Hurricane Center that a surge of a few feet took place to the north of the track . Six fatalities were reported in Mexico as a result of Gabrielle .
In Texas , rainfall from the storm peaked at 6 @.@ 26 inches ( 159 mm ) in Weslaco , while many other areas in southern Texas reported only 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation . Gabrielle 's rain came after a drought , and some of it soaked in . The rains also damaged unharvested cotton . Otherwise , minor flooding occurred . Brownsville reported up to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of rain in association with Gabrielle . In extreme southern Texas , minor beach flooding took place at some of the beaches in the region . The remains of Gabrielle produced heavy thunderstorms in New Mexico on August 15 .
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= Connecticut Indian Land Claims Settlement =
The Connecticut Indian Land Claims Settlement was an Indian Land Claims Settlement passed by the United States Congress in 1983 . The settlement act ended a lawsuit by the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe to recover 800 acres of their 1666 reservation in Ledyard , Connecticut , sold in 1855 , allegedly in violation of the Nonintercourse Act that regulates commerce between Native Americans and non @-@ Indians .
The settlement act appropriated $ 900 @,@ 000 to buy the disputed lands and transferred those lands and the state reservation to the federal government in trust . The settlement act permits the state of Connecticut to exercise civil and criminal , but not regulatory , jurisdiction over the lands . This laid the foundation for the Mashantucket Pequot to create the Foxwoods Resort Casino , the largest casino in the world by revenue and floor space , and ( at one time ) the most profitable .
= = Background = =
The Pequot War ( 1634 – 1638 ) all but exterminated the Pequots , dividing the captives up between the Mohegan and Narragansett tribes who had allied with the settlers . In 1651 , John Winthrop the Younger persuaded the Connecticut Colony to create a 500 @-@ acre reservation for the Pequots in Noank , removing them from their previous places of residence . In 1666 , the Connecticut General Assembly voted to create a 2 @,@ 000 acre reservation for the " western " Pequots ( the group previously in the custody of the Mohegans ) in Ledyard , Connecticut ; the eastern Pequots were given 280 acres in present @-@ day North Stonington , Connecticut . By 1790 ( the year that Congress passed the first Nonintercourse Act ) , the reservation was only 1 @,@ 000 acres . In 1855 , Connecticut sold 800 of the remaining acres at $ 10 / acre , putting the money into a state administered trust account for the Pequots .
In the 1970s , David Crosby of Pine Tree Legal Assistance , a non @-@ profit law firm that was then litigating Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton in Maine , arrived on the Pequot reservation to discuss the possibility of a land claim . Advised by Crosby , the Pequots established a non @-@ profit corporation — Western Pequot Indians of Connecticut , Inc . — in 1974 . In April 1975 , Crosby finished his research and presented his findings to the Pequots .
= = Litigation = =
The Pequots filed suit in May 1976 in the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut . The case was assigned to Judge Mosher Joseph Blumenfeld . The named plaintiffs were the Western Pequot Tribe and Richard " Skip " Hawyard ( the leader of the Pequot tribe ) ; among the named defendants were Holdridge Enterprises and its president , David Holdridge . The 800 @-@ acre claim embraced only about a dozen to thirty @-@ five landowner defendants . The state of Connecticut was sued , and declined requests from the defendants to become involved in the litigation .
One of the lawyers for the defendants was Jackson King , a partner at Brown , Jacobson , Jewett & Laudone . King was first in his class at University of Connecticut School of Law and became involved in the case when one of the named defendants , who had served with him on a local land conservation commission , contacted him .
= = Federal recognition = =
HUD
The Pequots pursued federal recognition in parallel with their land claims litigation . They applied to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) to participate in HUD 's Indian housing assistance program . In March 1976 , Connecticut Governor Ella Grasso certified to HUD that the Pequots were " an autonomous unit or government " for the purposes of the revenue sharing program . At this time , there were thirty @-@ two tribal members .
BIA
On January 15 , 1979 , the Pequots filed a preliminary petition for federal tribal recognition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) . Historian Jack Campisi , who had previously worked as an expert witness with attorney Tom Tureen ( known for his role in Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton ( 1975 ) and other Nonintercourse Act claims ) , authored the petition . The Pequots did not submit a full recognition application to the BIA until mid @-@ 1983 .
= = Settlement Act = =
With the passage of the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act in 1980 , attorney Tom Tureen turned his attention to the Mashantucket Pequot case .
In October 1981 , Tureen approached King ( the defendants ' lawyer ) regarding a federally legislated settlement . Tureen proposed that the state of Connecticut turn over the reservation to the federal government , and that the federal government pay the property owners fair market value to include their land in the federal reservation . As part of the deal , the state would retain civil and criminal , but not regulatory , authority of the reservation . The state approved the settlement in June 1982 .
The federal settlement bill included a $ 900 @,@ 000 appropriation , the appraisal value of the 800 acres , which the Pequots would use to buy the land from the landowner defendants . The legislation also provided that the landowners would not have to pay capital gains tax as long as they reinvested the money in real estate .
Senator Lowell P. Weicker , Jr . ( R @-@ CT ) delivered the draft bill to the Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs . Peter Taylor , the committee 's general counsel noticed that the bill did not limit the amount or location of the lands that the Pequots could buy with the settlement funds . Tureen and King prepared a map in accordance with Taylor 's wishes .
Senator William Cohen ( R @-@ ME ) , the chairman of the committee , began hearings on July 14 , 1982 . William Coldiron , the solicitor general of the Department of the Interior , testified against the bill , which he viewed as circumventing the BIA 's recognition process and as costing too much money . Cohen criticized Coldiron for lacking enough knowledge about the Pequots . Representative Sam Gejdenson ( D @-@ CT ) also supported the bill .
The House passed the bill , H.R. 6612 , on October 1 , 1982 , and the Senate passed a different version on December 21 . The compromise version was passed by the Senate on February 24 , 1982 by voice vote , and by the House on March 22 . However , President Ronald Reagan vetoed the bill , opining that the state should pay more of the cost and that the Pequots may not meet the BIA 's definition of a tribe . Tureen , King , Hayward , and Sandy Cadwalader of the Indian Rights Association began lobbying for a veto override . Once 67 Senators had committed to voting for the bill — enough to have been the first veto override of Reagan 's presidency — a compromise was proposed whereby Connecticut would contribute $ 200 @,@ 000 toward road improvements ( which became known as " the veto road " ) .
At a new set of hearings in July 1983 , Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs John W. Fritz declared that the administration would not object to the new bill . Reagan signed the new bill , S. 1499 , into law on October 18 , 1983 . Since 1983 , the Mashuntucket Pequots have appeared on every list of federally recognized tribes published by the Department of the Interior in the Federal Register .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Bingo = = =
On April 30 , 1984 , the Pequot corporate body voted 12 @-@ 1 with two abstentions to approve the construction of a high @-@ stakes bingo operation . Barry Margolin , Tureen 's law partner , took the lead in representing the Pequots in this matter . After Connecticut 's chief state criminal attorney wrote the tribe a letter threatening to shut down the bingo operation if opened as planned , the Pequots filed for a federal preliminary injunction , which Judge Peter C. Dorsey ( who , as a magistrate , had ruled favorably for the Pequots in their land claim ) granted . Dorsey granted a permanent injunction on January 9 , 1986 , holding that Connecticut 's bingo laws did not apply to the reservation . The bingo hall opened on July 5 , 1986 .
= = = Cabazon Band and the IGRA = = =
The Supreme Court 's decision in California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians ( 1987 ) fueled the Pequot 's desire to upgrade their bingo hall to a full casino . In the wake of that decision , Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act ( IGRA ) on October 17 , 1988 . Tureen and Margolin concluded that the IGRA required Connecticut to negotiate a tribal @-@ state compact with the Pequot in good faith because of a state statute that permitted non @-@ profits , with a state license , to hold " Las Vegas nights " twice a year . The state statute in question had been lobbied for by Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) in 1987 . At the request of Governor O 'Neill , acting state attorney general Clarine Riddle prepared a memorandum highlighting the differences between high school students playing casino games for monopoly money and a full @-@ scale , for @-@ profit casino . O 'Neill denied the Pequot 's request .
= = = Creation of Foxwoods = = =
When the state failed to negotiate , on November 3 , 1989 , the tribe sued the state under a provision of the IGRA — subsequently declared unconstitutional in Seminole Tribe v. Florida ( 1996 ) — that permitted such suits if state did not negotiate in good faith within 180 days . The case was docketed again before Judge Dorsey . Dorsey granted the tribe summary judgment in May 1990 , ordering the state to resume negotiations and conclude a compact within 60 days . The Second Circuit upheld Dorsey 's ruling on September 4 , 1990 . The compact was forwarded to Secretary of Interior Manuel Lujan , Jr. on October 1990 for his approval . On April 22 , 1991 , the Supreme Court declined to grant certiorari to the state 's appeal from the Second Circuit 's ruling .
Former Senator Weicker replaced O 'Neil as governor in January 1991 . Weicker was opposed to gambling , and was advised that repealing the " Las Vegas night " statute was the only way to avoid a Pequot casino . Moreover , Weicker would have had to repeal the law before Secretary Lujan gave final approval to the compact . The Pequots retained lobbyists , reached out to charity groups that utilized the " Las Vegas night " statute , and brought in Native American Rights Fund executive director John Echohawk to defeat Weicker 's proposed bill . Weicker 's bill prevailed by 18 @-@ 17 with one absent in the Connecticut Senate . However , the House rejected the bill by more than 20 votes . Secretary Lujan approved the compact on May 31 , 1991 .
The Pequots signed a financing agreement with Malaysian partners on February 25 , 1991 for the construction of Foxwoods Resort Casino . Foxwoods opened on February 12 , 1992 . That year , even though slot machines had yet to be installed , the 245 @-@ member Pequot tribe received $ 148 million in revenue and $ 51 million in profit from Foxwoods . Threatened with the possibility of competition from non @-@ Indian gambling , the Pequots offered the state a share of slot machine revenue in October 1992 ( the issue of slot machines had been left for the courts in the original compact ) . A provision of the agreement provided that if slot machine gambling were to be legalized in the state , the revenue sharing would cease . On January 13 , 1993 , the tribe and state announced a deal that would give the state 25 % of gross slot machine revenue , guaranteeing at least $ 100M / year . By 1998 , Foxwoods was generating $ 1 billion in revenue and $ 152 million in net income for the tribe .
= = = Reservation expansion = = =
Starting in 1993 , the Pequot began negotiations to purchase additional lands and convey those lands to the Department of Interior in trust under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 . Local towns sued the tribes to prevent this . In 1996 and 1998 , Interior Department , under Secretary Bruce Babbitt , approved the tribe 's request to put 165 new acres ( 0 @.@ 67 km2 ) and 146 new acres ( 0 @.@ 59 km2 ) , respectively , into trust . The Supreme Court 's decision in Carcieri v. Salazar ( 2009 ) prevents any further such transfers .
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= North American XB @-@ 70 Valkyrie =
The North American Aviation XB @-@ 70 Valkyrie is the prototype of the B @-@ 70 nuclear @-@ armed , deep @-@ penetration strategic bomber for the U.S. Air Force 's Strategic Air Command . In the late 1950s North American Aviation designed the Valkyrie bomber as a large , six @-@ engined aircraft capable of reaching Mach 3 + while flying at 70 @,@ 000 feet ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) .
At these speeds , it was expected that the B @-@ 70 would be almost immune to interceptor aircraft , the only effective weapon against bomber aircraft at the time . The bomber would spend only a few minutes over a particular radar station , flying out of its range before the controllers could position their fighters in a suitable location for an interception . Its high speed also made the aircraft difficult to see on the radar displays , and its high altitude flight could not be matched by any contemporary Soviet fighter .
The introduction of the first Soviet surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles in the late 1950s put the near @-@ invulnerability of the B @-@ 70 in doubt . In response , the US Air Force ( USAF ) began flying its missions at low level , where the missile radar 's line of sight was limited by local terrain . In this low @-@ level penetration role , the B @-@ 70 offered little additional performance over the B @-@ 52 it was meant to replace . It was , however , far more expensive and had shorter range . Other alternate missions were proposed , but these were of limited scope . As the strategic role passed from bombers to intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) during the late 1950s , manned bombers were increasingly seen as obsolete .
The USAF eventually gave up fighting for its production , and the B @-@ 70 program was canceled in 1961 . Development was then turned over to a research program to study the effects of long @-@ duration high @-@ speed flight . As such , two prototype aircraft were built , and designated XB @-@ 70A ; these aircraft were used for supersonic test @-@ flights during 1964 – 69 . In 1966 , one prototype crashed after colliding in mid @-@ air with a smaller jet aircraft ; the remaining Valkyrie bomber is in the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton , Ohio .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
As an offshoot of Boeing 's MX @-@ 2145 manned boost @-@ glide bomber project , Boeing partnered with RAND Corporation in January 1954 to explore what sort of bomber aircraft would be needed to deliver the various nuclear weapons then under development . At the time , nuclear weapons weighed several tons , and the need to carry enough fuel to fly that payload from the continental United States to the Soviet Union demanded large bombers . They also concluded that after release of bombs the aircraft would need supersonic speed to escape the critical blast @-@ radius .
The aviation industry had been studying this problem for some time . From the mid @-@ 1940s , there was much interest in using nuclear @-@ powered aircraft in the bomber role . In a conventional jet engine , thrust is provided by heating air using jet fuel and accelerating it out a nozzle . In a nuclear engine , heat is supplied by a reactor , whose consumables last for months instead of hours . Most designs also carried a small amount of jet fuel for use during high @-@ power portions of flight — take @-@ off and high @-@ speed dashes .
Another possibility being explored at the time was the use of boron @-@ enriched " zip fuels " , which improves the energy density of jet fuel by about 40 percent , and could be used in modified versions of existing jet engine designs . Zip fuels appeared to offer sufficient performance improvement to produce a strategic bomber with supersonic speed .
= = = WS @-@ 110A = = =
The U.S. Air Force ( USAF ) followed these developments closely , and in 1955 issued General Operational Requirement No. 38 for a new bomber combining the payload and intercontinental range of the B @-@ 52 with the Mach 2 top speed of the Convair B @-@ 58 Hustler . The new bomber was expected to enter service in 1963 . Both nuclear and conventional designs would be considered . The nuclear @-@ powered bomber was organized as " Weapon System 125A " and pursued simultaneously with the jet @-@ powered version , " Weapon System 110A " .
The USAF Air Research and Development Command 's ( ARDC ) requirement for WS @-@ 110A asked for a chemical fuel bomber with Mach 0 @.@ 9 cruising speed and " maximum possible " speed during a 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 852 km ) entrance and exit from the target . The requirement also called for a 50 @,@ 000 pound ( 22 @,@ 670 kg ) payload and a combat radius of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 600 mi , 7 @,@ 400 km ) . The Air Force formed similar requirements for a WS @-@ 110L intercontinental reconnaissance system in 1955 , but this was later canceled in 1958 due to better options . In July 1955 , six contractors were selected to bid on WS @-@ 110A studies . Boeing and North American Aviation ( NAA ) submitted proposals , and on 8 November 1955 were awarded contracts for Phase 1 development .
In mid @-@ 1956 , initial designs were presented by the two companies . Zip fuel was to be used in the afterburners to improve range by 10 to 15 percent over conventional fuel . Both designs featured huge wing tip fuel tanks that could be jettisoned when their fuel was depleted before a supersonic dash to the target . The tanks also included the outer portions of the wing , which would also be jettisoned to produce a smaller wing suitable for supersonic speeds . Both became trapezoidal wings after ejection , at that time the highest performance planform known . They also featured flush cockpits to maintain the highest fineness ratio possible in spite of its effects on visibility .
The two designs had takeoff weights of approximately 750 @,@ 000 pounds ( 340 @,@ 000 kg ) with large fuel loads . The Air Force evaluated the designs , and in September 1956 deemed them too large and complicated for operations . General Curtis LeMay was dismissive , declaiming , " This is not an airplane , it 's a three @-@ ship formation . " The USAF ended Phase 1 development in October 1956 and instructed the two contractors to continue design studies .
= = = New designs = = =
During the period that the original proposals were being studied , advances in supersonic flight were proceeding rapidly . The narrow delta was establishing itself as a preferred planform for supersonic flight , replacing earlier designs like the swept @-@ wing and trapezoidal layouts seen on designs like the Lockheed F @-@ 104 Starfighter and the earlier WS @-@ 110 concepts . Engines able to cope with higher temperatures and widely varying intake ramp air speeds were also under design , allowing for sustained supersonic speeds .
This work led to an interesting discovery . When an engine was optimized specifically for high speed , it burned perhaps twice as much fuel at that speed than when it was running at subsonic speeds . However , the aircraft would be flying as much as four times as fast . Thus its most economical cruise speed , in terms of fuel per mile , was its maximum speed . This was entirely unexpected and implied that there was no point in the dash concept ; if the aircraft was able to reach Mach 3 , it may as well fly its entire mission at that speed . The question remained whether such a concept was technically feasible , but by March 1957 , engine development and wind tunnel testing had progressed enough to suggest it was .
WS @-@ 110 was redesigned as an aircraft flying Mach 3 for the entire mission . Zip fuel was retained for the engine 's afterburner to increase range . Both North American and Boeing returned new designs with very long fuselages and large delta wings . They differed primarily in engine layout ; the NAA design arranged its six engines in a semi @-@ circular duct under the rear fuselage , while the Boeing design used separate podded engines located individually on pylons below the wing , like the Hustler .
North American had scoured the literature to find any additional advantage . This led them to an obscure report by two NACA wind tunnel experts , who wrote a report in 1956 titled " Aircraft Configurations Developing High Lift @-@ Drag Ratios at High Supersonic Speeds " . Known today as compression lift , the idea was to use the shock wave generated off the nose or other sharp points on the aircraft as a source of high @-@ pressure air . By carefully positioning the wing in relation to the shock , the shock 's high pressure could be captured on the bottom of the wing and generate additional lift . To take maximum advantage of this effect , they redesigned the underside of the aircraft to feature a large triangular intake area far forward of the engines , better positioning the shock in relation to the wing .
North American improved on the basic concept by adding a set of drooping wing tip panels that were lowered at high speed . This helped trap the shock wave under the wing between the downturned wing tips . It also added more vertical surface to the aircraft to maintain directional stability at high speeds . NAA 's solution had an additional advantage , as it decreased the surface area of the rear of the wing when the panels were moved into their high @-@ speed position . This helped offset the rearward shift of the center of pressure , or " average lift point " , with increasing speeds . Under normal conditions this caused an increasing nose @-@ down trim , which had to be offset by moving the control surfaces , increasing drag . When the wing tips were drooped the surface area at the rear of the wings was lowered , moving the lift forward and counteracting this effect , reducing the need for control inputs .
The buildup of heat due to skin friction during sustained supersonic flight had to be addressed . During a Mach 3 cruise , the aircraft would reach an average of 450 ° F ( 230 ° C ) , with leading edges reaching 630 ° F ( 330 ° C ) , and up to 1 @,@ 000 ° F ( 540 ° C ) in engine compartments . NAA proposed building their design out of sandwich panels , with each panel consisting of two thin sheets of stainless steel brazed to opposite faces of a honeycomb @-@ shaped foil core . Expensive titanium would be used only in high @-@ temperature areas like the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer , and the nose . For cooling the interior , the XB @-@ 70 pumped fuel en route to the engines through heat exchangers .
On 30 August 1957 , the Air Force decided that enough data was available on the NAA and Boeing designs that a competition could begin . On 18 September , the Air Force issued operational requirements which called for a cruising speed of Mach 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 2 , an over @-@ target altitude of 70 @,@ 000 – 75 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 300 – 22 @,@ 700 m ) , a range of up to 10 @,@ 500 mi ( 16 @,@ 900 km ) , and a gross weight not to exceed 490 @,@ 000 lb ( 222 @,@ 000 kg ) . The aircraft would have to use the hangars , runways and handling procedures used by the B @-@ 52 . On 23 December 1957 , the North American proposal was declared the winner of the competition , and on 24 January 1958 , a contract was issued for Phase 1 development .
In February 1958 , the proposed bomber was designated B @-@ 70 , with the prototypes receiving the " X " experimental prototype designation . The name " Valkyrie " was the winning submission in early 1958 , selected from 20 @,@ 000 entries in a USAF " Name the B @-@ 70 " contest . The Air Force approved an 18 @-@ month program acceleration in March 1958 that rescheduled the first flight to December 1961 . But in late 1958 the service announced that this acceleration would not be possible due to lack of funding . In December 1958 , a Phase II contract was issued . The mockup of the B @-@ 70 was reviewed by the Air Force in March 1959 . Provisions for air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles and external fuel tanks were requested afterward . At the same time , North American was developing the F @-@ 108 supersonic interceptor . To reduce program costs , the F @-@ 108 would share two of the engines , the escape capsule , and some smaller systems with the B @-@ 70 . In early 1960 , North American and the USAF released the first drawing of the XB @-@ 70 to the public .
= = = The " missile problem " = = =
The B @-@ 70 was planned to use a high @-@ speed , high @-@ altitude bombing approach that followed a trend of bombers flying progressively faster and higher since the start of manned bomber use . Through that same period , only two weapons proved effective against bombers , fighter aircraft and anti @-@ aircraft artillery ( AAA ) . Flying higher and faster made it more difficult for both ; higher speeds allowed the bomber to fly out of range of the weapons more quickly , while higher altitudes increased the time needed for fighters to climb to the bombers , and greatly increased the size of the AAA weapons needed to reach those altitudes .
As early as 1942 , German flak commanders had already concluded that AAA would be essentially useless against jet aircraft , and began development of guided missiles to fill this role . Most forces reached the same conclusion soon after , with both the US and UK starting missile development programs before the war ended . The UK 's Green Mace was one of the last attempts to develop a useful high @-@ altitude AAA weapon , but its development ended in 1957 .
Interceptor aircraft with ever @-@ improving performance remained the only effective anti @-@ bomber weapons by the early 1950s , and even these were having problems keeping up with the latest designs ; Soviet interceptors during the late 1950s could not intercept the high @-@ altitude U @-@ 2 reconnaissance aircraft , in spite of its relatively low speeds . It was later discovered that flying faster also made radar detection much more difficult due to an effect known as the blip @-@ to @-@ scan ratio , and any reduction in tracking efficiency would further interfere with the operation and guidance of fighters .
The introduction of the first effective anti @-@ aircraft missiles by the late 1950s changed this picture dramatically . Missiles could stand ready for immediate launch , eliminating operational delays like the time needed to get the pilot into the cockpit of a fighter . Guidance did not require wide @-@ area tracking or calculation of an intercept course : a simple comparison of the time needed to fly to the altitude of the target returned the required deflection . Missiles also had greater altitude capability than any aircraft , and improving this to adapt to new aircraft was a low @-@ cost development path . The US was aware of Soviet work in the field , and had reduced the expected operational lifetime of the U @-@ 2 , knowing that it would become vulnerable to these missiles as they were improved . This later happened with the 1960 downing of the U @-@ 2 flown by Gary Powers .
Faced with this problem , military doctrine had already started shifting away from high @-@ altitude supersonic bombing toward low @-@ altitude penetration . Radar is line @-@ of @-@ sight , so aircraft could dramatically shorten detection distances by flying close to the Earth and hiding behind terrain . Missile sites spaced to overlap in range when attacking bombers at high altitudes would leave large gaps between their coverage for bombers flying at lower levels . With an appropriate map of the missile sites , the bombers could fly between and around the defences . Additionally , early missiles generally flew unguided for a period of time before the radar systems were able to track the missile and start sending it guidance signals . With the SA @-@ 2 Guideline missile , this minimum altitude was roughly 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . Flying below this would make the bomber effectively invulnerable to the missiles , even if they happened to fly into range .
Flying at low level provided protection against fighters as well . Radars of the era did not have the ability to look down ; if the radar were aimed down to detect targets at a lower altitude , the reflection of the ground would overwhelm the signal returned from a target . An interceptor flying at normal altitudes would be effectively blind to bombers far below it . The interceptor could descend to lower altitudes to increase the amount of visible sky , but doing so would limit its radar range in the same way as the missile sites , as well as greatly increasing fuel use and thus reducing mission time . The Soviet Union would not introduce an interceptor with look @-@ down capability until 1972 with the High Lark radar , and even this model had very limited capability .
Strategic Air Command found itself in an uncomfortable position ; bombers had been tuned for efficiency at high speeds and altitudes , performance that had been purchased at great cost in both engineering and financial terms . Before the B @-@ 70 was to replace the B @-@ 52 in the long @-@ range role , SAC had introduced the B @-@ 58 Hustler to replace the Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet in the medium @-@ range role . The Hustler was expensive to develop and purchase , and required enormous amounts of fuel and maintenance in comparison to the B @-@ 47 . It was estimated that it cost three times as much to operate as the much larger and longer @-@ ranged B @-@ 52 .
The B @-@ 70 , designed for even higher speeds , altitudes and range than the B @-@ 58 , suffered even more in relative terms . At high altitudes , the B @-@ 70 was as much as four times as fast as the B @-@ 52 , but at low altitudes it was limited to only Mach 0 @.@ 95 , only modestly faster than the B @-@ 52 at the same altitudes . It also had a smaller bombload and shorter range . Its only major advantage would be its ability to use high speed in areas without missile cover , especially on the long journey from the USA to USSR . The value was limited ; the USAF 's doctrine stressed that the primary reason for maintaining the bomber force in an era of ICBMs was that the bombers could remain in the air at long ranges from their bases and were thus immune to sneak attack . In this case , the higher speed would be used for only a short period of time between the staging areas and the Soviet coastline .
Adding to the problems , the zip fuel program was canceled in 1959 . After burning , the fuel turned into liquids and solids that increased wear on moving turbine engine components . Although the B @-@ 70 was intended to use zip only in the afterburners , and thus avoid this problem , the enormous cost of the zip program for such limited gains led to its cancellation . This by itself was not a fatal problem , however , as newly developed high @-@ energy fuels like JP @-@ 6 were available to make up some of the difference . Most of the range lost in the change from zip fuel was restored by filling one of the two bomb bays with a fuel tank . However , another problem arose when the F @-@ 108 program was canceled in September 1959 , which ended the shared development that benefited the B @-@ 70 program .
= = = Downsizing , upswing , cancellation = = =
At two secret meetings on 16 and 18 November 1959 , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Air Force General Twining , recommended the Air Force 's plan for the B @-@ 70 to reconnoiter and strike rail @-@ mobile Soviet ICBMs , but the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General White , admitted the Soviets would " be able to hit the B @-@ 70 with rockets " and requested the B @-@ 70 be downgraded to " a bare minimum research and development program " at $ 200 million for fiscal year 1960 . President Eisenhower responded that the reconnaissance and strike mission was " crazy " since the nuclear mission was to attack known production and military complexes , and emphasized that he saw no need for the B @-@ 70 since the ICBM is " a cheaper , more effective way of doing the same thing " . Eisenhower also identified that the B @-@ 70 would not be in manufacturing until " eight to ten years from now " and " said he thought we were talking about bows and arrows at a time of gunpowder when we spoke of bombers in the missile age " . In December 1959 the Air Force announced the B @-@ 70 project would be cut to a single prototype , and most of the planned B @-@ 70 subsystems would no longer be developed .
Then interest increased due to the politics of presidential campaign of 1960 . A central plank of John F. Kennedy 's campaign was that Eisenhower and the Republicans were weak on defense , and pointed to the B @-@ 70 as an example . He told a San Diego audience near NAA facilities , " I endorse wholeheartedly the B @-@ 70 manned aircraft . " Kennedy also made similar campaign claims regarding other aircraft : near the Seattle Boeing plant he affirmed the need for B @-@ 52s and in Fort Worth he praised the B @-@ 58 .
The Air Force changed the program to full weapon development and awarded a contract for an XB @-@ 70 prototype and 11 YB @-@ 70s in August 1960 . In November 1960 , the B @-@ 70 program received a $ 265 million appropriation from Congress for FY 1961 . Nixon , trailing in his home state of California , also publicly endorsed the B @-@ 70 , and on 30 October Eisenhower helped the Republican campaign with a pledge of an additional $ 155 million for the B @-@ 70 development program .
On taking office in January 1961 , Kennedy was informed that the missile gap was an illusion . On 28 March 1961 , after $ 800 million had been spent on the B @-@ 70 program , Kennedy canceled the project as " unnecessary and economically unjustifiable " because it " stood little chance of penetrating enemy defenses successfully . " Instead , Kennedy recommended " the B @-@ 70 program be carried forward essentially to explore the problem of flying at three times the speed of sound with an airframe potentially useful as a bomber . " After Congress approved $ 290 million of B @-@ 70 " add @-@ on " funds to the President 's 12 May 1960 modified FY 1961 budget , the Administration decided on a " Planned Utilization " of only $ 100 million of these funds . The Department of Defense subsequently presented data to Congress that the B @-@ 70 would add little performance for the high cost .
However , after becoming the new Air Force Chief of Staff in July 1961 , Curtis LeMay increased his B @-@ 70 advocacy , including interviews for August Reader 's Digest and November Aviation Week articles , and allowing a 25 February General Electric tour at which the press was provided artist conceptions of , and other info about , the B @-@ 70 . Congress had also continued B @-@ 70 appropriations in an effort to resurrect bomber development . After Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara explained again to the House Armed Services Committee ( HASC ) on 24 January 1962 that the B @-@ 70 was unjustifiable , LeMay subsequently argued for the B @-@ 70 to both the House and Senate committees — and was chastised by McNamara on 1 March . By 7 March 1962 , the HASC — with 21 members having B @-@ 70 work in their districts — had written an appropriations bill to " direct " — by law — the Executive Branch to use all of the nearly $ 500 million appropriated for the RS @-@ 70 . McNamara was unsuccessful with an address to the HASC on 14 March , but a 19 March 1962 11th hour White House Rose Garden agreement between Kennedy and HASC chairman Carl Vinson retracted the bill 's language and the bomber remained canceled .
= = = Experimental aircraft = = =
The XB @-@ 70s were intended to be used for the advanced study of aerodynamics , propulsion , and other subjects related to large supersonic transports . The crew was reduced to only the two pilots , as a navigator and a bombardier were not needed for this research role . The production order was reduced to three prototypes in March 1961 with the third aircraft to incorporate improvements from the previous prototype . The order was later reduced to two experimental XB @-@ 70As , named Air Vehicle 1 and 2 ( AV @-@ 1 and AV @-@ 2 ) . XB @-@ 70 No. 1 was completed on 7 May 1964 , and rolled out on 11 May 1964 at Palmdale , California . One report stated " nothing like it existed anywhere " . AV @-@ 2 was completed on 15 October 1964 . The manufacture of the third prototype ( AV @-@ 3 ) was canceled in July 1964 before completion . The first XB @-@ 70 carried out its maiden flight in September 1964 and many more test flights followed .
The data from the XB @-@ 70 test flights and aerospace materials development were used in the later B @-@ 1 bomber program , the American supersonic transport ( SST ) program , and via espionage , the Soviet Union 's Tupolev Tu @-@ 144 SST program . The development of the Lockheed U @-@ 2 and the SR @-@ 71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft , as well as the XB @-@ 70 , prompted Soviet aerospace engineers to design and develop their high @-@ altitude and high @-@ speed MiG @-@ 25 interceptor .
= = Design = =
The Valkyrie was designed to be a high @-@ altitude Mach 3 bomber with six engines . Harrison Storms shaped the aircraft with a canard surface and a delta wing , which was built largely of stainless steel , sandwiched honeycomb panels , and titanium . The XB @-@ 70 was designed to use supersonic technologies developed for the Mach 3 Navaho , as well as a modified form of the SM @-@ 64 Navaho 's all @-@ inertial guidance system .
The XB @-@ 70 used compression lift , which arose from a shock wave generated by the sharp leading edge of the central engine intake splitter plate below the wing . At Mach 3 cruising speed , the shock wave attached along the wing leading edge , preventing the high pressure behind the shock front from leaking up over the wing . The compression lift provided five percent of the total lift . The wing included inboard camber to more effectively use the higher pressure field behind the strong shock wave . Unique among aircraft of its size , the outer portions of the wings were hinged , and could be pivoted downward by up to 65 degrees , acting almost as a type of variable @-@ geometry wingtip device . This increased the aircraft 's directional stability at supersonic speeds , shifted the center of lift to a more favorable position at high speeds , and strengthened the compression lift effect . With the wingtips drooped downwards , the compression lift shock wave would be further trapped under the wings .
The XB @-@ 70 was equipped with six General Electric YJ93 @-@ GE @-@ 3 turbojet engines , designed to use JP @-@ 6 jet fuel . The engine was stated to be in the " 30 @,@ 000 @-@ pound class " , but actually produced 28 @,@ 000 lbf ( 124 @.@ 6 kN ) with afterburner and 19 @,@ 900 lbf ( 88 kN ) without afterburner . The Valkyrie used fuel for cooling ; it was pumped through heat exchangers before reaching the engines . To reduce the likelihood of autoignition , nitrogen was injected into the JP @-@ 6 during refueling , and the " fuel pressurization and inerting system " vaporized a 700 lb ( 320 kg ) supply of liquid nitrogen to fill the fuel tank vent space and maintain tank pressure .
= = Operational history = =
The XB @-@ 70 's maiden flight was on 21 September 1964 . In the first flight test , between Palmdale and Edwards AFB , one engine had to be shut down shortly after take @-@ off , and an undercarriage malfunction warning meant that the flight was flown with the undercarriage down as a precaution , limiting speed to 390 mph - about half that planned . On landing , the rear wheels of the port side main gear locked , the tires ruptured , and a fire started .
The Valkyrie first became supersonic ( Mach 1 @.@ 1 ) on the third test flight on 12 October 1964 , and flew above Mach 1 for 40 minutes during the following flight on 24 October . The wing tips were also lowered partially in this flight . XB @-@ 70 No. 1 surpassed Mach 3 on 14 October 1965 by reaching Mach 3 @.@ 02 at 70 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 300 m ) . The first aircraft was found to suffer from weaknesses in the honeycomb panels , primarily due to inexperience with fabrication and quality control of this new material . On two occasions , honeycomb panels failed and were torn off during supersonic flight , necessitating a Mach 2 @.@ 5 limit being placed on the aircraft .
The deficiencies discovered on AV @-@ 1 were almost completely solved on the second XB @-@ 70 , which first flew on 17 July 1965 . On 3 January 1966 , XB @-@ 70 No. 2 attained a speed of Mach 3 @.@ 05 while flying at 72 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 900 m ) . AV @-@ 2 reached a top speed of Mach 3 @.@ 08 and maintained it for 20 minutes on 12 April 1966 . On 19 May 1966 , AV @-@ 2 reached Mach 3 @.@ 06 and flew at Mach 3 for 32 minutes , covering 2 @,@ 400 mi ( 3 @,@ 840 km ) in 91 minutes of total flight .
A joint NASA / USAF research program was conducted from 3 November 1966 to 31 January 1967 for measuring the intensity and signature of sonic booms for the National Sonic Boom Program ( NSBP ) . Testing was planned to cover a range of sonic boom overpressures on the ground similar to but higher than the proposed American SST . In 1966 , AV @-@ 2 was selected for the program and was outfitted with test sensors . It flew the first sonic boom test on 6 June 1966 , attaining a speed of Mach 3 @.@ 05 at 72 @,@ 000 ft ( 21 @,@ 900 m ) . Two days later , AV @-@ 2 crashed following a mid @-@ air collision with an F @-@ 104 while flying in a multi @-@ aircraft formation . Sonic boom and later testing continued with XB @-@ 70A # 1 .
The second flight research program ( NASA NAS4 @-@ 1174 ) investigated " control of structural dynamics " from 25 April 1967 through the XB @-@ 70 's last flight in 1969 . At high altitude and high speed , the XB @-@ 70A experienced unwanted changes in altitude . NASA testing from June 1968 included two small vanes on the nose of AV @-@ 1 for measuring the response of the aircraft 's stability augmentation system . AV @-@ 1 flew a total of 83 flights .
The XB @-@ 70 's last supersonic flight took place on 17 December 1968 . On 4 February 1969 , AV @-@ 1 took its final flight to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base for museum display ( now the National Museum of the United States Air Force ) . Flight data was collected on this subsonic trip . North American Rockwell completed a four @-@ volume report on the B @-@ 70 that was published by NASA in April 1972 .
= = Variants = =
XB @-@ 70A
Prototype of B @-@ 70 . Two were built .
AV @-@ 1 , NAA Model Number NA @-@ 278 , USAF S / N 62 @-@ 0001 , completed 83 flights spanning 160 hours and 16 minutes .
AV @-@ 2 , NAA Model Number NA @-@ 278 , USAF S / N 62 @-@ 0207 , flew 46 times over 92 hours and 22 minutes , before it crashed in June 1966 .
XB @-@ 70B
AV @-@ 3 , NAA Model Number NA @-@ 274 , USAF S / N 62 @-@ 0208 , was originally to be the first YB @-@ 70A in March 1961 . This advanced prototype was canceled during early manufacture .
YB @-@ 70
Planned preproduction version with improvements based on XB @-@ 70s .
B @-@ 70A
Planned bomber production version of Valkyrie . A fleet of up to 65 operational bombers was planned .
RS @-@ 70
Proposed reconnaissance @-@ strike version with a crew of four and in @-@ flight refueling capability .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
= = = Incidents = = =
On 7 May 1965 , the divider separating the left and right halves of XB @-@ 70A AV @-@ 1 's engine intake ramp broke off in flight and was ingested by all six engines , damaging them beyond repair .
On 14 October 1965 , AV @-@ 1 surpassed Mach 3 , but heat and stress damaged the honeycomb panels , leaving 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of the leading edge of the left wing missing . The first aircraft was limited to Mach 2 @.@ 5 afterwards .
= = = Mid @-@ air collision = = =
On 8 June 1966 , XB @-@ 70A No. 2 was in close formation with four other aircraft ( an F @-@ 4 , F @-@ 5 , T @-@ 38 , and F @-@ 104 ) for a photoshoot at the behest of General Electric , manufacturer of the engines of all five aircraft . After the completion of the photoshoot , the F @-@ 104 drifted into contact with the XB @-@ 70 's right wing , flipped over and rolled inverted over the top of the Valkyrie , striking the vertical stabilizers and left wing of the bomber . The F @-@ 104 exploded , destroying the Valkyrie 's rudders and damaging its left wing . With the loss of both rudders and damage to the wings , the Valkyrie entered an uncontrollable spin and crashed into the ground north of Barstow , California . NASA Chief Test Pilot Joe Walker ( F @-@ 104 pilot ) and Carl Cross ( XB @-@ 70 co @-@ pilot ) were killed . Al White ( XB @-@ 70 pilot ) ejected , sustaining serious injuries , including one arm crushed by the closing clamshell @-@ like escape crew capsule moments prior to ejection .
The USAF summary report of the accident investigation stated that , given the position of the F @-@ 104 relative to the XB @-@ 70 , the F @-@ 104 pilot would not have been able to see the XB @-@ 70 's wing , except by uncomfortably looking back over his left shoulder . The report said that it was likely that Walker , piloting the F @-@ 104 , maintained his position by looking at the fuselage of the XB @-@ 70 , forward of his position . The F @-@ 104 was estimated to be 70 ft ( 21 m ) to the side of , and 10 ft ( 3 m ) below , the fuselage of the XB @-@ 70 . The report concluded that from that position , without appropriate sight cues , Walker was unable to properly perceive his motion relative to the Valkyrie , leading to his aircraft drifting into contact with the XB @-@ 70 's wing . The accident investigation also pointed to the wake vortex off the XB @-@ 70 's right wingtip as the reason for the F @-@ 104 's sudden roll over and into the bomber .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Valkyrie AV @-@ 1 ( AF Ser . No. 62 @-@ 0001 ) is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright @-@ Patterson AFB near Dayton , Ohio . The aircraft was flown to the museum on 4 February 1969 , following the conclusion of the XB @-@ 70 testing program . The Valkyrie became the museum 's signature aircraft , appearing on Museum letterhead , and even appearing as the chief design feature for the Museum 's restaurant , the Valkyrie Cafe . In 2011 , the XB @-@ 70 was on display in the museum 's Research & Development Hangar alongside other experimental aircraft . After completion of the fourth hangar at the museum 's main campus , the XB @-@ 70 was moved there in late October 2015 .
= = Specifications ( XB @-@ 70A ) = =
Data from Pace , USAF XB @-@ 70 Fact sheet B @-@ 70 Aircraft Study
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 189 ft 0 in ( 57 @.@ 6 m )
Wingspan : 105 ft 0 in ( 32 m )
Height : 30 ft 0 in ( 9 @.@ 1 m )
Wing area : 6 @,@ 297 ft2 ( 585 m2 )
Airfoil : Hexagonal ; 0 @.@ 30 Hex modified root , 0 @.@ 70 Hex modified tip
Empty weight : 253 @,@ 600 lb ( 115 @,@ 030 kg ; operating empty weight )
Loaded weight : 534 @,@ 700 lb ( 242 @,@ 500 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 542 @,@ 000 lb ( 246 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 6 × General Electric YJ93 @-@ GE @-@ 3 afterburning turbojet
Dry thrust : 19 @,@ 900 lbf ( 84 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 28 @,@ 800 lbf ( 128 kN ) each
Internal fuel capacity : 300 @,@ 000 lb ( 136 @,@ 100 kg ) or 46 @,@ 745 US gallons ( 177 @,@ 000 L )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 3 @.@ 1 ( 2 @,@ 056 mph , 3 @,@ 309 km / h )
Cruise speed : Mach 3 @.@ 0 ( 2 @,@ 000 mph , 3 @,@ 200 km / h )
Range : 3 @,@ 725 nmi ( 4 @,@ 288 mi , 6 @,@ 900 km ) on combat mission
Service ceiling : 77 @,@ 350 ft ( 23 @,@ 600 m )
Wing loading : 84 @.@ 93 lb / ft2 ( 414 @.@ 7 kg / m2 )
lift @-@ to @-@ drag : about 6 at Mach 2
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 314
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= Eurovision Song Contest 's Greatest Hits =
Eurovision Song Contest 's Greatest Hits ( also known as Eurovision 's Greatest Hits ) was a live television concert programme organised by the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) and produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) to commemorate the Eurovision Song Contest 's 60th anniversary . The concert took place on 31 March 2015 at the Eventim Apollo , in Hammersmith , London . Guy Freeman was the executive producer and Geoff Posner the director , both of whom held the same positions as the last time the BBC hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 1998 . Simon Proctor was the senior producer and David Arch was the musical director for the concert . Tickets for the event went on sale at 10am on 6 February 2015 .
Graham Norton and Petra Mede hosted the event , which saw fifteen acts from thirteen countries performing their Eurovision entries from yesteryear . During the televised show , video montages for some of the Eurovision Song Contest archives were shown in @-@ between each live performance . The United Kingdom entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 was performed at the concert , but never broadcast on the televised show . Riverdance performed a reprise of their 1994 Eurovision Song Contest interval act as part of the anniversary celebrations .
Several countries confirmed that they would air the delayed broadcast of the concert on various dates that suited the broadcasters scheduling , including Australia , who competed in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 as a wildcard entry . The host broadcaster , BBC , and Raidió Teilifís Éireann ( RTÉ ) , simulcast the show on Good Friday , 3 April 2015 . The Dutch broadcaster , AVROTROS , were the first to announce their decision to not broadcast the event . Other countries also announced their decision to decline broadcasting the event , including Luxembourg , who had an act taking part in the event .
= = Location = =
Confirmation was revealed on 3 February 2015 that the concert event were to take place in the Eventim Apollo , in Hammersmith , London . The last time the United Kingdom capital held any Eurovision events was the Eurovision Dance Contest 2007 .
= = Organisation = =
It was announced on 22 October 2014 , that the EBU had agreed with the United Kingdom 's broadcaster , BBC , to produce a special anniversary show to celebrate sixty @-@ years of the Eurovision Song Contest , similar to the show Congratulations : 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest which took place in 2005 . The details regarding the title of the show were unknown at the time the announcement was made . >
The EBU later issued the following statement regarding the 60th anniversary : " There are various exciting proposals from member broadcasters on the table to celebrate the 60th anniversary beyond the contest in May , which are currently in the final stages of being evaluated . A decision is expected shortly , so stay tuned ! " . Edgar Böhm , executive producer of the 2015 Eurovision Song Contest said in an interview that the BBC had been chosen to host a special anniversary show . Guy Freeman was appointed as executive producer for the event , assisted by senior producer Simon Proctor , whilst the director was Geoff Posner .
Tickets for the anniversary concert went on sale from 10 : 15am ( GMT ) on Friday 6 February 2015 via the BBC 's Eurovision website and the official Eurovision Song Contest 's website .
On 3 February 2015 it was announced that Graham Norton and Petra Mede would co @-@ host the concert show . Norton , who co @-@ hosted the Eurovision Dance Contest with Claudia Winkleman in 2007 and 2008 , and is also the current Eurovision commentator for the United Kingdom . Mede was the host for Melodifestivalen 2009 ( Swedish national selection show ) , as well as host for the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 .
= = Programme = =
The concert was recorded live on 31 March 2015 , at the Eventim Apollo , London ; allowing participating broadcasters the freedom to air the programme on a date and channel that was convenient for their broadcasting schedules . Fifteen artists , representing thirteen countries , consisting of some of Eurovision 's greatest hits , took part in the sixtieth anniversary gala event . The first @-@ ever winner of the contest ( in 1956 ) , Lys Assia , appeared in the audience as a guest of honour . During the broadcast , video montages were shown prior to each entry , showing footage for that particular year 's contest , ending with Eurovision Song Contest footage for the entry that was about to perform on stage . Recap montages of Eurovision entries over the last sixty years , were also broadcast in @-@ between performances . These were as follows :
Electro Velvet performed their United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 entry , " Still in Love with You " . This performance did not appear on the televised show , but was exclusively done for the audience members of the concert hall itself .
= = = Interval act = = =
It was confirmed on 22 March 2015 that the interval act for Eurovision Song Contest 's Greatest Hits would be Riverdance . The theatrical show consisting mainly of traditional Irish music and dance , and featured Irish dancing champions Jean Butler and Michael Flatley , with a score composed by Limerick native Bill Whelan , originated as an interval performance during the Eurovision Song Contest 1994 .
= = = Performances = = =
Fifteen Eurovision acts from thirteen countries participated in the anniversary concert . Although there were originally fourteen acts confirmed by the BBC , it was later announced on 5 March 2015 that Norway 's Bobbysocks would join the line @-@ up increasing the total to fifteen . Video montages were shown prior to each entry , showing footage for that particular year 's contest , ending with Eurovision Song Contest footage for the entry that was about to perform on stage .
1 . ^ Entries performed as a medley .
2 . ^ Winning song of the Eurovision Song Contest 1968 , originally performed by Massiel .
3 . ^ One of the winning songs of the Eurovision Song Contest 1969 ( along with France , Netherlands , and United Kingdom ) , and originally performed by Salomé .
4 . ^ Originally performed by Mocedades , finishing in 2nd place at the Eurovision Song Contest 1973 .
5 . ^ Johnny Logan wrote the song " Why Me ? " , which won the Eurovision Song Contest 1992 , originally performed by Linda Martin .
= = = Reprise performance = = =
A medley of some of the Eurovision Song Contest 's greatest hits were performed in English by all of the participating artists , as a reprise act at the close of the show , including : Anne @-@ Marie David singing Israel 's winning entry of the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 , " Hallelujah " . Swedish trio , Herreys , sang " Nel blu dipinto di blu " , which finished in third place at the 1958 Eurovision for Italy 's Domenico Modugno . Bucks Fizz 's " Making Your Mind Up " , the winning entry for United Kingdom in 1981 , was performed by Bobbysocks . The reprise concluded with Concita Wurst and Dana International leading all of the remaining performers ( except Loreen ) back on stage to sing ABBA 's Eurovision Song Contest 1974 winning entry , " Waterloo " .
= = International broadcasting = =
As the anniversary concert show was not broadcast live , the participating national broadcasters were able to broadcast the show on a date and channel that was convenient for their broadcasting schedules . Some broadcasters – such as Austria and Sweden – recorded additional links and interviews for their viewers in London .
= = = Commentators = = =
The following countries , listed in order of broadcasting dates , had confirmed that they would broadcast the anniversary show .
= = = Broadcasting unknown = = =
The following list of countries , who are members of the EBU had not announced their plans on whether to broadcast the show .
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= Broken World ( Millennium ) =
" ' Broken World " is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 2 , 1997 . The episode was written by Robert Moresco and Patrick Harbinson , and directed by Winrich Kolbe . " Broken World " featured guest appearances by Ingrid Kavelaars , Donnelly Rhodes and Jo Anderson .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to North Dakota to track down a burgeoning serial killer who has progressed from mauling horses to attacking and killing people .
" Broken World " featured the last directorial effort for the series by Kolbe , and the last script written by Moresco ; however , Harbinson would return to write further episodes in later seasons . The episode has been compared to Peter Shaffer 's 1973 play Equus , and received a Genesis Award from the Humane Society of the United States in 1998 .
= = Plot = =
In Bowman , North Dakota , a stable @-@ hand named Sally Dumont ( Ingrid Kavelaars ) is attacked and left unconscious after she finds a horse has been murdered in its stall . Private investigation organization the Millennium Group send offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) to investigate , as twenty @-@ one horses have been killed in the same manner over the past two years in the area . Black believes the culprit is in the early stages of developing into a sexually motivated serial killer . Investigating the stables , the word " help " is found written in human blood , while semen is found near where the horse was killed . Black concludes the killer is struggling with the new feelings of having attacked a person and not an animal .
The killer — Willi Borgsen ( Van Quattro ) — is next seen attacking pigs in a trailer using a cattle prod . Borgsen is accosted by the pigs ' owner , and responds by turning the cattle prod on him . The victim 's body is later found in a nearby thicket . Black examines the scene , determining from the bootprints and evidence of the cattle prod being used that the killer works in a slaughterhouse .
Another human victim is later found on a farm , alongside another dead horse . The phrase " thank you " is daubed on a nearby wall . The North Dakota police set up an anonymous phone number to appeal for information , which Borgsen uses to taunt Black by describing the pleasure he derives from killing . Black consults with a veterinarian , Claudia Vaughan ( Jo Anderson ) , about the case , and learns that the area is home to a Premarin farm — estrogen for pharmaceutical use is derived from the urine of mares which are kept pregnant , their foals killed for meat to be exported . Black feels the killer may have been raised on one of these farms .
Borgsen contacts Black again , confessing that his latest killing has not satisfied him . Black warns that his urges will only grow , and will never be satisfied again . When Borgsen hangs up , Black deduces that Vaughan is to be the next victim . Black , fellow Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) and Sheriff Falkner ( John Dennis Johnston ) track the kidnapped Vaughan to an equine slaughterhouse . Falkner is attacked and incapacitated by Borgsen as Black locates a still @-@ living Vaughan , who has been hung by her jacket from a meat hook . Black is then confronted by Borgsen , who knocks him down with the cattle prod . Borgsen is about to kill Black with a captive bolt pistol , but is trampled to death by several escaped horses .
= = Production = =
" Broken World " was written by Robert Moresco and Patrick Harbinson . Moresco had previously written " Covenant " earlier in the first season , and also acted as a producer during the series ' run . Harbinson , making his first contribution to the series with this episode , would later pen a further four episodes in the third season — " Via Dolorosa " , " Darwin 's Eye " , " The Sound of Snow " and " Through a Glass Darkly " . " Broken World " also marked the final episode of Millennium helmed by director Winrich Kolbe , who had previously worked on " Lamentation " , " Force Majeure " and " Kingdom Come " .
During production , " Broken World " was instead set to be titled " Equus " , which is Latin for " horse " and was also the title of a 1973 play by Peter Shaffer concerning a young man with violent sexual urges towards horses . The episode opens with a quote from Friedrich Nietzsche 's 1883 – 1885 treatise Thus Spoke Zarathustra — " Man is the cruelest animal " . Guest star Donnelly Rhodes , who portrayed Peter Dumont , would later make an appearance in the third season episode " ... Thirteen Years Later " in an unrelated role .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Broken World " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on May 2 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 8 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 8 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented 6 @.@ 6 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ eighth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a C , comparing it to the first act of Shaffer 's Equus . VanDerWerff described the episode as " a bland , boring mess that ends with one of the most ridiculous deux ex machinas [ sic ] I ’ ve seen in ages " , and felt that " the guest cast is uniformly poor " , singling out Van Quattro as being " laughably bad " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , calling it " enthralling " but " not completely successful " . Gibron felt that elements of the setting were " very sinister " , but found the " overwhelming pro @-@ horse mantras " of some characters to be " silly " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Broken World " three stars out of five , finding it " too familiar and too tentative to make much impact " . Shearman felt that the episode would have been better placed earlier in the series ' broadcast order , but by this stage in the first season it had been " outgrown " .
" Broken World " received a Genesis Award in 1998 , presented by the Humane Society of the United States in the category " Television Dramatic Series " .
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= Battle of Jajau =
The Battle of Jajau was fought between the two Mughal princes and brothers Bahadur Shah I and Muhammad Azam Shah on 20 June 1707 . In 1707 , their father Aurangzeb died without having declared a successor ; instead leaving a will in which he instructed his sons to divide the kingdom between themselves . Their failure to reach a satisfactory agreement led to a military conflict . After Azam Shah and his three sons were killed in the Battle of Jajau , Bahadur Shah was crowned as the Mughal emperor on 19 June 1707 at the age of 63 .
= = Background and preparations = =
After a 49 @-@ year reign , the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707 without officially declaring a crown prince . He left a will advising his sons to divide the empire between themselves .
At the time of Aurangzeb 's death , his eldest son , Bahadur Shah I , was stationed at Jamrud , 12 miles west of Peshawar . His second son , Muhammad Azam Shah , was stationed at Ahmednagar , east of Bombay . With the distance between Jamrud and Agra being 715 miles and the distance between Ahmednagar and Agra being 700 miles , whoever reached the capital city of Agra first would capture the Mughal throne .
Even before Aurangzeb died , Bahadur Shah I had made preparations for a battle for the Mughal throne . With the help of Munim Khan , the naib subahdar of Lahore , he gathered troops from local rulers in Beas and Satluj . He had built bridges and improved the roads between Lahore and Peshawar . He was also successful in persuading Rao Budh Singh ( the king of Bundi ) and Bijai Singh of Kachhwa to send their soldiers to him .
With his children , Khujista Akhtar and Rafi @-@ ush @-@ Shan , Bahadur Shah reached Lahore and declared himself the Mughal ruler on 3 May 1707 . After taking 28 lakh rupees , he left the city on 5 May 1707 . By 1 June , he reached Delhi . Reaching the city , he visited the Nizamuddin Dargah and the shrine of Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki . From the Red Fort , he took 30 lakh rupees , and on 3 June , he resumed his journey . By 12 June , he had reached Agra and camped in Poyah Ghat on the outskirts of the city . Baqi Khan Qul , commandant of the Agra Fort , surrendered the fort to Munim Khan , who subsequently sealed the treasury .
Bahadur Shah sent a letter to Azam Shah asking him to be content with Southern India , the part of India which had been willed to him by their father Aurangzeb . He also wrote that , if he was not happy with his part , then he was ready to give him the territories of Gujarat and Ajmer . He added that , if Azam Shah was not satisfied with this offer , he would have to use the " sword to decide " the monarch of the kingdom . In his reply , Azam wrote :
My share is from the floor to the roof of the house . Yours is from the roof to the firmament .
= = Conflict = =
Realising that a battle could not be avoided , Bahadur Shah I marched towards Agra , having decided to fight a battle at Dholpur ( 34 miles from the city ) . Under his command , prince Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan was dispatched with 80 @,@ 000 horsemen , with 11 crore rupees that he had collected from Bengal , where he was the governor . He was ordered to capture the forts in Chambal ( one mile from Dholpur ) .
As soon as Azam Shah heard that Bahadur Shah I had started preparing for a march towards Agra , he left the fort of Gwalior in charge of the wazir , Asad Khan . He crossed the Chambal at the Kamthra crossing and made for Dholpur . He made his son , Bidar Bakht , the commander of the vanguard of the troops . Leading 25 @,@ 000 horsemen , he was accompanied by his brother , Mirza Wala @-@ Jah , and other Rajput chiefs . When they neared Dholpur , Azam Shah made Bakht the commander of a further 65 @,@ 000 horsemen and 40 @,@ 000 infantry . The army was divided into four branches commanded by Bidar Bakht , Azam Shah himself , and his sons Ali Tabar and Wala Jah . Though the army did not have " large cannons " and " mortars " , it possessed camel @-@ guns and elephant @-@ guns . Azam Shah was of the opinion that " an artillery fight was a stripling 's pastime and the only real weapon was the sword " .
On 17 June , Azam Shah and his battalion reached Mania near Dholpur . After this intelligence reached him , Bahadur Shah I reached Jajau and camped four miles from the city on 18 June . Taking advice from astrologers , he decided to strike on 20 June .
To collect water , on 20 June , Bidar Bakht and his men headed towards Jajau without knowing that Bahadur Shah was camped there . He came across a village where he found a flowing stream of water . To inform Azam Shah , he sent his messenger , Iradat Khan , to him with the message . When he returned , he informed Bidar Bakht that he had seen Bahadur Shah 's advance tents . Khan Alam Dakhvini and Munavvar Khan , who were in charge of the central wing of the troops , were dispatched to attack the tents . Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan 's 500 elephants failed to mount a resistance against the invading forces . The attackers looted the tents and then set them on fire .
Unable to put up a strong fight , Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan wrote to Bahadur Shah for reinforcements . He responded by sending Munim Khan , Jahandar Shah . Meanwhile , Zulfiqar Khan , who was in charge of the left wing of Azam Shah 's army , advised him to wait until the next day to start a full @-@ fledged battle . However , Shah paid no heed . Seeing 50 @,@ 000 horsemen approaching , Iradat Khan informed Azam Shah about their advance . In reply , he said that he was " coming to his son " .
Bidar Bakht found it difficult to mobilise all of his men to fight since they were " scattered to plunder camp " . The attacking force started raining arrows on them and discharging rockets at them . Khan Alam Dakhini charged Bahadur Shah 's army with three hundred soldiers . He threw a spear towards Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan seated in the howdah of the elephant . It missed him and instead hit his attendant , Jalal Khan . Dakhini was killed by an arrow as he attempted to jump on the prince 's howdah . Jalal Khan boarded a separate elephant , and after he inflicted an injury on Munavvar Khan , Munavvar Khan 's soldiers fled . This exposed the wing of Prince Wala @-@ Jah . Seeing this , Amanullah Khan , who was in charge of a separate wing , hastened to render assistance . But his elephant was set on fire , and his troops fled , thinking that their leader was dead . This made Wala @-@ Jah retreat from the battle .
After this confrontation , Bahadur Shah 's Rajput chiefs attacked Zulfiqar Khan . Though Khan 's army was successful in repelling them , he was wounded in the leg . As Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan 's entire army charged Khan , he fled the battle . Khan was followed by Jai Singh Kchwa , who fled from Bidar Bakht 's left wing . Even after the death of most of his commanders and soldiers and his two sons , Bidar Bakht and Ali Tabar , Azam Shah himself charged the enemy on his elephant . Court historian Kamraj , in Ibratnama , wrote that he was wounded " several times by arrows , but he paid no heed to the wounds " . He was ultimately killed by a musket ball which struck him on his forehead .
As soon as Bahadur Shah came to know about his brother 's death , he sent men to retrieve the corpse . They were attacked by Wala @-@ Jah , but Wala @-@ Jah fainted and died . Around 8 o 'clock in the evening , Bahadur Shah 's aide , Rustam Dil Khan , mounted the dead prince 's elephant , beheaded the prince , and made his way to Bahadur Shah . However , instead of praises , he received reproaches for his action . His elephant was followed by two other elephants ; the first one contained the dead body of Ali Tabar , the other one carried the dead princes ' women , who were assured protection by Bahadur Shah .
= = Aftermath = =
The Ibratnama estimates that 12 @,@ 000 horsemen of Azam Shah lay dead on the battlefield . It further estimates that at least 10 @,@ 000 infantry soldiers from both sides were dead . Khan Zaman and Khan Alam Dakhini 's bodies were sent to Gwalior for burial . Ram Singh Hada and Rao Dalpat Bundela 's bodies were sent to Nurabad for cremation . Azam Shah and his three dead sons were buried at Humayun 's Tomb in Delhi .
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= Green Wing =
Green Wing is an award @-@ winning British sitcom set in the fictional East Hampton Hospital . It was created by the same team behind the sketch show Smack the Pony , led by Victoria Pile , and stars Tamsin Greig , Stephen Mangan and Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt .
Although set in a hospital , it uses no medical storylines ; the action is produced by a series of soap opera @-@ style twists and turns in the personal lives of the characters . They proceed through a series of often absurd sketch @-@ like scenes , or by sequences where the film is slowed down or sped up , often emphasizing the body language of the characters . The show had eight writers . Two series were made by the Talkback Thames production company for Channel 4 .
The series ran between 3 September 2004 and 19 May 2006 . An episode was filmed with the second series , which was shown as a 90 minute long special on 4 January 2007 in the UK , but was shown in Australia and Belgium on 29 December 2006 .
Separate from the series , a sketch was made for Comic Relief and screened on 11 March 2005 . Another was performed live at The Secret Policeman 's Ball on 14 October 2006 .
= = Synopsis = =
Green Wing 's plot revolves around the lives of the staff of the East Hampton Hospital Trust , a fictional NHS hospital with staff ranging from the slightly unusual to the completely surreal .
The series begins with a new arrival , surgical registrar Caroline Todd ( Tamsin Greig ) . Caroline suffers from constant embarrassment and bad luck , stumbling from one crisis to the next due to a mixture of her own neurosis , impulsiveness , and general misfortune . Caroline works alongside two other doctors : Guy Secretan ( Stephen Mangan ) , an arrogant , half @-@ Swiss , womanizing anaesthetist , and " Mac " Macartney ( Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt ) , a suave , desirably fashionable surgeon . It is not long before Caroline begins to develop feelings for both of them , though she is unsure as to which of the two she truly loves . Throughout the series , it becomes clear that Mac is her true love , but a range of misadventures prevent their relationship from flourishing . Other people Caroline meets include Martin Dear ( Karl Theobald ) , a friendly house officer who is constantly failing his exams . He is unloved by his mother and is often bullied by Guy . Martin soon develops feelings for Caroline , and begins to fall in love with her . There is also Angela Hunter ( Sarah Alexander ) , a seemingly @-@ perfect , but irritating , senior registrar in paediatrics . Whilst Angela appears to mean well , Caroline cannot stand her and despite her best efforts to avoid Angela , she ends up as Caroline 's lodger .
Caroline 's main rival for Mac 's affections is Sue White ( Michelle Gomez ) , the Scottish staff liaison officer employed to listen and respond to the problems of East Hampton 's staff . However , Sue is perhaps the least suited person for the job ; she is mean @-@ spirited , insensitive , unsympathetic , controlling and vain . Her office is a place where the impossible tends to happen , and anyone who enters is normally treated with a mixture of verbal abuse and psychological torture , so she can get back to doing nothing , or thinking about how to upset the next visitor . The only person she treats with any affection is Mac , whom she loves to the point of madness , but Mac , like almost everyone else , tries his best to avoid her . Anyone who attempts to get involved with Mac is treated with contempt and hatred by Sue , in particular Caroline , whom Sue attempts several times to murder .
Perhaps the most eccentric member of staff is Alan Statham ( Mark Heap ) , an overbearing , stuttering and eccentric consultant radiologist , whose everyday actions regularly border on insanity . He is desperately and hopelessly in love with Joanna Clore ( Pippa Haywood ) , the 48 @-@ year @-@ old head of human resources with an increasingly sardonic attitude . Their relationship is an open secret , with student doctor Boyce ( Oliver Chris ) , often using it as a weapon against them , bullying Alan constantly . Joanna 's human resources staff also use it against her , in particular Kim Alabaster ( Sally Bretton ) , who has a bad attitude towards most of the people she meets , and Naughty Rachel ( Katie Lyons ) , who earned her nickname due to her love of sex . The other HR staff include Harriet Schulenburg ( Olivia Colman ) , an overworked mother of four trapped in an unhappy marriage , and Karen Ball ( Lucinda Raikes ) , who divides her time between doing much of the office 's work , trying to attract Martin 's affections , and being bullied by Kim and Rachel .
= = Creation = =
= = = Writers and crew = = =
Green Wing was devised , created and produced by Victoria Pile . She was also the casting director , one of the writers and was involved in the editing , filming and post @-@ production . She described Green Wing as " a sketch @-@ meets @-@ comedy @-@ drama @-@ meets @-@ soap " , and a continuation of her previous show , Smack the Pony , where Green Wing 's crew also worked . Unusually for a British sitcom , which normally have only one or two writers , the show had eight writers : Pile , her husband Robert Harley , Gary Howe , Stuart Kenworthy , Oriane Messina , Richard Preddy , Fay Rusling and James Henry .
Pile and her co @-@ writers initially used battery packs to represent characters , moving them around on her desk to develop scenarios for the show . The decision to make the characters doctors came later . Pile recalls that she mentioned to Peter Fincham that a hospital setting would work well and that he subsequently reported that Channel 4 were enthusiastic about a hospital location , which settled the matter . Even later still , a plot was developed and wall charts were used to mark up story arcs .
The show was directed and edited ( along with Pile ) by Tristram Shapeero and Dominic Brigstocke . Sketches were sped up or slowed down to create comic effect , often using body language to create humour . Editing was also used due to the amount of corpsing that occurred during the filming of the show . Tamsin Greig was said to corpse frequently , and episodes were written to minimize the contact between the characters of Caroline Todd and Alan Statham because Greig found it difficult not to laugh when acting alongside Mark Heap . The music , which plays prominently in the show , was written by Jonathan Whitehead ( under the name " Trellis " ) and won him an RTS Craft & Design Award .
= = = Production = = =
Following her success with Smack the Pony , Channel 4 gave Pile a fairly free hand with her next project . Their only requirement was that it should have enough of a narrative thread to make it more of a sitcom than a sketch show .
The show had a half @-@ hour pilot made in 2002 that was never aired . Scenes from the pilot were used in the first episode , " Caroline 's First Day " , and can be spotted due to the characters ' appearance , most notably Rhind @-@ Tutt 's haircut . The pilot allowed the writers to experiment , such as using different filming techniques . In the pilot , Doon Mackichan played Joanna Clore and was meant to play her in the original series , but left when she became pregnant .
Although each script is fully written , the actors are allowed to improvise their own jokes , frequently adding to what has already been written . Normally workshops are used to allow actors to improvise their own material . One example of improvised material was Stephen Mangan 's idea of Guy falling in love with Caroline . Rusling , Howe , Messina and Harley all have had speaking parts in the show , most notably Harley playing Charles Robertson , the hospital 's CEO . The show 's crew also make appearances in the show as extras . For example , Pile 's former assistant Phil Secretan ( whom Guy is named after ) appears at the end of a scene in the first episode . Henry appears in the background during Martin 's exam in the episode , " Tests " .
The filming was done at two hospitals , the Northwick Park Hospital in Middlesex and the North Hampshire Hospital in Basingstoke . This presented a problem because the show had to work around the real @-@ life hospital , with its actual doctors , patients and emergency situations . In one scene in the final episode in series one , Guy ( Mangan ) was hitting squash balls behind him , and nearly hit a patient . However , some scenes , such as those in Sue 's and Alan 's offices , were filmed in a studio .
Green Wing 's title is said to have come from a small plastic green man with wings that was in executive producer Peter Fincham 's top pocket , and fell on Pile 's desk . Fincham claimed it was not his , so Pile kept it . This plastic man appears at the end of the credits on every show .
= = = Unused storylines = = =
Green Wing had some plot lines that were never used . Unused storylines included Alan having an eighty @-@ year @-@ old wife and step @-@ grandchildren as old as him , and Guy suffering from impotence . Pile originally wanted the show to cover the entire hospital , not just doctors , but also porters , car park attendants and kitchen staff . However , she eventually decided that they had enough material with the eight main doctors and human resources workers .
Two endings were created for the special . The alternative ending is included on the DVD release of Green Wing , along with deleted scenes from the episode . The alternative ending was planned to be used if a third series was going to be commissioned , as this ending was much more ambiguous . It is known that the actors wanted the alternative ending , but after some debate , it was not shown .
= = Series summaries = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
Caroline arrives at East Hampton for her first day of work , where she begins work with Guy and Mac . She soon develops feelings for both of them , first believing that she loves Guy , but then – after a day out with him – realising that it is Mac she truly loves . At the same time , Martin begins to fall in love with her , and Angela becomes Caroline 's lodger . Elsewhere in the hospital , Alan and Joanna try to hide their relationship from the rest of the staff , unsuccessfully . Then Joanna becomes attracted to Lyndon Jones ( Paterson Joseph ) , the hospital 's head of I.T. , with Alan becoming jealous of Lyndon .
Sue becomes jealous of Caroline as she starts to fall for Mac , and does her best to try to stop her , even to the point of attempted murder . However , Caroline is having problems in the form of Mac 's current girlfriend , Emily . Martin is having problems with his exams , as well as avoiding letting anyone know that Joanna is his mother . Boyce is busy mocking Alan and having a relationship with Kim . With Alan and Joanna 's relationship falling apart , Alan becomes a Christian , but this is mainly due to the attractive chaplain . Lyndon soon tells Joanna that he finds her disturbing , and Joanna then puts an end to Alan 's new @-@ found Christian beliefs .
Mac decides to move to Sheffield to get a better job , taking Emily with him . Before he leaves , Mac bets Guy that he cannot sleep with Joanna . Guy accepts the bet and takes her home . However , Martin has discovered some shocking news and tries his best to stop them having sex , but is distracted by Karen 's affections . Caroline does her best to break up the relationship between Mac and Emily , but it is Emily who breaks up with Mac . Caroline accused Emily of being a fake but was proved wrong . Mac found this amusing and so Emily dumps him . Mac then tells Caroline that he felt three things when she had accused his then girlfriend : he was impressed and amused , but instead of saying the third thing he kisses her .
After Guy and Joanna have sex , Martin arrives to tell them that Joanna is Guy 's mother . She met Guy 's father whilst she was an exchange student in Switzerland . Guy then stabs a syringe full of Botox into Martin 's legs as an act of revenge . Martin is taken into an ambulance , and Caroline helps Joanna , but Guy punches Mac in a drunken rage and steals the ambulance . Mac tries to stop him and gets on the ambulance , which drives away . Guy drives the ambulance to Wales , with Mac and the paralysed Martin with him . Whilst Mac tries to phone the police , Guy drives into a field and almost goes over a cliff . The first series ends with Guy , Mac and Martin teetering on the edge – a literal cliffhanger – while ending up in a discussion about which of The Three Musketeers they are most like .
= = = Comic Relief sketch ( 2005 ) = = =
Mac fends off Sue 's advances by saying he will only allow her to touch his arse if she can raise £ 10 @,@ 000 for Comic Relief . Sue then proceeds to try to ask Martin , Joanna , Guy and Alan for the money , which she eventually manages to raise , though Mac runs off before she can get hold of him .
= = = Series 2 = = =
Eight weeks after the incident with the ambulance , Mac is in a coma and Guy has been suspended from his job . Caroline is spending too much time with Mac , in Sue 's opinion , and tries to stop her from seeing him . During his coma , Sue steals some of Mac 's semen to make herself pregnant . Mac then comes out of his coma , but is suffering from memory loss and cannot remember his new @-@ found love for Caroline . Angela soon leaves the hospital in order to take a career in television . With Angela gone , Guy becomes Caroline 's new lodger .
Alan and Joanna are still having problems , though Martin and Karen seem to be getting along well . Martin then decides to leave Karen , and Joanna then tries to pull Lyndon again . However , Lyndon avoids this by saying he is dating Harriet . After a date , Harriet feels uncomfortable with the relationship and leaves him , but soon her husband Ian dumps her for having the affair .
Just when Caroline thinks she has managed to win Mac back , his former girlfriend Holly ( Sally Phillips ) returns to the hospital , to replace Angela . Things become even worse when it is discovered that she never had the abortion that was the cause of Mac and Holly 's breakup years ago , and that Mac has a son . Caroline distances herself from Mac , and Guy starts to fall in love with her . Caroline however seems to have feelings for Jake Leaf ( Darren Boyd ) , a complementary therapist . Guy takes actions into his own hands and throws a Swiss army knife into Jake 's head . Sue then discovers that Holly is lying , that Mac is not her son 's father after all . Holly leaves the hospital . Caroline dumps Jake and then tries to impress Mac again .
When Alan becomes unusually happy after winning an internet caption competition , Joanna plans to make him upset again . Using her dwarf cousin ( Big Mick ) , she plans to scare him . The plan backfires when Alan is so scared , he beats Joanna 's cousin to death with a stuffed heron . Alan and Joanna throw the body into the incinerator , but become paranoid that they will be discovered . Alan however learns from Boyce that the death is being viewed as a suicide , so Alan and Joanna go on a rampage , thinking themselves above the law .
After the death of a patient known as " Yo @-@ yo Man " who offers them wise advice , Guy , Mac and Martin all decide to propose to Caroline . She rejects Martin , considers the offer from Guy , and Mac appears to be unable to form a proposal . Caroline then learns that Mac wants to meet her at the train station , but when she arrives , it is Guy who turns up . Mac is still at the hospital , where he learns that he is going to die . Caroline then accepts Guy 's proposal of marriage . Meanwhile , in the HR department , Karen is sitting on a windowsill , due to her fear of Clangers . Whilst sitting there , Rachel opens the window behind her , and causes Karen to fall out . However , no one seems to notice .
The police arrive at the hospital . Alan and Joanna believe that they will be arrested , and with Boyce 's help escape from the hospital . Alan and Joanna then escape in a camper van , with Alan becoming increasingly unstable . When it is discovered that Martin is riding in the back , Alan then drives into a field , and nearly drives the camper van over the same cliff that Martin was teetering over at the end of the first series .
= = = Secret Policeman 's Ball sketch ( 2006 ) = = =
A sketch was performed for Amnesty International 's Secret Policeman 's Ball , with performances from Tamsin Greig , Stephen Mangan , Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt and Michelle Gomez . Mangan and Rhind @-@ Tutt appeared in two sketches .
When the announcer at the ball asks if there is a doctor in the house , Mac puts his hand up , to Caroline 's embarrassment . Things get more embarrassing when Guy also volunteers , and asks why Caroline is sitting next to Mac when she is Guy 's fiancée . A unconscious patient lies on an operating table . Guy touches her breasts , takes pictures of her naked body under the blanket , and kisses her . Caroline alleges that the patient is transgender , which repels Guy . Sue White then appears in a tutu , claiming that the patient is stalking Mac , and repeating the assertion that the patient is transgender .
= = = Special = = =
The episode begins with the funeral of Angela , who departed the show during the second series , after being killed by a moose , at least according to Guy . Mac , after a month 's leave , discovers what has happened between Caroline and Guy , and although hurt , makes no attempt to interfere . Guy , on learning of Mac 's terminal illness , tells Caroline to marry Mac instead of him .
Meanwhile , Alan and Joanna are still on the run , rescued by Martin who calls the AA . Whilst on their journey , they accidentally kill three more people , a mechanic , a shop assistant and a policeman . Soon , they decide that , with no transport , money or employment , the only option is suicide . They are last seen , naked , walking hand @-@ in @-@ hand towards the sea . Meanwhile , Karen returns to work after her fall , but has changed drastically . She has become more confident and has developed better dress sense . Boyce ends up missing Alan , after his replacement turns out to be even more horrible . With Joanna gone , the office girls start to run riot , as in The Lord of the Flies . They form their own tribe and become hostile to anyone who enters the department .
Mac and Caroline finally marry , despite Mac 's terminal illness ( the exact nature of which is never disclosed , although Mac does tell Guy that its name has an " a " and an " e " in it ) . Sue gets over her obsession with Mac and finds love with a new man , who reciprocates her feelings . The episode concludes with Caroline being carried into the air by a mass of helium filled balloons at the wedding reception , although on the DVD boxset extras it shows an alternate ending where Guy and Mac grab onto Caroline 's ankles and are taken to the sky with her ; this alternative ending ends with Mac saying , " Caroline , there 's something I 've been meaning to tell you . "
= = Signature jokes = =
Green Wing contains running jokes . These include Guyball , a sport invented by Guy when he was at public school , with somewhat confusing rules . The basic object of the game is to throw a ball into a " Topmiler " , a basket attached to a helmet . This game was even played at the Wingin ' It Green Wing Convention .
Another signature joke is the frequent visits by main characters to Sue White 's office , in which these characters expect Sue to act as some kind of psychiatric cousellor to them , only to be thwarted by Sue 's ever more peculiar behaviour .
Also , Guy often says things that are inappropriate and sexually inappropriate and after noticing the reaction from the person to whom he is speaking , follows his comment with " ... let me finish " and a clarification . After trying to teach Martin this method in the very first episode , Guy also regularly attempts to pick up women throughout the two series by talking on his phone and saying " I 'll see you in Zurich " , in an attempt to sound " jet @-@ setty " .
Another Green Wing series of running jokes is about hair . One of the more notable was various cracks about Mac 's untidy hair , with Sue lending him a hair tie and hair clips before he goes in for an interview . Another was the character Karen getting her hair trapped in a printer in the first episode . Mac was often referred to as a Ginger by the other characters . Guy 's hair becomes gradually curlier as the series goes on and Rachel dyes her hair from blonde to brunette after the first series . Other recurring jokes include Boyce 's practical jokes , the bizarre games played by the human resources staff and surgery scenes where Caroline , Guy and Mac mess around while performing operations .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Sarah Alexander - Angela Hunter
Sally Bretton - Kim Alabaster
Oliver Chris - Boyce
Olivia Colman - Harriet Schulenburg
Tamsin Greig - Caroline Todd
Michelle Gomez - Sue White
Pippa Haywood - Joanna Clore
Mark Heap - Alan Statham
Katie Lyons - Naughty Rachel
Stephen Mangan - Guy Secretan
Lucinda Raikes - Karen Ball
Julian Rhind @-@ Tutt - " Mac " Macartney
Karl Theobald - Martin Dear
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Darren Boyd - Jake Leaf
Keir Charles - Oliver
Daisy Haggard - Emmy
Paterson Joseph - Lyndon Jones
Sally Phillips - Holly Hawkes
= = Critical reaction = =
The show has received generally very positive reviews . The Evening Standard said that it was " a comedy as physically adroit as it was verbally sharp " , and The Guardian said that " Channel 4 ’ s hospital sitcom is the most innovative comedy since , well , The Office . " In a review of television in 2006 , Kathryn Flett in The Observer voted it one of the top ten TV programmes of the year . In Broadcast magazine , the second series was voted joint @-@ second best comedy series in 2006 . In South Africa , where Green Wing is broadcast on BBC Prime , The Sunday Times of South Africa voted the show the best DStv programme of 2007 . Composer Daniel Pemberton wrote that the soundtrack to Green Wing was , " One of the most innovative TV soundtracks in recent years . " Famous fans of Green Wing include novelist Ian Rankin and comedian Catherine Tate .
Criticisms of Green Wing include the lazzi methods of filming and the overall length of the episodes , claiming that hour @-@ long episodes are too long . The show won the 2005 and 2006 Comedy Tumbleweed Awards for " Worst Camerawork " . Some were also critical of what was seen as a decline in quality when the second series began . Cathy Pryor in The Independent on Sunday said that , " Sadly , though , since I 'm something of a fan , I have to report that the first episode of the second series is , disappointingly , rather flat . To be fair , there were a couple of laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments - Dr Statham banging his head and falling down being one of them - but the whole [ thing ] didn 't quite gel . Or should that be coagulate ? I 'll stop making bad jokes now since I 'm still not as funny as anyone in the show . But I sincerely hope that the opener is a one- off and not a sign that Green Wing is going down the pan . "
Similar comments were made by A. A. Gill . When the first series was broadcast , he praised the cast and characters , but commented negatively on the filming style and dramatic qualities . He also said :
" ... it was one of the most freshly funny and crisply innovative comedies for years . The humour was all based in the character , not the situation . The story lines were negligible ; there were no catch phrases ; it was surreal in a way we hadn ’ t seen since Monty Python ; and the cast were actors being funny from inside a characterization , not stand @-@ up comics bolting a cartoon persona onto the back of gags . "
Subsequently , Gill attacked the first episode of series two , in particular the use of a dream sequence at the beginning of the episode . He wrote ,
" Now , every 11 @-@ year @-@ old knows dream sequences are the lowest form of plotting solution , lower than unexplained superpowers such as the ability to stop time or become invisible ; even lower than a magic get @-@ better potion . Within two minutes , Green Wing had destroyed itself , lost its assured grip on the cliff of comedy and tumbled into the abyss of embarrassing overacting , formless gurning and pointless repetition . What had once looked Dada @-@ ishly brilliant now looked like stoned improv from a show @-@ off 's drama school . The lack of plot and coherent narrative that previously had been a blessed freedom was revealed to be a formless free @-@ for @-@ all , brilliant performances as silly mannerisms . Nothing I 've seen this year has disappointed me as sharply as the second series of Green Wing . As Tom Paine so poignantly pointed out , only a step separates the sublime from the ridiculous . "
The rest of the series received some praise and , in a 2009 article , Gill - writing about the current comedy output at the time - said : " Show me a funny indigenous comedy series ; show me one that has been made in the past five years , other than Green Wing . "
= = Media = =
= = = DVDs = = =
= = = Books = = =
The first series scripts were released as Green Wing : The Complete First Series Scripts in paperback on 22 October 2006 ( ISBN 1 @-@ 84576 @-@ 421 @-@ 8 ) , by Titan Books . The book contains bonus material made exclusively for the book and previously unseen photos .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack , entitled Green Wing : Original Television Soundtrack by Trellis was released by Silva Screen on 8 October 2007 . It contains 23 tracks of the best of Jonathan Whitehead 's Original Music created for the show .
= = = Online viewing = = =
On 7 May 2009 , the first series became available on Hulu . Both series are now available on Hulu and Hulu Plus . It is also available ( both complete series ) on Channel 4 on Demand and on the LoveFilm instant streaming service run by Amazon in the United Kingdom .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Green Wing won the first BAFTA Pioneer Audience Award in 2005 . This is the only BAFTA award that is voted on by the general public . Pippa Haywood won the 2005 Rose d 'Or for " Best Female Comedy Performance " . Tamsin Greig won an award at the RTS Awards in 2005 for " Best Comedy Performance " . Jonathan Whitehead won " Best Original Score " at the RTS Craft & Design Awards 2005 .
Green Wing has also won a number of times in The Comedy.co.uk Awards , including the " Comedy Of The Year " award in 2006 .
= = Possible spin @-@ off = =
The cast , crew and writers of Green Wing have shown no interest in creating a third series because of scheduling difficulties due to new projects being undertaken by the creators and talkbackTHAMES not having a big enough budget . However , creator Victoria Pile mentioned in an interview in the Radio Times that she may do a spin @-@ off , saying , " I 'm hoping to do another Channel 4 comedy imminently , possibly starring some of the same cast . Hopefully , it will be some kind of spin @-@ off from Green Wing . "
In 2009 , Pile and most of the writing team behind Green Wing created a sitcom pilot set in a university entitled Campus , which features similar concepts to Green Wing , including improvisation . The motto of the university is " with wings " , a reference to the show . The pilot was broadcast as part of Channel 4 's Comedy Showcase . A full series began in 2011 , but was cancelled after one series .
= = Impact = =
A cocktail called the Green Wing was served at the 2005 BAFTAs . It is made using vodka , cloudy apple juice , elderflower cordial and sparkling mineral water .
A Green Wing convention called " Wingin ' It " was organised to raise money for Great Ormond Street Hospital , and took place on 13 January 2007 at the Brook Green Hotel , Hammersmith . A DVD of the convention is to be released .
There was a special appearance by Green Wing cast at the British Film Institute , on 17 January 2007 . Pile , Greig , Mangan and Rhind @-@ Tutt appeared . Some of the other writers , as well as Theobald and Heap , were in the audience . The event was hosted by John Lloyd . Green Wing appeared in an episode of the BBC documentary series Imagine , entitled A Funny Thing Happened On The Way To The Studio . Some of the funeral scenes from the special were shown , and the presenter of the show , Alan Yentob , appeared as one of the mourners .
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= No. 457 Squadron RAAF =
No. 457 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) fighter squadron of World War II . Equipped with Supermarine Spitfire fighters , it was formed in England during June 1941 under Article XV of the Empire Air Training Scheme . The squadron was transferred to Australia in June 1942 and saw combat in the South West Pacific Area before being disbanded in November 1945 .
The squadron saw combat against both Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan during the war . From March to May 1942 it was based in southern England and flew missions over German @-@ occupied France during which it shot down at least five Luftwaffe aircraft . After being deployed to Australia , No. 457 Squadron was based near Darwin as part of No. 1 Wing RAAF and intercepted several Japanese raids on Allied bases in northern Australia between March and November 1943 . The squadron remained at Darwin and saw almost no combat during 1944 , but moved to Morotai and later Labuan in 1945 from where it attacked Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies and Borneo as part of Allied offensives in these areas .
= = History = =
= = = Britain = = =
No. 457 Squadron was formed at RAF Baginton in England on 16 June 1941 . It was equipped with Supermarine Spitfires and was the second RAAF fighter unit to be formed in England after No. 452 Squadron . The establishment of both these squadrons formed part of an expansion of RAF Fighter Command which sought to improve its ability to defend Britain from a renewed German air offensive and to conduct offensive operations over occupied Europe . At the time of its formation the squadron 's commanding officer , Squadron Leader Peter Malam Brothers , both flight commanders and all members of the ground crew were British , but most pilots were Australian . The squadron 's ground crew component had been formed at RAAF Station Williamtown in Australia on 10 June , and departed for England on 7 August . On the same day No. 457 Squadron moved to RAF Jurby and thence to RAF Andreas , which were both situated on the Isle of Man to undertake training . While at the Isle of Man the squadron trained both its own pilots and pilots from other squadrons for operational duties , and for a time functioned as an operational training unit at RAF Andreas . It also escorted Allied convoys in the Irish Sea , but did not make contact with German aircraft . By October all the British pilots other than Brothers and the flight commanders had been replaced by Australians . The squadron 's ground crew arrived in Britain during October and November , making it an almost entirely Australian unit .
In March 1942 the squadron moved to RAF Redhill , Surrey where it assumed No. 452 Squadron 's front line duties as part of No. 11 Group RAF . These included shipping protection patrols , escorting bombers , conducting fighter sweeps over northern France and contributing to the air defence of southern England . Fighter Command had received authorisation to launch a full @-@ scale offensive campaign against German air units shortly before No. 457 Squadron arrived at Redhill , and it became part of this effort . The squadron first saw action on 26 March when Brothers shot down a Bf 109 during a multi @-@ squadron fighter sweep over France , though one of its Spitfires was lost in this action . By the end of its first week of operations No. 457 Squadron had shot down three German aircraft and inflicted damage on several others and it went on to conduct 32 operations over German territory by 26 April . These operations often encountered fierce opposition , and German Fw 190 fighters proved superior to the Spitfire Mark Vs that No. 457 Squadron was equipped with . The squadron scored its last victory over Europe on 29 April , though fighter sweeps over France continued until almost the end of May .
On 28 May 1942 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill agreed to an Australian Government request to dispatch three fully equipped Spitfire squadrons to Australia to reinforce the RAAF . The squadrons selected were the Australian No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons as well as the British No. 54 Squadron RAF . Accordingly , No. 457 Squadron was withdrawn from operations on 28 May to prepare to be redeployed to Australia . By this time its pilots had been credited with five confirmed " kills " and another four " probables " and damaging seven aircraft . On 20 June the squadron left England on board the MV Stirling Castle , which was also carrying the men of No. 452 and No. 54 Squadrons .
= = = Darwin = = =
The Stirling Castle arrived at Melbourne on 13 August . After being given 14 days leave the squadron 's personnel reassembled at Richmond , New South Wales on 6 September . On 7 October it became part of No. 1 Wing RAAF along with No. 54 and No. 452 Squadrons . Most of the Spitfires intended for the wing had been diverted to the Middle East during the voyage to Australia , however , and the squadron initially only had CAC Wirraway and Ryan ST aircraft for training purposes . No. 457 Squadron was fully equipped with Spitfires by November and moved to Camden on the 7th of the month where it continued an intensive training program . In December the squadron was informed that it would be deployed to Darwin in the Northern Territory to counter the Japanese air raids against the town . The squadron 's advance party departed on 31 December , and the main body followed by sea on 12 January 1943 . No. 457 Squadron commenced air operations from Batchelor Airfield on 20 January and moved to Livingstone Airfield on the last day of the month .
No. 457 Squadron first saw combat against the Japanese in March 1943 . Although the squadron was scrambled a number of times in February , it did not claim its first " kill " until 7 March when two Spitfires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 " Dinah " reconnaissance aircraft near Darwin . On 15 March No. 1 Wing 's three squadrons intercepted a large raid on Darwin , and No. 457 Squadron shot down two A6M Zeros and damaged another of the fighters . The squadron was also credited with damaging a Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bomber and claimed another three Zeros as " probables " . No further Japanese aircraft were encountered over northern Australia until May . During this period No. 457 Squadron practiced tactics and cooperation with RAAF and Australian Army units . Flying was normally limited to just one hour each day , however .
On 2 May No. 1 Wing responded to a major Japanese raid on Darwin . In the resulting air battle No. 457 Squadron shot down one fighter and claimed another two " probables " , but lost two Spitfires . Overall , the RAAF suffered 14 Spitfires destroyed or damaged while claiming only six " kills " , and the operation was not considered a success . Seven days later No. 457 Squadron deployed a detachment of six Spitfires to Milingimbi Island after the island 's airfield was attacked . This detachment intercepted Japanese raids on 10 and 28 May , shooting down two Zeros and two Bettys for the loss of three Spitfires . The squadron also continued to take part in operations over the Darwin region , seeing combat on a number of occasions . During the last major battle near the town on 6 July No. 457 Squadron shot down a Zero and damaged five Bettys , but lost three Spitfires .
Japanese air activity over northern Australia dropped away after 6 July , and No. 457 Squadron saw little further combat . As a result , the squadron 's personnel suffered greatly from boredom . No. 457 Squadron scored its next " kills " on 17 August , when its aircraft shot down three of the four Dinahs sent over Darwin that day ; the fourth was destroyed by No. 1 Wing 's acting commander , Wing Commander Clive Caldwell . The squadron shot down another two Dinahs on 20 August . On 7 September No. 1 Wing intercepted a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft escorted by 20 fighters . In the ensuing battle No. 457 Squadron shot down four Zeros without loss . On 4 November No. 457 Squadron deployed six Spitfires to Drysdale River Mission Airfield , and two days later they intercepted and damaged a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft . The squadron maintained a detachment at Drysdale River Mission until December , when No. 54 Squadron assumed this duty . During the early hours of 12 November three No. 457 Squadron Spitfires were part of a force which intercepted a raid on Darwin . No. 457 Squadron pilot Flying Officer John Smithson made the only interception and destroyed two Betty bombers .
The attack on 12 November was the final Japanese raid on the Darwin area . As a result , No. 1 Wing 's flying squadrons had little to do and the pilots became bored . No. 457 Squadron conducted little operational flying until 8 March 1944 , when it and No. 452 Squadron were ordered to Perth , Western Australia in response to fears that a Japanese naval force would raid the area . The squadrons departed Darwin on 9 March and arrived at RAAF Station Guildford ( modern Perth Airport ) three days later after flying through very difficult weather conditions . No attack eventuated , however , and the squadron returned to Livingstone Airfield between 23 and 28 March . The squadron next saw action on 18 April when two of its Spitfires took part in an attack on a Japanese radar station in the Babar Islands . In May 1944 , No. 1 Wing 's headquarters and No. 57 and 457 Squadrons were deployed to Exmouth Gulf , Western Australia to protect the facilities which had been established to refuel the British Eastern Fleet before Operation Transom , during which the fleet attacked Surabaya , Java . No. 457 Squadron departed for Exmouth Gulf on 10 May and returned to its new base at Sattler Airfield on the 24th of the month . The squadron again provided a detachment at Drysdale River Mission from 1 June 1944 and began to be reequipped with Mark VIII Spitfires on 2 July .
= = = Morotai and Labuan = = =
On 1 July 1944 No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons were transferred to the newly formed No. 80 Wing RAAF . This wing had been established to support a planned offensive from Darwin into the Netherlands East Indies . The offensive was cancelled in June , but this was not communicated to the wing , which continued to train for the operation until August . After the operation was cancelled the wing and its squadrons had no purpose , but continued to conduct training exercises as a means of maintaining morale . In November the wing was informed that it was to move to Morotai island in the Netherlands East Indies to take part in Allied offensives in the region .
No. 457 Squadron 's movement to Morotai was delayed until early 1945 . The squadron 's ground crew departed Darwin by sea on 18 January and arrived on the island on 1 February . The Spitfires departed Sattler on 6 February and arrived at Morotai two days later . No. 457 Squadron flew its first operations from Morotai on 10 February . The squadron 's main roles in this period were to conduct ground attack missions against Japanese camps and shipping as well as escorting other aircraft engaged in attacking these targets . This involved a heavy workload , and the squadron flew over 293 operational sorties between February and the end of April . From May No. 457 Squadron 's Spitfires began using dive bombing tactics as well as strafing targets with their guns .
No. 457 Squadron participated in the Borneo Campaign during the final months of the war . On 27 May it was ordered to prepare for deployment , and on 5 June its personnel and equipment sailed for Labuan island off the north @-@ west coast of Borneo . During this operation the squadron was attached to No. 81 Wing . The Spitfires departed Morotai on 17 June and commenced operations from Labuan two days later alongside No. 76 Squadron RAAF with the primary roles of providing air support to Allied troops in the area and air defence for the island . On 20 June two No. 457 Squadron fighters shot down a Dinah ; this was the squadron 's first " kill " since 12 November 1943 . Operations against the Japanese continued until the end of the war on 15 August 1945 . During the war 25 of the squadron 's Australian personnel were killed .
Following the Japanese surrender No. 457 Squadron initially remained at Labuan . During this period it flew security patrols as well as training exercises and air tests . The squadron 's serviceable aircraft left Labuan on 9 October for Oakey , Queensland and arrived there on the last day of the month . No. 457 Squadron was officially disbanded at Labuan on 7 November 1945 . Following the war the squadron was awarded the battle honours " Fortress Europe , 1940 – 1944 " , " Pacific , 1941 – 1945 " , " Darwin , 1941 – 1944 " , " Morotai " , " Borneo , 1945 " and " Defence of Britain , 1940 – 1945 " .
= = Aircraft operated = =
No. 457 Squadron operated the following aircraft :
= = Squadron bases = =
No. 457 Squadron operated from the following bases and airfields :
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 457 Squadron was commanded by the following officers :
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= Development of The Last of Us =
The development of The Last of Us , an action @-@ adventure survival horror video game , began after Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves ' release in October 2009 . Sony Computer Entertainment published The Last of Us on June 14 , 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . The three @-@ year development , led by studio Naughty Dog , was kept secret for the majority of development . In the game , players assume control of Joel , tasked with escorting the young Ellie across a post @-@ apocalyptic United States , in an attempt to create a potential cure against an infection to which Ellie is immune . Creative director Neil Druckmann was inspired to include Infected as a main feature of the game after discovering the Cordyceps fungi . His story , set twenty years after the outbreak starts and much of civilization is destroyed , explored the possibility of the fungi infecting humans .
Though Ellie was initially intended to be Joel 's daughter , the team found this to be too limiting in terms of further character development . The team chose Troy Baker and Ashley Johnson to portray Joel and Ellie , respectively . Providing both the voice and motion capture of the characters , Baker and Johnson assisted the team to develop the characters and help refine the story . The relationship between Joel and Ellie was the central focus of the game , and all other elements were developed around it . Various other characters were influenced by the story progression , ultimately becoming completely different from the initial vision .
The Last of Us features an original score , composed by musician Gustavo Santaolalla . Known for his minimalist approach to composing , Santaolalla was contacted early in development . Naughty Dog took a similar minimalist approach to other elements of the game , including the action , sound design and art design . The sound department began working early on the sound of the Infected , in order to achieve the best work possible . A similar direction was taken by the art department , whose designs influenced other elements of development . Naughty Dog overhauled their game engine for some elements of the game , particularly focusing on the lighting and animations .
The Last of Us was officially announced in 2011 ; it was heavily promoted and widely anticipated . Naughty Dog missed the original release date , delaying the game in order for further polishing . Naughty Dog marketed the game through video trailers and press demonstrations , announcing specific details about the game as development continued . Various special edition versions were released , along with a comic book featuring characters from the game .
= = Production = =
Preliminary work on The Last of Us , under the codename " Project Thing " or " T1 " , began after the release of Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves in October 2009 . For the first time in the company 's history , developer Naughty Dog split into two teams to work on projects concurrently ; while one team developed Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception ( 2011 ) , the other began work on The Last of Us . In order to run the two teams smoothly , co @-@ presidents Evan Wells and Christophe Balestra chose game director Bruce Straley and creative director Neil Druckmann to lead development on The Last of Us . Straley , who was employed at Naughty Dog in March 1999 , was selected to lead the project based on his experience and his work on previous projects , while Druckmann , an employee since 2004 , was chosen for his determination and talent for design .
= = = Story and setting = = =
As a student at Carnegie Mellon University in 2004 , Druckmann was tasked with creating a video game concept to present to film director George A. Romero , who would select a winner . Druckmann 's idea was to merge the gameplay of Ico ( 2001 ) in a story set during a zombie apocalypse , like that of Romero 's Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) , with a lead character similar to John Hartigan from Sin City ( 1991 – 2000 ) . The lead character , a police officer , would be tasked with protecting a young girl ; however , due to the lead character 's heart condition , players would often assume control of the young girl , reversing the roles . Though the idea did not win , Druckmann later developed it when creating the story of The Last of Us . An early idea for the game was that the infection only spread to women , though this was later deemed misogynistic .
The Infected , a core concept of the game , were inspired by a segment of the BBC nature documentary Planet Earth ( 2006 ) , which featured the Cordyceps fungi . Though the fungi mainly infect insects , taking control of their motor functions and forcing it to help cultivate the fungus , the game explores the concept of the fungus evolving and infecting humans , and the direct results of an outbreak of this infection . The game does not directly explain the cause of the virus ; Straley attributed this to the team 's focus on the characters , as opposed to the virus . They preferred to explain the events through subtext , rather than explicitly explaining the cause of the infection . Straley compared the subtext included in The Last of Us to that of BioShock Infinite ( 2013 ) . He felt that the latter had spawned various conversations within the industry , which he sees as a sign of a maturing industry . " I 've seen enough good stories in books and film . Now I want to see them in video games , " said Straley . The team used the concept of the Infected to force players to explore the limits of human perseverance . Throughout development , team assured that the Infected were strictly different from zombies .
In order to make the game as realistic as possible , the team conducted extensive research for the setting . Taking influences from Alan Weisman 's The World Without Us ( 2007 ) , Naughty Dog created a world that would force players to make decisions and utilize their limited supplies effectively . In his research , Druckmann found inspiration in real historical events ; the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic illustrated the depths of self @-@ protection and paranoia capable by humans under threat of extinction , while the polio epidemic of the 1880s demonstrated the influences of socioeconomic classes when assigning blame in a great disaster . Druckmann and Straley have also cited Amy Hennig 's " perfectionist mindset " and dedication to characters as an inspiration for the game 's story ; Hennig worked as head writer and creative director on the Uncharted series ( 2007 – present ) . The team also took inspiration from Gravity ( 2013 ) , in terms of the game 's simplicity and intensity .
When writing the script , Druckmann tried to exclude " fancy dialogue " , keeping everything " short and natural " . Community strategist Eric Monacelli has stated that the narrative 's overarching themes are " love , loyalty and redemption " , assuring their importance in the game , and fellow community strategist Arne Meyer said that the game 's violence fit the narrative . Straley reiterated this , stating " you have to have the dark to have the light " . Game designer Anthony Newman stated that the game deals with how people would react under pressure in extreme situations , which is represented through the violence and combat . The team felt interested in the story 's dark themes juxtaposed against the " beautiful " settings .
A major motif present throughout the game is that " life goes on " . A scene near the end of the game , in which Joel and Ellie discover a herd of giraffes , is referenced by many journalists as the realization point of this motif . Concept artist John Sweeney wrote that the scene was designed to " reignite [ Ellie 's ] lust for life " , triggering her curiosity and forgetting the surrounding struggle and death . He explained that the scene originally involved zebras , but were replaced by giraffes due to their gentleness and elegance , stating that they were " the most remarkable thing Ellie could possibly encounter " . Druckmann felt that the sequence " works because of all the horrible things " encountered beforehand . IGN 's Lucy O 'Brien wrote that the scene acts as a reminder of Ellie 's age , despite having been outwardly " stripped of any semblance of a childhood " , and Kotaku writer Kirk Hamilton found the scene to be a resemblance of hope for Ellie , having clearly suffered post @-@ traumatic stress following her encounter with David .
In regards to the ending , the team intended for it to be open to interpretation . Straley has stated that it 's " not your typical ending , but it ’ s still a nice resolution " . Both he and Druckmann stated their frustration when players told them they wanted a choice at the game 's ending ; Straley said that most of these players told him they would have chosen the same ending as the game anyway . Early in the game 's development , the team envisioned an ending in which Ellie was forced to kill someone in order to save the incapacitated Joel ; this ending was scrapped , as the team felt that it was not conforming to the character arcs . While the game 's focus testers hated the ending , suggesting alternative methods , Druckmann continued with it ; when the game 's music and gameplay became closer to completion , the focus testers began appreciating the ending more . When discussing the ending , VentureBeat writer Dean Takahashi referenced the quote " Whoever saves one life saves the world entire " , from Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) , highlighting its inaccuracy : " You save a life and doom the whole world , " he wrote .
= = = Character development = = =
Joel is voiced by veteran voice actor Troy Baker , while Ellie is voiced by actress Ashley Johnson . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology ; approximately 85 % of the game 's animations were recorded using motion capture , with remaining audio elements recorded later in a studio . Though the team quickly felt that Johnson fit the role of Ellie , they spent more time selecting the actor of Joel , as the chemistry between the two characters was imperative to the game . After Baker and Johnson played alongside each other , the team realised that the former perfectly fit the role of Joel , despite the actor 's young age . Druckmann attributed Baker 's voice and movement to the team 's choice of casting him . Baker and Johnson contributed greatly to the development of the characters . For example , Baker convinced Druckmann that Joel would care for Tess due to his loneliness , and Johnson convinced Druckmann to re @-@ write the character of Ellie in a stronger and more defensive manner . Some of the dialogue between the duo was improvised by the actors ; Druckmann attributed this to the fact that the script included an unnecessary amount of lines during gameplay sections , and he allowed the actors to choose what they felt was necessary . The characters of Joel and Ellie were the basis of the game ; the development between the characters was established first , and the game 's other concepts followed . From the beginning of development , the team intended for The Last of Us to feature dual protagonists with strong individual story arcs . During the Winter segment of the game , players assume control of Ellie . The developers ensured that this change was kept secretive prior to the game 's release , to surprise players ; they did the same with Ellie 's immunity , as well as with the game 's prologue , where players assume control of Joel 's daughter Sarah . The change of control from Joel to Ellie signifies a change in the role of the protector , echoing Druckmann 's previous ideas as a student . The character interactions were inspired by the relationship between Nathan Drake and Tenzin in Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves , in turn inspired by the video game Ico . The game 's protagonists represent the two eras that are shown in the game ; Joel represents the world before the outbreak , having spent most of his life during this period , while Ellie represents the world after the outbreak , as she was born in the post @-@ apocalyptic world . While the former is emotionally damaged due to the loss that he has experienced , the latter maintains an optimistic view of life , having become familiar to the damaged world ; spending time with each other saw these qualities overlapping , with Joel become more lively , and Ellie learning more survival skills .
Though Druckmann initially wrote the character of Joel using inspiration from Josh Brolin 's portrayal of Llewelyn Moss in No Country for Old Men ( 2007 ) , which he saw as " very quiet , very cool under pressure " , Baker 's interpretation of Joel as a more emotional person evolved the character in a different way . Ultimately , the narrative became an exploration of how willing a father is to save a child ; initially , Joel is willing to sacrifice himself , before evolving where he is willing to sacrifice his friends , until finally feeling that he would sacrifice all of humanity in order to save Ellie . Druckmann felt that players , specifically parents , would be able to relate to Joel 's character and his bonding with Ellie . Baker believes that Joel discovers morality throughout the game 's narrative , working out the difference between loss and sacrifice , and his true personality begins to show . When auditioning for the role , Baker read a phrase on the character sheet that stated Joel had " few moral lines left to cross " , which became the " anchor point " to the character for him . Baker found great difficulty in filming the game 's prologue , which features scenes with Joel and his daughter Sarah , portrayed by Hana Hayes . Upon later viewing of the first day of footage from the scene , Druckmann felt that it could still be improved . When filming the scene again , Druckmann explained to Baker how to perform it , and felt that it was the best take upon doing so . Though Baker initially found the take too " mechanical " , he retroactively realised that he had been previously trying to impress audiences by his acting , and that it was " not what the scene needed " .
When portraying Ellie , Johnson faced challenges in performing scenes that made her feel uncomfortable . " There were some days when we would shoot things that even at my age made me feel a little uncomfortable , " Johnson described . Johnson feels that video games rarely feature strong female characters such as Ellie , and expressed her excitement to portray the role for this reason . When questioned about the inspiration for Ellie as a gameplay feature , Druckmann recalled when he and Straley were brainstorming ideas for Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves and created a mute character who would summon the player to follow them , creating a " beautiful " relationship through gameplay alone . Though this concept was never included in the final game , the idea was raised when the team were discussing a new project , ultimately inspiring Ellie . Druckmann also felt inspired by the wars that took place in Syria and Afghanistan when creating Ellie ; he felt that conflict was a familiarity to the children in those countries , which is similar to Ellie 's view .
The character of Tess was originally intended to be featured as the main antagonist of The Last of Us , pursuing Joel for a year before a final confrontation in which she is killed by Ellie . However , the team found it difficult to believe that Tess would dispute with Joel and pursue him for a year ; this was solved by significantly adjusting the story . Actress Annie Wersching was impressed by the script , and Druckmann 's ability to write unique female characters . When writing the game 's female characters , particularly Tess and Ellie , Druckmann avoided external influences , such as the media 's portrayal of women , as he wished to write his own story . The character of Bill , portrayed by W. Earl Brown , is revealed to be homosexual at one point in the game . Druckmann initially left this vague in the script , but was inspired at the script read @-@ through to alter a few lines to further reflect Bill 's sexuality . To make Bill interesting , Druckmann explored the concept of contradictory statements ; while Bill states that becoming attached to people will lower chances of survival , it is revealed that he had a partner that he really cared for . Bill 's role in the game was also to voice Joel 's concerns about escorting Ellie , as Joel does not voice them . " [ T ] he reason to have Bill there is that Bill can actually say that to Joel , and warn Joel about that stuff , " Druckmann said . Veteran voice actor Nolan North , who portrays protagonist Nathan Drake in Naughty Dog 's Uncharted series , was chosen to play the role of David in the game . When approached by Druckmann about the role , North immediately accepted the part , appreciating its diversity from his previous acting roles . To portray the character , North approached his personality from multiple perspectives , viewing David as a " survivor " . North empathized with David , stating that most of David 's actions were understandable when considering the apocalyptic situation . He felt that David was initially attempting to protect Ellie , who was viewed as a " glimmer of hope " .
The team felt that the post @-@ apocalyptic world and the survival horror genre gave them the opportunity to better develop the characters . Taking inspiration from their work on the Uncharted games , the team used their knowledge of paralleling characters with the conflict in both gameplay and stories when developing The Last of Us . They also took inspiration from the books The Road ( 2006 ) and City of Thieves ( 2008 ) , and the film No Country for Old Men , noting that they all include memorable characters and using this as a point of inspiration . " [ W ] e can make you as a player feel more of what it 's truly like to exist inside of a world where every bullet counts and each step you take is a conscious choice that 's going to make or break your existence , " said Straley . The team also felt that the " pressures of the world " allowed them to better develop their characters . They felt that the pressure forced the characters to make interesting decisions , allowing better development .
= = = Technical and gameplay development = = =
For The Last of Us , the team had to create new engines to satisfy their needs . The artificial intelligence ( AI ) was created to coordinate with players on an intimate level , as opposed to the action elements from their previous projects ; the addition of Ellie as AI was also a major contributor to the engine . The team intentionally added a feature in which Ellie remains close to Joel , in order to avoid being conceived as a " burden " . Programmer Max Dyckhoff stated that , when working on Ellie as AI , he tried to imagine her experiences throughout the game 's events , in an attempt to achieve realism . The enemy AI , considered one of the most important features of the game , was developed to make random choices ; they study their surroundings , finding tactics to attack the player . This uniqueness to gameplay was a factor into the attempt at making players feel emotions towards the enemies . The lighting engine was also re @-@ created to incorporate soft light , in which the sunlight seeps in through spaces and reflects off surfaces . The team found great difficulty in developing the gameplay for The Last of Us , as they felt that every mechanic required thorough analysis . " You feel a lot of pressure to add things to make it ' more fun ' and it gets super difficult to keep those out sometimes , " Druckmann said . In The Last of Us , the weapon that players have equipped change the behavior of the human NPCs . In addition , the stealth system was intentionally developed to offer a sense of desperation , to make players feel the same .
There are multiple features omitted from the game that the team considered typical of most video games , such as boss fights . A traditional cover system was excluded for the game as the team wanted players to constantly move around . The team also attempted to cause players to feel as though they are lacking , particularly in the supplies that they collect . " You 're not building yourself into a tank , " said Straley . This also motivated many of the design decisions of the gameplay , such as the weightlessness of the animations , and the melee combat mechanic . To further add to the realism , the team developed the game 's combat mechanic in a way that forces players to spend more time planning . They also wanted players to be forced to retreat from combat after alerting the Infected , despite their belief that retreating is the " anti @-@ video game play mechanic " . The combat mechanic was developed to feel intense , intentionally moving the camera closer to players , in order for them to " feel every strike " . The team felt that the game forces players to make difficult choices , in terms of combat , stealth and resource management , allowing them to understand the decisions made by the characters .
Many gameplay elements from the Uncharted games were excluded from The Last of Us due to the nature of the latter . The team made Joel more " grounded and less nimble " than Uncharted 's Nathan Drake . The camera angle and melee system were also altered to fit with the team 's intention of the game . Some gameplay features were inspired by the game 's post @-@ apocalyptic nature ; for example , a task involving spatial problem solving was inspired by the prior inclusion of a strong water current that obstructs players . The team also felt that No Country for Old Men inspired them in terms of the minimalism , wanting to " get more intimate " with the gameplay scenarios . The team decided to include various optional paths for players to use . While at one point they felt that the additional content was useless , the team eventually felt that it feels " natural and organic " .
The game 's online multiplayer mode features three game types ; the team opted to limit the amount of game types , as opposed to creating an abundance of them , in order to create a " deeper game experience " . The multiplayer mode was inspired by the combat encounters of the single @-@ player campaign ; the team aimed to recreate the slow pace of the encounters , and maintain a similar crafting system . This was achieved by making weapons lethal , and placing crafting items in strategic locations across the map , which was intended to result in stealthy gameplay and careful selection of ambushes . It also emphasized the stealth and teamwork elements of the mode . Lead multiplayer designer Erin Daly felt that the slower pace was difficult to achieve in a multiplayer environment , stating that " in most multiplayer shooters ... players sprint around at high speeds and spray bullets at anything that moves " . In addition , the multiplayer was designed to support different play styles ; while some players prefer to act as sniper , others opt to perform as support . Adding a revive system — when players take a significant amount of damage , they slowly crawl around while bleeding to death — created a large consequence to death ; losing team members is intended to be a significant loss to players . When designing the multiplayer , the team wanted players to have very little information regarding the location of the threats , while still giving a minor indication of the location . Daly attributed this to the importance of threat detection in a competitive experience , particularly when the lethality is high . The in @-@ game purchasing system was designed to be akin to a role @-@ playing game by allocating a set of spendable points .
For the game 's character sculpting and rigging , the team introduced various new elements that were not used in their previous games . Lead character technical director Judd Simantov found that the creation of the faces was the most challenging , in terms of hardware . For the faces , the team used joint @-@ based facial rigs , with some blend @-@ shape correctives . To retain the shape of the face and avoid awkward movement , the faces were rigged with the mouth open and eyes slightly closed . The faces were also based on the Facial Action Coding System , allowing for an anatomical @-@ based approach . The use of a higher mesh density also allowed more volumes and creasing in the shape of the face , creating cleaner silhouettes and shapes and giving enough geometry to sculpt correctives . In an attempt to add subtle features , pupil dilation was added to the character models . For the bodies , the team edited the character movements from Uncharted 2 , softening some joint alignment . The animation of carpal joints was also added for the game , allowing more dynamic hand shapes , and flexibility . Another subtle addition was the arm mover controls , allowing minor editing on the arms ; though this feature was previously available , it was opened up to the animators for The Last of Us . A muscle system was also added , adding muscle shells that bulge , based on attachment joint distance ; the muscle system , written in Maya within a few days , works in real time . To solve an issue in which body movement resulted in awkward movement of clothing , runtime helpers were implemented . A total of 326 joints were used in the full character model , with 98 of these in the face ; 85 of these are runtime driven , while 241 are locked into animation .
The user interface design ( UI ) for The Last of Us underwent various different iterations throughout development . User interface designer Alexandria Neonakis originally intended to integrate the weapon upgrade system into the weapon slotting system , in order to constantly remind players to upgrade their weapons . Upon further iterations , Neonakis discovered that this integration resulted in a cluttered interface . Ultimately , it was decided that the upgrade system would be integrated in the form of upgrade benches , occasionally found throughout the game 's world ; this also solved another problem that Neonakis witnessed , in which players would upgrade to the lowest possible option , as opposed to saving parts for the higher options . Once it was decided to split the upgrade and slotting systems , the initial design was to select the weapons from a circle . This design , eventually considered " clunky and slow " , was replaced in preference of a list system . Neonakis has identified that the main problem with the list design was that it forced players to focus on navigating through menus during intense combat . This led to the final design , which allows players to swap and slot weapons in the same menu . To integrate the UI into the game , Neonakis separated the individual elements and changed their format . User interface programmer Paul Burg provided Neonakis with tools to move elements using their coordinates . All animated transitions were hard coded , which led to difficulty in creating smooth transitions . " This was tedious and at times incredibly frustrating , but it also meant that we all had to be pretty creative in how things were designed , " Neonakis said . The game 's crafting system was implemented into immediate gameplay , in order for players to feel involved . " We needed to make it streamlined and fast enough that you felt like you could take just that moment and be able to craft that thing that 's going to mean your survival in the next thirty seconds , or your failure to survive , " lead game designer Jacob Minkoff said .
= = = Art design = = =
When designing the game from an artistic viewpoint , the team took various pieces of work as inspiration . Robert Polidori 's photographs of Lower Ninth Ward following Hurricane Katrina were used as a reference point when designing the flooded areas of Pittsburgh . " [ Polidori ] did these amazingly beautiful , horrific photos ... it 's not just decay and rot and post @-@ apocalyptic grey , it 's a human world that we 're playing with when we portray this destruction , " said Straley . The concept of post @-@ apocalyptic environments was considered a " starting point " for the artists . The art team also strived to achieve realism within every piece of art . Straley explained that the artists " would be like , I 'm going to make this the most awesome fucking wall ever , " in terms of creating attractive environments . The art department were forced to fight for things that they wished to include , due to the high demand during development . Ultimately , the team settled on a balance between simplicity and detail ; while Straley and Druckmann preferred the former , the art team preferred the latter . The artistic composition of the game 's locations was also a feature strongly focused on , in order to evoke varying emotions from players . In the final weeks of development , roles from the art department were undertaken by other members of the team ; for example , Straley hand @-@ arranged the texts on the game 's training screens , a task that lead artist Nate Wells found unusual . " I have never even heard of a game director doing that ! That 's like ... an intern task , " Wells said .
When creating the look of the Infected , the art team cycled through various iterations . Some early ideas included the Infected looking like aliens or zombies . The final design was chosen when lead character artist Michael Knowland incorporated images of diseases and fungal growth onto a human . He expressed the difficulty in changing the art from 2D to 3D , which would allow viewing from different angles . The process of sending completed concept art to the lighting and visual effects artists , who re @-@ create the art within the game 's engine . Due to the lack of artificial light sources in the game 's world , the team was forced to work with natural light . To achieve high quality lighting , they used lightmaps . The use of lightmaps led to various problems , such as the discontinuities in the lighting ; this was fixed by slightly modifying the texel intensities . When characters were added to scenes , they initially looked out of place ; the addition of a shadow generally fixed this .
The game 's opening credits were directed by Kevin Joelson and designed by Henry Hobson . Original concept development for the opening sequence began in late January 2013 , and full production began in March 2013 . Though the team initially intended for the game to omit opening credits , they were later added to " bridge the gap " between the game 's prologue and the following scene , a cut that was previously deemed " too sudden " without opening credits . Sony San Diego produced the opening credits , using time @-@ lapse photography to record the growth of fungus over multiple days ; only the spores at the end of the credits are computer @-@ generated . The sequence was inspired by Planet Earth , which featured similar concepts .
= = = Music and sound production = = =
Throughout development , Druckmann and Straley had been compiling various musical tracks that they found inspirational . When searching for a composer to work on the game 's music , they realised that many of the compiled tracks were composed by Gustavo Santaolalla . Straley described Santaolalla 's music as " organic instrumentation , minimalist , dissonance and resonance with the sounds " . As a result , Sony reached out to Santaolalla , who agreed to work on the game 's soundtrack . After hearing the game 's pitch , Santaolalla was excited to work on the game ; he previously wanted to work on video games , but refused to work on those without a focus on story and characters .
Due to Santaolalla 's stance on composing music — he lacks knowledge in reading and writing sheet music , preferring to simply record — he began working on The Last of Us early in development . To give Santaolalla a point to base his music , Druckmann simply told him about the story and themes , as opposed to giving specific instructions on composing ; Santaolalla appreciated this freedom , feeling it assisted in the composing . To compose , Santaolalla felt the need to " go into some more dark place , more textural and not necessarily melodic " . To challenge himself , Santaolalla used a variety of unique instruments he was unfamiliar with , giving a sense of danger and innocence . For The Last of Us , he used a detuned guitar , producing deep noise . To produce unique tunes , Santaolalla recorded in various rooms , including a bathroom and kitchen . The team wanted the game 's AI to affect the music . They also tried to make the music evoke a reaction from the player , as their familiarization with the sounds would trigger a previous emotion that they felt . Music manager Jonathan Mayer felt that the game 's action music was atypical of action music in other games , stating that it 's " relatively low @-@ key " , and that taking it out of context changes the immediate reaction to it . The game 's theme , " The Last of Us " , was the first piece of music that the team received , and they were very impressed .
The sound design team began working on the game early in development , in order to achieve the best results ; they immediately realised that it would be challenging . Early in development , Druckmann told the sound team to " make it subtle " , and underplay ideas . Audio lead Phillip Kovats was excited to completely create all sounds ; no sounds were carried across from previous games . The team looked at ways to create sounds from a naturalistic point @-@ of @-@ view , and how to introduce minimalism into a game . By doing so , they found that it added feelings of tension , loss and hope , and that the game appeared to be a typical " action game " without the minimalism approach . They used a high dynamic range , allowing them the opportunity to inform players on tactical information , and locations to explore . The game 's sound design was created to reflect a more " grounded " and subtle mood than Uncharted , particularly focusing on the lack of sound . Taking inspiration from No Country for Old Men , the team attempted to " do more with less " ; Kovats said that the team was trying to tell a story by " going for a reductive quality " . Straley stated that the audio is vital to some scenes in the game ; " It 's more about the psychology of what 's happening on the audioscape than what you 're seeing , " he stated . He felt that this decision allowed a more impactful and meaningful effect with sound occurred . The sound team also attempted to portray the game 's dark themes through sound . The team felt that it was important to let sounds play for as long as possible in the game , drawing tension . The team used a propagation technique to help players determine the exact locations of enemies , using this as a tactical advantage . This system , created by the team at Naughty Dog , is processed at random in the game engine . For the game 's audio , the engine throws out 1500 – 2500 ray casts per frame ; though most games avoid this , the game 's engine allowed it to work . The team spent a lot of time recording sounds for the game , namely doors , and rusty metal . Sound designer Neil Uchitel traveled to Rio de Janeiro , discovering locations to record sounds ; he recorded chickens , which were used in the game as the voices of rats . The team continued to add and change the game 's sounds until the end of development .
To create the sound of the Clickers , the third stage of the Infected , the team found inspiration from a report on the journalism show 20 / 20 ( 1978 – present ) about blind children using clicking noises to communicate . " We liked the idea of taking this benign sound and attributing it to something really scary , " said Druckmann . In addition , the team wanted to reflect the creature 's feeling of pain and suffering , attempting to balance it with a sense of creepiness . The sound team created the sound of the Clicker first , realising early that it was the most challenging . To create the sound , they hired voice actors to perform their renditions . When voice actress Misty Lee provided her own rendition , a noise that Kovats described as originating in the " back of the throat " , Kovats and senior sound designer Derrick Espino agreed that it was what they wanted . Kovats then emulated the sound to feature in the game .
= = Business = =
= = = Announcement = = =
In December 2011 , prior to the announcement of the game , an Easter egg was found in Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception referencing the concept of The Last of Us on an in @-@ game newspaper ; Naughty Dog retroactively stated that the reference was intended to be seen after the game 's reveal in June 2011 , but when the timing of the reveal itself was pushed forward , the team forgot to remove the reference . A few weeks before the game 's announcement , a billboard in Times Square teased the game , naming it a " PlayStation 3 exclusive you won 't believe " . Sony officially unveiled the game on December 10 , 2011 , at the Spike Video Game Awards . Shortly after the unveiling , Naughty Dog co @-@ president Evan Wells revealed details about the game :
The Last of Us is a genre @-@ defining experience that blends survival and action elements to tell a character @-@ driven tale about a modern plague decimating mankind . Nature encroaches upon civilization , forcing remaining survivors to kill for food , weapons and whatever they can find . Joel , a ruthless survivor , and Ellie , a brave young teenage girl who is wise beyond her years , must work together to survive their journey across what remains of the United States .
In February 2013 , Naughty Dog announced that The Last of Us would miss its intended release date of May 7 , 2013 , delaying it until June 14 , 2013 to allow for further polishing . " [ I ] nstead of cutting corners or compromising our vision , we came to the tough decision that the game deserved a few extra weeks to ensure every detail of The Last of Us was up to Naughty Dog ’ s internal high standards , " Naughty Dog stated in a press release .
= = = Release trailers = = =
The game was extensively marketed through video trailers . The game 's first trailer was released alongside the game 's full announcement , showcasing the game 's concept , characters and setting . For this trailer , the team held extended discussions concerning features of the gameplay to include . They initially planned to omit the Infected from the first trailer , in order to sharpen the focus on the characters ; they ultimately decided to include the Infected , as they felt that omitting them would arouse anticipation of their final reveal , trailing the focus away from the characters . For the final design of the trailer , the team attempted to incorporate as many gameplay features as possible , including human antagonism , melee implementation , stealth , and character relationships . The first game cinematic was released on May 15 , 2012 , depicting a scene in which Joel and Ellie are ambushed by hunters . This was followed by a second trailer titled " The Sky has Turned Grey " , released on May 16 . The trailer revealed a redesign of the character of Ellie ; Druckmann revealed that this was to make her look more similar to actress Ashley Johnson . A game cinematic , introducing the character of Bill , was shown during the game 's panel at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , on July 13 .
A third trailer was released during Gamescom on August 14 , 2012 , showcasing more of the game 's environments and enemies . At the same event , a video was released , showcasing the process that cutscenes are developed , from the raw material to the final product . At PAX Prime 2012 , Naughty Dog showcased a video demonstration of the game , displaying gameplay . A story trailer for the game was later shown during the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards , on December 7 . A TV trailer for The Last of Us was broadcast following the third season finale of AMC 's The Walking Dead on March 31 , 2013 . A trailer for the game 's online multiplayer mode was released on June 4 , showcasing the factions elements to the mode . The final pre @-@ launch trailer was released on June 11 , during E3 2013 .
= = = Other marketing = = =
A demo for The Last of Us was included with all copies of God of War : Ascension , and was available from May 31 , 2013 until the game 's launch . To encourage pre @-@ order sales , Naughty Dog collaborated with several retail outlets to provide special edition versions of the game . The " Post @-@ Pandemic Edition " includes a unique case packaging , a statue of Joel and Ellie and unlock codes for additional content in the single @-@ player and multiplayer modes . The " Joel Edition " and " Ellie Edition " include similar contents , but contain some features that are often differentiated by the characters .
A four @-@ issue comic book miniseries , titled The Last of Us : American Dreams , was published by Dark Horse Comics . Written by Druckmann and illustrated by Faith Erin Hicks , the comics serve as a prequel to the game , chronicling the journey of a younger Ellie and another young survivor Riley . The first issue was published on April 3 , 2013 , and a reprint became available on May 29 , 2013 ; the second issue was published on the same day , followed by the third issue on June 26 , and the fourth issue on July 31 . All four issues were republished as a single package on October 30 . The game 's cover art was unveiled on December 9 , 2012 , featuring Ellie and Joel ; the team fought to feature Ellie on the front cover , despite attempts from external influences to move the image to the back . " I 've been in discussions where we 've been asked to push Ellie to the back and everyone at Naughty Dog just flat @-@ out refused , " said Druckmann .
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= Ma Chengyuan =
Ma Chengyuan ( 3 November 1927 – 25 September 2004 ) was a Chinese archaeologist , epigrapher , and president of the Shanghai Museum . He was credited with saving priceless artifacts from destruction during the Cultural Revolution , and was instrumental in raising funds and support for the rebuilding of the Shanghai Museum . He was a recipient of the John D. Rockefeller III Award , and was awarded the Legion of Honour by French President Jacques Chirac .
Ma was an authority on ancient Chinese bronzes and published more than 80 books and academic papers , including a 16 @-@ volume encyclopedia of the bronzes . He was responsible for recovering ancient relics including the Jin Hou Su bells and Warring States period bamboo strips , which are now considered China 's national treasures .
Ma suffered from depression in his final years , and committed suicide in September 2004 .
= = Early life and career = =
Ma Chengyuan was born in 1927 in Shanghai . In 1946 , he joined an underground cell of the Communist Party of China , and graduated from the history department of Daxia University in Shanghai , a predecessor of East China Normal University , in 1951 . He worked for the education department of the Shanghai Municipal Government before joining the Shanghai Museum in 1954 . Ma was originally assigned to be a manager and Communist Party secretary of the museum , but he resigned from his political positions in 1956 to focus on academic work , and later became director of the bronze research department .
= = Cultural Revolution = =
As the Cultural Revolution erupted in 1966 , Chairman Mao Zedong called for the destruction of the Four Olds , and teenage Red Guards rampaged through people 's homes to destroy relics of pre @-@ Communist China . Desperate Shanghai collectors sought protection of their antiques at the Shanghai Museum , and Ma slept in his office to take phone calls and to dispatch museum employees around the clock .
Ma initially kept the Red Guards out of the museum by organizing his employees as fake Red Guards , and protected the relics by painting Maoist slogans over the display cases . However , some of his own staff were soon swept by the revolutionary fervour . The extremist faction of the museum workers seized Ma along with other senior officials , and imprisoned him in a storage room for nine months . Trying to coerce the officials into confessing that they were " traitors " , the extremists repeatedly lifted them up and dropped them onto the marble floor . Several of Ma 's colleagues died . Ma survived the torture , and was sent to a labour camp in Hubei province for five years .
In 1972 , after American President Richard Nixon 's historic visit to China , Ma was brought back to Shanghai to organize an exhibition of archaeological treasures to tour the United States . The Cultural Revolution ended after the death of Mao in 1976 .
= = Rebuilding the Shanghai Museum = =
In 1985 , Ma was appointed the Director of the Shanghai Museum . When the museum was omitted from Shanghai 's five @-@ year reconstruction plan in 1992 , Ma lobbied Mayor Huang Ju for its rebuilding . After seeing the dilapidated rooms of the Zhonghui Building where the museum was then housed , Huang agreed to allocate a prime site on the People 's Square , but the museum had to raise its own building funds . Ma raised US $ 25 million by leasing the old building to a Hong Kong developer . He also made many trips abroad to solicit donations , mainly from the Shanghai diaspora who had fled to Hong Kong after the Communist revolution , raising another US $ 10 million . The money still ran short , but he eventually persuaded the city government to allocate another 140 million yuan to complete the building .
The museum reopened on 12 October 1996 to wide acclaim , and Ma gained international fame . He won the John D. Rockefeller III Award from the Asian Cultural Council in that year . French President Jacques Chirac awarded Ma the Legion of Honour in 1998 , and invited Ma to accompany Chinese President Jiang Zemin to a private dinner with him in France . The South China Morning Post of Hong Kong commented that Ma seemed to have " willed [ the Shanghai Museum ] into existence . "
= = Recovering cultural relics = =
After the opening up of China from the 1980s , tomb robbery was rampant and many artifacts were looted and smuggled across the border to Hong Kong , then a British territory . Ma Chengyuan was active in recovering many of the items from the Hong Kong antique market . In 1992 , he purchased the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Jin Hou Su bianzhong ( 晉侯穌鐘 ) , which were listed by the Chinese government as one of the first 64 national treasures forbidden to be exhibited abroad in 2002 .
In 1994 , Ma recovered more than 1 @,@ 200 Warring States period bamboo slips from the Kingdom of Chu , now known as the Shanghai Museum bamboo slips . Several ancient texts were written on the strips , including the Kongzi Shi Lun , a previously unknown commentary on the Confucian Classic of Poetry attributed to Confucius himself . The discovery caused a sensation in academia , and the texts have been the subject of intense studies by numerous scholars , including Ma himself .
= = Academics = =
Ma was an authority on ancient Chinese bronzes and published more than 80 books and academic papers . His book Ancient Chinese Bronzes , translated into English and published by Oxford University Press ( ISBN 9780195837957 ) , is highly influential and widely used as a university textbook . His 16 @-@ volume encyclopedia , Zhongguo Qingtongqi Quanji ( 中国青铜器全集 , " Complete Compilation of Chinese Bronzes " ) , is the most comprehensive book on Chinese bronzes ever published . He was also the chief editor of Shanghai Bowuguan cang Zhanguo Chu zhushu ( 上海博物馆藏战国楚竹书 , " Warring States Chu Bamboo Books of the Shanghai Museum " ) , a groundbreaking research on the Warring States bamboo strips recovered by Ma himself . Other books he published include Zhongguo Qingtongqi Yanjiu ( 中国青铜器研究 , " Research on Chinese Bronzes " ) , a collection of 40 of his academic papers , Yangshao Wenhua de Caitao ( 仰韶文化的彩陶 , " Painted Ceramics of the Yangshao Culture " ) , and Shang Zhou Qingtongqi Mingwen Xuan ( 商周青铜器铭文选 , " Selected Bronze Inscriptions of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties " ) .
In addition to his main position as Director of the Shanghai Museum , Ma also taught as a part @-@ time professor at Shanghai 's East China Normal University and Fudan University . He was also a council member of the Archaeological Society of China , and vice chairman of the China Museum Society .
= = Retirement and suicide = =
Ma retired in 1999 , but still served as an advisor to the Shanghai Museum . However , he had conflicts with the new management which became increasingly bitter . He was accused of misusing US $ 250 @,@ 000 donated by a Chinese @-@ American collector , but an investigation cleared him of wrongdoing . There were also rumours that some of the ancient bamboo strips he purchased for a high sum from public funds were fake .
In his final years , Ma allegedly suffered from high blood pressure and kidney problems , yet followed his doctor 's advice meticulously . It is also said that he suffered from depression , and committed suicide on 25 September 2004 . Official newspapers in China reported his death but did not initially disclose the cause . When President Chirac organized his visit to Shanghai in October , he insisted on meeting with Ma , without realizing that he had died .
= = Personal life = =
Ma Chengyuan was married to Chen Zhiwu . They had a daughter , who lived in Australia . Before Ma 's death , he invited his daughter to spend two weeks with him in Shanghai . He committed suicide three days after his daughter returned to Australia .
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= Scotland under the Commonwealth =
Scotland under the Commonwealth is the history of Scotland between the declaration that the kingdom was part of the Commonwealth of England in February 1652 and the Restoration of the monarchy , and of Scotland 's position as an independent kingdom , in June 1660 .
After the execution of Charles I in 1649 , the Scottish Parliament declared his son Charles II to be King of Great Britain and Ireland . The English responded with an invasion led by Oliver Cromwell , resulting in defeats for the Scots at Dunbar and then at Worcester , opening the way for the English conquest of the country . Under the Tender of Union , Scotland was declared part of a Commonwealth with England and Ireland in 1652 , but despite repeated attempts , an act was not passed in Westminster to ratify the union until 1657 . Under the terms of the union , the Scots gained 30 members of parliament , but many posts were not filled , or fell to English agents of the government , and had very little say at Westminster . Initially the government was run by eight commissioners and adopted a policy of undermining the political power of the nobility in favour of the " meaner sort " . From 1655 it was replaced by a new Council of Scotland , headed by Irish peer Lord Broghill , and began attempts to win over the traditional landholders . The regime built a series of major citadels and minor forts at immense cost . The Scottish legal system was suspended , but some courts and institutions were gradually restored . Generally the regime was successful in enforcing law and order and suppressing banditry . There was a major Royalist rising in the Highlands in 1653 – 55 led by William Cunningham , Earl of Glencairn and John Middleton . After initial success , it suffered from internal divisions and petered out after defeat at the Battle of Dalnaspidal in 1654 .
The Commonwealth extended toleration to Protestants , including sectaries , but the only significant group were a small number of Quakers . The Kirk that had been established at the Reformation and had been largely united since the Declaration of the Covenant in 1638 , was divided into Resolutioners and more hard line Protesters by the issue of co @-@ operation with the crown . The regime tended to favour the Protestors giving them control over the universities . The country was relatively highly taxed , but gained access to English markets . The era was remembered as one of prosperity , but not everywhere benefitted from economic expansion . There was an attempt to create national symbols with the revival of the union flag and unite coin . After the death of Oliver Cromwell and the fall of his son Richard 's regime , General Monck marched the army in Scotland south and facilitated the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 .
= = Background = =
Having supported Parliament in the First English Civil War ( 1642 – 46 ) under the Solemn League and Covenant , the Covenanter government in Scotland came under the control of the Engagers . As part of a Second English Civil War , they invaded England in support of royalist risings , and were defeated by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell at Battle of Preston ( 1648 ) . With many of its leaders captured , the Engagement regime fell in the Whiggamore Raid and the radical Presbyterian Kirk Party returned to power . After the execution of Charles I in January 1649 , England was declared a Commonwealth . As soon as news of Charles I 's execution reached Scotland , his son was proclaimed king as Charles II of Great Britain by the Scottish Parliament . After the failure of an attempted Highland rising led by James Graham , Marquis of Montrose , Charles accepted the offer of conditional support from the Covenanters , arriving in June 1650 and signing the Covenants . The English responded with an army of 16 @,@ 000 under Cromwell , which crossed the border in July 1650 , while an English fleet acted in support . On 3 September 1650 the English army defeated the Scots under David Leslie at the Battle of Dunbar , taking over 10 @,@ 000 prisoners and then occupying Edinburgh , taking control of the Lowlands . Charles could now more easily make an alliance with the moderate Covenanters . He was crowned at Scone on 1 January 1651 and a new army was assembled . In June 1651 Cromwell advanced against the Scots under Leslie at Stirling . The Scots army with the King set off for England , but there was no rising in their favour , and the army was caught at Worcester by forces under Cromwell . On 3 September it was decisively defeated , bringing the civil wars to an end . Charles escaped to the continent , an English army under George Monck mopped up the remaining garrisons in Scotland and Cromwell emerged as the most important figure in the Commonwealth .
= = Constitutional status = =
Six days after the victory at Worcester , a committee of the English Rump parliament was established with the aim of drafting a bill that would declare " the right of the Commonwealth to so much of Scotland as is now under [ its ] force " . By December this plan for simple annexation had softened , considering " the good of this island " , for one in which Scotland would be incorporated into the " free state and Commonwealth of England " . This " Tender of Union " was proclaimed at the mercat cross in Edinburgh by eight trumpeters on 4 February 1652 . Three days later , the King 's arms were taken down from the cross and ceremoniously hanged from the public gallows . Eventually 29 out of 31 shires and 44 of the 58 burghs assented to the Tender and subscribed to the oath that " Scotland be incorporated into and made one Commonwealth with England " .
On 3 April 1652 a bill for an Act for incorporating Scotland into one Commonwealth with England was given a first and a second reading in the Rump Parliament , but it failed to return from its committee stage before the Rump was dissolved . A similar act was introduced into the Barebones Parliament , but it too failed to be enacted before that parliament was dissolved . On 12 April 1654 , the Council of State issued and Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England , which would be the " Commonwealth of England , Scotland and Ireland " , under the authority of the Instrument of Government that made Cromwell Lord Protector . This remained the legal basis of the union until the Ordinance became an Act of Union under the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657 .
Under the terms of the union Scotland received thirty seats in the enlarged Westminster parliament , ten from the burghs and twenty from the shires . There were only five Scottish members out of 140 in the Barebones parliament and only twenty @-@ one were sent to the Protector 's first parliament ( 1654 – 55 ) . It was not until the Protector 's second parliament ( 1656 – 57 ) that thirty were sent . For Richard Cromwell 's parliament in 1658 – 59 , of the thirty elected only eleven were Scots and of the remainder ten were army officers . The Scots in Westminster were treated with general xenophobia and when not ignored they faced repeated motions to exclude them . One Englishman described them as " a wooden leg tied to a natural body .
= = Administration = =
Under the Tender of Union , the Scottish Parliament was removed , along with the monarchy , and no institution could meet except with the sanction of the Westminster parliament . Initially the country was run by eight English commissioners : Oliver St John , Sir Henry Vane , Richard Salwey , George Fenwick , John Lambert , Richard Deane , Robert Tichborne , and George Monck . In its early stages the regime deliberately attempted to break the influence of the Scottish nobility who had organised invasions of England in 1648 and 1651 . Many were in exile , prison , deprived of office or heavily burdened with fines and debt . Instead the Commonwealth attempted to promote what Cromwell called the " meaner sort " , particularly urban elites and small landholders . In 1655 the Irish peer Lord Broghill arrived in Scotland to act as President of the new Council in Scotland . This was part of an attempt to recast the government along civilian lines and to begin to win over the major landholders to the regime . The council was made up of six Englishmen , Monck , Samuel Disbrowe , Charles Howard , Adrian Scrope , Thomas Cooper and Nathaniel Whetham , and two Scots , John Swinton and William Lockhart , they were later joined by Sir Edward Rhodes as a ninth member .
From late 1651 , passes were needed to move from one area of the country to another . The ownership of firearms was restricted , necessitating a license . In the Highlands the administration fell back on the ancient expedient of making clan chiefs responsible for the conduct of their followers . The security of the regime depended on an armed force of never less than 10 @,@ 000 men . Citadels were built at Ayr , Perth and Leith and 20 smaller forts were built as far away as Orkney and Stornoway . Control of the Highlands was secured by strongpoints at Inverlocky and Inverness . These were built at a massive cost of money and manpower . The citadel at Inverness , begun in 1652 and using stone shipped from as far away as Aberdeen , had cost £ 50 @,@ 000 in 1655 , when it was still unfinished . Inverlocky had a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 and from 1654 became the centre for a new administrative region of Lochaber , made up of three of the most remote and lawless shires .
The Scottish legal system was effectively suspended after the English occupation . All courts that derived from " Charles Stuart " , including Sheriff 's Courts were suspended . Kirk sessions , however , continued to meet largely unhindered , neither sanctioned nor recognised by the Commonwealth . The legal functions of the Privy Council and Court of Session were taken over by seven commissioners , four Englishmen and three Scots . These proved more impartial than previous judges , probably because they were not tied to the major families and political factions by patronage and kinship . Local barony courts and heritable jurisdictions , in abeyance from 1651 , were officially abolished in 1657 . Sheriff 's courts were re @-@ established and Justices of the Peace returned in 1656 . The result was a small flood of witchcraft cases , with 102 between 1657 – 59 , which compares with over 600 after the Scottish courts were fully re @-@ established after 1660 . Generally the regime has been seen as successful in enforcing law and order , suppressing the banditry of moss @-@ troopers . In 1655 it was claimed that " a man may ride all over Scotland with £ 100 in his pocket , which he could not have done these five hundred years " .
= = Resistance = =
In 1653 – 55 there was a major Royalist rising in the Highlands led by William Cunningham , 9th Earl of Glencairn ( 1610 – 64 ) and former Covenanter soldier John Middleton ( 1608 – 74 ) . It was particularly threatening to the regime because it coincided with the First Dutch War ( 1652 – 54 ) . Glencairn was given command of the Royalist forces in Scotland by Charles II . He convened a meeting of Scottish notables at Lochearn in August 1653 . Among those present were John Murray , 1st Marquess of Atholl , Archibald Campbell , eldest son of the Marquis of Argyll , Lord Loin , Donald MacDonell of Glengarry , Ewen Cameron of Lochiel , John Graham of Duchray and Colonel Blackadder of Tullyallan . These notables then mustered their vassals and supporters to form a small army of about 60 horse , and a force of foot , made up of 60 – 80 Lowlanders and 150 Highlanders . The governor of Stirling Castle , Colonel Kidd , sallied out to suppress this force , but was defeated at Aberfoyle . This victory boosted morale and the rising gained some support from Lowland Scottish lords , forcing the Commonwealth government to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to these groups .
Although it gained recruits , the rising began to suffer from internal divisions , particularly between the Highlanders who made up the bulk of the forces and the Lowland nobles and officers who were their commanders . In early 1654 , nine months into the revolt , Middleton , a Lowland officer and a veteran of the Battle of Worcester , arrived with a commission to command from Charles II . Despite objections from his followers , Glencairn surrendered control over his forces , which had now reached 3 @,@ 500 foot and 1 @,@ 500 horse . That evening Sir George Munro , Middleton 's aide insulted Glencairn 's forces and the result was a duel in which Munro was wounded . Glencairn was arrested . He would eventually be released and retire from the conflict . A series of other disputes and duels undermined the leadership of the campaign for the remainder of the rising .
Middleton adopted a strategy of raid and harrying . Although successful in distracting the Commonwealth forces and causing disruption , it soon began to prove counter @-@ productive , as growing unpopularity led to a drying up of recruitment . With his return to Scotland after his brief naval command against the Dutch , Monck began a campaign against the rising , making forced marches of between 12 and 20 miles a day in difficult terrain . On 19 July 1654 a force from Monck 's command under Thomas Morgan caught Middleton 's army at Dalnaspidal . In the resulting battle the royalists were scattered and a wounded Middleton was forced to escape to the Highlands . The end of the Dutch War meant there was no possibility of foreign aid and government reinforcements were now available to combat the rising . As a result the Royalist military effort petered out . Eventually , Glencairn surrendered to Monck and Middleton escaped to the continent to join the court in exile .
The rising forced a change of policy by the regime , which instead of attempting to replace the landholding classes now looked for a reconciliation with former Royalists and Engagers . This resulted in the Act of Grace and Pardon , proclaimed in Edinburgh on 5 May 1654 . Instead of a blanket forfeiture among those implicated in resistance , it named 24 persons ( mainly from the nobility ) whose lands would be seized , and 73 other landholders who could retain their estates after paying a fine . Even then most of those names were treated with leniency and fines were remitted for confiscations , or were reduced , and some were abandoned .
= = Religion = =
The Kirk that had been established at the Reformation , had been largely united since the Declaration of the Covenant in 1638 . In the period after the defeat at Dunbar , it became divided , partly in the search for scapegoats for defeat . Different factions and tendencies produced rival resolutions and protests , which gave their names to the two major parties as Resolutioners , who were willing to make an accommodation with royalism , and more hard line Protesters who wished to purge the Kirk of such associations . Subsequently the divide between rival camps became almost irrevocable . After 1655 both groups appointed permanent agents in London .
The terms of the union promised that the Gospel would be preached and promised freedom of religion . The regime accepted Presbyterianism as a valid system , but did not accept that it was the only legitimate form of church organisation . The result was that , although civil penalties no longer backed up its pronouncements , Kirk sessions and synods functioned much as before . The administration tended to favour the Protesters , largely because the Resolutioners were more inclined to desire a restoration of the monarchy and because the General Assembly , where they predominated , claimed independence from the state . The act of holding public prayers for the success of Glencairn 's insurrection led in 1653 , to the largely Resolutioner members of the Assembly being marched out of Edinburgh by an armed guard . There were no more assemblies in the period of the Commonwealth and the Resolutioners met in informal " consultations " of clergy . The universities , largely seen as a training school for clergy , were relatively well funded and came under the control of the Protestors , with Patrick Gillespie being made Principal at Glasgow .
Toleration did not extend to Episcopalians and Catholics , but if they did not call attention to themselves they were largely left alone . It did extend to sectaries , but the only independent group to establish itself in Scotland in this period were a small number of Quakers . In general the period of the Commonwealth was looked back on as one where Protestantism flourished . Ministers , now largely barred from politics , spent more time with their flocks and placed an emphasis on preaching that emulated the sectaries . One Presbyterian noted that " there were more souls converted to Christ in that short period of time than in any season since the Reformation " .
= = Economy and taxation = =
Under the Commonwealth , the country was relatively highly taxed , but gained access to English markets . Under Charles I Scotland had paid about £ 17 @,@ 000 sterling a year in taxes . In 1656 the civil list alone cost £ 25 @,@ 000 . The sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 a month from the county assessment was demanded by the Cromwellian regime , which Scotland failed to fully supply and it was reduced to 6 @,@ 000 a year in 1657 . The total was never less than £ 90 @,@ 000 a year . In addition the country contributed about £ 35 @,@ 000 in excise a year . Despite this , there was an annual deficit of £ 130 @,@ 000 , which was covered by English revenues .
Scotland had suffered considerable economic disruption during the period of the civil wars , caused by loss of manpower to a dozen armies , free quarter ( the billeting of troops on civilians without payment ) , plunder and heavy taxation . A number of merchants , particularly moneylenders , were ruined by the wars . The east @-@ coast towns had probably lost about one fifth of their population from the outbreak of bubonic plague that occurred in 1645 . This was slow to recover and in 1651 rents in Edinburgh had to be reduced by a third . The free trade that was the major economic incentive of the union was not all beneficial , as Scotland now had to compete with the more highly developed English merchant fleet . The economy began to revive after 1650 , but the prosperity was not spread evenly across the country . While Glasgow and Aberdeen prospered , Dundee and the Fife ports continued to decline . The financing of military building and the spending of wages by so many soldiers did benefit some . New industries included glass production at Leith and Cromwell 's troops are traditionally credited with bringing north both the knitting of socks and the planting of kale . The good order imposed by the armed presence encouraged trade and manufacture . Alexander Burnet , later Archbishop of St. Andrews , commented that , " we always reckoned those eight years of usurpation a time of great peace and prosperity " .
= = Symbols = =
The creation of the union led to revival of the union flag sponsored by James VI and I , which had fallen into disuse after his death in 1625 . From 1654 it was used in the form of quarters , with 1st and 4th England , 2nd Scotland and an Irish harp as 3rd . Perhaps because this too clearly suggested the incorporation at the heart of the union , in 1658 it was replaced by the 1606 version of the flag favoured by James IV , with the crosses of St George and St Andrews melded and the Irish harp placed inescutcheon in the centre . The unite coin , originally struck under James VI , revived in the reign of Charles I and used by both sides in the Civil War , was again revived and struck between 1649 and 1660 . It bore the English text " The Commonwealth of England " and displayed only the Cross of St George and an Irish harp . A twenty @-@ shilling piece and a fifty @-@ shilling piece were also issued , with the image of the Lord Protector on one side , and the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew and Irish harp quartered on the other , as in the union flag . Despite these attempts to produce an iconography of union , Michael Lynch argues that the commonwealth largely lacked the symbols through which consent to a nation state could be expressed .
= = Fall of the regime = =
After the death of Cromwell in 1658 , Monck remained aloof from the political manoeuvring in London that led to the brief establishment of a regime under the protector 's son Richard Cromwell and after its fall the subsequent contest for power between the army leaders . When this proved incapable of producing a stable government in 1659 Monk opened negotiations with Charles II and began a slow march south with his army . After reaching London he restored the English Long Parliament that had existed at the beginning of the civil wars . This body , having received some assurances from Charles II , voted for a restoration of the monarchy in England and then dissolved itself . This created a de facto restoration of the monarchy in Scotland , but without any safeguards as to the constitutional position in the country . Scottish notables were in a weak position in negotiations with the crown as to what the settlement would be .
In the event Scotland regained its independent system of law , its parliament and its kirk , but also the Lords of the Articles ( through which the crown controlled parliamentary business ) and bishops . It also had a king who did not visit the country and ruled largely without reference to Parliament through a series of commissioners . These began with Middleton , now an earl , and ended with the king 's brother and heir , James , Duke of York ( known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany ) . Legislation was revoked back to 1633 , by the Rescissory Act 1661 , removing the Covenanter gains of the Bishops ' Wars , but the discipline of kirk sessions , presbyteries and synods were renewed . Only four Covenanters were excluded from the general pardon and were executed , the most prominent being the Marquis of Argyll , but also including the Protester James Guthrie .
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= Dæmonen =
Dæmonen is a steel Floorless Coaster roller coaster at the Tivoli Gardens amusement park located in Copenhagen , Denmark . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , it reaches a height of 92 feet ( 28 m ) , is 1 @,@ 850 @.@ 4 feet ( 564 @.@ 0 m ) long , and reaches a maximum speed of 48 miles per hour ( 77 km / h ) . The roller coaster features a vertical loop , an immelmann loop , and a zero @-@ gravity roll . Dæmonen replaced Slangen , a family roller coaster , and officially opened on April 16 , 2004 . A record number of guests attended the park that year , but the public has since given the ride mixed reviews .
= = History = =
Slangen , Tivoli Gardens 's family roller coaster , closed on September 21 , 2003 to make room for Dæmonen . Once the roller coaster was demolished , construction for the new roller coaster commenced . By the beginning of December , most of the brake run and station portions of the track were erected . By the new year , the lift hill was topped off . The first drop was completed by the end of January 2004 and the last piece of track was placed in February .
The ride is currently sponsored by Mazda .
= = Ride experience = =
After riders have boarded and the station floor is retracted , the train begins to climb the 92 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 28 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train makes an approximate 180 @-@ degree downward left turn followed by an upward right turn . Following the turn , the train enters the main 65 @.@ 6 @-@ foot ( 20 @.@ 0 m ) drop reaching a top speed of 48 miles per hour ( 77 km / h ) leading directly into a vertical loop . The train then immediately goes through an immelmann loop . Next , the train makes a slightly banked right turn into a zero @-@ gravity roll . After an upward left turn , then another right turn , the train rises up leading into the final brake run . The train then makes a 180 @-@ degree left turn leading back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about 1 minute and 46 seconds .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Dæmonen is approximately 1 @,@ 850 @.@ 4 feet ( 564 @.@ 0 m ) long , and the height of the lift is 92 feet ( 28 m ) high . The track was designed by Bolliger & Mabillard and is filled with sand to reduce the noise made by the trains . Also , the track is painted red while the supports are silver .
= = = Trains = = =
Dæmonen operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has six cars that can seat four rides in a single row , for a total of 24 riders per train ; each seat has its own individual over the shoulder restraint . This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1 @,@ 200 riders per hour . The structure of the trains are colored orange ; the seats and restraints are black . Also , unlike traditional steel roller coasters , Dæmonen has no floor on its trains .
= = Reception = =
Mia Christensen and Andreas Veilstrup from BT said that the ride was fantastic and that it has lived up to its name . Ethan Williams from Daily Mail said , " the fun didn 't last long enough for me " , and gave Dæmonen two out of five for speed and surprise factor , three out of five for fear factor , and a three out of five overall .
After the first year of the roller coaster 's operation , Tivoli Gardens announced that a record 3 @,@ 346 @,@ 000 guests attended the park in the 2004 season ; however , attendance dropped 186 @,@ 000 the following year .
In 2004 , Dæmonen was voted the 98th best steel roller coaster in the world in Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll . The roller coaster peaked at 65th place in 2005 .
Dæmonen has never placed in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
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= 1996 Football League Third Division play @-@ off Final =
The 1996 Football League Third Division play @-@ off final was a football match played at Wembley Stadium on 25 May 1996 , to determine the fourth and final team to gain promotion from the Third Division to the Second Division of the Football League in the 1995 – 96 season .
It was contested by Plymouth Argyle , who finished fourth in the Third Division table , and Darlington , who finished fifth . The teams reached the final by defeating Colchester United and Hereford United respectively in the two @-@ legged semi @-@ finals .
Plymouth Argyle won the match 1 – 0 thanks to a headed goal from Ronnie Mauge to gain promotion back to the third tier of English football one season after being relegated . For the club 's manager , Neil Warnock , it was his fourth success in the play @-@ offs as a manager , having achieved it twice with Notts County and once with Huddersfield Town . His counterpart , Jim Platt , would leave full @-@ time management at the end of that year .
= = Route to the final = =
Plymouth Argyle had finished the 1995 – 96 Football League season in fourth place in the Third Division , one place ahead of Darlington . Therefore , both missed out on the three automatic promotion places and instead took part in the play @-@ offs to determine who would join Preston North End , Gillingham , and Bury as the fourth promoted team . On the final day of the league season , Plymouth Argyle had the opportunity to finish third in the table and thereby clinch the final automatic promotion place but a 3 – 0 win at Home Park against Hartlepool United was not enough to overtake Bury , after they also won 3 – 0 at home to Cardiff City .
In the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , Darlington were paired with sixth @-@ placed Hereford United and Plymouth Argyle with seventh @-@ place finishers Colchester United . Darlington won their first leg tie 2 – 1 at Edgar Street courtesy of goals from Robbie Blake and Sean Gregan . They also won the second leg by the same scoreline at Feethams with Matty Appleby and Robbie Painter on the scoresheet .
Plymouth Argyle lost the first leg of their semi @-@ final tie 1 – 0 at Layer Road after a goal from Mark Kinsella , but they responded in the second leg at Home Park . Goals from Michael Evans , Chris Leadbitter and Paul Williams were enough to secure a 3 – 1 win and a 3 – 2 victory on aggregate . The results set up a first visit to Wembley Stadium for the supporters of both clubs .
= = Match summary = =
The two teams were competing for promotion to the third tier of the English football league system , at the time called the Second Division , a familiar place for both sides . In its previous 68 seasons as a Football League club , Plymouth Argyle competed exclusively in the second and third tiers , exactly 34 seasons each . While Darlington had featured in the second tier just twice , competing in the third tier on 32 occasions and the fourth tier another 32 times . The official attendance of 43 @,@ 431 was a record for a play @-@ off final at that level , beating the previous record set in 1994 , until it was bettered a year later by 3 @,@ 373 spectators . There was also a significant disparity in the number of tickets sold to the supporters of the two clubs , with fewer than 10 @,@ 000 Darlington fans in attendance compared to 35 @,@ 000 fans representing Plymouth Argyle .
Plymouth Argyle manager Neil Warnock picked ten players who had started both of the club 's semi @-@ final matches , with Ronnie Mauge keeping his place in the team having replaced Chris Billy for the second leg . The match was to be goalkeeper Steve Cherry 's last for the club , having returned for a second stint with the club three months earlier . Darlington manager Jim Platt , who was taking charge of the team for the last time before the return of David Hodgson , made one change to the side that secured progress from the semi @-@ final stage with Tony Carss coming in at the expense of Matt Carmichael . The final would prove to be Man of the Match Matty Appleby 's last for Darlington .
= = = First half = = =
Darlington were the first to settle with Gary Bannister a prominent player in midfield , but Plymouth Argyle eventually found their rhythm and had the first real goalscoring opportunity after ten minutes . Adrian Littlejohn found space after a one @-@ two with Michael Evans , but his first touch let him down and the opportunity was not taken . Darlington 's main threat was coming from attacking full back Appleby and he had their best chance of the match mid @-@ way through the first half . He carved out the initial chance , having carried the ball half the length of the pitch , but team @-@ mate Steven Gaughan was unable to convert . The hasty clearance from Argyle found its way back to Appleby but he sent his shot over the crossbar with goalkeeper Cherry completely exposed .
Plymouth Argyle came close to making their opponents pay for their profligacy in front of goal with Evans lifting a volley over the crossbar . Darlington 's captain Andy Crosby was proving to be a formidable figure at the heart of his team 's defence , but Argyle fashioned another chance to open the scoring just before half @-@ time . A flick on by Evans presented Adrian Littlejohn with the opportunity to redeem his earlier miss , but he dragged his shot wide .
= = = Second half = = =
There were few clear @-@ cut chances at the start of the second half , but Plymouth Argyle were winning the midfield battle with Mauge and Chris Leadbitter leading by example with a number of forceful tackles . The pivotal moment arrived on 65 minutes after Martin Barlow had earnt a corner @-@ kick on the right @-@ hand side . Leadbitter played the ball short to full back Mark Patterson , whose well @-@ measured cross was met firmly by the unmarked Mauge to head into the back of the net . Darlington tried to force their way back into the match , but were being thwarted by Plymouth Argyle captain Michael Heathcote and his defensive colleagues which left strikers Robbie Blake and Robbie Painter , who both scored in the semi @-@ finals , with little to work on . As Darlington committed more players forward in search of an equaliser they left themselves exposed in defence which gave the leading side more space to launch counter @-@ attacks . Evans and Littlejohn threatened to score the decisive second goal , but in the end Mauge 's headed finish mid @-@ way through the second half proved to be enough to claim the final promotion place for the team from Devon . The match was by no means a classic , with serious goalscoring chances at a premium , but to the winners it didn 't matter .
= = = Post @-@ match = = =
After the final whistle Plymouth Argyle 's captain Michael Heathcote received the winners ' trophy before parading it in front of the club 's supporters on the pitch . For the club 's manager , Neil Warnock , it was his fourth play @-@ off success at Wembley Stadium . He commented on his past experiences that " It can 't be a hindrance , having done it before , but it doesn 't make it any less tense . It makes it a very long season . I had booked a holiday starting today - I suppose I should have known better " .
Warnock was also full of praise for his counterpart , Jim Platt , commenting that " He should be made manager of the year for what he 's done at that club " . Citing Darlington 's financial worries " Everyone thought they would blow up , but they didn 't - they got within an ace . Unfortunately , someone has to lose " . Platt , a former Northern Ireland international , was equally optimistic . He said " My side is very young - nearly all of them in their early 20s . I think we will be here again next season or go up automatically - if we can keep the side together " .
As a result of their victory , Plymouth Argyle returned to the third tier of English football just one year after being relegated to the fourth tier for the first time in its history . They returned to the Third Division two years later before being promoted as champions in 2002 , and the club followed that up by winning the Second Division in 2004 , to reclaim their place in the second tier of English football after a twelve @-@ year hiatus . For Darlington , there was to be more disappointment in the play @-@ offs four years later under David Hodgson , Platt 's successor . They reached the Third Division final in 2000 , the last to be played at the original Wembley Stadium , and were defeated 1 – 0 again ; on this occasion to Peterborough United .
= = Match details = =
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= East Indies theatre of the French Revolutionary Wars =
The East Indies theatre of the French Revolutionary Wars was a series of campaigns related to the major European conflict known as the French Revolutionary Wars , fought between 1793 and 1801 between the new French Republic and its allies and a shifting alliance of rival powers . Although the Indian Ocean was separated by vast distance from the principal theatre of the conflict in Western Europe , it played a significant role due to the economic importance of the region to Great Britain , France 's most constant opponent , of its colonies in India and the Far Eastern trade .
Protection of British interests in the region fell primarily to the Royal Navy , supported by the military forces of the East India Company . Naval strategy sought to eliminate enemy forces in the region and provide convoy protection to the large East Indiamen merchant ships and smaller company ships which transported goods and wealth between Britain and its Asian colonies and trade partners . The French Navy maintained commerce raiding operations in the region throughout the war ; particularly light frigate squadrons and privateers deployed in an effort to disrupt British trade , supported as the conflict developed by the allies the French accrued in the course of the war , particularly the Batavian Republic and Spain .
At the declaration of war on Britain by the newly formed French Republic on 1 February 1793 , British forces in the Indian Ocean held a considerably stronger military position , which was immediately utilised to seize the French territories in India . The remaining French forces continued operating from their base on the remote island of Île de France , privateers in particular conducting a highly disruptive campaign against British commerce . Attempts by the Royal Navy , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier , to limit their effectiveness resulted in a number of inconsequential clashes and a partial blockade of the French islands . In 1795 the declaration of war on Britain by the newly formed Batavian Republic led to successful invasions of the Batavian colonies of Dutch Ceylon , the Dutch Cape Colony and operations against the Dutch East Indies .
In 1796 British control of the region was challenged by a large and powerful French frigate squadron sent to the Indian Ocean under Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey . Sercey 's squadron operated against British trade for two years with little success ; attempts to raid the China trade and coordinate with a Spanish Navy squadron at Manila in the Philippines all ending in failure . Growing resentment on Île de France at the cost of maintaining the squadron eventually required most of the ships to return to France . The survivors , forced to operate independently , were subsequently defeated and captured by the Royal Navy in a series of individual engagements in 1799 . By 1800 British control of the Indian Ocean was again assured , Rainier deploying his ships in trade protection duties and in the Red Sea to support the invasion of Egypt in 1801 . At the end of the war in 1802 the Peace of Amiens reverted the situation in the region to its pre @-@ war state , Britain returning all seized colonies except for Ceylon .
= = Background = =
On 1 February 1793 , amid mounting tensions following the French Revolution of 1789 , the recently formed French Republic , already at war with the Austrian Empire and Prussia , declared war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic . This act spread the French Revolutionary Wars beyond Europe to encompass the British , French and Dutch colonies in the Americas and the East Indies . Britain and France were already rivals in the East Indies , having fought campaigns in the Indian Ocean during both the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) and the American War of Independence ( 1775 – 1783 ) . More recently British and French naval forces had fought the Battle of Tellicherry in 1791 as part of the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War , a conflict between the East India Company ( EIC ) , which controlled British mercantile interests in the East Indies , and the French @-@ supported Kingdom of Mysore in Southern India . The battle was a French defeat , but it had little impact on either the war itself , which saw the EIC extract significant concessions from Tipu Sultan , the ruler of Mysore , or the worsening political climate in Europe .
Britain , through the EIC , controlled large stretches of the Indian coast , including the three significant ports of Calcutta , Bombay and Madras , when the war began . On the northern coast of the Bay of Bengal , Calcutta was a highly lucrative port but remote and lacking in naval facilities ; Madras on the Coromandel Coast was an open harbour with little in the way of defences ; while Bombay , on the western coast , was the point of communication with Europe and the strongest naval base in the region . To the east , British merchants operated from the small harbours of Penang and Bencoolen , which linked directly to the great mercantile centre at Canton in Qing Dynasty China . This linkage was the principal cause of British interest in the East Indies : the connection to and dominance of a lucrative network of intercontinental trade and exploration .
France controlled a number of trading harbours along the Indian coast including Mahé and Chandernagore , all governed from the larger port of Pondicherry . However , the strongest French position in the region was the isolated island of Île de France , later known as Mauritius , with its subordinate bases of Réunion and small settlements on Madagascar in the Seychelles and on Rodrigues . Île de France , centred on the capital Port Louis , had important commercial agricultural features and an economy dominated by African slave labour . The islands were only commercially viable when left ungarrisoned , and if any troops had to be supported or the islands came under blockade there were corresponding economic difficulties and food shortages . The island was most valuable as a naval base , situated in an ideal position for raiders to intercept British trade between Europe and the East Indies . The upheavals of the French Revolution had reached Île de France , with accusations against senior officials leading to arrests in 1792 . The arrival of news that the French Convention had abolished slavery in August 1794 almost plunged the island into civil war , and only the intervention of Governor Malartic prevented conflict .
The Dutch Empire held the Dutch Cape Colony , Dutch Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies . The latter , now Indonesia , was governed by the Dutch East India Company from the highly lucrative port of Batavia . Batavia was the centre of East Asian trade , reaching as far as Nagasaki in Edo period Japan , supported by other towns and ports including Sourabaya and Griessie . The Cape Colony at the Southern tip of Africa was far less significant , acting principally as a resupply harbour with little commercial activity or penetration into the surrounding countryside . The commercially significant harbours of Trincomalee and Colombo on the island of Ceylon were of strategic importance , but weakly garrisoned against attack . These colonies were defended by a Dutch naval squadron , sent to the region in 1782 in the aftermath of the American War of Independence .
The Spanish Philippines , somewhat distant to the other European colonies in the region , was a commercial backwater which survived through large subsidies from New Spain . The only significant towns were Manila and Cavite , the latter hosting a powerful Spanish naval squadron . A Portuguese mercantile presence existed in the Indian port of Goa , which was a source of concern to the British as it represented a weak point in the defenses of British India . Portugal also controlled the Chinese port of Macau and a number of trading posts on the East African coast in Portuguese Mozambique . Other European nations , including Denmark and Sweden traded in the East Indies , as increasingly did American merchant ships .
The East Indies were very important to the British war effort due to their pivotal position in maintaining British revenue through trade . The EIC controlled the shipment of large quantities of valuable commodities from India , China and other Asian markets to Europe with their fleet of large and well @-@ armed merchant ships , known as East Indiamen , supplemented by smaller local trading vessels known as " country ships " . The EIC maintained a standing army in India and their own small fleet , designed for the protection of commerce . The EIC navy was supplemented by Royal Navy forces , which had been depleted of forces shortly before the outbreak of war ; Rear @-@ Admiral William Cornwallis had only the ship of the line HMS Crown at Madras , and the frigate HMS Minerva at Calcutta . French forces in the region also comprised two frigates , Cybèle and Prudente under Commodore Saint @-@ Félix , supported by a squadron of smaller vessels and a large but disorganised force of privateers , with orders to operate against British commerce .
= = Outbreak of war = =
News of the French declaration of war arrived by ship in Calcutta , having traveled from George Baldwin , British ambassador in Alexandria , on 1 June 1793 . Cornwallis immediately sailed to Pondicherry , instituting a blockade and seizing an ammunition supply ship entering the port . Plans to eliminate the French presence in India had already been drawn up . The British and EIC forces , commanded on land by Colonel John Braithwaite , moved rapidly , seizing Chandernagore , Karaikal , Yanam and Mahé without resistance . Pondicherry proved stronger , and Braithwaite was forced to besiege the city for 22 days until the French commander , Colonel Prosper de Clermont , agreed to surrender . Cornwallis 's blockade was augmented by several large East Indiamen , proving sufficient as a deterrent to drive off the French frigate Cybèle and accompanying storeships which sought to resupply the garrison on 14 August .
With the French firmly driven from India , Cornwallis returned to European waters with Minerva . Protection of EIC shipping from French forces was left to a small number of light EIC warships . The trade route through the Sunda Strait proved particularly vulnerable ; on 27 September 1793 the East Indiaman Princess Royal was captured by a squadron of large privateers . In January 1794 a well armed squadron of East Indiamen under Commodore Charles Mitchell were sent to patrol the Sunda Strait by the EIC . During the ensuing Sunda Strait campaign , privateers attacked the East Indiaman Pigot on 17 January before Mitchell defeated the largest privateers , Vengeur and Résolu , on 22 January and fought an inconclusive engagement with Prudente and Cybèle under Captain Jean @-@ Marie Renaud on 24 January . Renaud subsequently captured the Pigot , while she was under repairs at Fort Marlborough . In late February both French and EIC squadrons returned to the Indian Ocean . The Dutch frigate Amazone subsequently captured two French corvettes at Sourabaya .
In the early spring of 1794 , during a major campaign in the Atlantic , a British force led by Captain Peter Rainier in the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Suffolk , also including HMS Swift , HMS Orpheus , HMS Centurion and HMS Resistance , was sent to the Indian Ocean . This force diverged en route , with Orpheus , Resistance and Centurion cruising off Île de France in May . On 5 May this force encountered the captured Princess Royal , now armed as a warship and renamed Duguay @-@ Trouin , and the brig Vulcain . Duguay @-@ Trouin sailed poorly and was intercepted and captured by Orpheus after a short battle . The blockade of Île de France was maintained during the year and on 22 October Renaud attempted to eliminate it , attacking Centurion and Diomede off Île Ronde . The ensuing battle was hard @-@ fought , with a particularly ferocious duel between Centurion and Cybèle , but ultimately the British squadron was forced to withdraw to India .
= = Batavian campaigns = =
" What was a feather in the hands of the Dutch will become a sword in the hands of France . "
Rainier decided not to renew the blockade of Île de France in 1794 , concerned by false rumours that a French battle squadron was sailing to the East Indies . In July 1795 news arrived in India which significantly changed the strategic situation : during the winter of 1794 – 1795 the French Army had overrun the Dutch Republic , reforming the country into an allied client state named the Batavian Republic . Control of the Dutch colonies , whose loyalty was uncertain , became Rainier 's main priority due principally to their strategic positions along intercontinental trade routes , and he immediately organised operations to seize them . The largest force , with Rainier in personal command , descended on Trincomalee , while a smaller force under Captain Edward Pakenham in Resistance sailed for Malacca .
Rainier hoped that the Dutch commanders would peacefully transfer control of their colonies to the British after provision of the Kew Letters from Stadtholder William of Orange . However at Trincomalee the governor resisted and an invasion of Ceylon went ahead . After a short bombardment , Trincomalee capitulated on 26 August , although Diomede was wrecked during the landing operation . With the principal fort taken , the remaining Batavian towns on Ceylon surrendered peaceably over the following month , as did the Batavian trading port of Cochin in India . Pakenham 's force was able to seize Malacca without resistance on 17 August 1795 .
Batavian control of the Dutch Cape Colony was a serious risk to British shipping rounding the Cape of Good Hope , and a substantial force under Sir George Keith Elphinstone was sent from Britain to eliminate it . Arriving in early August , Elphinstone initially attempted to intimidate the governor into surrender , but eventually authorised a landing at Simon 's Town . On 7 August the expeditionary force fought a skirmish at Muizenberg and clashes continued throughout August . A major Dutch attack on 3 September was forestalled by the arrival of a large fleet of Indiamen carrying British reinforcements , and as these troops came ashore the outnumbered Dutch surrendered . A much @-@ delayed Batavian expeditionary force , sent to retake control of the Cape , arrived in August 1796 , but was out @-@ manoeuvered and forced to surrender by Elphinstone at the Capitulation of Saldanha Bay .
= = British consolidation = =
Elphinstone 's arrival at the Cape officially placed him in overall command of the East Indies squadron , but the great distances involved meant that immediate operational control remained with Rainier . In July 1795 Prudente and Cybèle sailed from Île de France and attacked shipping in the Sunda Strait , seizing a number of merchant ships . When reports of this attack reached Rainier he took most of his squadron eastwards to the Dutch East Indies , leaving only Gardner 's squadron to watch Colombo . Elphinstone assumed command of the Western Indian Ocean , sending HMS Stately and HMS Victorious to restore the blockade of Île de France and taking HMS Monarch , HMS Arrogant and sloops HMS Echo and HMS Rattlesnake to Madras , where he arrived on 15 January 1796 . In France , an operation to reinforce the Indian Ocean with a squadron of razee frigates or ships of the line under Contre @-@ amiral Kerguelen had been planned in 1794 but repeatedly delayed due to lack of suitable ships and commitments elsewhere . In the summer of 1795 these plans were abandoned completely following losses at the Battle of Groix and French intervention in the East Indies was not attempted until the spring of 1796 .
The renewed blockade of Île de France was lifted in December 1795 , and Elphinstone deployed most of his forces in the continued blockade of Colombo . In February a small squadron under Captain Alan Hyde Gardner attacked city and secured the total surrender of the remaining Batavian garrison on the island . In March word arrived at Madras of the Batavian attempt to recapture the Cape Colony and Elphinstone returned westwards with Monarch , followed by Stately , Echo and Rattlesnake . In the east , Rainier 's force had some success , seizing the considerable clove stores at Amboyna on 16 February 1796 and the nutmeg and mace supplies of Banda Neira on 8 March . The value of these captures was significant : the captains involved each received £ 15 @,@ 000 . However , these successes were offset by the complicated political position Rainier discovered in the Dutch East Indies ; he spent the entirety of the remainder of the year diffusing or defeating a series of uprisings by local rajahs and did not return to India until February 1797 .
Alarmed at the distance Elphinstone had been forced to travel to defend the Cape , the Admiralty separated command of the Cape and the East Indies in Spring 1796 . In October 1796 , Elphinstone was recalled to Britain , sending a squadron comprising HMS Jupiter , HMS Braave , HMS Sceptre , HMS Sybille and HMS Sphynx to again renew the blockade of Île de France and HMS Trident and HMS Fox sent to augment Rainier 's squadron , which had been damaged by a storm in the Bay of Bengal . On 2 December a detachment from the blockade squadron , led by Captain John William Spranger in HMS Crescent with Braave and Sphynx attacked and destroyed the French port at Foul Point on Madagascar , seizing five French merchant ships .
= = Sercey 's squadron = =
Until 1796 there had been no reaction from the French Convention to the operations in the East Indies , and they were eventually inspired to reinforce the region not by British actions but by French ones . In 1795 orders had arrived at Île de France formally abolishing slavery . The Colonial Assembly on the island , whose wealth relied on slave labour , simply ignored the order . The matter was taken up by the Committee of Public Safety , who ordered two agents , Baco and Burnel , to enforce the ruling . These agents were escorted by a squadron of frigates sailing from Rochefort on 4 March under the command of Île de France @-@ born Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey , comprising Régénérée , Cocarde , Forte and Seine with corvettes Bonne Citoyenne and Mutine . On board were 800 soldiers and two companies of artillery under General François @-@ Louis Magallon .
Sercey 's voyage started badly , losing Cocarde to an accident on the French coast and Bonne Citoyenne and Mutine to British frigate patrols in the Bay of Biscay . Once out of European waters , however , his passage was unchallenged , watering at La Palma , where Vertu joined the squadron , and capturing the whaler Lord Hawkesbury in the South Atlantic . Baco and Burnel proved a bigger problem : at one stage the squabbling pair attempted to kill one another and had to be pulled apart by Sercey . The squadron took a Portuguese Indiaman off Cape Agulhas on 24 May and the following day encountered and unsuccessfully pursued HMS Sphynx . On 3 June Sercey seized a British Indiaman and his squadron arrived at Île de France unopposed on 18 June , the blockade squadron having departed the coast a few days earlier . The Colonial Assembly had been forewarned of the arrival of the government agents , possibly by Sercey , and they were met with armed troops . The agents demanded Magallon attack the colonial troops , but he refused to do so , and Baco and Burnel were forced onto the corvette Moineau . Moineau was instructed to take the agents to Manila , but once at sea they overruled the captain and ordered him to take them back to France .
Sercey refitted his squadron at Île de France , dividing it into two forces . The largest , comprising Forte , Prudente , Seine , Régénérée , Vertu and Cybèle was to sail eastwards under his command . The second , comprising the recently arrived Preneuse and the corvette Brûle @-@ Gueule was ordered westwards to operate in the Mozambique Channel . Sercey sailed on 14 July 1796 , reaching Ceylon by 14 August . He was unaware at this stage that the ports of eastern India were undefended , Rainier 's prolonged stay in the East Indies leaving no warships to protect Madras and Calcutta , and Sercey consequently sent the privateer Alerte to scout the Bay of Bengal . Alerte was subsequently captured by the British frigate HMS Carysfort , and documents detailing Sercey 's strength found aboard . This information was used to surreptitiously supply Sercey with false information that a British battle squadron was at anchor in Madras . Dissuaded from further operations in the region , Sercey raided Tranquebar and then sailed for the East Indies .
After attacking Banda Aceh , Sercey sought to raid the British trading post of George Town at Penang , but on 9 September his squadron was intercepted off northwest Sumatra by two British ships of the line , HMS Arrogant and HMS Victorious , which had been hastily detached from commerce protection duties at Penang . The forces fought an inconclusive action after which both retired with damage , the British to Madras and Sercey to Batavia , where he remained until January 1797 . On emerging from Batavia , Sercey cruised in the Java Sea in search of the annual EIC convoy from Macau . Rainier had escorted half of the convoy safely through the Straits of Malacca during his return to India , but the other half sailed unescorted through the Bali Strait , where Sercey ambushed it on 28 January . Captain Charles Lennox saved his convoy by disguising his ships as a Royal Navy squadron and making aggressive moves towards Sercey 's ships , intimidating the French admiral into withdrawing without combat . Sercey subsequently returned to Île de France , where he learned of his error .
= = French dispersal = =
Sercey 's campaign had ended in failure , with little disruption to British trade or naval operations in the East Indies . The East India Company had however taken more serious losses from the depredations of privateers . Most active was Robert Surcouf , whose small ship Emilie captured the timber ship Penguin off Pegu in October 1795 and country ships Russell , Sambolasse and Diana off the mouth of the Hooghly River in January 1796 . More seriously , he also captured the pilot boat Cartier , which he used to seize the large East Indiaman Triton .
No French reinforcements reached the East Indies in 1797 . A complex strategy had been developed to land an army in Ireland and then use the invasion fleet to attack India as a secondary objective . This ambitious plan collapsed completely during the failed Expédition d 'Irlande in December 1796 in which thousands of French troops were drowned . The strategic situation in Europe had however shifted once more during 1796 when France and Spain signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso , transferring Spain from an ally of Britain to an ally of France . British attention in the East Indies therefore shifted from the French island territories to the Spanish Philippines , where the defence squadron had been badly damaged in a hurricane in April 1797 and was in dock for extensive repairs . British forces were once again in the ascendant , Rainier commanding five ships of the line , one fourth rate ship and six frigates . Extensive plans were developed by Rainier in conjunction with Sir John Shore , Governor @-@ General of India , and Colonel Arthur Wellesley for a major attack on Manila , to be led by Sir James Craig . The Treaty of Campo Formio and the consequent end of the War of the First Coalition in Europe caused the cancellation of these plans ; Britain now fought France and its allies alone and fears were raised that the Tipu Sultan of Mysore might once again attack British colonies in India . To ensure the safety of the 1798 China Fleet from Spanish attack , in July 1797 Rainier deployed Centurion , HMS Sybille and HMS Fox to escort a convoy of East Indiamen to Macau . After seeing his charges into harbour in December , Captain Edward Cooke investigated Manila himself in Sybille , accompanied by Fox . There he discovered the weak state of the Spanish squadron .
Other British ships were operating in the East Indies : in July 1797 , Resistance and a force of EIC troops captured Kupang on Timor but were subsequently driven off by an armed uprising by the Malay citizens of the town . In the street fighting 13 British troops and 300 Malays were killed . Resistance was subsequently lost on 24 July 1798 , accidentally destroyed with more than 300 of its crew in an unexplained ammunition explosion in the Banca Strait . There were originally twelve survivors , but eight died of their injuries and the remaining sailors were captured by Sumatran pirates and sold into slavery . Mahmud Shah III , Sultan of Johor later released them , although only one , named Thomas Scott , was confirmed to have survived .
Maintenance of the blockade of Île de France was the responsibility of the substantial British squadron at the Cape Colony , which had suffered severely from unrest inspired by the Spithead and Nore mutinies in Britain . The crews of HMS Tremendous and HMS Sceptre rose up and deposed their officers , but found the guns of Cape Town trained on their ships , Governor Lord Macartney threatening them with destruction . Intimidated the seamen surrendered , the incident followed by floggings and executions . Despite this paralysis , Sercey 's squadron was in no position to contest control of the Indian Ocean : supplies and manpower were severely limited and the Colonial Committee , still resentful following the incident with the agents in 1796 , was reluctant to offer support . Sercey 's only operations were limited cruises in the Seychelles and the supply of 300 reinforcements to Batavia during the summer of 1797 , while Cybèle was sent back to France in the spring of 1797 and Vertu , Régénerée and Seine followed in early 1798 . Vertu and Régénerée passed undetected into the Atlantic until they halted at the Îles de Los on 24 April . There they were discovered by the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Pearl under Captain Samuel James Ballard . Sailing to investigate Ballard came under fire from the French ships and was forced to pass between them , firing broadsides in each direction as he did so . Chased by Régénerée , Pearl withdrew to Sierra Leone with damaged rigging and one man killed . Seine was also intercepted , by a squadron of frigates from the Brest blockade near the Penmarks . Fleeing south , the ship battled its pursuers in the Action of 30 June 1798 , which ended with Seine and the British frigates HMS Jason and HMS Pique all ashore near La Rochelle . Jason and the captured Seine were refloated , but Pique was destroyed .
= = Red Sea and Mysore = =
In July 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte led a French expeditionary force across the Mediterranean to invade Egypt , then part of the Ottoman Empire . Initial landings were successful and the Battle of the Pyramids confirmed Bonaparte 's control of the country . On 1 August however his fleet was destroyed by a British force under Sir Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile on 1 August , isolating the French army in Egypt . The Admiralty initiated a major response , including dispatching a squadron under Commodore John Blankett to blockade the Egyptian Red Sea coast : there was concern in London that Bonaparte might proceed to attack India from Egypt , in conjunction with the Tipu Sultan and the armies of Mysore . Blankett 's force arrived in December 1798 , joined by a squadron sent by Rainier . Bonaparte had visited Suez early in the month , and plans had been drawn up for a small French Red Sea squadron , but Blankett 's force and the regional supremacy it brought rendered these plans obsolete . Attacks were made on commercial shipping at Suez in April , and the entrance to the Red Sea was effectively blockaded by British occupation of Perim and Mocha , and in July 1799 Blankett ordered the frigates HMS Daedalus and Fox to destroy the French @-@ held castle at Qusayr . The town was heavily bombarded , although attempts to make amphibious landings were driven off .
British attention elsewhere in the theatre was focused on Southern India . In January 1798 , a French privateer brought envoys from Mysore to Île de France with a request for support . Malartic supplied 86 volunteers , which were sent to India on Preneuse under Captain Jean @-@ Matthieu @-@ Adrien Lhermitte . Lhermitte 's mission was meant to be covert , but in April 1798 he attacked and captured two East Indiamen , Woodcot and Raymond , at Tellicherry , and landed the volunteers at Mangalore on 24 April . This action caused a crisis in relations between the EIC and Mysore , which Tipu Sultan 's obvious enthusiasm for French intervention in India inflamed . The Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War began in February 1799 when two British armies crossed into Mysorean territory . Forced back to his capital Seringapatam , the Tipu Sultan held out against a siege for several weeks until the city was taken by storm , with Tipu Sultan being killed during the ensuing street @-@ fighting .
= = British dominance = =
During the summer of 1798 , Forte and Prudente conducted a commerce raiding operation under Captain Ravanel in the Bay of Bengal and the Bali Strait which achieved moderate success but also saw the first of a number of mutinies among Sercey 's crews . The French admiral then planned a joint operation with the Spanish squadron at Manila , sailing to Batavia in Brûle @-@ Gueule , to be joined by Preneuse . He had ordered Ravanel to join his force there , but the French captain instead returned to Port Louis where Prudente was seized by the Malartic and sold as a privateer and Forte sent on a commerce raid in the Bay of Bengal in defiance of Sercey 's orders . Prudente was captured by Daedalus at the Action of 9 February 1799 off the coast of Natal , while Forte was captured by Sybille off the mouth of the Hooghly River at the Action of 28 February 1799 .
Sercey 's fury at the seizure of his strongest frigates was compounded by the condition of Preneuse , which arrived at Batavia in a state of mutiny . Lhermitte had executed five crew on the journey and Sercey immediately sent the ship out again on a cruise off Borneo in an effort to contain the disaffection . With his forces unexpectedly reduced , Sercey then sent his remaining ships to Manila for operations with the Spanish , but the condition of the Spanish ships was so poor that no operations could be undertaken in 1798 . An attack on the China Fleet was eventually attempted in January 1799 , but on arrival at Macau the combined Spanish squadron refused to engage the powerful British escort and the entire force withdrew , pursued by Captain William Hargood in HMS Intrepid .
Disappointed by the failure off Macau and weakened by losses to his squadron , Sercey withdrew to Île de France in the spring of 1799 . There he sent Preneuse on a raiding cruise in the Mozambique Channel . On 20 September , Lhermitte fought a brief and inconclusive night engagement with a small squadron of Royal Navy ships in Algoa Bay , which led three weeks later to an inconclusive clash on 9 October with the 50 @-@ gun HMS Jupiter . Returning to Île de France with little to show for his three @-@ month cruise , Lhermitte was intercepted off Port Louis by the blockade squadron of Adamant and HMS Tremendous at the Action of 11 December 1799 and Preneuse was driven onshore and destroyed . Sercey had already sent Brûle @-@ Gueule back to France at the end of September with political prisoners from Île de France and more than a million in specie , the corvette eventually being wrecked with the loss of 132 lives on the Pointe du Raz on the Breton coast . Sercey , an admiral without a command , returned to France and retired from the Navy . He subsequently settled on Île de France .
As the French naval presence in the Indian Ocean declined , the commerce raiding role was taken up by privateers . These fast vessels operated with considerable success against British merchant shipping , and protecting convoys from their depredations consumed a considerable proportion of Rainier 's naval strength : gradually however they were intercepted and captured , including Adele in May 1800 and L 'Uni in August 1800 . Among the more notorious privateers was Iphigenie , which seized a packet ship , Pearl , in the Persian Gulf in October 1799 . Pursued by the sloop HMS Trincomalee , the two fought a fierce engagement on 12 October at which both ships were destroyed and more than 200 men killed . Most dangerous among the privateersmen was Robert Surcouf , who sailed in Clarissa and then Confiance . In the latter he fought a significant battle off the Hooghly River on 9 October 1800 with the East Indiaman Kent . Eventually subdued by a boarding action , Kent lost 14 killed , including Captain Robert Rivington , and 44 wounded ; Surcouf 's men suffered 14 casualties . The privateer conflict continued to the end of the war , the large privateers Grand Hirondelle and Gloire remaining at sea into 1801 before being captured , and Courier and Surcouf 's Confiance evading interception entirely .
= = Peace of Amiens = =
Rainier 's main priorities remained the protection of trade , but his command came under increasing interference from London , in particular the Secretary of State for War Henry Dundas . Dundas was insistent throughout 1799 and 1800 that the priority for Rainier should be the invasion and capture of Java , thus eliminating the Dutch East Indies entirely . Contradictory orders came from Lord Mornington , who was instructing Rainier to plan an invasion of Île de France , while Rainier himself wished to resurrect the abandoned operation against Manila . So confused was the command structure that in September 1800 Rainier threatened to resign , but in October 1800 a renewed threat from Egypt redirected the focus of his squadron to the Red Sea and only a handful of minor operations against Dutch posts on Java were carried out by a small force under Captain Henry Lidgbird Ball , capturing a few merchant ships but losing more than 200 men to disease in the process . At the Cape of Good Hope , a gale on 5 December 1799 caused severe damage to shipping in Table Bay : among the wrecks were HMS Sceptre with 290 crew , the Danish ship of the line Oldenburg and several large American merchant ships .
The Red Sea campaign of 1801 was intended to complement the British invasion of French @-@ held Egypt from the Mediterranean , which went ahead in March 1801 . Initial operations were trusted to Blankett at Jeddah , who was in poor health and struggling to negotiate with Ghalib Efendi bin Musa 'ed , Sharif of Mecca . These problems were compounded when Forte was wrecked entering the port . Blankett 's forces landed unopposed at Suez on 22 March , the French having withdrawn their forces in Southern Egypt to oppose the Mediterranean landings . His mission complete , Blankett withdrew in June after sending 300 soldiers to join the conflict in Northern Egypt , and met with a large reinforcement squadron under Captain Sir Home Popham off Qusayr . An army under General David Baird then took passage up the Nile , but did not arrive before the campaign ended with the Capitulation of Alexandria in August .
The French Navy played little part in opposing the British campaign in Egypt , but a frigate was sent to the Indian Ocean to interfere with the supply lines to the Red Sea . This ship , Chiffone was based at Mahé in the Seychelles . The voyage had been eventful , Chiffone seizing a Brazilian frigate Andhorina in the Atlantic and the East Indiaman Bellona , as well as conveying 32 political prisoners sentenced to exile in the Indian Ocean . At the Battle of Mahé on 19 August however , Chiffone was discovered at anchor by Sybille and captured . The final operations in the Indian Ocean saw British forces consolidate further , landing troops at the Portuguese colonies in the region to prevent the enforcement of the terms of the Treaty of Badajoz , under which Portugal agreed to exclude British shipping from its ports , while the EIC attacked and captured the Dutch island of Ternate .
The Peace of Amiens came into effect on 1 October 1801 , bringing the French Revolutionary Wars to an end . Confirmation of this armistice did not reach India until 1 February 1802 , but it had been widely expected and neither side had undertaken significant naval operations during the interim . The terms of the treaty returned all territory captured by British forces in the East Indies to its original masters with the noted exception of Ceylon , which was officially named a British Crown Colony . No one in the Indian Ocean believed that the Peace would last , each side building substantial forces in the region . As historian William James noted , " who then could doubt that , although the wax on the seals of the treaty concluding the last had scarcely cooled , a new war was on the eve of bursting forth ? " . The peace was short lived , the Napoleonic Wars erupting in May 1803 , by which time Emperor Napoleon had sent substantial reinforcements to Île de France and the other French territories in the East Indies . Although the campaign had personally benefited Rainier by around £ 300 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of £ 24 @,@ 160 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) , historian C. Northcote Parkinson wrote that " It cannot be said that the naval war in the Indian Ocean from 1794 to 1801 had been a brilliant success " for either side . The lack of French reinforcements and Sercey 's ineffectiveness counterbalanced by confused British leadership and scattered priorities , with aborted operations against Manila and Batavia and a marginal campaign in the Red Sea consuming inordinate amounts of time and energy .
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= Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph =
The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph was an early electrical telegraph system dating from the 1830s invented by English inventor William Fothergill Cooke and English scientist Charles Wheatstone . It was the first telegraph system to be put into commercial service . The receiver consisted of a number of needles which could be moved by electromagnetic coils to point to letters on a board . This feature was liked by early users who were unwilling to learn codes , and employers who did not want to invest in staff training .
In later systems the letter board was dispensed with , and the code was read directly from the movement of the needles . This came about because the number of needles was reduced , leading to more complex codes . The change was motivated by the economic need to reduce the number of telegraph wires used , which was related to the number of needles . The change became more urgent as the insulation of some of the early installations deteriorated , causing some of the original wires to be unusable . Cooke and Wheatstone 's most successful system was eventually a one @-@ needle system that continued in service into the 1930s .
Cooke and Wheatstone 's telegraph played a part in the apprehension of the murderer John Tawell . Once it was known that Tawell had boarded a train to London , the telegraph was used to signal ahead to the terminus at Paddington and have him arrested there . The novelty of this use of the telegraph in crime @-@ fighting generated a great deal of publicity and led to increased acceptance and use of the telegraph by the public .
= = Inventors = =
The telegraph arose from a collaboration between William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone , best known to schoolchildren from the eponymous Wheatstone bridge . This was not a happy collaboration due to the differing objectives of the two men . Cooke was an inventor and entrepreneur who wished to patent and commercially exploit his inventions . Wheatstone , on the other hand , was an academic with no interest in commercial ventures . He intended to publish his results and allow others to freely make use of them . This difference in outlook eventually led to a bitter dispute between the two men over claims to priority for the invention . Their differences were taken to arbitration with Marc Isambard Brunel acting for Cooke and John Frederic Daniell acting for Wheatstone . Cooke eventually bought out Wheatstone 's interest in exchange for royalties .
Cooke had some ideas for building a telegraph prior to his partnership with Wheatstone and had consulted scientist Michael Faraday for expert advice . However , much of the scientific knowledge for the model actually put into practice came from Wheatstone . Cooke 's earlier ideas for a mechanical telegraph ( involving a clockwork mechanism with an electromagnetic detent ) were largely abandoned .
= = History = =
In January 1837 Cooke proposed a design for a 60 @-@ code telegraph to the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . This was too complicated for their purposes ; the immediate need was for a simple signal communication between the Liverpool station and a rope @-@ haulage engine house at the top of a steep incline through a long tunnel outside the station . Rope @-@ haulage into main stations was common at this time to avoid noise and pollution , and in this case the gradient was too steep for the locomotive to ascend unaided . All that was required were a few simple signals such as an indication to the engine house to start hauling . Cooke was requested to build a simpler version with fewer codes , which he did by the end of April 1837 . However , the railway decided to use instead a pneumatic telegraph equipped with whistles . Soon after this Cooke went into partnership with Wheatstone .
In May 1837 Cooke and Wheatstone patented a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet . The patent recommended a five @-@ needle system , but any number of needles could be used depending on the number of characters it was required to code . A four @-@ needle system was installed between Euston and Camden Town in London on a rail line being constructed by Robert Stephenson between London and Birmingham . It was successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 . This was a similar application to the Liverpool project . The carriages were detached at Camden Town and travelled under gravity into Euston . A system was needed to signal to an engine house at Camden Town to start hauling the carriages back up the incline to the waiting locomotive . As at Liverpool , the electric telegraph was in the end rejected in favour of a pneumatic system with whistles .
Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a telegraph installed on the Great Western Railway over the 13 miles ( 21 km ) from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838 . Indeed , this was the first commercial telegraph in the world . This was a five @-@ needle , six @-@ wire system . The cables were originally installed underground in a steel conduit . However , the cables soon began to fail as a result of deteriorating insulation and were replaced with uninsulated wires on poles . As an interim measure , a two @-@ needle system was used with three of the remaining working underground wires , which despite using only two needles had a greater number of codes . But when the line was extended to Slough in 1843 , a one @-@ needle , two @-@ wire system was installed .
From this point the use of the electric telegraph started to grow on the new railways being built from London . The Blackwall Tunnel Railway ( another rope @-@ hauled application ) was equipped with the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph when it opened in 1840 , and many others followed . The one @-@ needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways , and 15 @,@ 000 sets were still in use at the end of the nineteenth century . Some remained in service in the 1930s . In September 1845 the financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke formed the Electric Telegraph Company . This company bought out the Cooke and Wheatstone patents and solidly established the telegraph business . In 1869 the company was nationalised and became part of the General Post Office .
= = = Tawell Arrest = = =
Murder suspect John Tawell was apprehended following the use of a needle telegraph message from Slough to Paddington on 1 January 1845 . This is thought to be the first use of the telegraph to catch a murderer . The message was :
A MURDER HAS GUST BEEN COMMITTED AT SALT HILL AND THE SUSPECTED MURDERER WAS SEEN TO TAKE A FIRST CLASS TICKET TO LONDON BY THE TRAIN WHICH LEFT SLOUGH AT 742 PM HE IS IN THE GARB OF A KWAKER WITH A GREAT COAT ON WHICH REACHES NEARLY DOWN TO HIS FEET HE IS IN THE LAST COMPARTMENT OF THE SECOND CLASS COMPARTMENT
The Cooke and Wheatstone system did not support punctuation , lower case , or some letters . Even the two @-@ needle system omitted the letters J , Q , and Z ; hence the misspellings of ' just ' and ' Quaker ' . This caused some difficulty for the receiving operator at Paddington who repeatedly requested a resend after receiving K @-@ W @-@ A which he assumed was a mistake . This continued until a small boy suggested the sending operator be allowed to complete the word , after which it was understood . After arriving , Tawell was followed to a nearby coffee shop by a detective and arrested there . Newspaper coverage of this incident gave a great deal of publicity to the electric telegraph and brought it firmly into public view .
The widely publicised arrest of Tawell was one of two events which brought the telegraph to greater public attention and led to its widespread use beyond railway signalling . The other event was the announcement by telegraph of the birth of Alfred Ernest Albert , second son of Queen Victoria . The news was published in The Times at the unprecedented speed of 40 minutes after the announcement .
= = Operation = =
The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph consisted of a number of magnetic needles which could be made to turn a short distance either clockwise or anti @-@ clockwise by electromagnetic induction from an energising winding . The direction of movement was determined by the direction of the current in the telegraph wires . The board was marked with a diamond shaped grid with a letter at each grid intersection , and so arranged that when two needles were energised they would point to a specific letter .
The number of wires required by the Cooke and Wheatstone system is equal to the number of needles used . The number of needles determines the number of characters that can be encoded . Cooke and Wheatstone 's patent recommends five needles , and this was the number on their early demonstration models . The number of codes that can be obtained from 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ... needles is 2 , 6 , 12 , 20 , 30 ... respectively .
At the sending end there were two rows of buttons , a pair of buttons for each coil in each row . The operator selected one button from each row . This connected two of the coils to the positive and negative ends of the battery respectively . The other ends of the coils were connected to the telegraph wires and thence to one end of the coils at the receiving station . The other end of the receiving coils , while in receive mode , were all commoned together . Thus the current flowed through the same two coils at both ends and energised the same two needles . With this system the needles were always energised in pairs and always rotated in opposite directions .
= = = Five @-@ needle telegraph = = =
The five @-@ needle telegraph with twenty possible needle positions was six codes short of being able to encode the complete alphabet . The letters omitted were C , J , Q , U , X and Z. A great selling point of this telegraph was that it was simple to use and required little operator training . There is no code to learn , as the letter being sent was visibly displayed to both the sending and receiving operator .
The Paddington to West Drayton telegraph originally used six wires rather than five , although it was a five @-@ needle system . The sixth wire was to provide a common return so that the needles could be operated independently , thus giving the possibility of more available codes . Using these codes , however , would have required more extensive operator training since the display could not be read on sight from the grid as the simple alphabetic codes were . Telegraph systems were later to use earth return to avoid the need for a return wire , but this principle was not established at the time of Cooke and Wheatstone 's telegraph . The economic need to reduce the number of wires in the end proved a stronger incentive than simplicity of use and led Cooke and Wheatstone to develop the two @-@ needle telegraph .
= = = Two @-@ needle telegraph = = =
The two @-@ needle telegraph required three wires , one for each needle and a common return . The coding was somewhat different from the five @-@ needle telegraph and needed to be learned , rather than read from a display . The needles could move to the left or right either one , two , or three times in quick succession , or a single time in both directions in quick succession . Either needle , or both together , could be moved . This gave a total of 24 codes , one of which was taken up by the stop code . Thus , three letters were omitted : J , Q and Z , which were substituted with G , K and S respectively .
= = = One @-@ needle telegraph = = =
This system was developed to replace the failing multi @-@ wire telegraph on the Paddington to West Drayton line . It required only two wires , but a more complex code and slower transmission speed . Whereas the two @-@ needle system needed a three @-@ unit code ( that is , up to three movements of the needles to represent each letter ) , the one @-@ needle system used a four @-@ unit code , but had enough codes to encode the entire alphabet . Like the preceding two @-@ needle system , the code units consisted of rapid deflections of the needle to either left or right in quick succession . The needle struck a post when it moved causing it to ring . Different tones were provided for the left and right movements so that the operator could hear which direction the needle had moved without looking at it .
= = Codes = =
The codes were refined and adapted as they were used . By 1867 numerals had been added to the five @-@ needle code . This was achieved through the provision of a sixth wire for common return making it possible to move just a single needle . With the original five wires it was only possible to move the needles in pairs and always in opposite directions since there was no common wire provided . Many more codes are theoretically possible with common return signalling , but not all of them can conveniently be used with a grid indication display . The numerals were worked in by marking them around the edge of the diamond grid . Needles 1 through 5 when energised to the right pointed to numerals 1 through 5 respectively , and to the left numerals 6 through 9 and 0 respectively . Two additional buttons were provided on the telegraph sets to enable the common return to be connected to either the positive or negative terminal of the battery according to the direction it was desired to move the needle .
Also by 1867 , codes for Q ( ) and Z ( ) were added to the one @-@ needle code , but not , apparently , for J. However , codes for Q ( ) , Z ( ) , and J ( ) are marked on the plates of later needle telegraphs , together with six @-@ unit codes for number shift ( ) and letter shift ( ) . Numerous compound codes were added for operator controls such as wait and repeat . These compounds are similar to the prosigns found in Morse code where the two characters are run together without a character gap . The two @-@ needle number shift and letter shift codes are also compounds , which is the reason they have been written with an overbar .
The codes used for the four @-@ needle telegraph are not known , and none of the equipment has survived . It is not even known which letters were assigned to the twelve possible codes .
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= Caleb Strong =
Caleb Strong ( January 9 , 1745 – November 7 , 1819 ) was a Massachusetts lawyer and politician who served as the sixth and tenth Governor of Massachusetts between 1800 and 1807 , and again from 1812 until 1816 . He assisted in drafting the Massachusetts State Constitution in 1779 and served as a state senator and on the Massachusetts Governor 's Council before being elected to the inaugural United States Senate . A leading member of the Massachusetts Federalist Party , his political success delayed the decline of the Federalists in Massachusetts .
A successful Northampton lawyer prior to 1774 , Strong was politically active in the rebel cause during the American Revolutionary War . He played an influential role in the development of the United States Constitution at the 1788 Philadelphia Convention , and , as a US Senator , in the passage of its 11th Amendment . He also played a leading role in the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , which established the federal court system .
Adept at moderating the sometimes harsh political conflict between Federalists and Democratic @-@ Republicans and popular in Massachusetts , he navigated the state in a Federalist direction through the early years of the 19th century as the rest of the country became progressively more Republican . Although he sought to retire from politics after losing the 1807 governor 's race , the advent of the War of 1812 brought him back to the governor 's office as a committed opponent of the war . He refused United States Army requests that state militia be placed under army command , and in 1814 sought to engage Nova Scotia Governor John Coape Sherbrooke in peace talks . The state and federal government 's weak defense of Massachusetts ' northern frontier during Strong 's tenure contributed to the successful drive for Maine 's statehood , which was granted in 1820 .
= = Early years = =
Caleb Strong was born on January 9 , 1745 , in Northampton , one of the principal towns of Hampshire County on the Connecticut River in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . His parents were Phebe Lyman Strong and Caleb Strong , the latter a descendant of early Massachusetts settlers such as John Strong , a 1630 immigrant to Massachusetts who was one of the founders of Northampton and the lead elder of the church for many years . Caleb was their only son . He received his early education from Rev. Samuel Moody , and entered Harvard College in 1760 , graduating four years later with high honors . He was shortly thereafter afflicted with smallpox , which temporarily blinded him and prevented him from engaging in the study of law for several years . He studied law with Joseph Hawley , was admitted to the bar in 1772 , and began the practice of law in Northampton . Hawley was also a political mentor , shaping Strong 's views on relations between the colonies and Great Britain .
= = American Revolution = =
Strong and Hawley were both elected to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1774 . When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775 , Strong was unable to serve in the military because of his damaged sight , but he was otherwise active in the Patriot cause . He served on the Northampton Committee of Safety and in other local offices , but refused service in the Continental Congress . He was a delegate to the 1779 Massachusetts Constitutional Convention , and was elected to the committee that drafted the state constitution , ratified in 1780 . He then served on the first governor 's council and in the state senate from 1780 to 1789 .
Strong 's legal practice thrived during the tumultuous war years , and was one of the most successful in Hampshire County . He became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775 , and was appointed county attorney of Hampshire County the following year , a post he held until 1800 . On more than one occasion he was offered a seat on the state 's supreme court , but rejected the position on account of its inadequate salary . Strong was described by a contemporary as meticulously detailed in his preparation of legal paperwork and a persuasive advocate when speaking to a jury .
In 1781 Strong was one of the lawyers ( another was Worcester lawyer and future United States Attorney General Levi Lincoln , Sr. ) who worked on a series of legal cases surrounding Quock Walker , a former slave seeking to claim his freedom . One of the cases , Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Nathaniel Jennison , firmly established that slavery was incompatible with the new state constitution .
= = United States Senator = =
Strong was elected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the U.S. Constitution in 1787 . A committed Federalist , Strong opposed the idea of the Electoral College as a means of electing the president , instead supporting the idea that the legislature should choose him . Although he initially opposed proposals that the number of senators should be equal for all states , he eventually changed his mind , enabling passage of the Connecticut Compromise . To temper the power of the states , he introduced language requiring tax legislation to originate in the House of Representatives . Illness of his wife forced him to return to Massachusetts before the work was completed , so he did not sign the document . He was a vocal supporter of its adoption by the state 's ratifying convention .
When the Constitution came into force in 1789 , Strong was chosen by the state legislature to serve in the United States Senate . As what is now known as a Class 2 Senator he came up for reelection in 1792 , when he was again chosen . He was one of the principal drafters of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , which established the federal courts . He was also instrumental in 1793 and 1794 in the development and passage by Congress of the 11th Amendment to the United States Constitution . This measure was enacted in response to Chisholm v. Georgia , a Supreme Court decision in which a private individual sued the state of Georgia . The amendment expanded the sovereign immunity of states to limit suits against them by private individuals from other states .
Strong was also one of a small group of senators who convinced President George Washington in 1794 that a special envoy should be sent to Britain in order to avert war , and who convinced John Jay to accept that role . Jay ended up negotiating what became known as the Jay Treaty , which resolved a number of issues between the two nations , but also angered the leadership of Revolutionary France and was widely disliked , criticized , and opposed by Republicans .
Strong resigned his seat in 1796 and returned to private life in Northampton .
= = First term as governor = =
In the election of 1800 Strong was nominated by the Federalists as their candidate for governor ; his principal opponent was Elbridge Gerry , nominated by the Democratic @-@ Republicans . Strong was criticized by his opponents for his lack of military service and for the fact that he was a lawyer ; he countered by asserting his patriotism through his association with Joseph Hawley . His popularity in the western part of the state was decisive : the wide margin by which he won there overcame the smaller advantage by which Gerry carried the east . Acting Governor Moses Gill died ten days before Strong took office at the end of May .
Strong won annual reelection to the governor 's seat until 1807 . During this tenure the state introduced a new penitentiary system and reformed the judiciary , reducing the number of judges . Strong 's time as governor was also marked by virulent political debate in the state , principally over foreign policy related to British interference with Massachusetts maritime trade . That interference was a consequence of the ongoing Napoleonic Wars engulfing Europe . Over the years of Strong 's tenure the Republicans gradually gained in power both nationally and in Massachusetts .
In the 1806 election the Republicans secured a majority in the Massachusetts assembly , and the gubernatorial election was notably close . Running mainly against James Sullivan , Strong barely received a majority of the votes cast . With fewer than 200 votes in the balance , the Republican @-@ controlled legislature scrutinized the returns in a partisan manner , discarding ballots that had misspelled Strong 's name while retaining those that misspelled Sullivan 's and performing tallies in ways that favored their candidate . This process concluded with a finding that Strong in fact lacked a majority of votes , which was what was then required to carry the election , as opposed to the modern plurality requirement . Strong 's Federalist allies in the legislature were able to publicize the partisan nature of the analysis , resulting in a hostile public backlash . He was proclaimed the winner after further , less biased , analysis corrected the count in his favor . However , in the 1807 election the rising tide of Republicanism swept Strong ( along with other New England Federalists ) out of office . Federalists asked him to run in 1808 , but he refused , noting that he had " done his part " and that his home base in Hampshire County was strongly Federalist .
= = Second term and War of 1812 = =
In 1812 Strong was convinced by Massachusetts Federalist leaders to come out of retirement to run once again for governor . War with Britain was imminent , and the Federalists sought a strong candidate to oppose Elbridge Gerry , who had been victorious against Christopher Gore in the previous two elections . Gerry , who had originally been somewhat moderate , became increasingly partisan during his tenure , and Federalists viewed Strong 's earlier success in office and relatively modest demeanor as assets . Strong 's victory in the election , which saw the Federalists also regain control of the legislature , was attributed to several factors : Federalists capitalized on the partisanship of the recent redistricting of the state that resulted in the coining of the term " gerrymander " , and there was strong antiwar sentiment in the state . Strong was reelected by wide margins in the following war years .
Strong took a principled stand against the War of 1812 , generally refusing to assist federal government efforts to prosecute the war . Strong was part of a chorus of Massachusetts ( and more broadly New England ) Federalists who complained that in " Mr. Madison 's War " the federal government was trampling state and individual rights . He adhered to the view that state militia could not be required to serve under regular army command . When the first such requests were made by U. S. Army General Henry Dearborn , Strong , with the backing of not just the Governor 's Council but also the Supreme Judicial Court , refused , arguing that there was no need to call out the militia because invasion was not imminent . Because of his stance against regular army command , the state was denied a shipment of arms that was instead diverted to frontier areas and the war theater . Strong also took no particular actions to prevent widespread smuggling along the state 's frontiers with the neighboring British provinces .
Strong 's opposition to regular army control was more nuanced than that of neighboring Connecticut Governor John Cotton Smith , who ensured that his militia always remained under state command . Strong was more concerned that the state militia not be used except in defense of the state 's borders , and compromised on the issue of command . In 1812 , not long after refusing General Dearborn 's request , he authorized the dispatch of militia companies to the state 's eastern district ( now Maine ) under United States Army command .
With the British naval blockade tightening and threatening the state 's coastal communities in early 1814 , Strong authorized U. S. Brigadier General Thomas H. Cushing to command militia forces in the defenses of Boston Harbor , subject to reasonable limitations . Cushing was transferred to Connecticut , and General Dearborn again commanded the regular army forces in Massachusetts . Dearborn interpreted the agreement Strong had made with Cushing to apply statewide , and began reorganizing militia companies to conform to regular army practices . This engendered ill will among the militia , and Strong refused to place additional levies under Dearborn 's command .
The defense of Maine , however , proved problematic . Strong 's aide William H. Sumner negotiated an agreement with the Army command for the defense of Portland , but the ironically Republican @-@ dominated district militia objected , first to the idea of serving under any regular army leadership , and then to serving under a relatively low @-@ ranked officer ( a lieutenant colonel ) who was given command of Portland after the agreement was signed . Several units of local militia refused the perform their assigned duties . One consequence of the dispute was that most militia in the state remained under state control , and were thus paid for from state coffers at a cost that ran to $ 200 @,@ 000 per month . This further strained the state economy , which was already suffering due to the British blockade .
Following the British seizure of Castine in September 1814 , Strong called the legislature into session early in October to respond to the occupation . Given that the federal government was unwilling to fund militia not under its control , the legislature authorized Strong to borrow money to fund a major expansion of the militia , but most of the funds acquired were spent improving Boston 's defenses . Another result of the special session was a call for a meeting of states opposed to the war , which became known as the Hartford Convention . Around the time of the convention , which was held in Hartford , Connecticut beginning in December 1814 , Strong secretly wrote to Nova Scotia Lieutenant @-@ Governor Sir John Coape Sherbrooke , essentially offering a separate peace in exchange for the return of the seized territory . He also refused to authorize temporary Massachusetts funding for a federally led expedition to recover Castine , leading to further cries of indignation from Maine 's Republicans . The Treaty of Ghent ended the war before the Nova Scotia negotiations went anywhere . Strong 's policies during the war are credited as one of the reasons for Maine 's drive for statehood , which came to a successful conclusion in 1820 .
In 1816 , with the war at an end , Strong elected once again to retire from politics . Strong died in Northampton on November 7 , 1819 , and was buried in its Bridge Street Cemetery .
= = Family , charity , and legacy = =
In 1777 Strong married Sarah Hooker , the daughter of a local pastor . They had nine children , four of whom survived the couple . Strong was active in his church and was a leading member of local missionary and Bible societies . He was a founding member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society . In 1813 , Strong was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society .
In World War II , the United States liberty ship SS Caleb Strong was named in his honor . The town of Strong , Maine , incorporated in 1801 , was named for Strong and Windham Township , Portage County , Ohio was originally named Strongsburg in his honor . The Strongsburg land had been allocated to Strong as part of his ownership share in the Ohio Company , and was sold by him and several minority partners in 1810 .
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= Press pass =
A press pass ( alternatively referred to as a press card or a journalist pass ) grants some type of special privilege to journalists . Some cards have recognized legal status ; others merely indicate that the bearer is a practicing journalist . The nature of the benefits is determined by the type of issuing agency , of which there are three major categories : news organizations , law @-@ enforcement agencies , and event organizers ( usually for a specific single affair like a corporate press conference ) . Each type of card grants different authorizations , thus it is often necessary or desirable for reporters to hold multiple press passes simultaneously .
= = Law @-@ enforcement cards = =
Police departments at a city , county , or state / provincial level may issue press passes in some countries . Such passes allow the bearer to cross police or fire lines to report breaking news , or grant access to crime scenes or other restricted areas – though admission may be denied if it would interfere with the duties of emergency personnel . Popular media of the mid @-@ 20th century often depicted reporters at a crime scene with their press passes tucked into their hat bands , which was unusual in reality .
Because of the exceptional dispensation endowed by police press passes , they are issued with discretion – some jurisdictions require an in @-@ person interview with all prospective applicants , complete set of fingerprints , and a background check . Generally , only reporters who cover breaking news are eligible ; other journalists ( feature writers , editors and editorialists , freelance writers , and bloggers ) are not .
Police @-@ issued passes do not grant access to government press conferences or any other such privileges : they are only recognized by emergency response personnel , and only valid within the jurisdiction of the issuing agencies .
= = = Parking permits = = =
Police parking permits , issued in some jurisdictions , exempt news vehicles from certain parking restrictions while on the job . They may be offered to any news @-@ gathering organization that covers breaking news for use in company vehicles employed by full @-@ time reporters , photographers , and camera operators . Often , these permits are only granted to journalists who already carry a police press card .
When conspicuously displayed , these permits may allow the bearer to park in restricted " resident @-@ only " parking zones , and may exempt him or her from parking @-@ meter costs . These privileges apply only for the duration of breaking @-@ news coverage , and do not nullify all parking restrictions : red zones , fire hydrants , crosswalks , bus zones , disabled parking zones or access ramps , commercial loading zones , taxi cab zones , " no stopping " or " no parking " zones , transit lanes , and other towaway zones are still off @-@ limits .
= = Event @-@ specific = =
For tradeshows , community gatherings , sporting events , award shows , professional conferences , or major events of any type , press passes are generally available . These are sometimes referred to as " press badges " . For many events publicity in news media and elsewhere is of great importance , and granting privileges to the press can help in this . The privileges granted to holders of press badges , and who is eligible to receive them , depends on the nature of the affair .
Generally , prospective recipients must apply in advance , offering evidence of their affiliation . Event sponsors may request past published material , or a letter from the news agency on its letterhead , detailing the job assignment . Generally , non @-@ reporting employees of news agencies ( executives , sales personnel , publishers , editors , etc . ) are not eligible for press passes . In addition to journalists , some bloggers may be granted event passes .
Many major events , especially trade shows , issue press kits to pass @-@ holders . A press pass may allow the bearer to request interviews with noteworthy attendees , and special rooms are sometimes set aside for this purpose .
= = = Open events = = =
For activities open to the public , such as community gatherings , school events , or trade shows , a police- or media @-@ issued press pass may offer little advantage . Free or reduced @-@ price admission , or guaranteed entry , can sometimes be arranged . The benefits may be more extensive , granting access to front @-@ row seats or to press @-@ only rooms . For sporting events , a press pass issued by a stadium grants access to the press box . Because open events are usually funded by paying attendees , the number of press passes may depend on the number of tickets sold .
= = = Closed events = = =
For events closed to the general public , police- or news organization @-@ issued press passes sometimes grant access , but almost all require advance application for admittance . Greater exclusivity , however , means more restrictions on potential pass recipients . For professional conferences or trade shows , passes may be granted only to journalists who regularly cover the industry or who hold a title of " industry analyst , " or with an editorial or reporting designation .
= = News agency cards = =
" You do not need to ask permission from anyone to be a journalist , " explains the Periodical Publishers Association ; " however , it is sometimes useful to be able to identify yourself as a journalist when needed . " To this end , journalistic agencies issue press cards to their reporters , editorialists , writers , and photographers . These do not have the legal merits of government @-@ issued cards , and they will not replace event @-@ specific passes ; the card only serves as proof of its bearer 's status as a legitimate newsperson according to the issuing organization . As such , card @-@ carriers may be better able to obtain interviews , acquire information from law @-@ enforcement , or gain access to exclusive venues .
In the United Kingdom , the UK Press Card Authority ( a voluntary consortium of news agencies ) issues a nationally standardized card to United Kingdom @-@ based news gatherers .
For freelance journalists , organizations like the National Writers Union , Professional Publishers Association .
= = Press armbands = =
Journalists in Asia use an armband to mark themselves , similar to a press badge . Journalists are encouraged by journalist trade union to wear press armbands to protect themselves during protests and government upheavals .
= = Fake cards = =
Genuine press cards can be obtained by people not entitled to them , counterfeit copies of real cards can be made , and plausible @-@ looking cards can be issued by anybody , or made . The reasons and consequences range from the trivial ( free drinks ) to the catastrophic ( access by terrorists to rulers ) .
Spurious cards
Press passes not issued by a recognised publication can be obtained or made , with the intention of gaining benefits offered to holders of legitimate press cards . Joan Stewart of the Public Relations Society of America reports , “ Fake press passes abound at restaurant and theater openings , sporting events , music festivals , political rallies , celebrity parties and even crime scenes . With a decent computer and color printer , almost anybody can crank out an official @-@ looking pass within minutes . ”
Counterfeit cards
Counterfeit copies of cards issued by legitimate publications can be made . Issuers of cards have taken measures to prevent counterfeiting of their cards , creating cards with holographic foil blocking , signature strips , and tamper @-@ resistant lamination .
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= Winkler County nurse whistleblower case =
The Winkler County nurse whistleblower case was a series of legal proceedings in West Texas that centered on the retaliation upon two nurses who submitted an anonymous state medical board complaint against a physician in 2009 . The case attracted national attention for its implications on whistleblowing by nurses . After witnessing what they believed to be unsafe medical care , nurses Anne Mitchell and Vicki Galle submitted an anonymous complaint against Dr. Rolando Arafiles to the Texas Medical Board ( TMB ) .
When he learned of the complaint , Arafiles spoke with the sheriff of Winkler County , who was his friend and one of his patients . Arafiles alleged that the nurses ' reports to the medical board constituted harassment . The sheriff investigated and obtained the TMB complaint , which provided enough information about Mitchell and Galle to make them identifiable . Galle and Mitchell were terminated from the hospital and faced criminal charges of misuse of official information . Galle 's charges were dropped before trial and Mitchell was acquitted by a jury . In the aftermath of Mitchell 's trial , Arafiles , several county officials and a hospital administrator all faced jail time for their roles in the retaliation against the nurses .
The case raised questions about the extent of whistleblower protection for healthcare providers who report patient care concerns to licensing authorities . Texas law included remedies against retaliation for whistleblowers , but no known U.S. state had whistleblower laws that addressed appropriate prosecutorial conduct . According to the Texas Nurses Association , " No one ever imagined that a nurse would be criminally prosecuted for reporting a patient care concern to a licensing agency . " After the Mitchell case , protection from prosecution was incorporated into Texas whistleblower laws . The TMB stopped investigating anonymous complaints about physicians in September 2011 .
= = Background = =
The case originated at Winkler County Memorial Hospital ( WCMH ) , a 15 @-@ bed hospital in Kermit , Texas . Mitchell and Galle were registered nurses at WCMH . The two nurses held multiple roles at the hospital and both were employed there for more than 20 years . Galle headed quality improvement and utilization management for the hospital , while Mitchell served as its compliance officer . Galle and Mitchell also split the responsibilities of the medical staff coordinator position . Mitchell held a part @-@ time role as the county 's emergency management coordinator . She also had experience as a travel nurse and as an instructor and director in a licensed vocational nursing program .
In April 2008 , Arafiles arrived at WCMH . He had attended medical school in the Philippines and had come to the United States to train in Baltimore and Buffalo . Texas issued a medical license to him in 1998 . The year before Arafiles came to Winkler County , the TMB restricted his ability to supervise nurse practitioners and physician assistants for three years and fined him $ 1 @,@ 000 . In that case , Arafiles allegedly failed to adequately supervise a physician assistant at a weight loss clinic and failed to exercise independent medical judgement when applying protocols written by the clinic 's owner .
Mitchell and Galle had concerns about Arafiles 's care soon after he arrived at WCMH . The doctor 's practice in Kermit included the use of alternative medicine therapies such as herbal remedies . Witnesses later said that Mitchell made comments at work which characterized Arafiles as a " witch doctor " . Other coworkers said that Mitchell had legitimate concerns about the quality of the physician 's patient care ; they said that Mitchell first raised the issues with the hospital 's administration , but that her concerns were not addressed . In one incident , Arafiles was alleged to have performed a skin graft on an emergency room patient even though he was not credentialed to perform surgery at the facility . Another patient came to the hospital with a crushed finger and Arafiles allegedly took a rubber tip off of a pair of medical scissors and stitched it onto the patient 's finger .
Mitchell and Galle sent an anonymous complaint to the TMB detailing their concerns with Arafiles 's care of nine patients in 2008 and 2009 . The letter said that the nurses feared losing their jobs if their identities were revealed in connection with the complaint . Arafiles became aware of the complaint and spoke to Winkler County Sheriff Robert Roberts , alleging that the complaint amounted to harassment . The TMB issued a copy of the complaint to Roberts with the understanding that it would only be used to investigate criminal activity by Arafiles . Roberts sent the complaint to Arafiles and to WCMH administrator Stan Wiley . As WCMH was a small hospital , details from the letter identified Mitchell and Galle as the sources of the complaint .
Roberts obtained warrants to search the nurses ' computers and he found the letter to the TMB . The sheriff was friends with Arafiles . The doctor had treated Roberts in the emergency room for a heart attack . Roberts credited Arafiles with saving his life . He referred to the doctor as " the most sincerely caring person I have ever met . " Roberts later commented on the board report , saying , " If it ’ s made to destroy somebody ’ s reputation or forcing them to leave town , then I don ’ t believe it is good faith . "
= = Termination and criminal charges = =
Mitchell and Galle were terminated from WCMH in June 2009 . A few days later , both nurses were arrested . They were charged with misuse of official information , a felony that carries the possibility of ten years imprisonment and fines up to $ 5 @,@ 000 . Roberts said that the nurses filed the complaint as a personal vendetta rather than as a good faith reporting of facts . He also noted that Mitchell and Galle sent the medical records of ten patients to the TMB without their consent ; however , the reports did not include the names of patients and federal law exempts medical board reports from patient privacy laws .
The case attracted national attention in July 2009 when the American Nurses Association ( ANA ) and Texas Nurses Association ( TNA ) began to raise awareness of the plight of the nurses . Galle later said , " We didn 't have any support - emotional or financial - until TNA and ANA stepped in . " TNA filed a complaint with the Texas Department of State Health Services ( DSHS ) that resulted in an onsite investigation of the hospital . By February 2010 , the TNA Legal Defense Fund had collected more than $ 45 @,@ 000 in donations to the defense of Galle and Mitchell . TMB executive director Mari Robinson commented that such prosecution could have " a significant chilling effect " on the reporting of physician practice issues .
The charges against Galle were dropped before her case went to trial . Mitchell 's case was tried by county attorney Scott Tidwell , a political supporter of Roberts and the personal attorney for Arafiles , in February 2010 . Both the TMB executive director and the county attorney in nearby Andrews County discouraged Tidwell from trying the case . At trial , Mitchell did not testify . The relationship between Arafiles and Roberts was explored during the proceedings . Arafiles introduced Roberts to a supplement @-@ selling program known as Zrii , and recommended the supplements to his patients . Roberts sold the supplements , but he said that his friendship with Arafiles had not impacted his actions with the nurses and that he did not have a business relationship with Arafiles .
Attorneys with the office of the Texas Attorney General took on Mitchell 's case after being contacted by the TMB . Assistant Attorney General David Glickler later said that the case was the most bizarre he had seen in an 11 @-@ year stint with the office . " We 're used to dealing with cases where public officials have enriched themselves at the expense of the office and the public trust , like bribery and theft . But there was no financial benefit to the bad actors in this case . " The jury returned with a not guilty verdict after an hour of deliberation . Those present in the courtroom said that each juror approached Mitchell after the verdict and hugged her . In comments he made after the trial , jury foreman Harley Tyler said he wondered why the nurses were arrested . ANA president Rebecca Patton said that the verdict was " a resounding win on behalf of patient safety . "
= = Aftermath = =
TNA asserted that state laws , including the Texas Nursing Practice Act and the Public Employee Whistleblower Law , gave any health care provider the right to report concerns about the patient care of other providers . Under these protections , a termination could be presumed improper if it occurred within 60 days of filing such a complaint . Mitchell and Galle filed a civil lawsuit against Winkler County , WCMH , Wiley , Roberts , Tidwell and Arafiles . The lawsuit alleged violations of civil rights , breaches of due process and improper termination .
A few months after Mitchell 's trial , Galle and Mitchell split a $ 750 @,@ 000 settlement in the civil suit . The nurses , who both live in Jal , New Mexico , were unable to find employment in nursing after being terminated from WCMH . After signing the settlement , Wiley reinforced his support of Arafiles , saying , " He ’ s done a lot of good in this county . If you have a heart attack or anything of that nature in the emergency room , he is definitely the doctor that you want to take care of you . "
Several officials faced criminal charges for their involvement in the prosecution or termination of Galle and Mitchell . Wiley was the first to go to trial after he was indicted on two felony counts of retaliation . He pleaded guilty to the lesser of the two charges . He was sentenced to 30 days in jail and a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine and agreed to cooperate in the prosecution of other involved officials . Wiley terminated Galle and Mitchell after they submitted the anonymous medical board complaint . He submitted his resignation from the hospital in August 2010 , but the WCMH board of directors declined to accept it . He resigned again in October 2010 .
Roberts was convicted on two counts of misuse of official information , two counts of retaliation and two counts of official oppression . In June 2011 , he was sentenced to 100 days in jail , four years of felony probation and a $ 6 @,@ 000 fine . After the sentence , Roberts was removed as sheriff and forced to surrender his license as a peace officer . Convicted on similar charges , Tidwell was removed from office and sentenced to 120 days in jail , ten years of probation and a $ 6 @,@ 000 fine . Tidwell 's trial publicly uncovered a 2004 guilty plea he entered after being charged with soliciting a prostitute . DSHS assessed a $ 15 @,@ 850 fine against the hospital for inadequate supervision of Arafiles and illegal termination of Galle and Mitchell .
By mid @-@ 2011 , Arafiles had moved his practice to East Texas and was affiliated with Cozby Germany Hospital in Grand Saline . A hospital administrator there said that she had looked into some of the allegations against Arafiles that she found on the Internet but that no one had formally complained to her about the doctor . In November 2011 , Arafiles entered a guilty plea on two counts of misuse of official information . Two other charges were dismissed and a pending indictment for aggravated perjury was dropped . Arafiles was forced to surrender his medical license , sentenced to 60 days in jail and five years of probation , and assessed a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine .
Several of the people involved in the nurses ' case had assumed new employment by the summer of 2012 . Mitchell found a position in New Mexico working with the developmentally disabled . Galle , who said in 2010 that the case had " derailed our careers " , entered early retirement . Galle and Mitchell earned the Dean 's Advocacy Award from the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center in 2010 . Arafiles was working at a Pizza Hut restaurant in Kermit as a janitor . Wiley left Winkler County for Lubbock . Tidwell was appealing the revocation of his license to practice law .
New legislation stopped the TMB from investigating anonymous complaints concerning physicians as of the fall of 2011 . The change was seen as a victory by physicians rights groups , who said that it would promote accountability in the investigations of physicians . Other groups worried that the new law would discourage the reporting of legitimate complaints against physicians . The board received 6 @,@ 849 complaints in 2010 ; four percent of the complaints were submitted anonymously .
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= ESRB re @-@ rating of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion =
On May 3 , 2006 , the North American Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) changed the rating of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , a video game for PCs , the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 , from Teen ( 13 + ) to Mature ( 17 + ) . The ESRB cited the presence of content not considered in their original review in the published edition of Oblivion . This included detailed depictions of blood and gore and sexually explicit content . The sexually explicit content was an art file , made accessible by a third @-@ party modification called the Oblivion Topless Mod , that rendered the game with topless female characters .
In response to the new content , the ESRB conducted a new review of Oblivion , showing to its reviewers the content originally submitted by the game 's publisher along with the newly disclosed content . The new review resulted in an M rating . The ESRB reported that Bethesda Softworks , the game 's developer and publisher , would promptly notify all retailers of the change , issue stickers for retailers and distributors to affix on the product , display the new rating in all following product shipments and marketing , and create a downloadable patch rendering the topless skin inaccessible . Bethesda complied with the request , but issued a press release declaring their disagreement with the ESRB 's rationale . Although certain retailers began to check for ID before selling Oblivion as a result of the change , and the change elicited criticism for the ESRB , the events passed by with little notice from the public at large . Other commentators remarked on the injustice of punishing a company for the actions of its clients , and one called the event a " pseudo @-@ sequel " to the Hot Coffee minigame controversy .
= = Background = =
= = = ESRB review process = = =
The ESRB 's review process involves the submission , by the game 's publisher , of a video which captures all " pertinent content " in the game , where pertinent content is defined as any content that accurately reflects both the " most extreme content of the final product " and " the final product as a whole . " That is to say , it must depict the " relative frequency " of said content . As ESRB President Patricia Vance explains it , the ESRB would not just want a " tape of one extreme cut to another , " but rather " context for the storyline , the missions , the features and functionality of a game , so that the raters really can get exposed to a pretty reasonable sense of what they 'd experience playing the game . " The fact that the content of Oblivion under investigation was inaccessible during normal play made no difference in the decision . ESRB policy had been " absolutely clear " since the Hot Coffee controversy , Patricia Vance told a reporter . Publishers were told that they could not leave unfinished or other pertinent content on a disc . If locked @-@ out content was " pertinent to a rating , " ESRB policy stated that it needed to be disclosed , and Bethesda had not done so .
= = = Oblivion Topless Mod = = =
Released in March 2006 and reported on game news sites as a curiosity in April of the same year , the Oblivion Topless Mod had been created by a woman calling herself " Maeyanie . " Maeyanie created the mod in protest against what she called " government / society / whatever forcing companies to ' protect our innocent population from seeing those evil dirty things 50 % of them possess personally anyways . ' " The gaming website Joystiq reported on the mod on April 6 , 2006 : " Modders are already hard at work on bending the code of the recently released PC version of Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion to their will . Early success : topless mod FTW ! " Kotaku , another gaming site , reporting on the mod on April 5 , 2006 , didn 't consider the mod anything new and said , " As usual in the world of computer gaming , one of the very first mods released for a popular game allows you to see the breasts of the main character . " The content of the mod , wrote commentator Michael Zenke , Editor of Slashdot games , was fairly tame . Without nudity of the lower torso , and without self @-@ consciousness on the part of the nude NPCs , Zenke wrote , the Oblivion Topless Mod was " as erotic as a doctor 's visit . " Pete Hines had discussed the mod with GameSpot staff before the game was re @-@ rated , saying that he did not consider it a concern . " We can 't control and don 't condone the actions of anyone who alters the game so that it displays material that may be considered offensive . We haven 't received any complaints on the issue from anyone . "
= = = ESRB re @-@ review and rating change = = =
During these investigations ESRB staff also found more blood and gore than the review tape had portrayed :
What Bethesda had originally disclosed to us , as an example : In that section of the game , there is a hanging corpse . What they disclosed to us was a hanging corpse in the dark , pretty far away and without much detail . And yet , when you bring a torch up to the hanging corpse in the actual game , you can see that it 's very mutilated with lots of blood and bones . That was a very different depiction , far more intense , far more extreme than what had been disclosed to us .
In response to the new content , the ESRB hastily conducted a new review of Oblivion , showing to its reviewers the content originally submitted by Bethesda along with the newly disclosed content . The new review resulted in a Mature rating . The ESRB reported that Bethesda , to correct for the discrepancy , would promptly notify all retailers of the change , issue stickers for retailers and distributors to affix on the product , display the new rating in all following product shipments and marketing , and create a patch for download rendering the topless skin inaccessible . In line with its stated mission of informing consumers regarding the age @-@ suitability of its marked games , the ESRB also released an ESRB Parent Advisory , ensuring that parents would be " immediately notified " of the change .
= = Industry impact = =
= = = Retailer response = = =
Following news of the rating change on May 3 , 2006 , the Interactive Entertainment Merchants Association ( IEMA ) , an organization of game retailers , which had previously eased the adoption of industry @-@ wide ratings enforcement , issued its own statement , lauding its own retailers for the speed with which they reacted to the rating change . The IEMA release further stated that identification was needed to secure the purchase of Mature @-@ rated games at roughly the same rate as was needed for R @-@ rated film admission . In compliance with the ESRB 's further demand that Bethesda request retailers " to adhere to their respective store policies not to sell the newly rated M ( Mature ) game to those under the age of 17 , " several retailers had begun to include cash register prompts tied to the game 's bar code , instructing the cashier to ask for ID . A report by Gamasutra observed that some retailers — Circuit City specifically — were even pulling the game from their shelves entirely , " presumably until rating modifications can be made . "
= = = Publisher response = = =
Following the announcement of the rating change , Bethesda issued their own press release . Bethesda announced that it was their organization , not Take @-@ Two Interactive , that had handled the ratings application , and that they stood behind it . Bethesda would not contest the change , and would promptly seek to implement the ESRB 's demands , without demanding a product recall . Nonetheless , Bethesda stated that Oblivion was not typical of Mature rated titles , and did not contain " central themes of violence " common to such titles . The response asserted that Bethesda 's submission to the ESRB was " full , accurate , and comprehensive , " following the forms and requirements published by the ESRB , and that nothing was withheld . Bethesda stressed that there was no nudity in their game without a modification , that the company " didn 't create a game with nudity " and did not intend for nudity to appear in their game . " Bethesda can not control tampering with Oblivion by third parties , " the press release concluded .
= = = Rating agency response outside the United States = = =
The British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) , the ESRB 's counterpart in the United Kingdom , did not change its rating of 15 . " Were it the case that the developer themselves had included and failed to disclose certain modifications of content , a recall may be required , but not as a result of a patch that has been placed on the Internet by a third party , " a BBFC spokesperson told GamesIndustry.biz reporters on May 4 , 2006 . Any modifications made after release fall outside the powers of the Video Recordings Act .
In July 2007 , the Pan European Game Information ( PEGI ) announced that it was extending its purview to cover " games playable online via consoles , PCs and mobiles . " Websites or online retail games participating in the program would be granted a PEGI Online logo , specifying whether " the particular game or site is under the control of an operator that cares about protecting young people . " An article by gaming website Shacknews noted at the time that PEGI 's initiative would address the concerns US publishers had with user @-@ created mods for San Andreas and Oblivion : responsibility for such mods would be placed on the participating publishers .
= = Public impact = =
The events passed by with little concern from either the public or gaming journalists in particular . Zenke attributed the draw in attention to bigger stories that came later in May . The news , for example , came just a week before E3 2006 , the last E3 before the show changed from a grand spectacle to a reserved industry @-@ only affair . The story did not pass completely unnoticed , as certain commentators issued statements regarding the issue in the days following the re @-@ rating . On May 4 , 2006 , then @-@ California Assemblyman Leland Yee used the rating change to criticize the ESRB . Yee , who had previously called on the ESRB to change their rating of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas to AO ( Adults Only 18 + ) , issued a statement criticizing the ESRB for deceiving parents . Yee chastised the ESRB for failing parents again , and demonstrating their inability to police themselves . Yee called the ESRB 's rating system drastically flawed , and called for further legislation to assist parents and protect children . Attorney and activist Jack Thompson sought talk show appearances over the issue , planning to explain to prospective interviewers why the re @-@ rating issue was an even worse disaster than the Hot Coffee scandal , as children of all ages had already bought the game . The ESRB , Thompson said , had learned nothing from its past mistakes .
Game designer John Romero , lead designer of Doom , posted a statement in his blog criticizing the modders responsible :
Now what 's going to happen ? You 'll probably start seeing game data files becoming encrypted and the open door on assets getting slammed shut just to keep modders from financially screwing the company they should be helping . And the day a game company 's file encryption is hacked to add porn and the case goes to the ESRB for review – that 's when we 'll see how well game companies are protected from these antics and what the courts will rule . Hopefully it 'll be on the developer 's side .
When the ratings change came , Zenke saw political caution in the move , rather than an intelligent response to new content . Previous scandals had forced the Board 's hand , and the ratings change was an act of self @-@ preservation . Zenke , writing in June 2007 for online gaming magazine The Escapist , criticized the public for its failure to respond to the rating change , and emphasized what the change would mean to moddable games . At the core of Zenke 's article was concern that a developer or publisher could be punished for content they neither produced nor distributed . Echoing Romero 's concerns , Zenke saw the rating change as a threat , not only to modders , but to developers as well . Zenke asked what the ESRB would do in response to " Game 3 @.@ 0 " concepts , where community involvement is key . Referring to Sony 's LittleBigPlanet , Zenke asked , " Will Sony provide personnel to review every fan @-@ made level for offensive content ? Will the ESRB ? "
The Escapist , thinking the issues of a year past long since died down , especially since they hadn 't aroused much concern on first coming to light , did not expect the discord that ensued ; response on their forums was heated , and the ESRB took " vigorous exception " to the piece . Zenke conducted a follow @-@ up interview with ESRB President Patricia Vance . In regard to what is considered by the ESRB for rating a game , Vance stated , " Our policies are quite clear : it 's what 's created by the publisher and included on the disc , not what 's created or introduced by a mod . The mod may unlock it , the mod may make it accessible , but again , going back to the publisher 's burden ; putting the accountability on the publisher to fully account for the content that they create and they ship – that 's all we care about . " Vance went on to state that " ESRB can 't rate content that is created by other players . We never have , we never tried , nor will we ever , " and that the only warning ESRB issues regarding third @-@ party content is " Game Experience May Change During Online Play . "
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= Development of Duke Nukem Forever =
The video game Duke Nukem Forever spent fifteen years in development , from 1996 to 2011 . It is a first @-@ person shooter for PC , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , developed by 3D Realms , Triptych Games , Gearbox Software and Piranha Games . It is a sequel to the 1996 game Duke Nukem 3D , as part of the long @-@ running Duke Nukem video game series . Intended to be groundbreaking , Duke Nukem Forever has become infamous in the video games industry and was considered vaporware due to its severely protracted development schedule ; the game had been in development under 3D Realms since 1996 . Director George Broussard , one of the creators of the original Duke Nukem game , first announced the title 's development in April 1997 , and promotional information for the game was released in one form or another from 1997 until its release in 2011 .
After repeatedly announcing and deferring release dates , 3D Realms announced in 2001 that it would be released simply " when it 's done " . In May 2009 , 3D Realms was downsized for financial reasons , resulting in the loss of the game 's development team . Statements by the company indicated that the project was due to " go gold " soon with pictures of final development . Take @-@ Two Interactive , which owns the publishing rights to the game , filed a lawsuit in 2009 against 3D Realms over their " failure to finish development " . 3D Realms retorted that Take @-@ Two 's legal interest in the game is limited to their publishing right . The case was settled with prejudice and details undisclosed in May 2010 . On September 3 , 2010 , 14 years after the start of the development , Duke Nukem Forever was officially reported by 2K Games to be in development at Gearbox Software , with an expected release date of 2011 . The official release date was then revealed to be May 3 , 2011 , in North America , with a worldwide release following on May 6 , 2011 . This was however delayed by a month to June 10 internationally with a North American release on June 14 . Duke Nukem Forever was finally released after 15 years of development on June 10 , 2011 , to mostly negative reviews .
= = Background = =
Scott Miller was a lifelong gamer who released his text @-@ based video games as shareware in the 1980s . By 1988 , the shareware business was a $ 10 to $ 20 million a year market , but the distribution method had never been tried for video games . Miller found that gamers were not willing to pay for something they could get for free , so he came up with the idea of offering only the opening levels of his games ; players could purchase the game to receive the rest of the game . George Broussard , whom Miller met while he was in high school , joined Miller at his company , Apogee , which published and marketed games developed by other companies . While Miller was quiet , with a head for business , Broussard was an enthusiastic " creative impresario " . Apogee ( from which a new brand name was made in 1994 , 3D Realms ) grew from a small startup to a successful corporation . Among the titles they published was id Software 's Commander Keen in 1990 and Wolfenstein 3D in 1992 . Commander Keen met great success , leading to the development of many sidescrollers for the DOS platform , including many developed by Apogee and using the same engine that powered the Keen games , and Wolfenstein was highly successful , popularizing 3D gaming and establishing the first @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) genre .
By 1994 , Broussard began working on 3D Realms ' own first @-@ person shooter . Rather than the faceless marine of other games , players assumed the role of Duke Nukem , the title character of a pair of 2D platforms from Apogee , Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II . Broussard described Duke as " a combo of John Wayne , Clint Eastwood , and Arnold Schwarzenegger . " After a year and a half of work , Duke Nukem 3D was released in January 1996 . Among game aspects that appealed to players were environmental interaction and adult @-@ oriented content — including blood and strippers . Buoyed by the success , Broussard announced a follow @-@ up , Duke Nukem Forever .
= = Quake II engine , 1996 – 1998 = =
Duke Nukem Forever was officially announced on April 28 , 1997 , with the intention of releasing the game no later than mid @-@ 1998 . Barely a year after the release of Duke Nukem 3D , the game 's graphics and its game engine , the Build engine , were antiquated . Id Software 's new Quake II engine was far superior to Build , so Broussard decided to license it . The price spent for the licensing rights was steep — estimates were as high as $ 500 @,@ 000 — but Broussard reasoned that it would save time used to write a game engine from scratch . Broussard and Miller were flush with cash from the sales of Duke Nukem 3D and other games , so they decided to fund Duke Nukem Forever themselves , turning marketing and publishing rights over to GT Interactive .
In August and September , the first screenshots of Duke Nukem Forever were released in PC Gamer . However , 3D Realms did not receive the Quake II engine code until November 1997 , and the earlier screenshots were mock @-@ ups with the Quake engine that the team had made in their spare time . 3D Realms unveiled the first video footage of Duke Nukem Forever using the Quake II engine at the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) conference . The trailer showed Duke fighting on the back of a moving truck and firefights with aliens . While critics were impressed , Broussard was not happy with the progress being made .
= = Unreal engine , 1998 – 2003 = =
Soon after the release of the Quake II engine , Epic Games had unveiled its own Unreal Engine . The Unreal Engine was more realistic than Quake II and was better suited to producing open spaces — 3D Realms had been struggling to render the Nevada desert . Soon after E3 , a programmer suggested that they make the switch . After discussions , the developers unanimously agreed to the change , which would mean scrapping much of their work so far , including significant changes 3D Realms had made to the Quake Engine . In June 1998 , 14 months after the Quake II announcement , 3D Realms made the switch announcement . Broussard said that the game would not be " significantly delayed " by the switch , but that the project would be back to where it was at E3 " within a month to six weeks " . Broussard also said that no content seen in the E3 trailer would be lost . Chris Hargrove , one of the game 's programmers at the time , confided that the change amounted to a complete reboot of the project .
By the end of 1999 , Duke Nukem Forever had missed several release dates and was largely unfinished ; half the game 's weapons remained concepts . Broussard shot back at criticisms of the game 's lengthy development time as the price paid for developing complex modern games : A significant factor contributing to the game 's protracted development was that Broussard was continually looking to add new elements to the game . A running joke at 3D Realms was to stop Broussard from seeing a new video game , as he would want to include portions of it in Duke Nukem Forever . Later that year , Broussard decided to upgrade to a new version of the Unreal engine that was designed for multiplayer matches . Former employees recalled that Broussard did not have a plan for what the finished game would look like . At the same time , GT Interactive was facing higher @-@ than @-@ expected losses and hired Bear Stearns to look into selling the company or merging it . Later that year , Infogrames Entertainment announced it was purchasing a controlling interest in GT Interactive . The publishing rights for Duke Nukem Forever passed to Gathering of Developers in early December 2000 .
To placate anxious fans , Broussard decided to create another trailer for E3 2001 — it was the first public look at the game in three years . The video showed a couple of minutes of in @-@ game footage , which notably showed the player moving in what appears to be Las Vegas and a certain level of interactivity ( the player buys a sandwich from a vending machine and pushes each individual button on a keypad with Duke 's outstretched finger ) . The trailer was impressive , and Duke Nukem was the talk of the convention ; IGN reported on the game 's graphics , saying , " Characters come to life with picturesque facial animations that are synced perfectly with speech , hair that swings as they bob their heads , eyes that follow gazes , and more . The particle effects system , meanwhile , boasts impressive explosion effects with shimmering fire , shattered glass , and blood spilt in every direction [ ... ] Add in real @-@ time lighting effects , interactive environments , and a variation in locales unequaled in any other first @-@ person shooter and you begin to see and understand why Duke Nukem Forever has been one of the most hotly anticipated titles over the last couple of years . " Duke Nukem Forever looked as good or better than most games , and staff at 3D Realms recalled a sense of elation after the presentation ; " The video was just being eaten up by people , " one said . " We were so far ahead of other people at the time . " While many of the staff expected Broussard to make a push for finishing the game , however , he still did not have a finished product in mind . Following the death of one of Gathering of Developers ' co @-@ founders and continuing financial problems , the publishers ' Texas @-@ based offices were shut down and absorbed into parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive .
= = Conflict with Take @-@ Two , 2003 – 2006 = =
By 2003 , only 18 people at 3D Realms were working on the game . One former employee said that Broussard and Miller were still operating on a " 1995 mentality " , before games became large @-@ team , big budget development affairs . Because they were financing the project themselves , the developers could also ignore pressure from their publisher ; their standard reply to when Duke Nukem Forever would ship was " when it 's done " . In 2003 , Take @-@ Two CEO Jeffrey Lapin reported that the game would not be out that year . He further said the company was writing off $ 5 @.@ 5 million from its earnings due to Duke Nukem Forever 's lengthy development time . Broussard shot back that " Take @-@ Two needs to STFU ... We don ’ t want Take @-@ Two saying stupid @-@ ass things in public for the sole purposes of helping their stock . It 's our time and our money we are spending on the game . So either we 're absolutely stupid and clueless , or we believe in what we are working on . " Later that year , Lapin said 3D Realms had told him that Duke Nukem Forever was expected to be finished by the end of 2004 , or the beginning of 2005 .
In 2004 , video game website GameSpot reported that Duke Nukem Forever had switched to the Doom 3 engine . Many gaming news sites mailed Broussard , asking him to confirm or deny the rumor . After receiving no answer from him , they published the rumor as fact , but Broussard explicitly denied the rumor soon after . Soon after 3D Realms replaced the game 's Karma physics system with one designed by Meqon , a relatively unknown Swedish firm . Closed @-@ doors demonstrations of the technology suggested that the physics of Duke Nukem Forever would be a step up from the critically acclaimed Half @-@ Life 2 . Rumors suggested that the game would appear at 2005 E3 . While 3D Realms ' previously canceled Prey made an appearance , the rumors of Duke Nukem Forever 's appearance proved false .
Broussard reported in a January 2006 interview that many of Duke Nukem Forever 's elements had been finished ; " we 're just basically pulling it all together and trying to make it fun " . Later that year Broussard demonstrated samples of the game , including an early level , a vehicle sequence , and a few test rooms . Among the features seen was the interactive use of an in @-@ game computer to send actual e @-@ mails . The developer seemed contrite and affected by the long delays ; while a journalist demoed the game Broussard referenced note cards and constantly apologized for the state of the game . In filing with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission , Take @-@ Two revealed they had renegotiated the Duke Nukem Forever deal , with the former publisher receiving $ 4 @.@ 25 million instead of $ 6 million on release of the game . Take @-@ Two offered a $ 500 @,@ 000 bonus if Duke Nukem Forever was commercially released by December 31 , 2006 . However , Broussard denied the rumors that DNF would be released , saying that 3D Realms never cared for or asked for the bonus . He stated that he would " never ship a game early . "
Some of the staff were tired of the delays — Duke Nukem Forever was the only 3D game many had worked on , giving them little to put on a resume , and as much of 3D Realms ' payment hinged on profit @-@ sharing after release , the continual delays meant deferred income . By August 2006 , between 7 – 10 employees had left since 2005 , a majority of the Duke Nukem Forever team ( which in recent months had shrunk to around 18 staff ) . While Shacknews speculated that the departures would lead to further delays , 3D Realms denied the claims , stating that the employees had left over a number of months and that the game was still moving ahead . Creative director Raphael van Lierop , hired in 2007 , played through the completed content and realized that there was more finished than he expected . Lierop told Broussard that he felt they could push the game and " blow everyone out of the water " , but Broussard responded that the game was still two years away from completion .
= = 3D Realms final years in development , 2007 – 2009 = =
The long delay strained Broussard and Miller 's relationship , and by the end of 2006 , Broussard appeared to become serious about shipping the title . On January 25 and May 22 , 2007 , Broussard posted two Gamasutra job ads with small screenshots of Duke Nukem and an enemy , which he later confirmed were real in @-@ game screenshots . The team doubled in size within a short timeframe . Among the new hires was project lead Brian Hook , who became the first person to successfully resist Broussard 's requests for changes .
A new game trailer was released on December 19 , 2007 , the first teaser in more than six years . The video was made by 3D Realms employees as part of holiday festivities . While Broussard maintained the release date would be " when it 's done " , he added that " you can expect more frequent media releases [ and ] we have considerable work behind us " . While the Dallas Business Journal " confirmed " a 2008 release date for the game , Broussard later reported that this was based on a misunderstanding of " off the record " information . In @-@ game footage of the game appeared in 2008 premiere episode of The Jace Hall Show . Filmed entirely on hand @-@ held cameras but not originally expected to be publicly released , the video showed host Jason Hall playing through parts of a single level on a PC at 3D Realms ' offices . The footage was confirmed to have been shot six months prior to the episode air date and according to Broussard , contained outdated particle and combat effects that had since been replaced . The game did not make an appearance at E3 2008 , an event which Miller described as " irrelevant " .
While the game neared completion , the funding began to dry up . Having spent more than $ 20 million of their own money , Broussard and Miller asked Take @-@ Two for $ 6 million to complete the game . According to Broussard and Miller , Take @-@ Two initially agreed , but then only offered $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Take @-@ Two maintained that they offered $ 2 @.@ 5 million up front and another $ 2 @.@ 5 million on completion . Broussard rejected the counteroffer , and on May 6 , 2009 , suspended all development .
= = DNF team laid off and 3D Realms downsized , 2009 – 2010 = =
3D Realms laid off the DNF staff on May 8 , 2009 due to lack of funding , but inside sources claimed it would still operate as a smaller company . Development on DNF halted , and its fate was unknown . Publisher Take @-@ Two Interactive , in response , stated that they still held the publishing rights for Duke Nukem Forever , but they were not funding the game . Prior to and after the action , unreleased screenshots , concept art , pictures of models from the game and a goodbye message from 3D Realms were posted by alleged former employees . Similar leaks followed after May 8 , 2009 .
Take @-@ Two filed a lawsuit against 3D Realms over their failure to complete Duke Nukem Forever , citing that they paid $ 12 million to Infogrames in 2000 to acquire the publishing rights . 3D Realms argued , however , that they never received that money , as it was a direct agreement between Infogrames and Take @-@ Two . The lawsuit seemed to be over a contractual breach , but not regarding the $ 12 million mentioned above . Take @-@ Two asked for a restraining order and a preliminary injunction , to make 3D Realms keep the Duke Nukem Forever assets intact during proceedings , but the court denied the publisher 's request for a temporary restraining order . In December 2009 , Apogee CEO Scott Miller clarified that " we 've never said that Duke Nukem Forever has ceased development , [ though ] we released the internal team , but that doesn 't correlate to the demise of the project . "
3D Realms made plans to hire an " external " developer to complete the progress while continuing to downsize itself , resulting in development on another title known as Duke Begins being halted . An unofficial compilation of gameplay footage was also released in December 2009 . By 2010 , 3D Realms and Take @-@ Two had settled the lawsuit and dismissed it with prejudice .
= = Gearbox revival and release , 2010 – 2011 = =
Despite the discontinuation of internal game development at 3D Realms , development of the game did not cease entirely . Nine ex @-@ employees including key personnel like Allen Blum , continued game development throughout 2009 from their homes . These employees would later become Triptych Games , an independent studio housed in the same building as Gearbox , with whom they collaborated on the project .
After ceasing internal game development , 3D Realms approached noted game developers Gearbox Software and asked them if they were interested in helping Triptych Games polish the nearly finished PC version and port it to the consoles . Gearbox CEO Randy Pitchford , who had worked on an expansion to Duke Nukem 3D and very briefly on Forever before he left to found Gearbox , felt that " Duke can 't die " and decided that he was going to help " in Duke ’ s time of need . " He started providing funding for the game and contacted 2K Games ' president to persuade his company that Gearbox and Triptych can complete the development of the game and get it released on all platforms in time . Duke Nukem Forever was originally intended to be a PC exclusive game , however 2K and Gearbox had hired Piranha Games to port the game designed for PC to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 and added a Multiplayer in order to raise sales .
The game was officially re @-@ announced at the Penny Arcade Expo 2010 on September 3 , 2010 . It was the first time in the game 's development history that gamers were able to actually try the game — according to Pitchford , " the line has gotten up to four hours long to see the game " . Gearbox Software subsequently purchased the Duke Nukem intellectual property from 3D Realms , and 2K Games held the exclusive long @-@ term publishing rights of the game .
Development was almost complete with only minor polishing to be done before the game was to be released in 2011 . A playable demo of Duke Nukem Forever was released once Gearbox figured out the timing , with purchasers of the Game of the Year Edition of Borderlands gaining early access . The demo is unexpectedly different from the versions available at PAX and Firstlook . Those that purchased Borderlands on Valve 's Steam prior to October 12 , 2010 got the code for the demo without the need to buy the Game of the Year edition of the game . Duke Nukem Forever was initially scheduled for release on May 3 in the United States and May 6 internationally and after another delay was finally released on June 14 in North America and June 10 worldwide , nearly four weeks after the game had ' gone gold ' within 15 years .
= = Press coverage = =
Wired News has awarded Duke Nukem Forever its Vaporware Award several times . It placed second in June 2000 and topped the list in 2001 and 2002 . Wired magazine created the Vaporware Lifetime Achievement Award exclusively for DNF and awarded it in 2003 . George Broussard accepted the award , simply stating , " We 're undeniably late and we know it . " In 2004 , the game did not make the top 10 ; Wired editors said that they had given DNF the Lifetime Achievement Award to get it off of the list . However , upon readers ' demands , Wired changed its mind , and DNF won first place in 2005 , 2006 , and 2007 . In 2008 , Wired staff officially considered removing DNF from their annual list , citing that " even the best jokes get old eventually " , only to reconsider upon viewing the handheld camera footage of the game in The Jace Hall Show , awarding the game with first place once again . In 2009 , Wired published Wired News ' Vaporware Awards 2009 : Duke Nukem Forever was excluded from consideration on the grounds that the project was finally dead . Duke made a comeback with an unprecedented 11th place award on Wired 's 2010 Vaporware list . When the GameSpy editors compiled a list of the " Top 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming History " in June 2003 , Duke Nukem Forever placed # 18 . Duke Nukem Forever has drawn a number of jokes related to its development timeline . The video gaming media and public in general have routinely suggested several names in place of Forever , calling it " Never " , " ( Taking ) Forever " , " Whenever " , " ForNever " , " Neverever " , and " If Ever " . The game has also been ridiculed as Duke Nukem : Forever In Development , " Either this is the longest game ever in production or an elaborate in @-@ joke at the expense of the industry " .
= = Additional references = =
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= A Tale of Two Cities ( Lost ) =
" A Tale of Two Cities " is the third season premiere , and 50th episode overall , of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) ' s serial drama television series Lost . The episode was written by co @-@ creators / executive producers J. J. Abrams and Damon Lindelof , based on a story by Lindelof and directed by executive producer Jack Bender . The episode begins with the introduction of Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) and The Barracks . The character of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks . This is the only episode of the series other than the pilot to have been co @-@ written by J.J. Abrams .
When the episode first aired on October 4 , 2006 , in the United States , it was watched by an average of 19 million American viewers , making it the fourth most watched episode of the week . It premiered to generally positive reviews , with many praising Mitchell 's new character .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
In Jack 's flashbacks , Jack is going through a divorce from his wife Sarah ( Julie Bowen ) . He demands to know who she has been dating , but she refuses to tell him , so he spies on her and steals her cell phone . He proceeds to call every number in her phone , and his father Christian Shephard 's ( John Terry ) cell phone rings . After following Christian to an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting , Jack accuses him of sleeping with his wife and physically attacks him . After Jack is arrested , Sarah pays his bail , and tells him Christian is no longer sober . She then leaves with an unidentified man , after telling Jack that " now [ he has ] something to fix . "
= = = On the Island = = =
New character Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) prepares for a book club meeting in a modern suburban home . The club is in a heated discussion of Stephen King 's Carrie , when they are interrupted by what sounds like an earthquake . The group leaves Juliet 's house and Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) , previously known as " Henry Gale " to the survivors , appears along with Ethan Rom ( William Mapother ) , looking up to watch Oceanic Flight 815 break apart in mid @-@ air . Ben quickly orders Goodwin ( Brett Cullen ) and Ethan to join the survivors , stay undercover , and provide " lists in three days . " The camera zooms out to reveal that the suburb is actually on the Island and is inhabited by The Others , while in the background the smoke trail of the midsection and tail section of Flight 815 can be seen .
Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) wakes up on the floor of a locker room . Tom ( M.C. Gainey ) allows her to have a shower and afterwards , forces her to change into a dress , after which she is led to an elegant breakfast on the beach with Ben , who tells her to put on handcuffs before she can eat . She asks him why he is doing this , and he tells her that he wanted to give her something pleasant to remember , as the next two weeks will be " very unpleasant " . James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) wakes up in a cage in the jungle . A teenager , Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) , in a nearby cage initially ignores Sawyer but then later expresses interest in Sawyer 's camp and unlocks his cage then Sawyer 's . However , they are both caught and Tom makes Karl , who is now beaten and bloody , apologize to Sawyer before taking the teen away . Sawyer figures out the mechanical puzzle in his cage , though Tom says it " only took the bears two hours . " Kate is then put in Karl 's ( now empty ) cage .
Jack wakes up in a cell in the Hydra Station , where Juliet gently interrogates him . At one point Jack attacks her and attempts to escape , holding an improvised weapon at her throat . He orders her to open a door , but she refuses to comply , claiming that doing so would kill them both . Ben appears and agrees that opening the door will kill them all . Jack throws Juliet away , and then opens the door . As Ben dashes back through the door he came in , water starts rushing into the hallway . Juliet helps Jack struggle into an adjoining room , tells him to push a button which she had previously mentioned was for emergencies . He does so and she knocks him unconscious . When he awakes , she shows Jack a file which she says contains documents about his entire life . Juliet asks Jack if he has any questions about Sarah . After a pause , he asks , " Is she happy ? " Juliet replies yes , and walks outside , and Ben congratulates her on a job well done .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
" A Tale of Two Cities " was the first episode to introduce the character of Juliet . The actress who plays her , Elizabeth Mitchell , was cast in late July 2006 as a new series regular , who was meant to be a possible love interest for Jack . Mitchell has commented her first or second day of shooting was the opening sequence , when the Others watched Oceanic 815 fall out of the sky . When she first met actor Matthew Fox they briefly introduced themselves , but most of their initial conversation was in regard to the script and their characters . Mitchell found this helpful while shooting the premiere 's scenes , since then they knew the other as their characters , and not as Matthew and Elizabeth . The scene in which Jack yells at Juliet , and she responds " No Jack , I think you 're stubborn " , was used as her audition scene . One of the Others , Amelia , was played by the elderly Julie Adams , who was the protagonist in Creature from the Black Lagoon .
Previous guest actors William Mapother , Julie Bowen , M.C. Gainey , Brett Cullen , and John Terry made brief appearances in the episode . The premiere marked the first appearances of recurring guest actors Blake Bashoff and Stephen Semel . In addition to Mitchell 's new billing , only four other characters of star billing appeared in the episode : Michael Emerson , depicting Ben Linus , was promoted to a main character for the third season ; the other three were Matthew Fox playing Jack Shephard , Evangeline Lilly as Kate Austen and Josh Holloway as Sawyer . Henry Ian Cusick was also promoted to a main character as Desmond Hume , along with new characters Nikki and Paulo , played by Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro respectively . Malcolm David Kelley ( Walt Lloyd ) , Harold Perrineau ( Michael Dawson ) , Michelle Rodriguez ( Ana Lucia Cortez ) , and Cynthia Watros ( Libby ) were no longer credited as main characters after each of their characters were written out at the end of the previous season .
= = = Writing = = =
Co @-@ creators and executive producers Damon Lindelof and J.J. Abrams wrote the premiere 's teleplay based upon a story by Lindelof . The episode was Abrams ' first Lost writing credit since the pilot . They laid out the third season with the idea of " us versus them " ; Carlton Cuse , a showrunner , explained , " And who is us ? And who is them ? I mean I think we all tend to objectify people who we don 't know much about and I think that 's the audience 's view of The Others right now -- they are bad , they are the malevolent force on the island . But over the course of the stories we 're going to be telling this season on the show we expect the audience 's view of The Others to change a lot . "
The opening sequence of the episode was meant to replicate the same idea of season 2 's premiere " Man of Science , Man of Faith " , where what seems to be a flashback is instead set on a new part of the island . Director Jack Bender questioned what Jack 's goal was when he pulled on the chain , but Lindelof told him not to worry , because " Fox will sell it , and he did " . Lindelof described when Jack attacks his father at the AA meeting as " pot @-@ committed ... it basically means you put so much money on the bluff , you can 't fold your cards " . The scene with Kate in a dress was inspired by Raiders of the Lost Ark , where Belloq gives a dress for Marion Ravenwood to wear , and was intended to make " tom @-@ boyish " Kate feel vulnerable . The title , inspired by Charles Dickens ' eponymous novel , refers to the reveal of another " city " on the island with the place where the Others live , in addition to the castaways ' beach camp . The episode has only three characters of the second season 's main cast , Jack , Kate and Sawyer . Lindelof later described this limited scope as " a mistake , when the audience is away from the show for that long , they want to see everybody " , causing the following season openers to have scenes with most of the main characters .
In the episode , Tom tells Kate that she is not his type . This comment resulted in online discussion in regard to Tom 's sexual orientation , and Lindelof and Cuse hinted that a Lost character would later be outed . Gainey joked , " if [ Kate 's ] not your type , you 're gay " , and began playing the character as such . After the broadcast of " Meet Kevin Johnson " , Lindelof and Cuse confirmed that the line from the third season premiere is an allusion to Tom 's sexuality , but felt that it needed to be explicitly confirmed in the show , although Lindelof noted that the confirmation scene in " Meet Kevin Johnson " " was not subtle , to say the least " . The beginning of the episode featured a scene where Juliet and Amelia discuss Ben 's feelings for Juliet , which was shot but deleted . This scene was later made into the twelfth " Lost : Missing Pieces " mobisode , " The Envelope " .
= = = Filming = = =
The exterior of the Hydra was shot in an abandoned theme park , which art director Andrew Murdock thought it fit as a location for the " kind of blocky , 80 's @-@ style architecture " , where everything was " aged , industrial , and a little bit larger , and a little bit unusual " . The opening sequence features Petula Clark 's " Downtown " , a song that would later be used in another third season episode featuring Juliet . Another song heard in the premiere , " Moonlight Serenade by Glenn Miller , was first used in the season two episode " The Long Con " . Lindelof has stated the songs they choose for Lost were often inspired from his childhood , when his mother would vacuum to music on Sundays .
= = Reception = =
On its original broadcast in the United States on ABC , the premiere was watched by an estimated 18 @.@ 82 million viewers , making it the most watched episode of the night and the fourth most watched of the week . " A Tale of Two Cities " had four million less viewers than the previous season premiere . In Canada , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 972 million viewers on CTV , easily winning its timeslot . In the United Kingdom , " A Tale of Two Cities " was broadcast on November 22 along with follow @-@ up " The Glass Ballerina " in Lost 's first broadcast after changing to Sky1 . With 1 @.@ 549 million viewers , it was most watched program of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels .
IGN 's Chris Carabott rated the premiere 9 / 10 , calling the " peek into the life of The Others ... exceptionally done " and the non @-@ appearance of the other survivors " a smart move " . Carabott also praised Jack 's flashbacks , writing " Previously , Jack has been written as the white knight and reluctant hero who everyone looked to in their time of need . The more chinks they show in Jack 's armor , the better - the more human he becomes . " He called " Juliet ... a promising new character who will hopefully add a new dimension to The Others this season " and concluded his review by calling the episode " a solid season opener " . Robert Bianco from USA Today praised the opening scene and called the episode " a fine start for a great series " but with reservations . Bianco wished Jack would " win one again for the team " , and was fearful that Lost could eventually become like Alias , " a series that became so entranced by its puzzle and its villains that it let the main characters vanish behind them " .
On a list of Lost episodes , the Los Angeles Times ranked " A Tale of Two Cities " number 66 out of 113 episodes , explaining it was " Not bad . The introduction of Juliet is a killer , and Jack raging against the Others is fun . But many of the big revelations -- Ben 's name , for example -- aren 't very well handled . " On a similar list , IGN ranked the episode at number 38 ; they called the opening " one of the show 's characteristic fake @-@ outs " , and Jack 's flashbacks " not nearly as interesting as his first encounters with Juliet " .
Matthew Fox submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards .
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= Heffernan v. City of Paterson =
Heffernan v. City of Paterson , No. 14 @-@ 1280 , 578 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2016 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case concerning the First Amendment rights of public employees . By a 6 – 2 margin , the Court held that a public employee 's constitutional rights might be violated when an employer disciplines them for the belief that the employee was engaging in protected speech , even if the employee never actually exercised their constitutional rights .
The case was brought after Jeffrey Heffernan , a detective with the Paterson , New Jersey , police force , went to a distribution center and picked up a lawn sign for the candidate challenging the city 's incumbent mayor in the 2005 election as a favor for his mother . While Heffernan himself did not actually support the candidate , after other officers saw him with the sign they told senior officers , including the police chief , who strongly supported the mayor . For his apparent support of the other candidate , they demoted Heffernan to beat patrol work as a uniformed officer .
Heffernan brought suit alleging that his demotion violated his First Amendment rights . The case took a decade to reach the Supreme Court . For most of that time it was in federal district court , where it was heard by three different judges . A jury verdict in Heffernan 's favor was set aside , and a later summary judgment in the city 's favor was overturned on appeal before being granted again in the third trial .
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Stephen Breyer stated that the department 's belief was all that mattered , since the Court 's precedent in this area holds it is unconstitutional for a government agency to discipline an employee ( who does not work under a contract that explicitly permits such discipline ) for engaging in partisan political activity , as long as that activity is not disruptive to the agency 's operations . Even if Heffernan was not engaging in protected speech , he wrote , the discipline against him sent a message to others not to exercise their rights . Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a dissenting opinion in which he was joined by Justice Samuel Alito , where he agreed that Heffnernan had been harmed , but his constitutional rights had not been violated .
= = Legal background = =
The First Amendment guarantees the rights of freedom of speech and peaceable assembly , among others . While not explicitly mentioned , the Supreme Court has held that the right to assembly includes the freedom of association , particularly political association . These protections not only prohibit the government from passing laws which infringe upon these rights , but also from taking actions which would violate them . While the Bill of Rights — which includes the First Amendment — originally only applied to the federal government , the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment allowed for the application of the Bill of Rights to the states under the incorporation doctrine .
In order to better protect these rights in the Reconstruction era , Congress passed the Second Enforcement Act of 1871 at the request of president Ulysses S. Grant to better counter white supremacist organizations infringing on the voting rights of black citizens . The act provided a remedy for those citizens who were deprived of their constitutional rights under the " color of any statute , ordinance , regulation , custom , or usage , of any State or Territory or the District of Columbia " and is currently codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1983 . With its decision in Monroe v. Pape ( 1961 ) , the Court expanded the reach of section 1983 such that it is now used as a method of checking abuse by state officials who infringe upon constitutionally protected rights .
The First Amendment protects public employees from retaliation by their employer when speaking on matters of public concern . In Pickering v. Board of Education ( 1968 ) the Court first articulated the right of public employees to be protected from dismissal for exercising their right to free speech . There , the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a teacher who was fired after writing a letter to a local newspaper critical of its handling of a recent bond issue . Eight years later , this protection from dismissal was extended to cover partisan political ideology and affiliation in Elrod v. Burns .
The Court however has recognized that the " government as employer " has wider constitutional latitude in its decisions than the " government as sovereign " . In order to adequately delineate the limits of the government @-@ as @-@ employer 's discretion , the Court developed a framework in Connick v. Myers ( 1983 ) known as the Connick test . It consists of two prongs . The first is the threshold a plaintiff must pass to state a claim : the plaintiff must show that they were speaking on a matter of public concern . The second prong falls to the employer : they must show that the harm to workplace efficiency outweighs the harm caused by infringing upon the right to free speech .
In Waters v. Churchill ( 1994 ) the Court was faced with two differing accounts of the speech at issue . The question presented to the Court was whether the Connick test ought be applied to what the employer thought was said or what was actually said . The case revolved around a nurse dismissed for a conversation she had with a coworker . There was a discrepancy between what she argued was said and what her employer thought was said . Justice O 'Connor , joined by a plurality of justices , opined that the Connick test must be applied to the speech the employer thought occurred rather than that which the finder of fact determines did occur .
= = Facts of the case = =
= = = Original dispute = = =
In 2005 , Jeffrey Heffernan was a detective with the Paterson , New Jersey , police . His supervisor and the chief of police were both appointed by the city 's incumbent mayor , Jose Torres , who was being challenged by city councilman Lawrence Spagnola in that year 's election . Heffernan was friendly with Spagnola , a former police chief , and informally supported his campaign , although he could not vote in the election as he did not live in the city . At the request of his sick mother , he went while off @-@ duty to pick up a lawn sign for her after her previous sign was stolen . Other officers saw him at the distribution location holding a sign and talking to campaign staff . They soon notified superiors and the next day he was demoted from detective to patrol officer for his perceived " overt involvement " with the Spagnola campaign .
= = = District court = = =
Heffernan sued the city , the mayor , and his superior officers under 42 USC § 1983 in the federal District Court for New Jersey , claiming that his rights of freedom of speech as well as freedom of association had been violated . Heffernan contended that while he had not actually engaged in any protected speech , the department acted on the belief that he had , and the department should not have demoted him on the basis of that erroneous belief .
In 2009 , a jury found for Heffernan and awarded him damages from the police officials and the city . Despite the verdict , Heffernan sought a retrial because Judge Peter G. Sheridan had not allowed him to pursue the freedom of speech claim ; the defense did so as well because Judge Sheridan had allowed the freedom of association claim . While he was considering these motions , Judge Sheridan became aware of a conflict of interest through a former law firm and set aside the verdict , setting a new date for trial before Judge Dennis M. Cavanaugh .
Judge Cavanaugh granted summary judgment to the defendants on the freedom of speech claim based on their earlier motions , holding that Heffernan had not engaged in protected speech so his rights could not have been violated . In 2012 , the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Cavanaugh 's ruling and remanded the case to him with instructions that he was to allow Heffernan to present his freedom of association claim and consider the facts from the jury trial when reconsidering the summary @-@ judgment motions .
Judge Kevin McNulty heard the case on remand . After considering the parties ' motions for summary judgment again , he ruled in the city 's favor in 2014 . Heffernan , he ruled , had not engaged in any protected speech or expressive conduct . Judge McNulty also ruled that Heffernan could not prevail on claims his perceived speech was protected , per Ambrose v. Robinson Township , a previous case on that issue in the Third Circuit , or that his actions were protected since they aided and abetted speech . Judge McNulty also rejected similar claims for freedom of association . He decided that Dye v. Office of the Racing Commission , a case in which the Sixth Circuit had held that the First Amendment reached perceived political association , was not a precedent he could rely on since Dye itself explicitly rejected Ambrose and as a district judge he could not reject circuit precedent .
= = = Court of Appeals = = =
On appeal to the Third Circuit , a three @-@ judge panel of Judge Robert Cowen , Judge Morton Ira Greenberg and Judge Thomas I. Vanaskie unanimously held for the city . In a decision issued in 2015 , Judge Vanaskie , writing for the Court , reiterated Judge McNulty 's finding that Heffernan 's actions in picking up the sign for his mother did not constitute protected speech or association . He distinguished the case at hand from the Sixth Circuit 's ruling in Dye by noting that in that case , the employers had inferred the employees ' intent from their non @-@ participation in partisan politics rather than an actual action they had taken , as had occurred in Heffernan 's case .
Judge Vanaskie instead found guidance from the Supreme Court 's 1984 holding in Waters v. Churchill , where it had upheld an Illinois public hospital 's dismissal of a nurse for her comments about a supervisor to a colleague despite an ongoing factual dispute about the substance of those comments , since it found the hospital administration had made a reasonable attempt to investigate what the nurse had said before firing her . In that case , the Court had said explicitly that disciplining employees for things they did not actually do did not rise to the level of a constitutional violation .
= = = Supreme Court = = =
Following the Third Circuit 's decision , Heffernan petitioned the Supreme Court for certiorari , requesting they hear the case . After the Court considered both Heffernan 's petition and the city 's reply , it granted the petition on the first day of the 2015 term . Both parties consented to the filing of amicus curiae briefs by uninvolved parties who believed they had a stake in the outcome of the case . The National Association of Government Employees , Becket Fund for Religious Liberty and Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression filed amicus briefs in support of Heffernan , while the New Jersey State League of Municipalities and the National Conference of State Legislatures filed briefs in support of the City of Paterson . The United States government also filed an amicus brief in support of Heffernan , as well as a motion to appear at oral argument , which the Court granted , meaning the Solicitor General 's office would be appearing at oral arguments , held on January 19 , 2016 .
= = = = Oral arguments = = = =
Mark Frost , arguing for petitioner Jeffrey Heffernan , was immediately met with questions from the justices : Anthony Kennedy asked for clarification on the particular right to be protected , and Antonin Scalia , Samuel Alito and Chief Justice John Roberts all questioned him about whether his rights could be infringed if he was not actually engaged in any speech . Justice Scalia ( who died before the decision was announced ) argued that there was " no constitutional right not to be fired for the wrong reason " . Frost responded that the motives of the government , rather than the actions of the individual , were important in this case . Assistant to the Solicitor General Ginger Anders , arguing on behalf of the United States as amicus curiae in favor of Heffernan , continued this argument stating that there is " a First Amendment right not to have adverse action taken against him by his employer for the unconstitutional purpose of suppressing disfavored political beliefs . "
Arguing for respondents , Thomas Goldstein distinguished between political neutrality and political apathy . He argued that the First Amendment protects political neutrality , the conscious choice to not take a position , but does not protect political apathy , when a person simply does not care and makes no particular choice to be neutral . As Heffernan claimed that he had no affiliation with the Spagnola , the respondents argued that Heffernan 's actions constitute unprotected apathy rather than a conscious choice of neutrality . Justice Elena Kagan questioned him as to the purpose of the First Amendment saying , " the idea has to do with why the government acted " to which Goldstein responded , " It 's called an individual right , not a government wrong . " Frost took a rebuttal to respond to Goldstein 's distinction between political neutrality and apathy arguing that there is little distinction as the government is acting for impermissible reasons in both cases .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In a 6 – 2 decision authored by Justice Stephen Breyer , the Court reversed the ruling of the lower Court and ruled that the employer 's motive is material to First Amendment challenges . Citing Waters v. Churchill , Justice Breyer wrote ,
[ w ] e conclude that , as in Waters , the government 's reason for demoting Heffernan is what counts here . When an employer demotes an employee out of a desire to prevent the employee from engaging in political activity that the First Amendment protects , the employee is entitled to challenge that unlawful action under the First Amendment ... — even if , as here , the employer makes a factual mistake about the employee 's behavior .
The Court remanded the case to the Third Circuit and made clear in its opinion that while it is impermissable to retaliate based upon perceived protected speech , the lower courts should take into consideration whether Heffernan was disciplined for violating any different and neutral policies . The majority provided three main arguments in support of its reasoning : that their interpretation is more in line with the text of the First Amendment , that their interpretation better served the First Amendment 's purpose of limiting political patronage , and that such an interpretation will not significantly burden employers .
Justice Breyer argued that unlike the Fourteenth Amendment which focuses on the rights of the people , the First Amendment focuses on the actions of the government when it says , " Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech . " As the text of the amendment focuses on the government 's abilities to make laws , it is the government 's actions and motives , not the actual actions of citizens which are proscribed by the Amendment . While the policy at issue was not a law of Congress , the actions were still that of a government official which infringed upon rights guaranteed by the First Amendment .
The Court supported this interpretation by recognizing that the First Amendment sought to prevent government actions from discouraging protected activity . Citing Branti v. Finkel , the Court pointed out that precedent never required plaintiffs in political affiliation cases to show change in allegiance to be successful , and similarly extended that logic to this case : the potential chilling affect on constitutionally protected speech still exists regardless of the factual basis of the employer 's reasoning . Because employees thinking of engaging in protected activity will be equally dissuaded by an incorrect dismissal as by a correct dismissal , both reasonings should be considered in violation of the First Amendment .
Respondents argued that finding employers liable for factual mistakes would place substantial costs upon employers . The Court rejected this argument , saying that an employee would still need to prove the employeer acted out of an improper motive . Referring to Heffernan 's case and those like it , the Court said that " the employee will , if anything , find it more difficult to prove that motive , for the employee will have to point to more than his own conduct to show an employer 's intent " .
= = = Dissent = = =
Justice Clarence Thomas authored the dissent , in which Justice Alito joined . Justice Thomas argued that the previous ruling should have been upheld " because federal law does not provide a cause of action to plaintiffs whose constitutional rights have not been violated " . The dissent focused on the text of the statute Heffernan was suing under : 42 U.S.C. § 1983 . The statute only provides a cause of action for those whose rights have actually been violated by the government . Because Heffernan maintained that he was not exercising his First Amendment rights , the dissent argued that those rights could not have been violated , and that a section 1983 claim requires that the employee engage in protected activity and that the employer retaliate against that activity .
The dissent argued that , for a section 1983 claim to be valid , " harm alone is not enough ; it has to be the right kind of harm " . Thomas provided an example of a law allowing police to pull over any driver without cause . This would obviously violate the Fourth Amendment rights of anyone stopped , but people stuck in traffic who were injured by the collateral damage of unconstitutional actions would not be able to sue because none of their rights were violated . Similarly , it is not enough for Heffernan to have shown injury but violation of an actual right as well . For the dissent , even if the dismissal was for the wrong reason and harm was suffered , the dismissal cannot infringe upon rights he never exercised .
Further supporting their argument , the dissent cited Monterey v. Del Monte Dunes at Monterey , Ltd. to argue that a Section 1983 claim falls under tort law in order to draw a distinction between how attempts are handled under tort and criminal law . Under criminal law , a factually impossible attempt , such as trying to steal from an empty pocket or defraud someone with no money , can still be tried as an attempt . No such doctrine exists in tort law . Because Heffernan was not engaged in protected activity , the police department could only have attempted to deprive him of his right and thus must fail because " there are no attempted torts . "
= = Commentary = =
The day after oral arguments , Gilad Edelman criticized the Court 's assumption that Heffernan never exercised his First Amendment rights , saying , " the Supreme Court may miss an opportunity to make sure that cases like his really are rare . " Edelman interpreted Heffernan 's actions as well within the existing First Amendment precedent . Though Heffernan was not necessarily supporting the candidate , he was talking and associating with people , actions already protected under existing precedent . Edelman went further and suggested that regardless of whether or not Heffernan intended to be identified as supporting the campaign , he was still punished for associating .
Soon after the ruling was announced , the decision was largely praised . Jonathan Stahl , a writer at the Constitution Daily , said that " [ t ] he potential impact of this case on our understanding of the First Amendment is notable " . Similarly , The Economist called it " good law " and a " significant development " for expanding the existing jurisprudence to perceived speech , not just actual speech .
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= Regulamentul Organic =
Regulamentul Organic ( Romanian name , translated as Organic Statute or Organic Regulation ; French : Règlement Organique , Russian : Органический регламент , Organichesky reglament ) was a quasi @-@ constitutional organic law enforced in 1834 – 1835 by the Imperial Russian authorities in Moldavia and Wallachia ( the two Danubian Principalities that were to become the basis of the modern Romanian state ) . The document partially confirmed the traditional government ( including rule by the hospodars ) and set up a common Russian protectorate which lasted until 1854 . The Regulament itself remained in force until 1858 . Conservative in its scope , it also engendered a period of unprecedented reforms which provided a setting for the Westernization of the local society . The Regulament offered the two Principalities their first common system of government .
= = Background = =
The two principalities , owing tribute and progressively ceding political control to the Ottoman Empire since the Middle Ages , had been subject to frequent Russian interventions as early as the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1710 – 1711 ) , when a Russian army penetrated Moldavia and Emperor Peter the Great probably established links with the Wallachians . Eventually , the Ottomans enforced a tighter control on the region , effected under Phanariote hospodars ( who were appointed directly by the Porte ) . Ottoman rule over the region remained contested by competition from Russia , which , as an Eastern Orthodox empire with claim to a Byzantine heritage , exercised notable influence over locals . At the same time , the Porte made several concessions to the rulers and boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia , as a means to ensure the preservation of its rule .
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , signed in 1774 between the Ottomans and Russians , gave Russia the right to intervene on behalf of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects in general , a right which it used to sanction Ottoman interventions in the Principalities in particular . Thus , Russia intervened to preserve reigns of hospodars who had lost Ottoman approval in the context of the Napoleonic Wars ( the casus belli for the 1806 – 12 conflict ) , and remained present in the Danubian states , vying for influence with the Austrian Empire , well into the 19th century and annexing Moldavia 's Bessarabia in 1812 .
Despite the influx of Greeks , arriving in the Principalities as a new bureaucracy favored by the hospodars , the traditional Estates of the realm ( the Divan ) remained under the tight control of a number of high boyar families , who , while intermarrying with members of newly arrived communities , opposed reformist attempts – and successfully preserved their privileges by appealing against their competitors to both Istanbul and Saint Petersburg .
In the last decades of the 18th century , the growing strategic importance of the region brought about the establishment of consulates representing European powers directly interested in observing local developments ( Russia , the Austrian Empire , and France ; later , British and Prussian ones were opened as well ) . An additional way for consuls to exercise particular policies was the awarding of a privileged status and protection to various individuals , who were known as sudiți ( " subjects " , in the language of the time ) of one or the other of the foreign powers .
A seminal event occurred in 1821 , when the rise of Greek nationalism in various parts of the Balkans in connection with the Greek War of Independence led to occupation of the two states by the Filiki Eteria , a Greek secret society who sought , and initially obtained , Russian approval . A mere takeover of the government in Moldavia , the Eterist expedition met a more complex situation in Wallachia , where a regency of high boyars attempted to have the anti @-@ Ottoman Greek nationalists confirm both their rule and the rejection of Phanariote institutions . A compromise was achieved through their common support for Tudor Vladimirescu , an Oltenian pandur leader who had already instigated an anti @-@ Phanariote rebellion ( as one of the Russian sudiți , it was hoped that Vladimirescu could assure Russia that the revolt was not aimed against its influence ) . However , the eventual withdrawal of Russian support made Vladimirescu seek a new agreement with the Ottomans , leaving him to be executed by an alliance of Eterists and weary locals ( alarmed by his new anti @-@ boyar program ) ; after the Ottomans invaded the region and crushed the Eteria , the boyars , still perceived as a third party , obtained from the Porte an end to the Phanariote system
= = Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople = =
The first reigns through locals – Ioniță Sandu Sturdza as Prince of Moldavia and Grigore IV Ghica as Prince of Wallachia – were , in essence , short @-@ lived : although the patron @-@ client relation between Phanariote hospodars and a foreign ruler was never revived , Sturdza and Ghica were deposed by the Russian military intervention during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , 1828 – 1829 . Sturdza 's time on the throne was marked by an important internal development : the last in a series of constitutional proposals , advanced by boyars as a means to curb princely authority , ended in a clear conflict between the rapidly decaying class of low @-@ ranking boyars ( already forming the upper level of the middle class rather than a segment of the traditional nobility ) and the high @-@ ranking families who had obtained the decisive say in politics . The proponent , Ionică Tăutu , was defeated in the Divan after the Russian consul sided with the conservatives ( expressing the official view that the aristocratic @-@ republican and liberal aims of the document could have threatened international conventions in place ) .
On October 7 , 1826 , the Ottoman Empire — anxious to prevent Russia 's intervention in the Greek Independence War — negotiatied with it a new status for the region in Akkerman , one which conceded to several requests of the inhabitants : the resulting Akkerman Convention was the first official document to nullify the principle of Phanariote reigns , instituting seven @-@ year terms for new princes elected by the respective Divans , and awarding the two countries the right to engage in unrestricted international trade ( as opposed to the tradition of limitations and Ottoman protectionism , it only allowed Istanbul to impose its priorities in the grain trade ) . The convention also made the first mention of new Statutes , enforced by both powers as governing documents , which were not drafted until after the war – although both Sturdza and Ghica had appointed commissions charged with adopting such projects .
The Russian military presence on the Principalities ' soil was inaugurated in the first days of the war : by late April 1828 , the Russian army of Peter Wittgenstein had reached the Danube ( in May , it entered present @-@ day Bulgaria ) . The campaign , prolonged for the following year and coinciding with devastating bubonic plague and cholera epidemics ( which together killed around 1 @.@ 6 % of the population in both countries ) , soon became a drain on local economy : according to British observers , the Wallachian state was required to indebt itself to European creditors for a total sum of ten million piastres , in order to provide for the Russian army 's needs . Accusations of widespread plunder were made by the French author Marc Girardin , who travelled in the region during the 1830s ; Girardin alleged that Russian troops had confiscated virtually all cattle for their needs , and that Russian officers had insulted the political class by publicly stating that , in case the supply in oxen was to prove insufficient , boyars were to be tied to carts in their place – an accusation backed by Ion Ghica in his recollections . He also recorded a mounting dissatifaction with the new rule , mentioning that peasants were especially upset by the continuous maneuvers of troops inside the Principalities ' borders . Overall , Russophilia in the two Principalities appears to have suffered a major blow . Despite the confiscations , statistics of the time indicated that the pace of growth in heads of cattle remained steady ( a 50 % growth appears to have occurred between 1831 and 1837 ) .
The Treaty of Adrianople , signed on September 14 , 1829 , confirmed both the Russian victory and the provisions of the Akkerman Convention , partly amended to reflect the Russian political ascendancy over the area . Furthermore , Wallachia 's southern border was settled on the Danube thalweg , and the state was given control over the previously Ottoman @-@ ruled ports of Brăila , Giurgiu , and Turnu Măgurele . The freedom of commerce ( which consisted mainly of grain exports from the region ) and freedom of navigation on the river and on the Black Sea were passed into law , allowing for the creation of naval fleets in both Principalities in the following years , as well as for a more direct contact with European traders , with the confirmation of the Moldavia and Wallachia 's commercial privileges first stipulated at Akkerman ( alongside the tight links soon established with Austrian and Sardinian traders , the first French ships visited Wallachia in 1830 ) .
Russian occupation over Moldavia and Wallachia ( as well as the Bulgarian town of Silistra ) was prolonged pending the payment of war reparations by the Ottomans . Emperor Nicholas I assigned Fyodor Pahlen as governor over the two countries before the actual peace , as the first in a succession of three Plenipotentiary Presidents of the Divans in Moldavia and Wallachia , and official supervisor of the two commissions charged with drafting the Statutes . The bodies , having for secretaries Gheorghe Asachi in Moldavia and Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei in Wallachia , had resumed their work while the cholera epidemic was still raging , and continued it after Pahlen had been replaced with Pyotr Zheltukhin in February 1829 .
= = Adoption and character = =
The post @-@ Adrianople state of affairs was perceived by many of the inhabitants of Wallachia and Moldavia as exceptionally abusive , given that Russia confiscated both of the Principalities ' treasuries , and that Zheltukhin used his position to interfere in the proceedings of the commission , nominated his own choice of members , and silenced all opposition by having anti @-@ Russian boyars expelled from the countries ( including , notably , Iancu Văcărescu , a member of the Wallachian Divan who had questioned his methods of government ) . According to the radical Ghica , " General Zheltukhin [ and his subordinates ] defended all Russian abuse and injustice . Their system consisted in never listening to complaints , but rather rushing in with accusations , so as to inspire fear , so as the plaintiff would run away for fear of not having to endure a harsher thing than the cause of his [ original ] complaint " . However , the same source also indicated that this behaviour was hiding a more complex situation : " Those who nevertheless knew Zheltukhin better … said that he was the fairest , most honest , and most kind of men , and that he gave his cruel orders with an aching heart . Many gave assurance that he had addressed to the emperor heart @-@ breaking reports on the deplorable state in which the Principalities were to be found , in which he stated that Russia 's actions in the Principalities deserved the scorn of the entire world " .
The third and last Russian governor , Pavel Kiselyov ( or Kiseleff ) , took office on October 19 , 1829 , and faced his first major task in dealing with the last outbreaks of plague and cholera , as well as the threat of famine , with which he dealt by imposing quarantines and importing grain from Odessa . His administration , lasting until April 1 , 1834 , was responsible for the most widespread and influential reforms of the period , and coincided with the actual enforcement of the new legislation . The earliest of Kiselyov 's celebrated actions was the convening of the Wallachian Divan in November 1829 , with the assurance that abuses were not to be condoned anymore .
Regulamentul Organic was adopted in its two very similar versions on July 13 , 1831 ( July 1 , OS ) in Wallachia and January 13 , 1832 ( January 1 , OS ) in Moldavia , after having minor changes applied to it in Saint Petersburg ( where a second commission from the Principalities , presided by Mihail Sturdza and Alexandru Vilara , assessed it further ) . Its ratification by Sultan Mahmud II was not a requirement from Kiselyov 's perspective , who began enforcing it as a fait accompli before this was granted . The final version of the document sanctioned the first local government abiding by the principles of separation and balance of powers . The hospodars , elected for life ( and not for the seven @-@ year term agreed in the Convention of Akkerman ) by an Extraordinary Assembly which comprised representatives of merchants and guilds , stood for the executive , with the right to nominate ministers ( whose offices were still referred to using the traditional titles of courtiers ) and public officials ; hospodars were to be voted in office by an electoral college with a confirmed majority of high @-@ ranking boyars ( in Wallachia , only 70 persons were members of the college ) .
Each National Assembly ( approximate translation of Adunarea Obștească ) , inaugurated in 1831 – 2 , was a legislature itself under the control of high @-@ ranking boyars , comprising 35 ( in Moldavia ) or 42 members ( in Wallachia ) , voted into office by no more than 3 @,@ 000 electors in each state ; the judiciary was , for the very first time , removed from the control of hospodars . In effect , the Regulament confirmed earlier steps leading to the eventual separation of church and state , and , although Orthodox church authorities were confirmed a privileged position and a political say , the religious institution was closely supervised by the government ( with the establishment of a quasi @-@ salary expense ) .
A fiscal reform ensued , with the creation of a poll tax ( calculated per family ) , the elimination of most indirect taxes , annual state budgets ( approved by the Assemblies ) and the introduction of a civil list in place of the hospodars ' personal treasuries . New methods of bookkeeping were regulated , and the creation of national banks was projected , but , like the adoption of national fixed currencies , was never implemented .
According to the historian Nicolae Iorga , " The [ boyar ] oligarchy was appeased [ by the Regulament 's adoption ] : a beautifully harmonious modern form had veiled the old medieval structure … . The bourgeoisie … held no influence . As for the peasant , he lacked even the right to administer his own commune , he was not even allowed to vote for an Assembly deemed , as if in jest , « national » . " Nevertheless , conservative boyars remained suspicious of Russian tutelage , and several expressed their fear that the regime was a step leading to the creation of a regional guberniya for the Russian Empire . Their mistrust was , in time , reciprocated by Russia , who relied on hospodars and the direct intervention of its consuls to push further reforms . Kiselyov himself voiced a plan for the region 's annexation to Russia , but the request was dismissed by his superiors .
= = Economic trends = =
= = = Cities and towns = = =
Beginning with the reformist administration of Kiselyov , the two countries experienced a series of profound changes , political , social , as well as cultural .
Despite underrepresentation in politics , the middle class swelled in numbers , profiting from a growth in trade which had increased the status of merchants . Under continuous competition from the sudiți , traditional guilds ( bresle or isnafuri ) faded away , leading to a more competitive , purely capitalist environment . This nevertheless signified that , although the traditional Greek competition for Romanian merchants and artisans had become less relevant , locals continued to face one from Austrian subjects of various nationalities , as well as from a sizeable immigration of Jews from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and Russia – prevented from settling in the countryside , Jews usually became keepers of inns and taverns , and later both bankers and leaseholders of estates . In this context , an anti @-@ Catholic sentiment was growing , based , according to Keith Hitchins , on the assumption that Catholicism and Austrian influence were closely related , as well as on a widespread preference for secularism .
The Romanian middle class formed the basis for what was to become the liberal electorate , and accounted for the xenophobic discourse of the National Liberal Party during the latter 's first decade of existence ( between 1875 and World War I ) .
Urban development occurred at a very fast pace : overall , the urban population had doubled by 1850 . Bucharest , the capital of Wallachia , expanded from about 70 @,@ 000 in 1831 to about 120 @,@ 000 in 1859 ; Iași , the capital of Moldavia , followed at around half that number . Brăila and Giurgiu , Danube ports returned to Wallachia by the Ottomans , as well as Moldavia 's Galați , grew from the grain trade to become prosperous cities . Kiselyov , who had centered his administration on Bucharest , paid full attention to its development , improving its infrastructure and services and awarding it , together with all other cities and towns , a local administration ( see History of Bucharest ) . Public works were carried out in the urban sphere , as well as in the massive expansion of the transport and communications system .
= = = Countryside = = =
The success of the grain trade was secured by a conservative take on property , which restricted the right of peasants to exploit for their own gain those plots of land they leased on boyar estates ( the Regulament allowed them to consume around 70 % of the total harvest per plot leased , while boyars were allowed to use a third of their estate as they pleased , without any legal duty toward the neighbouring peasant workforce ) ; at the same time , small properties , created after Constantine Mavrocordatos had abolished serfdom in the 1740s , proved less lucrative in the face of competition by large estates – boyars profited from the consequences , as more landowning peasants had to resort to leasing plots while still owing corvées to their lords . Confirmed by the Regulament at up to 12 days a year , the corvée was still less significant than in other parts of Europe ; however , since peasants relied on cattle for alternative food supplies and financial resources , and pastures remained the exclusive property of boyars , they had to exchange right of use for more days of work in the respective boyar 's benefit ( as much as to equate the corresponding corvée requirements in Central European countries , without ever being enforced by laws ) . Several laws of the period display a particular concern in limiting the right of peasants to evade corvées by paying their equivalent in currency , thus granting the boyars a workforce to match a steady growth in grain demands on foreign markets .
In respect to pasture access , the Regulament divided peasants into three wealth @-@ based categories : fruntași ( " foremost people " ) , who , by definition , owned 4 working animals and one or more cows ( allowed to use around 4 hectares of pasture ) ; mijlocași ( " middle people " ) – two working animals and one cow ( around 2 hectares ) ; codași ( " backward people " ) – people who owned no property , and not allowed the use of pastures .
At the same time , the major demographic changes took their toll on the countryside . For the very first time , food supplies were no longer abundant in front of a population growth ensured by , among other causes , the effective measures taken against epidemics ; rural – urban migration became a noticeable phenomenon , as did the relative increase in urbanization of traditional rural areas , with an explosion of settlements around established fairs .
These processes also ensured that industrialization was minimal ( although factories had first been opened during the Phanariotes ) : most revenues came from a highly productive agriculture based on peasant labour , and were invested back into agricultural production . In parallel , hostility between agricultural workers and landowners mounted : after an increase in lawsuits involving leaseholders and the decrease in quality of corvée outputs , resistance , hardened by the examples of Tudor Vladimirescu and various hajduks , turned to sabotage and occasional violence . A more serious incident occurred in 1831 , when around 60 @,@ 000 peasants protested against projected conscription criteria ; Russian troops dispatched to quell the revolt killed around 300 people .
= = Political and cultural setting = =
The most noted cultural development under the Regulament was Romanian Romantic nationalism , in close connection with Francophilia . Institutional modernization engered a renaissance of the intelligentsia . In turn , the concept of " nation " was first expanded beyond its coverage of the boyar category , and more members of the privileged displayed a concern in solving problems facing the peasantry : although rarer among the high @-@ ranking boyars , the interest was shared by most progressive political figures by the 1840s .
Nationalist themes now included a preoccupation for the Latin origin of Romanians and the common ( but since discarded ) reference to the entire region as Dacia ( first notable in the title of Mihail Kogălniceanu 's Dacia Literară , a short @-@ lived Romantic literary magazine published in 1840 ) . As a trans @-@ border notion , Dacia also indicated a growth in Pan @-@ Romanian sentiment – the latter had first been present in several boyar requests of the late 18th century , which had called for the union of the two Danubian Principalities under the protection of European powers ( and , in some cases , under the rule of a foreign prince ) . To these was added the circulation of fake documents which were supposed to reflect the text of Capitulations awarded by the Ottoman Empire to its Wallachian and Moldavian vassals in the Middle Ages , claiming to stand out as proof of rights and privileges which had been long neglected ( see also Islam in Romania ) .
Education , still accessible only to the wealthy , was first removed from the domination of the Greek language and Hellenism upon the disestablishment of Phanariotes sometime after 1821 ; the attempts of Gheorghe Lazăr ( at the Saint Sava College ) and Gheorghe Asachi to engender a transition towards Romanian @-@ language teaching had been only moderately successful , but Wallachia became the scene of such a movement after the start of Ion Heliade Rădulescu 's teaching career and the first issue of his newspaper , Curierul Românesc . Moldavia soon followed , after Asachi began printing his highly influential magazine Albina Românească . The Regulament brought about the creation of new schools , which were dominated by the figures of Transylvanian Romanians who had taken exile after expressing their dissatifaction with Austrian rule in their homeland – these teachers , who usually rejected the adoption of French cultural models in the otherwise conservative society ( viewing the process as an unnatural one ) , counted among them Ioan Maiorescu and August Treboniu Laurian . Another impetus for nationalism was the Russian @-@ supervised creation of small standing armies ( occasionally referred to as " militias " ; see Moldavian military forces and Wallachian military forces ) . The Wallachian one first maneuvered in the autumn of 1831 , and was supervised by Kiselyov himself . According to Ion Ghica , the prestige of military careers had a relevant tradition : " Only the arrival of the Muscovites [ sic ] in 1828 ended [ the ] young boyars ' sons flighty way of life , as it made use of them as commissioners ( mehmendari ) in the service of Russian generals , in order to assist in providing the troops with [ supplies ] . In 1831 most of them took to the sword , signing up for the national militia . "
The Westernization of Romanian society took place at a rapid pace , and created a noticeable , albeit not omnipresent , generation gap . The paramount cultural model was the French one , following a pattern already established by contacts between the region and the French Consulate and First Empire ( attested , among others , by the existence of a Wallachian plan to petition Napoleon Bonaparte , whom locals believed to be a descendant of the Byzantine Emperors , with a complaint against the Phanariotes , as well as by an actual anonymous petition sent in 1807 from Moldavia ) . This trend was consolidated by the French cultural model partly adopted by the Russians , a growing mutual sympathy between the Principalities and France , increasingly obvious under the French July Monarchy , and , as early as the 1820s , the enrolment of young boyars in Parisian educational institutions ( coupled with the 1830 opening of a French @-@ language school in Bucharest , headed by Jean Alexandre Vaillant ) . The young generation eventually attempted to curb French borrowings , which it had come to see as endangering its nationalist aspirations .
= = Statutory rules and nationalist opposition = =
In 1834 , despite the founding documents ' requirements , Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to appoint the first two hospodars ( instead of providing for their election ) , as a means to ensure both the monarchs ' support for a moderate pace in reforms and their allegiance in front of conservative boyar opposition . The choices were Alexandru II Ghica ( the stepbrother of the previous monarch , Grigore IV ) as Prince of Wallachia and Mihail Sturdza ( a distant cousin of Ioniță Sandu ) as Prince of Moldavia . The two rules ( generally referred to as Domnii regulamentare – " statutory " or " regulated reigns " ) , closely observed by the Russian consuls and various Russian technical advisors , soon met a vocal and unified opposition in the Assemblies and elsewhere .
Immediately after the confirmation of the Regulament , Russia had begun demanding that the two local Assemblies each vote an Additional Article ( Articol adițional ) – one preventing any modification of the texts without the common approval of the courts in Istanbul and Saint Petersburg . In Wallachia , the issue turned into scandal after the pressure for adoption mounted in 1834 , and led to a four @-@ year @-@ long standstill , during which a nationalist group in the legislative body began working on its own project for a constitution , proclaiming the Russian protectorate and Ottoman suzerainty to be over , and self @-@ determination with guarantees from all European Powers of the time . The radical leader of the movement , Ion Câmpineanu , maintained close contacts with Polish nobleman Adam Jerzy Czartoryski 's Union of National Unity ( as well as with other European nationalists Romantics ) ; after the Additional Article passed due to Ghica 's interference and despite boyar protests , Câmpineanu was forced to abandon his seat and take refuge in Central Europe ( until being arrested and sent back by the Austrians to be imprisoned in Bucharest ) . From that point on , opposition to Ghica 's rule took the form of Freemason and carbonari @-@ inspired conspiracies , formed around young politicians such as Mitică Filipescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Eftimie Murgu , Ion Ghica , Christian Tell , Dimitrie Macedonski , and Cezar Bolliac ( all of whom held Câmpineanu 's ideology in esteem ) — in 1840 , Filipescu and most of his group ( who had tried in vain to profit from the Ottoman crisis engendered by Muhammad Ali 's rebellion ) were placed under arrest and imprisoned in various locations .
Noted abuses against the rule of law and the consequent threat of rebellion made the Ottoman Empire and Russia withdraw their support for Ghica in 1842 , and his successor , Gheorghe Bibescu , reigned as the first and only prince to have been elected by any one of the two Assemblies . In Moldavia , the situation was less tense , as Sturdza was able to calm down and manipulate opposition to Russian rule while introducing further reforms .
In 1848 , upon the outbreak of the European revolutions , liberalism consolidated itself into more overt opposition , helped along by contacts between Romanian students with the French movement . Nevertheless , the Moldavian revolution of late March 1848 was an abortive one , and led to the return of Russian troops on its soil . Wallachia 's revolt was successful : after the Proclamation of Islaz on June 21 sketched a new legal framework and land reform with an end to all corvées ( a program acclaimed by the crowds ) , the conspirators managed to topple Bibescu , who had by then dissolved the Assembly , without notable violence , and established a Provisoral Government in Bucharest .
The new executive , orchestrating the public burning of the Regulament in September , attempted to play Ottoman interests against Russian ones , trying to obtain backing from the Porte ; the relative initial success was rendered void after Russian diplomats pressured Sultan Abd @-@ ul @-@ Mejid I to intervene in their place ( and thus not risk losing yet more control over the region to a more determined Russian expedition ) . A Russian occupation over Wallachia soon joined the Ottoman one ( begun on September 18 ) , and both lasted until April 1851 ; in 1849 , the two powers signed the Treaty of Balta Liman , which asserted the right of the Porte to nominate hospodars for seven @-@ year terms .
= = Crimean War = =
The Crimean War again brought the two countries under Russian military administration , inaugurated in 1853 . The hospodars of the period , Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica in Moldavia and Prince Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei in Wallachia , were removed from their thrones , and the region was governed by the Russian general Aleksandr Ivanovich Budberg .
As the Balkans remained a secondary theatre of war , the two Principalities were taken over by a neutral Austrian administration in September 1854 – part of a settlement between the Porte and Russia ( the Austrians remained until 1857 ) . Grigore Ghica and Știrbei were returned to the thrones in the same year , and completed the last series of reforms carried under the terms of the Regulament . The most far @-@ reaching among these were the ones concerning Roma slavery . In Moldavia , Romas were liberated , without a period of transition , on December 22 , 1855 ; the change was more gradual in Wallachia , where measures to curb trade had been taken earlier , and where the decision to ban the ownership of slaves was taken by Știrbei on February 20 , 1856 . Concerned by worsening boyar @-@ peasant relations , Știrbei , who governed without an Assembly ( and had instead appointed his own Divan ) , enacted measures to improve the situation in the countryside , and ultimately enforced contract @-@ based work as the rule on estates ( whereby peasants who were not indebted after five years in service could leave the land they were working on ) .
This was the moment when the call for union of the two Principalities began to be voiced with confidence , and the two monarchs showed more or less approval for the designs of the unionist Partida Națională ( created by 1848 revolutionaries who had returned from exile ) .
The war ended with the Treaty of Paris ( March 30 , 1856 ) , which placed the countries , still as Ottoman vassals , under the protectorate of all European Powers ( the United Kingdom , the French Empire , the Kingdom of Piedmont @-@ Sardinia , Prussia , Austria , and , never again completely , Russia ) . The protector states had to decide on a compromise formula for the projected union ; the Ottomans demanded and obtained , in contradiction with the Regulament , the removal of both hospodars from their thrones , pending elections for the ad hoc Divans . The outcome remained disputed until the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza , who reigned as first Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia , the basis of modern Romania .
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= Western Chalukya Empire =
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan , South India , between the 10th and 12th centuries . This Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani , today 's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the 6th @-@ century Chalukya dynasty of Badami . The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi , a separate dynasty . Prior to the rise of these Chalukyas , the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries . In 973 , seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa , Tailapa II , a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruling from Bijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital . The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani .
For over a century , the two empires of Southern India , the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi . During these conflicts , the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi , distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation . During the rule of Vikramaditya VI , in the late 11th and early 12th centuries , the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan , between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south . His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince , during the rule of Someshvara I , he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and Bengal . During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan , the Hoysalas , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri , the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri , were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century .
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style , an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire . Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka . Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti , the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi . This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India , especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language Kannada , and Sanskrit .
= = History = =
Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada language inscriptions left by the kings ( scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada ) , and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature such as Gada Yuddha ( 982 ) in Kannada by Ranna and Vikramankadeva Charitam ( 1120 ) in Sanskrit by Bilhana . The earliest record is dated 957 , during the rule of Tailapa II when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present @-@ day Bijapur district , Karnataka . The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated . One theory , based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas , suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of 6th @-@ century , while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas .
The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King , Chattigadeva of Banavasi @-@ 12000 province ( c . 967 ) , in alliance with local Kadamba chieftains . This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II . A few years later , Tailapa II re @-@ established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973 . After overpowering the Rashtrakutas , Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River . However , some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042 .
The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of the Tamil country came to the fore in the 11th century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in the doab region of the Krishna and Godavari River called Vengi ( modern coastal Andhra Pradesh ) . The Western Chalukyas and the Chola Dynasty fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource . The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous king Rajaraja Chola I and the crown prince Rajendra Chola I. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom . As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas , they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi . When King Satyashraya succeeded Tailapa II to the throne , he was able to protect his kingdom from Chola aggression as well as his northern territories in Konkan and Gujarat although his control over Vengi was shaky . His successor , Jayasimha II , fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c . 1020 – 21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king . Shortly thereafter in c . 1024 , Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama .
It is known from records that Jayasimha 's son Someshvara I , whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule , moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c . 1042 . Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles , though neither lost significant territory during the ongoing struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne . In 1068 Someshvara I , suffering from an incurable illness , drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River ( Paramayoga ) . Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south , Someshvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan , Gujarat , Malwa and Kalinga during his rule . His successor , his eldest son Someshvara II , feuded with his younger brother , Vikramaditya VI , an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor of Gangavadi in the southern Deccan when Someshvara II was the king . Before 1068 , even as a prince , Vikramaditya VI had invaded Bengal , weakening the ruling Pala Empire . These incursions led to the establishment of Karnata dynasties such as the Sena dynasty and Varman dynasty in Bengal , and the Nayanadeva dynasty in Bihar . , Married to a Chola princess ( a daughter of Vira Rajendra Chola ) , Vikramaditya VI maintained a friendly alliance with them . After the death of the Chola king in 1070 , Vikramaditya VI invaded the Tamil kingdom and installed his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Adhirajendra , on the throne creating conflict with Kulothunga Chola I , the powerful ruler of Vengi who sought the Chola throne for himself . At the same time Vikramaditya VI undermined his brother , Someshvara II , by winning the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories : the Hoysala , the Seuna and the Kadambas of Hangal . Anticipating a civil war , Someshvara II sought help from Vikramaditya VI 's enemies , Kulothunga Chola I and the Kadambas of Goa . In the ensuing conflict of 1076 , Vikramaditya VI emerged victorious and proclaimed himself king of the Chalukya empire .
The fifty @-@ year reign of Vikramaditya VI , the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers , was an important period in Karnataka 's history and is referred to by historians as the " Chalukya Vikrama era " . Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north ( Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa , Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King ) and south ( Hoysala Vishnuvardhana ) , he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118 . He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas . This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north , earning him the titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla ( lord of three worlds ) . The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership , interest in fine arts and religious tolerance . Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court . Poet Bilhana , who immigrated from far away Kashmir , eulogised the king in his well known work Vikramankadeva Charita . Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion .
The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires , giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel . In the decades after Vikramaditya VI 's death in 1126 , the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command . The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other . By the time of Jagadhekamalla II , the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor , Tailapa III , was defeated by the Kakatiya king Prola in 1149 . Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas . Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule , the Hoysalas and Seunas also encroached upon the empire . Hoysala Narasimha I defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris who were vying for control of the same region . In 1157 the Kalachuris under Bijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years , forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital to Annigeri in the present day Dharwad district .
The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselves Kalanjarapuravaradhisavaras . Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders ( Mahamandaleshwar ) over the Karhad @-@ 4000 and Tardavadi @-@ 1000 provinces ( overlapping region in present @-@ day Karnataka and Maharashtra ) with Mangalavada or Annigeri as their capital . Bijjala II 's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls him Mahabhujabala Chakravarti ( " emperor with powerful shoulders and arms " ) indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas . However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion , Someshvara IV made a final bid to regain the empire by recapturing Kalyani . Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict . During this time , Hoysala Veera Ballala II was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire . He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains , but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris . The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani . Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189 .
The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi 1189 . After the fall of the Chalukyas , the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191 , each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time . This period saw the fall of two great empires , the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam . On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years , the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire .
= = Administration = =
The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary , passing to the king 's brother if the king did not have a male heir . The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the Alupas , the Hoysalas , the Kakatiya , the Seuna , the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces , paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor . Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana ( Chief minister ) , Sandhivigrahika , and Dharmadhikari ( chief justice ) . Some positions such as Tadeyadandanayaka ( commander of reserve army ) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka ( commander ) , showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills .
The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi @-@ 12000 , Nolambavadi @-@ 32000 , Gangavadi @-@ 96000 , each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction . The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages , as in Belavola @-@ 300 . The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas ( groups of villages ) and finally a Bada ( village ) . A Mandala was under a member of the royal family , a trusted feudatory or a senior official . Tailapa II himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during the Rashtrakuta rule . Chiefs of Mandalas were transferable based on political developments . For example , an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi @-@ 12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige @-@ 12000 . Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas . Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled Nadugouvnda .
The Western Chalukyas minted punch @-@ marked gold pagodas with Kannada and Nagari legends which were large , thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side . They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion , Sri in Kannada , a spearhead , the king 's title , a lotus and others . Jayasimha II used the legend Sri Jaya , Someshvara I issued coins with Sri Tre lo ka malla , Someshvara II used Bhuvaneka malla , Lakshmideva 's coin carried Sri Lasha , and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legend Sri Jagade . The Alupas , a feudatory , minted coins with the Kannada and Nagari legend Sri Pandya Dhanamjaya . Lakkundi in Gadag district and Sudi in Dharwad district were the main mints ( Tankhashaley ) . Their heaviest gold coin was Gadyanaka weighting 96 grains , Dramma weighted 65 grains , Kalanju 48 grains , Kasu 15 grains , Manjadi 2 @.@ 5 grains , Akkam 1 @.@ 25 grains and Pana 9 @.@ 6 grain .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture was the empire 's main source of income through taxes on land and produce . The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of rice , pulses , and cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall , with areca and betel being the chief cash crops . The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords . If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them , thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor .
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products , and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities . The state also collected fees from customs , professional licenses , and judicial fines . Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities ( gold , textiles , perfumes ) and agricultural produce ( black pepper , paddy , spices , betel leaves , palm leaves , coconuts and sugar ) . Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce . Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland , dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates .
Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas ( officials ) or Goudas . The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata , the Praja Gavunda ( people 's Gavunda ) and the Prabhu Gavunda ( lord of Gavundas ) . They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias . They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions , irrigation maintenance , village tax collection and village council duties .
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century . Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis ; records do not mention individual artists , sculptors and craftsman . Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations . Merchants organised themselves into powerful guilds that transcended political divisions , allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions . Their only threat was the possibility of theft from brigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands . Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included the Manigramam , the Nagarattar and the Anjuvannam . Local guilds were called nagaram , while the Nanadesis were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure . The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self @-@ styled Ainnurruvar , also known as the 500 Svamis of Ayyavolepura ( Brahmins and Mahajanas of present @-@ day Aihole ) , who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire . It fiercely protected its trade obligations ( Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants ) and its members often recorded their achievements in inscriptions ( Prasasti ) . Five hundred such excavated Prasasti inscriptions , with their own flag and emblem , the bull , record their pride in their business .
Rich traders contributed significantly to the king 's treasury through paying import and export taxes . The edicts of the Aihole Svamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such as Chera , Pandya , Maleya ( Malaysia ) , Magadh , Kaushal , Saurashtra , Kurumba , Kambhoja ( Cambodia ) , Lata ( Gujarat ) , Parasa ( Persia ) and Nepal . Travelling both land and sea routes , these merchants traded mostly in precious stones , spices and perfumes , and other specialty items such as camphor . Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds , lapis lazuli , onyx , topaz , carbuncles and emeralds . Commonly traded spices were cardamom , saffron , and cloves , while perfumes included the by @-@ products of sandalwood , bdellium , musk , civet and rose . These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns . The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India 's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China , the empires of Southeast Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad , and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports . Exports to Song Dynasty China included textiles , spices , medicinal plants , jewels , ivory , rhino horn , ebony and camphor . The same products also reached ports in the west such as Dhofar and Aden . The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia , Arabia and Egypt . The thriving trade center of Siraf , a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf , served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits . An indicator of the Indian merchants ' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them . In addition to this , Siraf received aloe wood , perfumes , sandalwood and condiments . The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments , this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants . Traveller Marco Polo , in the 13th century , recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic , soil and grassland conditions .
= = Culture = =
= = = Religion = = =
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century , coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi , was a setback to Jainism . The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism , although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant . Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged , Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara 's Advaita philosophy . The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were at Dambal and Balligavi . There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth .
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated , the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century . Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system . In his Vachanas ( a form of poetry ) , Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote " work is worship " ( Kayakave Kailasa ) . Also known as the Lingayats ( worshipers of the Linga , the universal symbol of Shiva ) , these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women . This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood . Ramanujacharya , the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam , traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion ( bhakti marga ) . He later wrote Sribhashya , a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra , a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara . Ramanujacharya 's stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism , a faith that his successors also followed .
The impact of these religious developments on the culture , literature , and architecture in South India was profound . Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries . Akka Mahadevi , Allama Prabhu , and a host of Basavanna 's followers , including Chenna Basava , Prabhudeva , Siddharama , and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva . The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court , Harihara and Raghavanka , were Virashaivas . This tradition continued into the Vijayanagar empire with such well @-@ known scholars as Singiraja , Mallanarya , Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature . The Saluva , Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara . Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya . King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism .
= = = Society = = =
The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system which retained royal support . The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period . Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families . Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts , such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi 's and Kalachuri queen Sovala Devi 's skill in dance and music . The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th @-@ century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known . Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi , ( sister of King Jayasimha II ) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals . Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati ( a custom in which a dead man 's widow used to immolate herself on her husband 's funeral pyre ) though present was on a voluntary basis . Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among the Jains who preferred to fast to death ( Sallekhana ) , while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes ( Shoolabrahma ) or walking into fire on an eclipse .
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present , Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice . These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs . They were patronised by kings , nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses . The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities . Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters ( Panchayat ) .
Regarding eating habits , Brahmins , Jains , Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities . Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats , sheep , pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge , hare , wild fowl and boar . People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches ( Kusti ) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling . Horse racing was a popular outdoor past time . In addition to these leisurely activities , festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats , dancers , dramatists and musicians was often provided .
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples . Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues . Choirs , whose main function was to sing devotional hymns , were maintained at temple expense . Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha , Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara . These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries ( Saraswati Bhandara ) . Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit . Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri ( or Ghatika or Agrahara ) . Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause . Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen . The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics ( Vartta ) , Political Science ( Dandaniti ) , Veda ( trayi ) and Philosophy ( Anvikshiki ) , subjects that are mentioned as early as Kautilyas Arthasastra .
= = = Literature = = =
The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada , and Sanskrit . In a golden age of Kannada literature , Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas . Nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras ( Vachana poets ) including thirty women poets have been recorded . Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics , Ramayana , Mahabharata , Bhagavata , Puranas and Vedas . In the field of secular literature , subjects such as romance , erotics , medicine , lexicon , mathematics , astrology , encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time .
Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna , grammarian Nagavarma II , minister Durgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna . Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the " three gems of Kannada literature " . He was bestowed the title " Emperor among poets " ( Kavi Chakravathi ) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit . Of these , Saahasabheema Vijayam ( or Gada yuddha ) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war . He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara , Ajitanatha .
Nagavarma II , poet laureate ( Katakacharya ) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects . His works in poetry , prosody , grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged . Kavyavalokana in poetics , Karnataka @-@ Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon ( with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words ) are some of his comprehensive contributions . Several works on medicine were produced during this period . Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha 's Karnataka Kalyana Karaka .
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time . They were written by mystics , who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses . Basavanna , Akka Mahadevi , Allama Prabhu , Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them .
In Sanskrit , a well @-@ known poem ( Mahakavya ) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI . The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI 's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II . The great Indian mathematician Bhāskara II ( born c.1114 ) flourished during this time . From his own account in his famous work Siddhanta Siromani ( c . 1150 , comprising the Lilavati , Bijaganita on algebra , Goladhaya on the celestial globe and Grahaganita on planets ) Bijjada Bida ( modern Bijapur ) was his native place .
Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III ( 1129 ) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society . This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine , magic , veterinary science , valuing of precious stones and pearls , fortifications , painting , music , games , amusements etc . While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance , it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time . Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman @-@ Kabhyudaya . The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of Karnataka .
A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara , in the court of Vikramaditya VI . Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field , Mitakshara is a treatise on law ( commentary on Yajnavalkya ) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India . An Englishman Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system . Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani , Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara .
= = = Architecture = = =
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture . The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century . The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the " Gadag style " after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River @-@ Krishna River doab region of present @-@ day Gadag district in Karnataka . The dynasty 's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan , more than half of them in present @-@ day central Karnataka . Apart from temples , the dynasty 's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells ( Pushkarni ) which served as ritual bathing places , a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi . These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries .
The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi ( Gadag district ) , the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal ( Gadag district ) , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti ( Bellary district ) , the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali ( Davangere district ) , the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri ( Haveri district ) , the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri ( Dharwad district ) , the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi ( Koppal district ) , the Kaitabheshvara Temple at Kubatur , and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects . The 12th @-@ century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail . The intricate , finely crafted carvings on walls , pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture . An inscription outside the temple calls it " Emperor of Temples " ( devalaya chakravarti ) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva , a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI . The Kedareswara Temple ( 1060 ) at Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya @-@ Hoysala architectural style . The Western Chalukyas built temples in Badami and Aihole during their early phase of temple building activity , such as Mallikarjuna Temple , the Yellamma Temple and the Bhutanatha group of Temples .
The vimana of their temples ( tower over the shrine ) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas . To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned ( tuned ) pillars and use of Soapstone ( Chloritic Schist ) as basic building and sculptural material , a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples . They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha ( demon faces ) in their sculptures . Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi . The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture . This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida , one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture .
= = = Language = = =
The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western ( Kalyani ) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs . Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit language . More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century , many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India . Inscriptions were generally either on stone ( Shilashasana ) or copper plates ( Tamarashasana ) . This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry , impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas ( called Lingayatism ) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas . At an administrative level , the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants . When bilingual inscriptions were written , the section stating the title , genealogy , origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit . Kannada was used to state terms of the grants , including information on the land , its boundaries , the participation of local authorities , rights and obligations of the grantee , taxes and dues , and witnesses . This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity .
In addition to inscriptions , chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties . Writings in Sanskrit included poetry , grammar , lexicon , manuals , rhetoric , commentaries on older works , prose fiction and drama . In Kannada , writings on secular subjects became popular . Some well known works are Chandombudhi , a prosody , and Karnataka Kadambari , a romance , both written by Nagavarma I , a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna ( 993 ) , a book on medicine called Karnataka @-@ Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha , the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya ( 1049 ) , a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja , and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II ( 1025 ) .
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= Worlds Apart ( Fringe ) =
" Worlds Apart " is the twentieth episode of the fourth season of the Fox science @-@ fiction drama television series Fringe , and the series ' 85th episode overall . It was co @-@ written by series story editor Matt Pitts and DC Comics ' Nicole Phillips based on a story by co @-@ producer Graham Roland . Charles Beeson served as director .
The series depicts members of a Federal Bureau of Investigation " Fringe Division " team based in Boston , Massachusetts as they investigate a series of unexplained , often ghastly occurrences , which are related to mysteries surrounding a parallel universe . In this episode , David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) employs former Cortexiphan subjects to create simultaneous earthquakes across the globe , leading Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) to hypothesize that the end of both the prime and parallel universes is imminent . The two worlds must decide whether to close the bridge that was repairing the parallel universe , or they may all face destruction .
" Worlds Apart " first aired on April 27 , 2012 in the United States . The episode featured the return of David Call and Pascale Hutton , two guest actors not seen since the second season finale . It aired in the wake of the official renewal of a fifth season for the series . An estimated 3 @.@ 1 million viewers watched the episode , a small increase from the previous episode . Critical reception was generally positive , as many highlighted the performances as well as the scene between the two Walters .
= = Plot = =
Several earthquakes strike simultaneously across the globe , at the same time and locations in both the prime and parallel universe . The combined Fringe teams agree that David Robert Jones is behind it , the quakes the result of stresses of bringing the two universes into synchronization so that he can collapse both of them . The teams also conclude that Jones has found a means , through the previous " experiment " in Westfield , Vermont ( " Welcome to Westfield " ) , to ride out the destruction of both universes . The idea of shutting down the bridge created by the Machine is brought up , believing that the bridge is enabling Jones ' plan . However , this is considered a last resort , as destroying the bridge will affect the healing of the singularities in the parallel universe .
When a second simultaneous set of earthquakes occur , the parallel universe 's version of Nick Lane ( David Call ) approaches Agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) of the prime universe , believing him to be the parallel universe 's version of Lee . Lee feigns familiarity , learning that Nick had visions of being at the epicenter of the quake before it began . When Lee reports this to Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) in the prime universe , she suddenly recalls her Cortexiphan trials including fellow subject Nick Lane , and with the team 's help , identifies that other Cortexiphan subjects are the epicenter of these quakes , linking to their parallel universe versions to achieve synchronization .
Believing that by taking in one of the Cortexiphan subjects they can stop the effects of another quake , a willing Lane from the parallel universe travels to the prime and is hooked to Walter 's ( John Noble ) equipment . Olivia also hooks herself up , allowing her to communicate what she sees in Lane 's mind . When the prime version of Lane attempts to get into the right position , Olivia is able to identify his location , and he is captured in time . However , despite disrupting the process for Lane , earthquakes continue across the world . Walter estimates that the next set of quakes will cause both universes to collapse .
The captured Lane expresses his belief that Jones is helping the prime universe to defeat the parallel one . Olivia tries to convince him of Jones ' true intentions . Eventually , Lane agrees to show the Fringe team a location where he once met with Jones . The team raids the site but finds nothing ; meanwhile , Lane escapes custody using his abilities . With only hours left until the next set of quakes , as projected by a watch that Lane was wearing , plans are made to shut down the bridge before this time runs out .
Walter and Walternate ( Noble ) start the Machine equipment to overload , which will take several minutes , after which they can pull the power and deactivate the Machine . Lee states to Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) that he will be staying in the parallel universe , where he feels at home , reflecting a previous conversation Peter had with Lee about staying with Olivia in the prime universe . Walter and Walternate have a heartfelt discussion over Peter , and Walter expresses concern that if the bridge disappears , so will Peter . The other Fringe members say their goodbyes to their counterparts . Eventually , the Machine is overloaded and deactivated , and the parallel universe aspects of the room disappear ; Walter is pleased to see Peter remains .
= = Production = =
Fringe story editor Matt Pitts and DC Comics ' Nicole Phillips co @-@ wrote the teleplay , based on a story by co @-@ producer Graham Roland . English director Charles Beeson , known for his work on the science fiction television series Supernatural and Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles , directed " Worlds Apart " , his second episode of the season ( the other being " Making Angels " ) .
In an on @-@ set interview with The Huffington Post , actor John Noble explained that the episode 's primary storyline concerned the bridge between the two worlds . The third season finale , he explained , ended with the two universes healing themselves with the help of a " bridge " . He remarked , " What happens if that bridge now begins to be used as a conduit for evil ? That ’ s the issue we ’ re facing . What do you do ? What do you do with this wonderful discovery ? Do you keep it ? What do you lose if you lose it ? For example , if we didn ’ t have that [ link ] , we ... wouldn ’ t have all these wonderful characters that we ’ ve grown to love . What would happen ? I think we have to face that issue . We have to face the issue of ' How long can you keep this alive , this link between interlacing the two universes ? ' "
Guest stars David Call and Pascale Hutton reprised their characters Nick Lane and Sally Clark , respectively . Both actors had last appeared in the second season finale " Over There " . Lead actress Anna Torv was pleased with their return , explaining , " A few faces from the past pop up , which is always fun . "
The reappearance of Nick Lane and his storyline helped resolve an earlier plot point from " Over There , " in which he was recognized by Fringe agent Lincoln Lee before dying . Noble noted that " Worlds Apart ' and the rest of the fourth season brought back a number of characters from the series ' " rich history " , including Sally , Nick , and David Robert Jones . " This episode , " he commented , " is bringing those things back together for us as we face the decision of what to do . Do we keep the worlds together ? How do we keep them together without creating the monster that is happening ? How do we stop this monster from happening ? That ’ s what this is all about . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Worlds Apart " was first broadcast on the day following the announcement of the renewal of Fringe for a final shortened fifth season . The episode saw a small increase in viewership from the previous week , with an estimated 3 @.@ 09 million viewers . In the adult demographic , the episode received a 1 @.@ 0 / 3 ratings share , which means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds with television sets , and 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . Fringe finished in fourth place among both total viewers and adults , behind episodes of CSI : New York , Grimm , and Primetime : What Would You Do ? .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Worlds Apart " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly writer Jeff Jensen noted that with the closing of the bridge , " Fringe effectively pulled the plug on the creative idea that defined the best years of the show . [ ... ] I don 't think we can understate the passing of the parallel world premise . " While he said he would miss the lost characters , especially Fauxlivia , the series " got the emotions [ of their departure ] just right . " He added his hope that the characters would be revisited . In an interview , Pinckner said that they had spoken to Fox executives about closing off the bridge , to which one executive partner reportedly said , " I was so sad . I had tears in my eyes when we closed the door " . The executive added that despite having initially thought the idea of doppelganger characters as a poor one , she admitted that she " was so wrong " .
Jensen went on to praise Walter and Walternate 's conversation as " devastatingly perfect , " commenting " Just the very action of sitting , of Walternate choosing to literally to meet Walter at his lowest moment , was extraordinarily moving . " Dave Bradley of SFX magazine highlighted the episode 's acting as one particular positive element , praising Torv and Noble for " delivering perfect double performances . " Bradley also praised the scenes between the two Walters and two Astrids , writing that the " moments of connection make the decision to split the universes apart incredibly poignant . " Los Angeles Times writer Andrew Hanson also praised the Walter @-@ Walternate scenes , explaining that after their seated conversation " you almost forget the two characters are played by the same actor . If this isn ’ t the year that John Noble gets recognition for his performances in Fringe , it will be a crime . "
The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A , describing " Worlds Apart " as an " exciting , emotional episode " that " seems to resolve some of this season ’ s storylines while setting up the upcoming two @-@ part season finale . " His favorite part of the episode was when the two teams worked together ; he gave particular attention to the Walter @-@ Walternate talk , remarking , " The last scene between the two Walters is something that I ’ ve been waiting to see for years now , and John Noble nails both sides of the conversation . It ’ s now one of the whole series ’ signature moments : Walter and Walternate , side @-@ by @-@ side . " Other critics also lauded the conversation between Walter and Walternate over Peter .
In a 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked " Worlds Apart " as the seventh best episode of the entire series , explaining that it " perhaps [ is ] a little rushed , but overall this is a satisfying conclusion to a number of major plot threads . Airing directly after " Letters of Transit " , the closing off of a number of dangling stories and characters in this episode allowed the remaining two episodes of season four and all of season five to deal with matters closer to home , and tie up the show ’ s most important remaining mystery , the Observers . "
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= Pinoy =
Pinoy ( / ˈpinɔɪ / ) is an informal demonym referring to the Filipino people in the Philippines and their culture as well as to overseas Filipinos in the Filipino diaspora .
An unspecified number of Filipinos refer to themselves as Pinoy or sometimes the feminine Pinay . The word is formed by taking the last four letters of Filipino and adding the diminutive suffix -y in the Tagalog language ( the suffix is commonly used in Filipino nicknames : e.g. " Ninoy " or " Noynoy " for Benigno Jr. and III respectively ] , " Totoy " for Augusto , etc . ) . Pinoy was used for self @-@ identification by the first wave of Filipinos going to the continental United States before World War II and has been used both in a pejorative sense and as a term of endearment , similar to Chicano . Although Pinoy and Pinay are regarded as derogatory by some younger Filipino @-@ Americans , the terms have been widely used and have recently gained mainstream usage particularly among members of the Filipino masses and the Filipino @-@ American sector .
Pinoy was created to differentiate the experiences of those immigrating to the United States but is now a slang term used to refer to all people of Filipino descent . " Pinoy music " impacted the socio @-@ political climate of the 1970s and was employed by both Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and the People Power Revolution that overthrew his regime . Recent mainstream usages tend to center on entertainment ( Pinoy Big Brother ) and music ( Pinoy Idol ) , which have played a significant role in developing national and cultural identity . As of 2016 , the term has been extensively used by the government of the Philippines itself with apparently no derogatory connotations . It is now more positive than the slang term " flip " .
= = Origins = =
According to Filipino American historian Dawn Mabalon , the earliest appearance of the terms " Pinoy " and " Pinay " was in a 1926 issue of the Filipino Student Bulletin . The article that featured the terms is titled " Filipino Women in U.S. Excel in Their Courses : Invade Business , Politics . "
= = = Motivations = = =
The desire to self @-@ identify can likely be attributed to the diverse and independent history of the archipelagic country - comprising 7 @,@ 107 islands in the western Pacific Ocean - which trace back 30 @,@ 000 years before becoming a Spanish colony in the 16th century and later occupied by the United States , which led to the outbreak of the Philippine – American War ( 1899 – 1902 ) . The Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in 1935 with the country gaining its independence in 1946 after hostilities in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War had ended . The Philippines have over 170 languages indigenous to the area , most of which belong to the Malayo @-@ Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family . In 1939 , then @-@ president Manuel L. Quezon renamed the Tagalog language as the Wikang Pambansa ( " national language " ) . The language was further renamed in 1959 as Filipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero . The 1973 constitution declared the Filipino language to be co @-@ official , along with English , and mandated the development of a national language to be known as Filipino . Since then , the two official languages are Filipino and English .
As of 2003 there are more than eleven million overseas Filipinos worldwide , equivalent to about 11 % of the total population of the Philippines .
= = Earliest usages = =
The earliest known usages of Pinoy / Pinay in magazines and newspapers date to the 1920s include taking on social issues facing Pinoy , casual mentions of Pinoys at events , while some are advertisements from Hawaii from Filipinos themselves . The following are the more notable earliest usages :
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , the earliest published usage known is a Philippine Republic article written in January 1924 by Dr. J. Juliano , a member of the faculty of the Schurz school in Chicago - " Why does a Pinoy take it as an insult to be taken for a Shintoist or a Confucian ? " and " What should a Pinoy do if he is addressed as a Chinese or a Jap ? "
= = = Philippines = = =
In the Philippines , the earliest published usage known is from December 1926 , in History of the Philippine Press , which briefly mentions a weekly Spanish @-@ Visayan @-@ English publication called Pinoy based in Capiz and published by the Pinoy Publishing Company . In 1930 , the Manila @-@ based magazine Khaki and Red : The Official Organ of the Constabulary and Police printed an article about street gangs stating " another is the ' Kapatiran ' gang of Intramuros , composed of patrons of pools rooms who banded together to ' protect pinoys ' from the abusive American soldados . "
= = = Notable literature = = =
Pinoy is first used by Filipino poet Carlos Bulosan , in his 1946 semi @-@ autobiography , America Is in the Heart - " The Pinoys work every day in the fields but when the season is over their money is in the Chinese vaults . " The book describes his childhood in the Philippines , his voyage to America , and his years as an itinerant laborer following the harvest trail in the rural West . It has been used in American Ethnic courses to illustrate the racism experienced by thousands of Filipino laborers during the 1930s and 40s in the United States .
= = Pinoy music = =
In the early 1970s , Pinoy music or " Pinoy pop " emerged , often sung in Tagalog - it was a mix of rock , folk and ballads - marking a political use of music similar to early hip hop but transcending class . The music was a " conscious attempt to create a Filipino national and popular culture " and it often reflected social realities and problems . As early as 1973 , the Juan De la Cruz Band was performing " Ang Himig Natin " ( " Our Music " ) , which is widely regarded as the first example of Pinoy rock . " Pinoy " gained popular currency in the late 1970s in the Philippines when a surge in patriotism made a hit song of Filipino folk singer Heber Bartolome 's " Tayo 'y mga Pinoy " ( " We are Pinoys " ) . This trend was followed by Filipino rapper Francis Magalona 's " Mga Kababayan Ko " ( " My Countrymen " ) in the 1990s and Filipino rock band Bamboo 's " Noypi " ( " Pinoy " in reversed syllables ) in the 2000s . Nowadays , " Pinoy " is used as an adjective to some terms highlighting their relationship to the Philippines or Filipinos . Pinoy rock was soon followed by Pinoy folk and later , Pinoy jazz . Although the music was often used to express opposition to then Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and his use of martial law and the creating of the Batasang Bayan , many of the songs were more subversive and some just instilled national pride . Perhaps because of the cultural affirming nature and many of the songs seemingly being non @-@ threatening , the Marcos administration ordered radio stations to play at least one - and later , three - Pinoy songs each hour . Pinoy music was greatly employed both by Marcos and political forces who sought to overthrow him .
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= California condor =
The California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) is a New World vulture , the largest North American land bird . This condor became extinct in the wild in 1987 ( all remaining wild individuals were captured ) , but the species has been reintroduced to northern Arizona and southern Utah ( including the Grand Canyon area and Zion National Park ) , the coastal mountains of central and southern California , and northern Baja California . Although other fossil members are known , it is the only surviving member of the genus Gymnogyps . The species is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN .
The plumage is black with patches of white on the underside of the wings ; the head is largely bald , with skin color ranging from gray on young birds to yellow and bright orange on breeding adults . Its huge 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wingspan is the widest of any North American bird , and its weight of up to 12 kg ( 26 lb ) nearly equals that of the trumpeter swan , the heaviest among native North American bird species . The condor is a scavenger and eats large amounts of carrion . It is one of the world 's longest @-@ living birds , with a lifespan of up to 60 years .
Condor numbers dramatically declined in the 20th century due to poaching , lead poisoning , and habitat destruction . A conservation plan was put in place by the United States government that led to the capture of all the remaining wild condors which was completed in 1987 , with a total population of 27 individuals . These surviving birds were bred at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park and the Los Angeles Zoo . Numbers rose through captive breeding and , beginning in 1991 , condors were reintroduced into the wild . The California condor is one of the world 's rarest bird species : as of October 2014 there are 425 condors living wild or in captivity . The condor is a significant bird to many Californian Native American groups and plays an important role in several of their traditional myths .
= = Taxonomy = =
The California condor was described by English naturalist George Shaw in 1797 as Vultur californianus . It was originally classified in the same genus as the Andean condor ( V. gryphus ) , but , due to the Andean condor 's slightly different markings , slightly longer wings , and tendency to kill small animals to eat , the California condor has now been placed in its own monotypic genus . The generic name Gymnogyps is derived from the Greek gymnos / γυμνος " naked " or " bare " , and gyps / γυψ " vulture " , while the specific name californianus comes from its location in California . The word condor itself is derived from the Quechua word kuntur .
The exact taxonomic placement of the California condor and the other six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though similar in appearance and ecological roles to Old World vultures , the New World vultures evolved from a different ancestor in a different part of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
The genus Gymnogyps is an example of a relict distribution . During the Pleistocene epoch , this genus was widespread across the Americas . From fossils , the Floridan Gymnogyps kofordi from the Early Pleistocene and the Peruvian Gymnogyps howardae from the Late Pleistocene have been described . A condor found in Late Pleistocene deposits on Cuba was initially described as Antillovultur varonai , but has since been recognized as another member of Gymnogyps , Gymnogyps varonai . It may even have derived from a founder population of California condors .
Today 's California condor is the sole surviving member of Gymnogyps and has no accepted subspecies . However , there is a Late Pleistocene form that is sometimes regarded as a palaeosubspecies , Gymnogyps californianus amplus . Current opinions are mixed regarding the classification of the form as a chronospecies or a separate species Gymnogyps amplus . Gymnogyps amplus occurred over much of the bird 's historical range – even extending into Florida – but was larger , having about the same weight as the Andean condor . This bird also had a wider bill . As the climate changed during the last ice age , the entire population became smaller until it had evolved into the Gymnogyps californianus of today , although more recent studies by Syverson query that theory .
= = Description = =
The adult California condor is a uniform black with the exception of large triangular patches or bands of white on the underside of the wings . It has gray legs and feet , an ivory @-@ colored bill , a frill of black feathers surrounding the base of the neck , and brownish red eyes . The juvenile is mostly a mottled dark brown with blackish coloration on the head . It has mottled gray instead of white on the underside of its flight feathers .
The condor 's head and neck have few feathers , and the skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state , a capability that can serve as communication between individuals . The skin color varies from yellowish to a glowing reddish @-@ orange . The birds do not have true syringeal vocalizations . They can make a few hissing or grunting sounds only heard when very close .
Contrary to the usual rule among true birds of prey , the female is slightly smaller than the male . Overall length can range from 109 to 140 cm ( 43 to 55 in ) and wingspan from 2 @.@ 49 to 3 m ( 8 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Their weight can range from 7 to 14 @.@ 1 kg ( 15 to 31 lb ) , with estimations of average weight ranging from 8 to 9 kg ( 18 to 20 lb ) . Wingspans of up to 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) have been reported but no wingspan over 3 @.@ 05 m ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) has been verified . Most measurements are from birds raised in captivity , so determining if there are any major differences in measurements between wild and captive condors is difficult .
California condors have the largest wingspan of any North American bird . They are surpassed in both body length and weight only by the trumpeter swan and the introduced mute swan . The American white pelican and whooping crane also have longer bodies than the condor . Condors are so large that they can be mistaken for a small , distant airplane , which possibly occurs more often than they are mistaken for other species of bird .
The middle toe of the California condor 's foot is greatly elongated , and the hind one is only slightly developed . The talons of all the toes are straight and blunt , and are thus more adapted to walking than gripping . This is more similar to their supposed relatives the storks than to birds of prey and Old World vultures , which use their feet as weapons or organs of prehension .
= = Historic range = =
At the time of human settlement of the Americas , the California condor was widespread across North America ; condor bones from the late Pleistocene have been found at the Cutler Fossil Site in southern Florida . However , climate changes associated with the end of the last glacial period and the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna led to a subsequent reduction in range and population . Five hundred years ago , the California condor roamed across the American Southwest and West Coast . Faunal remains of condors have been found documented in Arizona , Nevada , New Mexico , and Texas . The Lewis and Clark Expedition of the early 19th century reported on their sighting and shooting of California condors near the mouth of the Columbia River .
= = Habitat = =
The condors live in rocky shrubland , coniferous forests , and oak savannas . They are often found near cliffs or large trees , which they use as nesting sites . Individual birds have a huge range and have been known to travel up to 250 km ( 160 mi ) in search of carrion .
There are two sanctuaries dedicated to this bird , the Sisquoc Condor Sanctuary in the San Rafael Wilderness and the Sespe Condor Sanctuary in the Los Padres National Forest . These areas were chosen because of their prime condor nesting habitat .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
When in flight , the movements of the condor are remarkably graceful . The lack of a large sternum to anchor their correspondingly large flight muscles restricts them to being primarily soarers . The birds flap their wings when taking off from the ground , but after attaining a moderate elevation they largely glide , sometimes going for miles without a single flap of their wings . They have been known to fly up to speeds of 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) and as high as 4 @,@ 600 m ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) . They prefer to roost on high perches from which they can launch without any major wing @-@ flapping effort . Often , these birds are seen soaring near rock cliffs , using thermals to aid them in keeping aloft .
The California condor has a long life span , reaching up to 60 years . If it survives to adulthood , the condor has few natural threats other than humans . Because they lack a syrinx , their vocal display is limited to grunts and hisses . Condors bathe frequently and can spend hours a day preening their feathers . Condors also perform urohidrosis , or defecate on their legs , to reduce their body temperature . There is a well @-@ developed social structure within large groups of condors , with competition to determine a pecking order decided by body language , competitive play behavior , and a variety of hisses and grunts . This social hierarchy is displayed especially when the birds feed , with the dominant birds eating before the younger ones .
= = = Diet = = =
Wild condors maintain a large home range , often traveling 250 km ( 160 mi ) a day in search of carrion . It is thought that in the early days of its existence as a species , the California condor lived off the carcasses of the " megafauna " , which are now extinct in North America . They still prefer to feast on large , terrestrial mammalian carcasses such as deer , goats , sheep , donkeys , horses , pigs , cougars , bears , or cattle . Alternatively , they may feed on the bodies of smaller mammals , such as rabbits or coyotes , aquatic mammals such as whales and California sea lions , or salmon . Bird and reptile carcasses are rarely eaten . Since they do not have a sense of smell , they spot these corpses by looking for other scavengers , like eagles and smaller vultures , the latter of which cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor . They can usually intimidate other scavengers away from the carcass , with the exception of bears , which will ignore them , and golden eagles , which will fight a condor over a kill or a carcass . In the wild they are intermittent eaters , often going for between a few days to two weeks without eating , then gorging themselves on 1 – 1 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 lb ) of meat at once .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Condors begin to look for a mate when they reach sexual maturity at the age of six . To attract a prospective mate , the male condor performs a display , in which the male turns his head red and puffs out his neck feathers . He then spreads his wings and slowly approaches the female . If the female lowers her head to accept the male , the condors become mates for life . The pair makes a simple nest in caves or on cliff clefts , especially ones with nearby roosting trees and open spaces for landing . A mated female lays one bluish @-@ white egg every other year . Eggs are laid as early as January to as late as April . The egg weighs about 280 grams ( 10 oz ) and measures from 90 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) in length and about 67 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) in width . If the chick or egg is lost or removed , the parents " double clutch " , or lay another egg to take the lost one 's place . Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for puppet @-@ rearing ; this induces the parents to lay a second egg , which the condors are sometimes allowed to raise .
The eggs hatch after 53 to 60 days of incubation by both parents . Chicks are born with their eyes open and sometimes can take up to a week to leave the shell completely . The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents . They are able to fly after five to six months , but continue to roost and forage with their parents until they are in their second year , at which point the parents typically turn their energies to a new nest . Ravens are the main predatory threat to condor eggs , while golden eagles and bears are potential predators of condor offspring .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Obstacles to recovery = = =
In modern times , a wide variety of causes have contributed to the condor 's decline . Its low clutch size ( one young per nest ) , combined with a late age of sexual maturity , make the bird vulnerable to artificial population decline . Significant past damage to the condor population has also been attributed to poaching , especially for museum specimens , lead poisoning ( from eating animals containing lead shot ) , DDT poisoning , electric power lines , egg collecting , and habitat destruction . During the California Gold Rush , some condors were even kept as pets . The leading cause of mortality in nestling condors is the ingestion of trash that is fed to them by their parents .
In addition to this , cattle ranchers who observed condors feeding on the dead young of their cattle assumed that the birds killed the cattle . This fallacy led to the condor 's extirpation in some parts of the western United States . This belief was so deeply ingrained that the reintroduction of condors to the Grand Canyon was challenged by some cattle ranchers , who mistakenly believed that the bird hunted calves and lambs .
Unanticipated deaths among recent condor populations occurred due to contact with golden eagles , lead poisoning , and other factors such as power line collisions . Since 1994 , captive @-@ bred California condors have been trained to avoid power lines and people . Since the implementation of this aversion conditioning program , the number of condor deaths due to power lines has greatly decreased . Lead poisoning due to fragmented lead bullets in large game waste is a particularly big problem for condors due to their extremely strong digestive juices ; lead waste is not as much of a problem for other avian scavengers such as the turkey vulture and common raven . This problem has been addressed in California by the Ridley @-@ Tree Condor Preservation Act , a bill that went into effect July 1 , 2008 that requires that hunters use non @-@ lead bullets when hunting in the condor 's range . Blood lead levels in golden eagles as well as turkey vultures has declined with the implementation of the Ridley @-@ Tree Condor Preservation Act , demonstrating that the legislation has helped reduce other species ' lead exposures aside from the California condor .
In an article titled : " Condors or lead ammunition ? We can 't have both " published by The Ecologist in January 2015 , author Dawn Starin states : " Over 60 % of the adult and juvenile deaths ( that is , excluding chicks and fledglings ) in the wild population have been as a result of lead poisoning . " She continues : " Because condors have been known to live past the age of 50 , do not breed until they are at least six years old , and raise only one chick every other year , their populations cannot withstand the mortality rates caused by this neurological toxin . " According to epidemiologist Terra Kelly : " Until all natural food sources are free from lead @-@ based ammunition , lead poisoning will threaten recovery of naturally sustaining populations of condors in the wild . " The article also states : " The military doesn 't use lead , and if that isn 't a huge message I don 't know what is . " However , this statement must be taken in the context that the military has limited the use of lead ammunition at installations in the condor 's range , not service wide .
= = = California Condor Recovery Plan = = =
As the condor 's population continued to decline , discussion began about starting a captive breeding program for the birds . Opponents to this plan argued that the condors had the right to freedom , that capturing all of the condors would change the species ' habits forever , and that the cost was too great . However , the project received the approval of the United States government , and the capture of the remaining wild condors was completed on Easter Sunday 1987 , when AC @-@ 9 , the last wild condor , was captured . At that point , there were only 22 condors in existence , all in captivity .
The goal of the California Condor Recovery Plan was to establish two geographically separate populations , one in California and the other in Arizona , each with 150 birds and at least 15 breeding pairs . As the Recovery Program works toward this goal the number of release sites has grown . There are three active release sites in California , one in Arizona and one in Baja California , Mexico .
The captive breeding program , led by the San Diego Wild Animal Park and Los Angeles Zoo , and with other participating zoos around the country , including the Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden , got off to a slow start due to the condor 's mating habits . However , utilizing the bird 's ability to double clutch , biologists began removing the first egg from the nest and raising it with puppets , allowing the parents to lay another egg .
As the number of condors grew , attention began to focus on releasing some back into the wild . In 1988 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service began a reintroduction experiment involving the release of captive Andean condors into the wild in California . Only females were released , to eliminate the possibility of accidentally introducing a South American species into the United States . The experiment was a success , and all the Andean condors were recaptured and re @-@ released in South America . California condors were released in 1991 and 1992 in California , and again in 1996 in Arizona near the Grand Canyon . Though the birth rate remains low in the wild , their numbers are increasing steadily through regular releases of captive @-@ reared adolescents .
The California condor conservation project may be one of the most expensive species conservation projects in United States history , costing over $ 35 million , including $ 20 million in federal and state funding , since World War II . As of 2007 the annual cost for the condor conservation program was around $ 2 @.@ 0 million per year . However , nesting milestones have been recently reached by the reintroduced condors . In 2003 , the first nestling fledged in the wild since 1981 . In March 2006 , a pair of California condors , released by Ventana Wildlife Society , attempted to nest in a hollow tree near Big Sur , California . This was the first time in more than 100 years in which a pair of California condors had been seen nesting in Northern California . As of November 2011 there were 394 individuals living , including 205 in the wild and the rest in the San Diego Wild Animal Park , the Los Angeles Zoo , the Oregon Zoo , and the World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise , Idaho . As of October 2010 , the wild condor population in its name state of California reached 100 individuals , and 73 wild condors in Arizona . As of May 2012 , the number of living individuals has reached 405 , with 179 living in captivity . By June 2014 , using data from the National Park Service , the condor population had reached 439 : 225 in the wild and 214 in captivity . Official statistics from the October 2014 USFWS record an overall population of 425 , of which 219 are wild and 206 are captive .
As the Recovery Program achieved milestones , a fifth active release site in Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park , Baja California , Mexico , was added to the three release sites in California ( Big Sur , Pinnacles National Park and Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge ) and the Vermilion Cliffs release site in Arizona . In early 2007 , a California condor laid an egg in Mexico for the first time since at least the 1930s . The population of the condors has risen due to these wild and also captive nestings . In June , 2016 , three chicks that were born in Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City , were flawn to Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park , Baja California , Mexico . In the spring of 2009 , a second wild chick was born in the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir National Park and was named Inyaa ( " Sun " in the Kiliwa language ) by local environmentalists . In 2014 , Condor # 597 , also known as " Lupine " , was spotted near Pescadero , a coastal community south of San Francisco . Lupine had been routinely seen at Pinnacles National Park after having been released into the wild at Big Sur the previous year . Younger birds of the Central California are seeking to expand their territory , which could mean that a new range expansion is possible for the more than 60 condors flying free in central California . Also in 2014 the first successful breeding in Utah was reported . A pair of condors , who were released in Arizona , nested in Zion National Park and the hatching of one chick was confirmed .
= = = Condor Watch = = =
A crowdsourcing project called Condor Watch ( CW ) was started on April 14 , 2014 , hosted by the web portal Zooniverse . Volunteers are asked to examine motion @-@ capture images of California condors associated with release sites managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , National Park Service and Ventana Wildlife Society . The tasks on the website include identifying tagged condors and marking the distance to feeding sources such as animal carcasses . Biologists can then use this data to deduce which birds are at risk of lead poisoning .
Condor Watch enables volunteers , or citizen scientists , to participate in active research . The project has up 175 @,@ 000 images to view and assess — far more than the team could hope to view on their own . Lead scientist Myra Finkelstein believes volunteering is fun because it allows enthusiasts to track the " biographies " of individual condors . Citizen science has long been used in ornithology , for instance in the Audubon Society 's Christmas Bird Count , which began in 1900 and the breeding bird survey which began in 1966 . McCaffrey ( 2005 ) believes this approach not only directly benefits ongoing projects , but will also help train aspiring ornithologists .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Throughout its historic range , the California condor has been a popular subject of mythology and an important symbol to Native Americans . Unusually , this bird takes on different roles in the storytelling of the different tribes .
The Wiyot tribe of California say that the condor recreated mankind after Above Old Man wiped humanity out with a flood . However , other tribes , such as California 's Mono , viewed the condor as a destroyer , not a creator . They say that Condor seized humans , cut off their heads , and drained their blood so that it would flood Ground Squirrel 's home . Condor then seized Ground Squirrel after he fled , but Ground Squirrel managed to cut off Condor 's head when Condor paused to take a drink of the blood . According to the Yokut tribe , the condor sometimes ate the moon , causing the lunar cycle , and his wings caused eclipses . The Chumash tribe of Southern California believed that the condor was once a white bird , but it turned black when it flew too close to a fire .
Condor bones have been found in Native American graves , as have condor feather headdresses . Cave paintings of condors have also been discovered . Some tribes ritually killed condors to make ceremonial clothing out of their feathers . Shamans then danced while wearing these to reach the upper and lower spiritual worlds . Whenever a shaman died , his clothes were said to be cursed , so new clothing had to be made for his successor . Some scientists , such as Noel Snyder , believe that this process of making ceremonial clothing contributed to the condor 's decline .
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= Spencer ( surname ) =
Spencer ( also Spence , Spender , Spens , and Spenser ) is a surname . The origin can be traced directly to Robert d 'Abbetot , who is listed as Robert le Dispenser , a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief of several counties , in the Domesday Book of 1086 . Robert was possibly one of the Norman knights who fought alongside ( or accompanied ) William the Conqueror in the defeat of Harold II , King of England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 . There is little doubt that both Robert and his brother Urse came to England at about the time of the Battle of Hastings . They were both beneficiaries of William over the years , and were given titles and substantial land and property — suggesting repayment for some earlier deeds . It is likely that Robert 's first acknowledgment was his official appointment as Royal " Dispencier " sometimes expressed more grandly as " Royal Steward " , " King 's Steward " or " Lord Steward " . As dispenser of provisions to the King and his household Robert was known and recorded as Robert le Despencer or , in its Latinised form , Robertus Dispensator . There is also the possibility that Robert held this official position before arriving in England .
Robert 's adopted surname was usually written as Despenser or Dispenser — notably in works such as the Domesday Book of 1086 and the Scottish Ragman Rolls of 1291 and 1296 . From 1066 until the 13th century the occupational name attributed to Robert d 'Abbetot existed with numerous spelling and other variations . Eventually both the " le " and " de " that frequently preceded the name were omitted . In 1392 the popular " s " in the centre of the name was discarded and replaced with the " c " seen in the present @-@ day form — Spencer .
The surname Spencer has gained in popularity over time . In the 19th century it also become popular as a given name — especially in the more anglicised areas of the United States .
= = Variations = =
= = = English = = =
In its transition from the French dispencier to its current form , the name Spencer has been presented and spelled in many ways — especially through the period of its early evolution in the medieval period from c.1100 to 1350 AD . The following ( in alphabetical order ) is a selection of the many orthographic variants :
Despencer , de Expansa ( derived from expence ) , De Spencer , de Spendure , de Spens , de la Despense , De la Spence , de la Spense , del Spens , Despenser , DeSpenser , Dispencer , Dispenser , Despensator , Dispensator , la Spens , le Despencer , le Despendur , le Despencer , le Despenser , le dispencer , le Espencer , le Espenser , le Spencer , le Spendur , Spendure , le Spenser , le Spensier , Spence , Spences , Spen , Spender , Spens , Spensar , Spense , Spenser , Spensers , Spensor , Spincer , also the rare patronymic Spencers , and the aphetic ( derived ) Spender .
Within a few generations the le ( " the " ) usually placed before Despenser was omitted . The name variant Spens first appears as Simon del Spens , dated 1300 , in the " Charters of Gisburn Priory " , Yorkshire , England , during the reign of Edward I. Spence , another form of Spens , means both " the place where provisions are kept " and the " clerk of the kitchen " . This form of the name was popular in both the north of England and in Scotland . In Fife the word referred to " a spare room beside the kitchen " , and in England to a " yard , enclosure or buttery " — simply an abbreviation of despencer referring to the household store . The principal Scottish family of Clan Spens descend from one of the ancient Earls of Fife . John " Dispensator or Le Dispenser " appeared in a list of the tenants and vassals of Walter fitz Alan High Steward of Scotland in the period 1161 – 1171 . Roger ' Dispensator ' witnessed a charter by Bricius de Douglas , the bishop of Moray granting the church of Deveth to Spynie between 1202 and 1222 . The family de Spens in Fife trace their ancestry back to 1170 and the " Baron de Spens d 'Estignols " , who settled in France in 1450 , and " the Count de Spens , who ranked among the first of the Swedish nobility and was generalissimo of the Swedish forces " . As a north country word for ' pantry ' , spence was used by Poet Laureate Alfred Lord Tennyson in the sense of a refectory : " Bluff Harry broke into the spence and turn 'd the cowls adrift " ( The Talking Oak , l.47. ) .
The surnames Stewart and Stuart denote essentially the same occupation but have a completely different word derivation . They originate from the pre @-@ 7th @-@ century English words stigweard — a compound of stig meaning household — and weard , a guardian .
= = = Other countries and cultures = = =
Foreign Equivalents :
German : Speiser – a steward . This is a derivative of the Middle High German spise , meaning food or supplies via the Old High German — in turn derived from Late Latin expe ( n ) sa ( pecunia ) , or " ( money ) expended " .
Jewish ( Ashkenazic ) : Speiser – occupational name for a grocer , from a later semantic development of " Speiser " .
Greek : Economos – the anglicised surname derived from the Greek oikonomou ( " oi " in Greek pronounced as a long E. ) Oikon ( English = ēcon ) means house in classical Greek . This surname has the same occupational derivation as Spencer but , like the surnames Stewart and Stuart , has a different etymology . The original meaning of oikonomou was a home owner but it evolved to mean estate manager , somebody who was responsible for all resources on the estate , a steward . Oikonomou was a medieval Eastern Roman title for somebody who was in charge of a project or institution ; it is still used by the Greek Orthodox church . Over time the meaning of Oikonomou has evolved from " manager of resources " to " manager of money , a treasurer " .
= = Etymology = =
Philologists have been able to track changes in the name Spencer over time — in different dialects and languages — as well as trace its derivation from a common ancestry . The name Spencer can be traced through its Latin and French roots to its Middle English and modern form .
Medieval Latin – dispensa , dispensator and dispensarius – steward .
Old French –
a. despense – larder
b. espenser , -ier – dispenser of money , provisions etc . ; someone working at , or in charge of , the buttery ; a household steward
c. despendour – steward .
Anglo @-@ French – despenser , -ier .
Middle English – spens ( e ) and spence – larder ; dispensour – steward . With the agent suffix – er this becomes spenser – butler or steward .
= = = Derivation = = =
In England , up to about the time of the Norman Conquest when communities were small , each person was identifiable by a single name , usually a personal name or nickname . Picts , Gaels , Britons , Anglo @-@ Saxons , Scandinavians and Normans all originally used single names , but as the population increased , it became necessary to identify people further — giving rise to names like John the butcher , Henry of Sutton , Roger son of Richard and William the short , which naturally evolved into John Butcher , Henry Sutton , Roger Richardson and William Short . Although a few hereditary patrilineal surnames ( those passed from father to son and daughter ) appear to have existed in before the Norman Conquest , the now traditional use of binomials ( two names , a given name and a surname ) appears to have gathered momentum at this time — particularly after the introduction of records for personal taxation , known in England as the poll tax , first levied in 1275 . The poll tax was the historical means by which local communities recorded the registering , categorizing , and polling of citizens , free @-@ subjects and other voters .
The meaning of a surname generally derives from one of the following four sources : location ( toponym ) such as a specific place ( e.g. London , York ) or feature of the place or landscape ( e.g. Hill , Townsend ) ; a relationship ( e.g. Richardson ) ; a nickname ( e.g. Grey , Wellbeloved ) ; or an occupation or office ( e.g. Sawyer , Skinner ) . The surname Spencer relates to occupation and office .
= = Robert Despenser , Urse d 'Abbetot , and the Despenser family = =
= = = Robert Despenser = = =
Robert d 'Abbetot was the son of Almericus d 'Abbetot whose Viking ancestry has been traced back to Tancred of Hauteville ( 980 – 1041 ) . Almericus is known to have held the position of mayor in the town of Saint @-@ Jean @-@ d 'Abbetot in Normandy . Robert , like William 's other close knights , was granted titles , lands and a high position in William 's court . In addition to his position as steward he also was given land grants in county Bedford . He held his office for the period c.1088 – 1098 .
Robert 's last name of d 'Abbetot had no meaning in England so it was likely changed to Robert le Despenser ( many spelling variants of this name exist including Robert the Dispensor , Robert Despensator , Robert Dispenser , and Robert fitzThurstin . ) which reflected his new official position and occupation . He seems to have maintained his popularity with William because in the Domesday Book of 1086 , Robert Despenser was listed as a land tenant @-@ in @-@ chief in Gloucestershire , Leicestershire , Lincolnshire , Oxfordshire , and Warwickshire , as well as holding lands in Worcestershire obtained from the Bishop of Worcester .
Robert is assumed to have died shortly after restoring some estates to Westminster Abbey but he appears to have had no legitimate male children , as his heir was his brother Urse . He may have had a daughter , as some of his lands were inherited by the Marmion family , but it is also possible that a daughter of Urse married into the Marmion family . Robert 's office as the king 's steward may also have gone to Urse , as it was later held by Urse 's heirs . A later steward , Thurstin , might have been an illegitimate son of Robert .
= = = Robert 's brother Urse d 'Abbetot = = =
Robert Despenser 's brother , Urse d 'Abbetot ( c . 1040 – 1108 ) , became a medieval Sheriff of Worcester and royal official . He did not take up the name Despenser . In Normandy the brothers lived in the town of Saint Jean d 'Abbetot as tenants on lands of feudal lords in the Tancarville family in the Pays de Caux region on the lower Seine .
Ralph Fitz Gerald ( Chamberlain of Tankerville ) was the elder brother of Aumary d 'Abetot . Their father was Gerold ( husband of Helisendis ) Sire de Tankerville with the hereditary office of chamberlain to the Dukes of Normandy . His younger son , Aumary , inherited the fiefs of Abetot and had two sons , Urso and Robert " Despencer " who gave the name to the noble families of Le Despencer and Spenser that trace their descent from his niece . In 1073 Urse was one of the king 's council . He rendered great service in the suppression of the rebellion of the Earls of Hereford and Norfolk and had a reputation as a spoiler and devastator of the Church . Urse 's son Roger d 'Abetot , having killed a servant of Henry I , was banished and his confiscated estates given by the king — together with the hand of his sister Emmeline d 'Abetot — to Walter de Beauchamp of Bedford .
However , within 2 – 3 years of 1066 both brothers were established in England — Urse as Sheriff of Worcestershire , supervising the construction of Worcester Castle . The Domesday survey showed Urse 's lands mostly in the West Midlands while Robert 's extended to the North Sea . Robert remained a benefactor to the Priory of St. Barbe @-@ en @-@ Auge in Normandy , which had been founded by the Tancarville lords .
Lands held by the d 'Abbetots in Worcester are recorded in Hemming 's Cartulary . The d 'Abbetot family settled mostly in Worcester where they were lords of Hindlip ( Hind Leap ) , 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Worcester , for 200 years holding the manor for a knight 's fee , that is , the service of an armed knight in the event of war . A church has stood on the site since the 11th century . Two villages have taken the D 'Abbetot family name . Redmarley D 'Abitot lies on the extreme south @-@ west border of Worcestershire in Gloucestershire . Here the D 'Abitots owned property in the parish in the 16th century , and lived at Down House although the last member of the family is believed to have died in the 18th century . The other village is Croome D 'Abitot , which lies 7 – 8 miles south @-@ east of Worcester . Many of the descendants of Robert Despenser and Urse achieved notoriety of various kinds and the Dispenser line has been traced for at least 10 generations .
= = = Associated families = = =
The Norman family of de Ferrers , through Henry de Ferrers , had received the largest grants of land and manors in Derbyshire and were closely related to the d 'Abbetots by marriage . Similarly , Urse 's son Roger had a sister , Emmeline , who married Walter de Beauchamp from another influential family of the time . Walter succeeded to Urse 's lands after the exiling of Roger around 1110 . Tradition has it that the Derbyshire D 'Abitots sprang either from Robert d 'Abitot or a junior branch of the Worcester d 'Abitots , although it is more likely to trace directly from Urse .
= = Heraldry = =
Heraldry , the practice of designing , displaying , describing , and recording coats of arms and badges , arose from the need to distinguish participants in combat when their faces were hidden by iron and steel helmets . The process of creating coats of arms ( these are often called " family crests " but in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland an individual , rather than a family , had a coat of arms ) began in the eight and 9th centuries . Eventually a formal system of rules developed into increasingly complex forms of heraldry that allowed the use of coats of arms by countries , states , provinces , towns and villages in a form of civic heraldry . In more recent times coats of arms have evolved from their military origins to denote educational institutes , and other establishments , apparently leading to the modern logo and corporate livery .
The secretum or private seal of Henry le Despenser , Bishop of Norwich ( A.D. 1370 – 1406 ) is shown here . Arms of Hugh le Despencer .
= = Hereditary names and genetic lineages = =
The possession of the surname Spencer does not necessarily indicate a hereditary relationship to Robert Despenser . Irregularities can occur with non @-@ paternity and it is possible that consecutive but unrelated people in the same occupation may well have adopted the same name resulting in the foundation of many different Spencer genetic lineages . It is known , for example , that in London in the 13th and 14th centuries trade apprentices would take on the names of their masters . Nevertheless , also in London , surnames of all kinds had become hereditary in the patrician class by the 12th century .
Nevertheless , the genetic similarity of people with identical surnames has been shown to be quite high , especially those with rarer surnames . It might seem an almost insurmountable task to determine the true lineage of contemporary Spencers when such an " occupational " name probably has many founders . Nevertheless , modern genetics now has the capacity to discriminate relationships at an increasingly detailed resolution both in terms of close recent ancestry and distant ancestry . Many people are now using gene testing laboratories as part of a surname DNA project to resolve not only who their close relations are around the world , but also the migration patterns of their ancestors over the 50 @,@ 000 years since modern man left Africa .
In America many Spencers have been traced back genetically to four Spencer brothers : William Spencer 1601 – 1640 , Thomas Spencer 1607 – 1687 , Michael Spencer 1611 – 1653 , and Gerard Spencer 1614 – 1685 .
= = The Spencer aristocracy = =
The English aristocratic Spencer family has resided at their ancestral home at Althorp , Northamptonshire , since the early 16th century . The Estate now covers 14 @,@ 000 acres ( 57 km2 ) in Northamptonshire , Warwickshire and Norfolk . From pre @-@ Tudor times the Spencers had been farmers , coming to prominence in Warwickshire in the 15th century when John Spencer became feoffee of Wormleighton in 1469 , and a tenant at Althorp in 1486 . His nephew , another John , used the gains from trade in livestock and commodities to buy both properties . He was knighted in 1504 and died in 1522 . John 's descendants expanded the family holdings through business dealings and marriage into the peerage . The family is related through marriage to the Churchills of Blenheim Palace , a line that included the Dukes of Marlborough and Winston Churchill . From the Althorp line came the Earls of Sunderland , the later Dukes of Marlborough , and the Earls Spencer . The family captured international attention when Lady Diana Frances Spencer married Prince Charles on 29 July 1981 , and her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997 .
= = Notable Spencers = =
The following is a small selection of notable Spencers .
= = = 13th Century = = =
Hugh le Despenser I ( died 1238 ) was a wealthy land owner in the East Midlands of England , as well as High Sheriff of Berkshire .
Sir Hugh le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer ( 1223 – 1265 ) son of Hugh le Despenser I was an important ally of Simon de Montfort during the reign of Henry III . He served briefly as Justiciar of England ( Chief Justice ) in 1260 and as Constable of the Tower of London and the castles of Shrewsbury , Bruges , and Balsover .
Hugh le Despenser , 1st Earl of Winchester ( 1262 – 1326 ) the elder Despenser , was for a time the chief adviser to King Edward II of England .
Hugh Despenser the Younger ( 1286 – 1326 ) became Royal Chamberlain in 1318 and the favourite of Edward II of England but developed a reputation for greed and , after falling out with the Barons , was accused of treason . He was forced into exile in 1321 with his father , who later fled to Bordeaux . Hugh was captured and sentenced to public execution by hanging ( for thievery ) , and drawing and quartering ( for treason ) .
= = = 14th Century = = =
Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) was the third eldest son of Hugh le Despenser the Younger by his wife Eleanor de Clare .
Edward le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer , KG ( also called Despenser ) ( c . 24 March 1335 or 1336 – 11 November 1375 ) was the son of Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) and Anne , the sister of Henry , Lord Ferrers of Groby . He succeeded as Lord of Glamorgan in 1349 .
Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester ( 22 September 1373 – 13 January 1400 , Bristol ) was the son of Edward le Despenser , 1st Baron le Despencer , whom he succeeded in 1375 .
Richard le Despenser , 4th Baron Burghersh ( 1396 – 1414 ) was the son and heir of Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester ( 1373 – 1400 )
= = = 16th Century = = =
John Spencer ( 1524 – 1586 ) , owner of Althorp and MP
Edmund Spenser ( c . 1552 – 13 January 1599 ) was an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene , an epic poem celebrating — through fantastical allegory — the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of Modern English verse in its infancy .
= = = 17th Century = = =
Col. Nicholas Spencer ( 1633 – 1689 ) was an English merchant born at Cople , Bedfordshire , who emigrated to the Colony of Virginia , where he served as land agent for his cousin Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper . A planter with extensive landholdings , Spencer later served in the Virginia House of Burgesses , as Secretary and President of the Council of the Virginia Colony , and as Acting Governor . With his friend John Washington , Col. Spencer patented the Mount Vernon estate land grant .
= = = 19th Century = = =
Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer KCMG ( 23 June 1860 – 14 July 1929 ) was a British @-@ Australian biologist and anthropologist .
Herbert Spencer ( 27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903 ) was an English philosopher , prominent classical liberal political theorist , and sociological theorist of the Victorian era .
= = = 20th Century = = =
Elizabeth Spencer ( soprano ) was a recording artist for Thomas Alva Edison .
Percy Spencer ( 9 July 1894 – 8 September 1970 ) American inventor of the microwave oven .
Diana , Princess of Wales , ( Diana Frances ; née Spencer ; 1 July 1961 – 31 August 1997 ) was the first wife of Charles , Prince of Wales .
Prince William , Duke of Cambridge eldest son of Diana , Princess of Wales second in line to the thrones of the United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth realms .
Prince Harry second son of Diana , Princess of Wales .
Cliff Spencer , co @-@ author of the original implementation of the Unix utility sudo
= = Popularity , numbers and distribution = =
There is strong evidence that despite population movement in the 19th Century most people stayed relatively near to their place of birth . The greatest density of Spencers in present @-@ day England is in Nottinghamshire , followed by Derbyshire ( see below ) . Derby and Notts were closely connected at the time of Domesday , and up until the time of Elizabeth I had the same Sheriff . The d 'Abbetot family had holdings in Croome , Hindlip and Redmarley as well as Clopton and Acton Beauchamp .
In North America early settlement of Spencers date to Thomas Spencer in Virginia in 1623 ; William Spencer , Cambridge , Massachusetts in 1630 ; Thomas Spencer , Maine 1630 . Col. Nicholas Spencer arrived in Virginia in the 1650s and subsequently served as Acting Governor . An account of Spencers in America has been published by Ancestry.com.
Spencers arriving in Australia with the convicts of the First Fleet in 1788 were Daniel Spencer from Dorchester , John Spencer , and Mary Spence from Wigan . With the Third Fleet in 1791 came John Spencer from Lancaster and Thomas Spencer from London .
Statistics for popularity , numbers and distribution of Spencers are presented in the tables below :
FPM = frequency per million
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= Main sequence =
In astronomy , the main sequence is a continuous and distinctive band of stars that appears on plots of stellar color versus brightness . These color @-@ magnitude plots are known as Hertzsprung – Russell diagrams after their co @-@ developers , Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell . Stars on this band are known as main @-@ sequence stars or " dwarf " stars .
After a star has formed , it generates thermal energy in the dense core region through nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium . During this stage of the star 's lifetime , it is located along the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass , but also based upon its chemical composition and other factors . All main @-@ sequence stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium , where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of gravitational collapse from the overlying layers . The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation in the core on the temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance . Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the photosphere . The energy is carried by either radiation or convection , with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients , higher opacity or both .
The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts , based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy . Stars below about 1 @.@ 5 times the mass of the Sun ( or 1 @.@ 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) ) primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium , a sequence called the proton – proton chain . Above this mass , in the upper main sequence , the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the CNO cycle that produces helium from hydrogen atoms . Main @-@ sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions , which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur . Below this mass , stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface . With decreasing stellar mass , the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases , whereas main @-@ sequence stars below 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ undergo convection throughout their mass . When core convection does not occur , a helium @-@ rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen .
In general , the more massive a star is , the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence . After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed , the star evolves away from the main sequence on the HR diagram . The behavior of a star now depends on its mass , with stars below 0 @.@ 23 M ☉ becoming white dwarfs directly , whereas stars with up to ten solar masses pass through a red giant stage . More massive stars can explode as a supernova , or collapse directly into a black hole .
= = History = =
In the early part of the 20th century , information about the types and distances of stars became more readily available . The spectra of stars were shown to have distinctive features , which allowed them to be categorized . Annie Jump Cannon and Edward C. Pickering at Harvard College Observatory developed a method of categorization that became known as the Harvard Classification Scheme , published in the Harvard Annals in 1901 .
In Potsdam in 1906 , the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars — classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme — could be divided into two distinct groups . These stars are either much brighter than the Sun , or much fainter . To distinguish these groups , he called them " giant " and " dwarf " stars . The following year he began studying star clusters ; large groupings of stars that are co @-@ located at approximately the same distance . He published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars . These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars , which he named the Main Sequence .
At Princeton University , Henry Norris Russell was following a similar course of research . He was studying the relationship between the spectral classification of stars and their actual brightness as corrected for distance — their absolute magnitude . For this purpose he used a set of stars that had reliable parallaxes and many of which had been categorized at Harvard . When he plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude , he found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship . This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy .
Of the red stars observed by Hertzsprung , the dwarf stars also followed the spectra @-@ luminosity relationship discovered by Russell . However , the giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so , do not follow the same relationship . Russell proposed that the " giant stars must have low density or great surface @-@ brightness , and the reverse is true of dwarf stars " . The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars .
In 1933 , Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung – Russell diagram to denote a luminosity @-@ spectral class diagram . This name reflected the parallel development of this technique by both Hertzsprung and Russell earlier in the century .
As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s , it was shown that , for stars of a uniform chemical composition , a relationship exists between a star 's mass and its luminosity and radius . That is , for a given mass and composition , there is a unique solution for determining the star 's radius and luminosity . This became known as the Vogt @-@ Russell theorem ; named after Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell . By this theorem , when a star 's chemical composition and its position on the main sequence is known , so too is the star 's mass and radius . ( However , it was subsequently discovered that the theorem breaks down somewhat for stars of non @-@ uniform composition . )
A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by W. W. Morgan and P. C. Keenan . The MK classification assigned each star a spectral type — based on the Harvard classification — and a luminosity class . The Harvard classification had been developed by assigning a different letter to each star based on the strength of the hydrogen spectral line , before the relationship between spectra and temperature was known . When ordered by temperature and when duplicate classes were removed , the spectral types of stars followed , in order of decreasing temperature with colors ranging from blue to red , the sequence O , B , A , F , G , K and M. ( A popular mnemonic for memorizing this sequence of stellar classes is " Oh Be A Fine Girl / Guy , Kiss Me " . ) The luminosity class ranged from I to V , in order of decreasing luminosity . Stars of luminosity class V belonged to the main sequence .
= = Formation = =
When a protostar is formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud of gas and dust in the local interstellar medium , the initial composition is homogeneous throughout , consisting of about 70 % hydrogen , 28 % helium and trace amounts of other elements , by mass . The initial mass of the star depends on the local conditions within the cloud . ( The mass distribution of newly formed stars is described empirically by the initial mass function . ) During the initial collapse , this pre @-@ main @-@ sequence star generates energy through gravitational contraction . Upon reaching a suitable density , energy generation is begun at the core using an exothermic nuclear fusion process that converts hydrogen into helium .
When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost , the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram ( or HR diagram ) called the standard main sequence . Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as " zero age main sequence " , or ZAMS . The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion . From this point , the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age .
A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed , then begins to evolve into a more luminous star . ( On the HR diagram , the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence . ) Thus the main sequence represents the primary hydrogen @-@ burning stage of a star 's lifetime .
= = Properties = =
The majority of stars on a typical HR diagram lie along the main @-@ sequence curve . This line is pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity depend only on a star 's mass , at least to zeroth @-@ order approximation , as long as it is fusing hydrogen at its core — and that is what almost all stars spend most of their " active " lives doing .
The temperature of a star determines its spectral type via its effect on the physical properties of plasma in its photosphere . A star 's energy emission as a function of wavelength is influenced by both its temperature and composition . A key indicator of this energy distribution is given by the color index , B − V , which measures the star 's magnitude in blue ( B ) and green @-@ yellow ( V ) light by means of filters . This difference in magnitude provides a measure of a star 's temperature .
= = Dwarf terminology = =
Main @-@ sequence stars are called dwarf stars , but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing . For the cooler stars , dwarfs such as red dwarfs , orange dwarfs , and yellow dwarfs are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors . However , for hotter blue and white stars , the size and brightness difference between so @-@ called dwarf stars that are on the main sequence and the so @-@ called giant stars that are not becomes smaller ; for the hottest stars it is not directly observable . For those stars the terms dwarf and giant refer to differences in spectral lines which indicate if a star is on the main sequence or off it . Nevertheless , very hot main @-@ sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs , even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the " giant " stars of that temperature .
The common use of dwarf to mean main sequence is confusing in another way , because there are dwarf stars which are not main @-@ sequence stars . For example , a white dwarf is the dead core of a star that is left after the star has shed its outer layers , that is much smaller than a main @-@ sequence star- — roughly the size of Earth . These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main @-@ sequence stars .
= = Parameters = =
By treating the star as an idealized energy radiator known as a black body , the luminosity L and radius R can be related to the effective temperature Teff by the Stefan – Boltzmann law :
L
= 4πσR2Teff4
where σ is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant . As the position of a star on the HR diagram shows its approximate luminosity , this relation can be used to estimate its radius .
The mass , radius and luminosity of a star are closely interlinked , and their respective values can be approximated by three relations . First is the Stefan – Boltzmann law , which relates the luminosity L , the radius R and the surface temperature Teff . Second is the mass – luminosity relation , which relates the luminosity L and the mass M. Finally , the relationship between M and R is close to linear . The ratio of M to R increases by a factor of only three over 2 @.@ 5 orders of magnitude of M. This relation is roughly proportional to the star 's inner temperature TI , and its extremely slow increase reflects the fact that the rate of energy generation in the core strongly depends on this temperature , whereas it has to fit the mass – luminosity relation . Thus , a too high or too low temperature will result in stellar instability .
A better approximation is to take ε =
L / M , the energy generation rate per unit mass , as ε is proportional to TI15 , where TI is the core temperature . This is suitable for stars at least as massive as the Sun , exhibiting the CNO cycle , and gives the better fit R ∝ M0.78.
= = = Sample parameters = = =
The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence . The values of luminosity ( L ) , radius ( R ) and mass ( M ) are relative to the Sun — a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20 – 30 % from the values listed below .
= = Energy generation = =
All main @-@ sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion . The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star . A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core , resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure . Likewise an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand , lowering the pressure at the core . Thus the star forms a self @-@ regulating system in hydrostatic equilibrium that is stable over the course of its main sequence lifetime .
Main @-@ sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes , and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region . Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts , based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process . In the lower main sequence , energy is primarily generated as the result of the proton @-@ proton chain , which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium . Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the CNO cycle . ( See the chart . ) This process uses atoms of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium .
At a stellar core temperature of 18 Million Kelvin , the PP process and CNO cycle are equally efficient , and each type generates half of the star 's net luminosity . As this is the core temperature of a star with about 1 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the upper main sequence consists of stars above this mass . Thus , roughly speaking , stars of spectral class F or cooler belong to the lower main sequence , while A @-@ type stars or hotter are upper main @-@ sequence stars . The transition in primary energy production from one form to the other spans a range difference of less than a single solar mass . In the Sun , a one solar @-@ mass star , only 1 @.@ 5 % of the energy is generated by the CNO cycle . By contrast , stars with 1 @.@ 8 M ☉ or above generate almost their entire energy output through the CNO cycle .
The observed upper limit for a main @-@ sequence star is 120 – 200 M ☉ . The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable , so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit . The lower limit for sustained proton – proton nuclear fusion is about 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ or 80 times the mass of Jupiter . Below this threshold are sub @-@ stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion , known as brown dwarfs .
= = Structure = =
Because there is a temperature difference between the core and the surface , or photosphere , energy is transported outward . The two modes for transporting this energy are radiation and convection . A radiation zone , where energy is transported by radiation , is stable against convection and there is very little mixing of the plasma . By contrast , in a convection zone the energy is transported by bulk movement of plasma , with hotter material rising and cooler material descending . Convection is a more efficient mode for carrying energy than radiation , but it will only occur under conditions that create a steep temperature gradient .
In massive stars ( above 10 M ☉ ) the rate of energy generation by the CNO cycle is very sensitive to temperature , so the fusion is highly concentrated at the core . Consequently , there is a high temperature gradient in the core region , which results in a convection zone for more efficient energy transport . This mixing of material around the core removes the helium ash from the hydrogen @-@ burning region , allowing more of the hydrogen in the star to be consumed during the main @-@ sequence lifetime . The outer regions of a massive star transport energy by radiation , with little or no convection .
Intermediate @-@ mass stars such as Sirius may transport energy primarily by radiation , with a small core convection region . Medium @-@ sized , low @-@ mass stars like the Sun have a core region that is stable against convection , with a convection zone near the surface that mixes the outer layers . This results in a steady buildup of a helium @-@ rich core , surrounded by a hydrogen @-@ rich outer region . By contrast , cool , very low @-@ mass stars ( below 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) are convective throughout . Thus the helium produced at the core is distributed across the star , producing a relatively uniform atmosphere and a proportionately longer main sequence lifespan .
= = Luminosity @-@ color variation = =
As non @-@ fusing helium ash accumulates in the core of a main @-@ sequence star , the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass . Since it is the outflow of fusion @-@ supplied energy that supports the higher layers of the star , the core is compressed , producing higher temperatures and pressures . Both factors increase the rate of fusion thus moving the equilibrium towards a smaller , denser , hotter core producing more energy whose increased outflow pushes the higher layers further out . Thus there is a steady increase in the luminosity and radius of the star over time . For example , the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70 % of its current value . As a star ages this luminosity increase changes its position on the HR diagram . This effect results in a broadening of the main sequence band because stars are observed at random stages in their lifetime . That is , the main sequence band develops a thickness on the HR diagram ; it is not simply a narrow line .
Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved binary stars that can alter the observed stellar parameters . However , even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star 's color and luminosity . Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances , the star 's evolutionary status , interaction with a close companion , rapid rotation , or a magnetic field can all slightly change a main @-@ sequence star 's HR diagram position , to name just a few factors . As an example , there are metal @-@ poor stars ( with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium ) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as subdwarfs . These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition .
A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram , known as the instability strip , is occupied by pulsating variable stars known as Cepheid variables . These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals , giving them a pulsating appearance . The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class A and F stars , which are between one and two solar masses . Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip that intersects the upper part of the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables . Main @-@ sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude and so this variation is difficult to detect . Other classes of unstable main @-@ sequence stars , like Beta Cephei variables , are unrelated to this instability strip .
= = Lifetime = =
The total amount of energy that a star can generate through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is limited by the amount of hydrogen fuel that can be consumed at the core . For a star in equilibrium , the energy generated at the core must be at least equal to the energy radiated at the surface . Since the luminosity gives the amount of energy radiated per unit time , the total life span can be estimated , to first approximation , as the total energy produced divided by the star 's luminosity .
For a star with at least 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , when the hydrogen supply in its core is exhausted and it expands to become a red giant , it can start to fuse helium atoms to form carbon . The energy output of the helium fusion process per unit mass is only about a tenth the energy output of the hydrogen process , and the luminosity of the star increases . This results in a much shorter length of time in this stage compared to the main sequence lifetime . ( For example , the Sun is predicted to spend 130 million years burning helium , compared to about 12 billion years burning hydrogen . ) Thus , about 90 % of the observed stars above 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ will be on the main sequence . On average , main @-@ sequence stars are known to follow an empirical mass @-@ luminosity relationship . The luminosity ( L ) of the star is roughly proportional to the total mass ( M ) as the following power law :
<formula>
This relationship applies to main @-@ sequence stars in the range 0 @.@ 1 – 50 M ☉ .
The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star . Thus , the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models . The Sun has been a main @-@ sequence star for about 4 @.@ 5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6 @.@ 5 billion years , for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 1010 years . Hence :
<formula>
where M and L are the mass and luminosity of the star , respectively , <formula> is a solar mass , <formula> is the solar luminosity and <formula> is the star 's estimated main sequence lifetime .
Although more massive stars have more fuel to burn and might be expected to last longer , they also must radiate a proportionately greater amount with increased mass . Thus , the most massive stars may remain on the main sequence for only a few million years , while stars with less than a tenth of a solar mass may last for over a trillion years .
The exact mass @-@ luminosity relationship depends on how efficiently energy can be transported from the core to the surface . A higher opacity has an insulating effect that retains more energy at the core , so the star does not need to produce as much energy to remain in hydrostatic equilibrium . By contrast , a lower opacity means energy escapes more rapidly and the star must burn more fuel to remain in equilibrium . Note , however , that a sufficiently high opacity can result in energy transport via convection , which changes the conditions needed to remain in equilibrium .
In high @-@ mass main @-@ sequence stars , the opacity is dominated by electron scattering , which is nearly constant with increasing temperature . Thus the luminosity only increases as the cube of the star 's mass . For stars below 10 M ☉ , the opacity becomes dependent on temperature , resulting in the luminosity varying approximately as the fourth power of the star 's mass . For very low @-@ mass stars , molecules in the atmosphere also contribute to the opacity . Below about 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the luminosity of the star varies as the mass to the power of 2 @.@ 3 , producing a flattening of the slope on a graph of mass versus luminosity . Even these refinements are only an approximation , however , and the mass @-@ luminosity relation can vary depending on a star 's composition .
= = Evolutionary tracks = =
When a main @-@ sequence star consumes the hydrogen at its core , the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume . Stars with less than 0 @.@ 23 M ☉ , are predicted to directly become white dwarfs when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt . In stars between this threshold and 10 M ☉ , the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion , forming a hydrogen @-@ burning shell . In consequence of this change , the outer envelope of the star expands and decreases in temperature , turning it into a red giant . At this point the star is evolving off the main sequence and entering the giant branch . The path which the star now follows across the HR diagram , to the upper right of the main sequence , is called an evolutionary track .
The helium core of a red giant continues to collapse until it is entirely supported by electron degeneracy pressure — a quantum mechanical effect that restricts how closely matter can be compacted . For stars of more than about 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , the core eventually reaches a temperature where it becomes hot enough to burn helium into carbon via the triple alpha process . Stars with more than 5 – 7 @.@ 5 M ☉ can additionally fuse elements with higher atomic numbers . For stars with ten or more solar masses , this process can lead to an increasingly dense core that finally collapses , ejecting the star 's overlying layers in a Type II supernova explosion , Type Ib supernova or Type Ic supernova .
When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time , the life span of these stars will depend on their individual masses . The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first , followed steadily in sequence by stars of ever lower masses . Thus the stars will evolve in order of their position on the main sequence , proceeding from the most massive at the left toward the right of the HR diagram . The current position where stars in this cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turn @-@ off point . By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point , it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster .
= = = General = = =
Kippenhahn , Rudolf , 100 Billion Suns , Basic Books , New York , 1983 .
= = = Technical = = =
Arnett , David , Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis , Princeton University Press , Princeton , 1996 .
Bahcall , John N. , Neutrino Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1989 .
Bahcall , John N. , Pinsonneault , M.H. , and Basu , Sarbani , " Solar Models : Current Epoch and Time Dependences , Neutrinos , and Helioseismological Properties , " The Astrophysical Journal , 555 , 990 , 2001 .
Barnes , C. A. , Clayton , D. D. , and Schramm , D. N. ( eds . ) , Essays in Nuclear Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1982 .
Bowers , Richard L. , and Deeming , Terry , Astrophysics I : Stars , Jones and Bartlett , Publishers , Boston , 1984 .
Bradley W. Carroll & Dale A. Ostlie ( 2007 ) . An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics . Person Education Addison @-@ Wesley San Francisco . ISBN 0 @-@ 80530402 @-@ 9 .
Chabrier , Gilles , and Baraffe , Isabelle , " Theory of Low @-@ Mass Stars and Substellar Objects , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 38 , 337 , 2000 .
Chandrasekhar , S. , An Introduction to the study of stellar Structure , Dover Publications , Inc . , New York , 1967 .
Clayton , Donald D. , Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis , University of Chicago Press , Chicago , 1983 .
Cox , J. P. , and Giuli , R. T. , Principles of Stellar Structure , Gordon and Breach , New York , 1968 .
Fowler , William . , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , I , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 5 , 525 , 1967 .
Fowler , William A. , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , II , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 13 , 69 , 1975 .
Hansen , Carl J. , Kawaler , Steven D. , and Trimble , Virginia Stellar Interiors : Physical Principles , Structure , and Evolution , Second Edition , Springer @-@ Verlag , New York , 2004 .
Harris , Michael J. , Fowler , William A. , Caughlan , Georgeanne R. , and Zimmerman , Barbara A. , " Thermonuclear Reaction Rates , III , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 21 , 165 , 1983 .
Iben , Icko , Jr , " Stellar Evolution Within and Off the Main Sequence , " Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 5 , 571 , 1967 .
Iglesias , Carlos A , and Rogers , Forrest J. , " Updated Opal Opacities , " The Astrophysical Journal , 464 , 943 , 1996 .
Kippenhahn , Rudolf , and Weigert , Alfred , Stellar Structure and Evolution , Springer @-@ Verlag , Berlin , 1990 .
Liebert , James , and Probst , Ronald G. , " Very Low Mass Stars " , Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 25 , 437 , 1987 .
Padmanabhan , T. , Theoretical Astrophysics , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2002 .
Prialnik , Dina , An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2000 .
Novotny , Eva , Introduction to Stellar Atmospheres and Interior , Oxford University Press , New York , 1973 .
Shore , Steven N. , The Tapestry of Modern Astrophysics , John Wiley and Sons , Hoboken , 2003 .
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= SS Christopher Columbus =
The SS Christopher Columbus was an American excursion liner on the Great Lakes , in service between 1893 and 1933 . She was the only whaleback ship ever built for passenger service . The ship was designed by Alexander McDougall , the developer and promoter of the whaleback design .
Columbus was built between 1892 and 1893 at Superior , Wisconsin , by the American Steel Barge Company . Initially , she ferried passengers to and from the World 's Columbian Exposition . Later , she provided general transportation and excursion services to various ports around the lakes .
At 362 feet ( 110 m ) , the ship was the longest whaleback ever built , and reportedly also the largest vessel on the Great Lakes when she was launched . Columbus is said to have carried more passengers during her career than any other vessel on the Great Lakes . After a career lasting four decades , she was retired during the Great Depression and scrapped in 1936 by the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company at Manitowoc , Wisconsin .
= = Background and proposal = =
The history of the Columbus is linked with that of the whalebacks , an innovative but not widely accepted ship design of the late 1880s , and of their designer , Alexander McDougall . A Scottish immigrant , Great Lakes captain , inventor and entrepreneur , McDougall developed the idea of the whaleback as a way to improve the ability of barges to follow a towing vessel in heavy seas . Whalebacks were characterized by distinctive hull shapes with rounded tops , lacking conventional vertical sides . Waves thus broke across their hulls with considerably less force than when striking a conventional hull . Water could also flow around the rounded turrets which resembled gun turrets on contemporary warships ; the superstructure and deckhouses were mounted on these turrets . The rounded contours of whalebacks gave them an unconventional appearance , and McDougall 's ship and barge designs were received with considerable skepticism , resistance , and derision . As they had porcine @-@ looking snouts for bows , some observers called them " pig boats " .
After McDougall was unable to persuade existing shipbuilders to try his designs , he founded the American Steel Barge Company in Superior , Wisconsin in 1888 , and built them himself . McDougall actively promoted his design and company by sending the SS Charles W. Wetmore to London , and starting another shipyard in Everett , Washington , which built the SS City of Everett . When the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , to be held in Chicago , Illinois , was in the planning stages , McDougall recognized another opportunity to publicize his design . The Columbus , conceived as an elaborate ferry , was intended to demonstrate that the whaleback design would work well in passenger service , and would be able to travel at high speed . The ship 's name honored the explorer Christopher Columbus as did the World 's Columbian Exposition itself , timed to coincide with the 400th anniversary of his first voyage to the New World .
= = Construction and Columbian Exposition = =
The World 's Fair Steamship Company ordered the construction of the Columbus at an estimated cost of $ 360 @,@ 000 . The job was undertaken at McDougall 's American Steel Barge Company works in Superior , Wisconsin , starting in the fall of 1892 .
The hull framing , which included nine bulkheads , was completed on September 13 , 1892 . The ship 's propulsion mechanisms were next installed , consisting of a single four @-@ bladed , 14 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) diameter , 19 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) pitch propeller , the two reciprocating triple @-@ expansion steam engines ( with three cylinders of 26 @-@ inch ( 66 cm ) , 42 @-@ inch ( 107 cm ) and 70 @-@ inch ( 178 cm ) diameters in a common frame with a 42 @-@ inch ( 107 cm ) stroke ) manufactured by Samuel F. Hodge & Co. of Detroit , Michigan , and six steel tubular return Scotch boilers , ( 11 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) diameter by 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) long ) , built by Cleveland Shipbuilding Company . The rounded hull top was then added , followed by the six turrets , which were substantially larger than those employed on freighter whalebacks . The ship was launched on December 3 , 1892 , after which two superstructure decks were mounted on the turrets along the centerline of her hull to afford access to her two internal decks , one in the turrets and one in the hull below .
She was fitted out over the remainder of late 1892 and early 1893 . Electric lighting was used , and she was elegantly furnished . Her grand saloon and skylighted promenade deck contained several fountains and a large aquarium filled with trout and other fish of the lakes . The cabins and public spaces were fitted out with oak paneling , velvet carpets , etched glass windows , leather furniture and marble . Shops and restaurants were provided for the passengers .
McDougall 's American Steel Barge Company had committed in the contract that the Columbus would be built and delivered in three months , making her one of the fastest @-@ built large ships of her time . The builders further promised rapid loading and unloading , predicting that the vessel would be able to embark 5 @,@ 000 passengers in five minutes , and disembark the same passengers in even less time . The Columbus was specified to be able run the 6 miles ( 10 km ) from the dock downtown to the fairgrounds at Jackson Park and 64th Street in 20 minutes .
McDougall set up another holding company , the Columbian Whaleback Steamship Company of Duluth , Minnesota , to own and operate the Columbus . She was commissioned on May 13 , 1893 . Her first captain was John McArthur , who had captained other whalebacks for McDougall 's firms , starting with the first powered whaleback , the Colgate Hoyt , built in 1890 . McDougall was quoted as having said to McArthur , " There is your steamboat ; take her down to Chicago and make a success of her . "
McArthur did just that . Painted in all white livery , the Columbus made multiple round trips per day , sailing along the Lake Michigan shoreline from the Randolph Street / Van Buren Street dock to the Jackson Park site of the World 's Columbian Exposition 's Beaux arts " White City " exposition fairgrounds . A contemporary souvenir booklet called her " the greatest marine wonder of its time " , and another publication dubbed her the " Queen of the Lakes . " She had an estimated capacity of 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 passengers on her four decks , but it was reported that she carried 7 @,@ 000 on her maiden voyage . The Goodrich Transit Line steamer Virginia ( later the USS Blue Ridge ) is said to have raced against her .
The Columbus carried between 1 @.@ 7 and 2 @.@ 0 million passengers ( sources differ ) during the exposition , with only one fatality , a crew member . In recognition of that success , the commissioners of the exposition presented Captain McArthur with a gold watch engraved with a representation of the ship . McArthur went on to captain other whalebacks including the Frank Rockefeller , which became the SS Meteor , the only whaleback surviving today .
= = Regular service = =
After the exposition ended the Columbus entered passenger service , and an additional deck ( third superstructure , fifth total ) was added during the 1899 – 1900 winter season . Despite the Columbus ' success at the exposition , and McDougall 's promotional efforts , the whaleback design never caught on . By 1900 , the last whalebacks had been built in Superior : the Alexander McDougall in 1899 ( the last powered ship ) , and the John Smeaton , the last whaleback barge . The American Steel Barge Company was sold to the American Ship Building Company , becoming their Superior Works , and switched to more conventional laker designs .
In 1899 the Columbus was leased to and operated by the Goodrich Transit Line , whose steamer Virginia had been a perennial racing rival . She changed hands in 1905 to the Milwaukee & Chicago Transportation company – possibly a Goodrich holding company – and again in 1909 to Goodrich Transit Line . Her livery was at some point between 1906 and 1909 changed to a black hull with yellow accents , and she was placed in service on the route between Chicago and Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The Columbus remained with the Goodrich line for several years . Although she was used for excursions elsewhere around the Great Lakes , her regular schedule was a daily trip to Milwaukee , leaving Chicago mid @-@ morning , sailing to Milwaukee for a two @-@ hour stopover , and then returning ( see advertisement right ) . She made daily round @-@ trip excursions from the Goodrich docks at the Rush Street Bridge .
Columbus had at least three accidents . In June 1895 she suffered an explosion caused by a steam pipe becoming disconnected while she was underway . Accounts differ , but some claim that this happened during a race with her rival , Virginia . In July 1905 , she collided with the schooner Ralph Campbell in the Chicago River . On June 30 , 1917 , she was involved in her most serious accident , a collision with a water tower . The collision happened in Milwaukee while she was being maneuvered by tugs away from her dock . The Milwaukee River current caught her , spinning her sideways , and her bow sheared off two legs of the Yahr @-@ Lang Drug Company 's water tower , toppling it and flooding Columbus ' decks with about 25 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 95 @,@ 000 l ) . The collision killed 16 passengers and severely damaged her pilot house , putting her out of service for the rest of the year .
The Columbus was one of the first ships to be fitted with an on @-@ board radio , installed by 1909 , when she was allocated the call letters " KC " . Columbus and the SS Chicago used radio to help coordinate the rescue of over 200 passengers from the Goodrich liner City of Racine when the Racine was disabled off Waukegan , Illinois , in Lake Michigan .
In 1915 , the SS Eastland capsized while docked in the Chicago River , with the loss of over 800 lives . Officials subsequently ordered many passenger ships to undergo stability testing , which the Columbus passed easily . Even with 7 @,@ 500 sandbags ( simulating passengers ) piled on one side , and tugboats pulling in that direction , she listed only 12 degrees . Columbus was featured at the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago in 1932 – 33 .
= = Disposition = =
The Columbus was taken out of service in 1933 , and changed hands twice during the Great Depression , in 1933 and again in 1934 . She was scrapped in 1936 at the Manitowoc Shipbuilding Company in Manitowoc , Wisconsin .
SS Christopher Columbus carried 1 @.@ 7 – 2 million passengers in her first year alone , and is estimated to have carried more passengers than any other vessel on the Great Lakes . She was one of the most photographed passenger ships on the lakes , and souvenir postcards of her are still widely available . One of her anchors , the design of which was patented by McDougall on February 3 , 1891 , is displayed at the Mariners ' Museum in Newport News , Virginia .
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= Jim Bottomley =
James Leroy Bottomley ( April 23 , 1900 – December 11 , 1959 ) was an American professional baseball player . A first baseman , Bottomley played in Major League Baseball from 1922 through 1937 for the St. Louis Cardinals , Cincinnati Reds , and St. Louis Browns . He also served as player @-@ manager for the Browns in 1937 . Playing for the Cardinals against Brooklyn at Ebbets Field on September 16 , 1924 , he set the all @-@ time single game RBI record with 12 .
Born in Oglesby , Illinois , Bottomley grew up in Nokomis , Illinois . He dropped out of high school at the age of 16 to raise money for his family . After playing semi @-@ professional baseball , the Cardinals scouted and signed Bottomley . He won the League Award , given to the most valuable player , in 1928 , and was a part of World Series championship teams in 1926 and 1931 . He played for the Cardinals through the 1932 season , after which he was traded to the Reds . After playing for Cincinnati for three years , he played two more seasons with the Browns .
After finishing his playing career with the Browns , Bottomley joined the Chicago Cubs organization as a scout and minor league baseball manager . After suffering a heart attack , Bottomley and his wife retired to raise cattle in Missouri . Bottomley was nicknamed " Sunny Jim " because of his cheerful disposition . Bottomley was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974 by the Veterans Committee and to the Cardinals Hall of Fame in 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Bottomley was born on April 23 , 1900 , to Elizabeth ( née Carter ) and John Bottomley in Oglesby , Illinois . His family later moved to Nokomis , Illinois , where Bottomley enrolled in grade school and Nokomis High School . He dropped out when he was 16 years old in order to help support his family financially . Bottomley worked as a coal miner , truck driver , grocery clerk , and railroad clerk . His younger brother , Ralph , died in a mining accident in 1920 .
Bottomley also played semi @-@ professional baseball for several local teams to make additional money , earning $ 5 a game ( $ 79 in current dollar terms ) . A police officer who knew Branch Rickey , the general manager of the St. Louis Cardinals , saw Bottomley play , and recommended Bottomley to Rickey .
= = Professional career = =
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
Rickey dispatched scout Charley Barrett to investigate Bottomley . The Cardinals decided to invite Bottomley to a tryout in late 1919 , and signed him to a $ 150 @-@ a @-@ month ( $ 2 @,@ 047 in current dollar terms ) contract . Bottomley began his professional career in minor league baseball in 1920 . That year , Bottomley played for the Mitchell Kernels of the Class @-@ D South Dakota League , posting a .312 batting average in 97 games , as Barrett continued to scout him . He also played six games for the Sioux City Packers of the Class @-@ A Western League . During his time in the minor leagues , the media began to call Bottomley " Sunny Jim " , due to his pleasant disposition .
The next season , Bottomley played for the Houston Buffaloes of the Class @-@ A Texas League . Bottomley suffered a leg injury early in the season which became infected , and impeded his performance during the season . Bottomley managed only a .227 batting average in 130 games and struggled with his fielding . Unable to sell Bottomley to Houston for $ 1 @,@ 200 after the season ( $ 15 @,@ 920 in current dollar terms ) , Rickey sold Bottomley to the Syracuse Chiefs of the Class @-@ AA International League for $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 13 @,@ 267 in current dollar terms ) . Fully recovered from his leg injury in 1922 , Bottomley batted .348 with 14 home runs , 15 triples , and a .567 slugging percentage for the Chiefs . After the season , the Cardinals purchased Bottomley from the Chiefs for $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 212 @,@ 058 in current dollar terms ) .
Bottomley made his Major League Baseball debut for the St. Louis Cardinals on August 18 , 1922 . Replacing Jack Fournier , Bottomley batted .325 in 37 games . The Cardinals named Bottomley their starting first baseman in 1923 . As a rookie , Bottomley batted .371 , finishing second in the National League ( NL ) behind teammate Rogers Hornsby , who batted .384 . His .425 on @-@ base percentage also finished second in the NL behind Hornsby , while he finished sixth in slugging percentage , with a .535 mark . His 94 runs batted in ( RBIs ) were tenth @-@ best in the league .
Bottomley posted a .316 batting average in 1924 . In a game against the Brooklyn Dodgers on September 16 , 1924 , Bottomley set the major league record for RBIs in a single game , with 12 , breaking Wilbert Robinson 's record of 11 , set in 1892 . Robinson was serving as the manager of the Dodgers at the time . This mark has since been tied by Mark Whiten in 1993 . Finishing the season with 111 RBIs , placing third in the NL , Bottomley 's 14 home runs were seventh @-@ best in the NL , while his .500 slugging percentage was good for tenth .
Bottomley hit .367 in 1925 , finishing second in the NL to Hornsby . He led the NL with 227 hits , while his 128 RBIs were third @-@ best , and his .413 on @-@ base percentage was seventh @-@ best in the league . Bottomley batted .298 during the 1926 season , with an NL @-@ leading 120 RBIs . His 19 home runs placed second in the NL , behind Hack Wilson 's 21 , while his .506 slugging percentage was sixth @-@ best . He batted .345 in the 1926 World Series , as the Cardinals defeated the New York Yankees .
In 1927 , Bottomley finished the season with 124 RBIs , fourth best in the league , and a .509 slugging percentage , finishing sixth in the NL . Bottomley hit .325 with 31 home runs and 136 RBIs in 1928 , leading the league in home runs and RBIs . He also became the second Major League player in history to join the 20 – 20 – 20 club . That year , he won the League Award , given to the most valuable player of the NL . The Cardinals reached the 1928 World Series , and Bottomley batted .214 as they lost to the New York Yankees .
In 1929 , Bottomley hit 29 home runs , finishing seventh in the NL , while his 137 RBIs were fifth @-@ best , and his .568 slugging percentage placed him in eighth . After having what manager Gabby Street considered a " poor year " in 1930 , Bottomley struggled in the 1930 World Series , batting .045 in 22 at @-@ bats , as the Cardinals lost to the Philadelphia Athletics . Following the series , Bottomley described his World Series performance as " a bust as far as hitting goes " .
Amid questions about Bottomley 's status with the Cardinals heading into the 1931 season , he demonstrated renewed hitting ability during spring training . Despite the presence of Ripper Collins , a superior fielder who transferred to the Cardinals from the Rochester Red Wings of the International League , Street announced that Bottomley would remain the starting first baseman . However , Bottomley suffered an injury and struggled early in the 1931 season after returning to the game , and it appeared that he might lose his job to Collins , who filled in for Bottomley during his injury . Bottomley returned to form after his return , and he finished the season with a .3482 batting average , placing third behind teammate Chick Hafey 's .3489 and Bill Terry 's .3486 , the closest batting average finish in MLB history . His .534 slugging percentage was the sixth best in the league . The Cardinals reached the 1931 World Series , with Bottomley batting .160 , as the Cardinals defeated the Athletics . That offseason , other teams began to attempt to trade for either Bottomley or Collins . Bottomley batted .296 in 1932 , though he only played in 91 games .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
After the 1932 season , the Cardinals traded Bottomley to the Cincinnati Reds for Ownie Carroll and Estel Crabtree , in an attempt to partner Bottomley with Chick Hafey in developing a more potent offensive attack . Bottomley had also sought Cincinnati 's managerial position that offseason , which instead went to Donie Bush .
Bottomley threatened to quit baseball in a salary dispute with the Reds , as he attempted to negotiate a raise from his $ 8 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 146 @,@ 242 in current dollar terms ) , a reduction from the $ 13 @,@ 000 salary ( $ 225 @,@ 471 in current dollar terms ) he earned with the Cardinals the previous year . He and the Reds eventually came to terms on a one @-@ year contract believed to be worth between $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 13 @,@ 000 . Bottomley finished eighth in the NL with 83 RBIs in 1933 , and ninth with 13 home runs . In three seasons with the Reds , Bottomley failed to hit higher than .283 or record more than 83 RBIs in a season . Bottomley left the Reds during spring training in 1935 due to a salary dispute , deciding to return to the team in April .
= = = St. Louis Browns = = =
Before the 1936 season , the Reds traded Bottomley to the St. Louis Browns of the American League ( AL ) , who were managed by Hornsby , for Johnny Burnett . During a July road trip , Bottomley announced his retirement as a result of an injured back ; however , he changed his mind and decided to remain with the team . Bottomley batted .298 for the 1936 season .
Bottomley decided to return to baseball in 1937 . When the Browns struggled during the 1937 season , beginning the season with a 25 – 52 win @-@ loss record , the Browns fired Hornsby and named Bottomley their player @-@ manager . Bottomley led the Browns to 21 more victories , as the team finished the season in eighth place , with a 46 – 108 record . The Browns trailed the seventh place Athletics by 9 1 ⁄ 2 games , and were 56 games out of first place . As a player , Bottomley batted .239 in 65 games during the 1937 season . Bottomley was among the ten oldest players in the AL that year .
The Browns did not retain Bottomley after the 1937 season , replacing him with Street , who served as his first assistant during the 1937 season . In 1938 , Bottomley served as the player @-@ manager of Syracuse . After a bad start to the season , and with team president Jack Corbett not adding capable players , Bottomley resigned and was replaced with Dick Porter . Bottomley also indicated that he did not want to continue playing .
Bottomley also holds the single @-@ season record for most unassisted double plays by a first baseman , with eight . Bottomley is also known as the only man to be sued for hitting a home run when a fan was hit by the ball when he was not looking . He had over 100 RBIs in each season from 1924 to 1929 . Bottomley was the second player in baseball history to hit 20 or more doubles , triples , and home runs in one season ( Frank Schulte being the first ) and the first of two players ( Lou Gehrig being the other ) to collect 150 or more doubles , triples , and home runs in a career .
= = Personal = =
Bottomley married Elizabeth " Betty " Browner , who operated a St. Louis beauty parlor , on February 4 , 1933 . The couple had no children . After he retired from baseball in 1938 , Bottomley and his wife moved to the Bourbon , Missouri , area , where he raised Hereford cattle . In 1939 , Bottomley became a radio broadcaster , signing a deal with KWK , an AM broadcasting station , to broadcast Cardinals and Browns games .
Bottomley returned to baseball as a scout for the Cardinals in 1955 . In 1957 , he joined the Chicago Cubs as a scout and managed the Pulaski Cubs of the Class D Appalachian League . While managing in Pulaski , Bottomley suffered a heart attack . The Bottomleys moved to nearby Sullivan , Missouri . Bottomley died of a heart ailment in December 1959 . He and his wife Betty were interred in the International Order of Fellows Cemetery , Sullivan , Missouri .
= = Honors = =
Bottomley was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame posthumously in 1974 by the Veterans Committee . The Baseball Writers ' Association of America charged that the Veterans Committee was not selective enough in choosing members . Charges of cronyism were levied against the Veterans Committee . When Bottomley was elected , the Veterans Committee included Frankie Frisch , a teammate of Bottomley 's with the Cardinals . Frisch and Bill Terry , also a member of the Veterans Committee at the time , shepherded the selections of teammates Jesse Haines in 1970 , Dave Bancroft and Chick Hafey in 1971 , Ross Youngs in 1972 , George Kelly in 1973 , and Freddie Lindstrom in 1976 . This led to the Veterans Committee having its powers reduced in subsequent years . In 2014 , the Cardinals announced Bottomley among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014 .
The city park in Sullivan is named for Bottomley . A museum in Nokomis , Illinois , the Bottomley @-@ Ruffing @-@ Schalk Baseball Museum , is dedicated to Bottomley and fellow Hall of Famers Ray Schalk and Red Ruffing , who were also Nokomis natives .
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= HMS Vigilant ( 1777 ) =
HMS Vigilant was a merchantman converted into a warship during the American Revolution . After serving as a transport in North American waters from 1775 , she was purchased by the Royal Navy ( RN ) and modified for shore bombardment duties in 1777 . She was instrumental in the eventual British success during the siege of Fort Mifflin that same year and supported British operations in Georgia and South Carolina in 1779 – 80 . Her heavy armament proved to be more than Vigilant was designed to handle and she was condemned and disposed of in 1780 .
= = Description and service = =
Built at Whitby in 1774 , the ship was named the Grand Duchess of Russia and she was chartered by the Navy Board to serve as a transport at the beginning of 1775 . While being modified at Deptford Dockyard in February , the ship was surveyed and found to be barque @-@ rigged and just over 308 tons burthen in size . A survey in New York two years later gave her length as 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) , measured at the keel , with a beam of 36 ft ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) . Naval historian Rif Winfield quotes her tonnage as 684 14 ⁄ 94 burthen with a length at the gundeck of 122 feet 6 inches ( 37 @.@ 3 m ) and beam of 34 ft 10 in ( 10 @.@ 6 m ) .
Grand Duchess of Russia departed for Boston , Massachusetts carrying 150 marines on 30 March 1775 and she remained in North American waters for the next two years . Vice Admiral Lord Howe , commander of the North American Station , informed the Admiralty on 23 April that he had purchased the Grand Duchess of Russia and commissioned her as HMS Vigilant to bombard targets ashore . The ship received fourteen 24 @-@ pounder guns from the 50 @-@ gun ship Centurion and two 9 @-@ pounder and four 6 @-@ pounder guns from the hospital ( prison ) ship Jersey . Additional gun ports were cut in Vigilant 's side to allow two guns to be switched from one side to give her a broadside of nine guns . The 150 men of her crew were made up from the crews of Howe 's flagship , the third rate Eagle , Centurion , and the fourth rate Preston while her 30 marines were drawn from the marine brigade at Halifax .
Her conversion was completed by the end of June and her first task was to cover the evacuation of British troops from Perth Amboy , New Jersey on 29 July . The following month , Vigilant served as Howe 's flagship when he landed British troops at Elkton , Maryland , at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay , during the Philadelphia Campaign . In October , the ship sailed for the mouth of the Delaware River to attack the American fortifications defending Philadelphia . During this voyage , she rolled so badly during heavy weather that the round shot fell out of her guns and it was later decided that she should not put to sea with her guns mounted except during the summer months . Vigilant was not designed to carry such heavy weights as the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) 24 pounders up high in the ship and cutting gun ports in her sides further weakened her structure .
The first attack on Fort Mifflin on 22 – 23 October had been a disaster with two British ships run aground and burnt . For the second attack three weeks later , Vigilant 's crew was reinforced with an extra 50 men to work the guns and 24 riflemen to suppress the defenders of the fort during the attack . The ship 's sides were reinforced and two guns were transferred to the starboard side of the ship . Her trim was maintained by placing casks of water on the port side . While other ships bombarded the fort from the main channel , Vigilant and a smaller ship worked their way up a secondary channel to the rear of the fort . They were able to silence the fort 's guns by 6 p.m. , and the Americans evacuated five hours later , despite the ship 's grapeshot and small arms fire . During the attack Vigilant only lost three men killed and five wounded ; her hull had only been hit several times , but her rigging was shot to pieces . In recognition of the ship 's success , her commander , Lieutenant John Henry , was promoted to the command of the frigate Fowey .
Vigilant was generally inactive while the British occupied Philadelphia , but she sailed to New York City when the British evacuated the city in June 1778 . She joined the small British squadron there upon the approach of a French squadron under the command of the Comte d 'Estaing in July , but the French declined to engage the British ships . The ship accompanied the British squadron to Newport , Rhode Island as it attempted to lift the Franco @-@ American siege , but Vigilant was badly damaged when a storm interrupted the planned battle on 13 August . Despite the damage , she supported British troops on 29 – 30 August as they pursued the retreating Americans who had abandoned the siege after the French ships sailed to Boston for repairs . A few days later , on 4 September , the ship collided with the sloop @-@ of @-@ war Raven during the British raid on New London , Connecticut and had her bow stove in by the other ship . Vigilant was quickly repaired in New York and participated in the attack on Little Egg Harbor River in October .
At the beginning of December , the ship sailed from New York to Savannah , Georgia to assist in the attack on that city . Despite dismounting her main armament , the ship had to keep one or more pumps running continuously during the voyage to prevent her from sinking . She arrived at Savannah on 28 December , after the British had secured the city . Her nine @-@ pounder guns were ordered removed when she was reclassified as a 20 @-@ gun armed transport on 22 December . Throughout 1779 , Vigilant supported British operations along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina , despite running aground several times . Lacking substantial repairs during this time , the ship 's condition deteriorated until her crew refused to take her to sea from Beaufort , South Carolina on 28 February 1780 to support the planned siege of Charleston . She was then surveyed and condemned as " utterly unfit for sea " and decommissioned on 9 April . Her crew and armament were loaded aboard the transport Margaret & Martha and taken to Charleston where they were transferred to the transport Margery , which had been purchased and renamed Sandwich to serve as Vigilant 's replacement . The ship was burnt at Beaufort sometime later that year .
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= David Falk =
David B. Falk ( born 1950 ) is an American sports agent who primarily works with basketball players in the National Basketball Association . Falk began his career representing professional tennis players for Donald Dell 's ProServ and is best known for representing sports icon Michael Jordan for the entirety of Jordan 's career . Besides Jordan , Falk has represented more than 100 other NBA players , and is generally considered to be the most influential player agent the NBA has seen . During the peak years of Falk 's career in the 1990s , he was often considered the second @-@ most powerful person in the NBA behind Commissioner David Stern , and in 2000 he had at least one client on all but two NBA teams . He was listed among the " 100 Most Powerful People in Sports " for 12 straight years from 1990 to 2001 by The Sporting News , and was also named one of the Top 50 Marketers in the United States by Advertising Age in 1995 .
Falk negotiated the then @-@ highest contracts in NBA history for Patrick Ewing and Danny Ferry . He also negotiated professional sports ' first $ 100 million contract for Alonzo Mourning as part of an unprecedented free agency period , during which his company , FAME , changed the entire salary structure of the NBA , negotiating more than $ 400 million in contracts for its free agent clients in a six @-@ day period .
In January 2007 , Falk re @-@ launched FAME , and today serves as its founder and CEO . He represented 9 players in 2012 ; in the prime of his sports agent career in the 1990s he represented as many as 40 players at a time .
= = Personal life = =
Falk was born to a middle @-@ class Jewish family on Long Island , New York , the second of three children . Falk 's father had never finished high school and owned two butcher shops on Long Island , while his mother , Pearl Falk , had two master 's degrees , spoke six languages , and had worked as an interpreter in World War II for Nelson Rockefeller in Latin American affairs . Falk described his mother , a teacher and inspirational force as " a perfectionist " , and called her " the biggest influence in my life " , the one who drove him to achieve great heights .
" Nothing was really ever good enough . I brought home my college board scores — I think I got just under 1 @,@ 400 the first time . She was crushed . She didn 't understand how I could do so poorly . I think that I share a lot of those qualities . She used to have an expression that I would say is the guiding principle of my life : Always shoot for the stars and never settle for second best . "
Falk 's mother was an avid New York Knicks fan , a fact which influenced Falk 's career decision upon his career path . Longtime childhood friend and colleague , Attorney Reid Kahn , remembers Falk proclaiming that he wanted to represent professional athletes in the fourth grade . Another high school friend noted that Falk was not good enough to make any of the teams at Douglas MacArthur High School ( Levittown , New York ) , but that he was an ardent sports fan who frequently watched baseball games at Shea Stadium .
He graduated Syracuse University in 1972 , with a degree in economics , and subsequently , George Washington University Law School , where he earned a J.D. with honors in 1975 .
During his law school years , his parents separated . Falk maintained minimal contact with his father , but remained very close with his mother until her death in 1988 .
Falk lives in Rockville , Maryland with his wife , Rhonda ( Frank ) . Rhonda served as an undergraduate admissions counselor for George Washington University for five years , where she recruited students from the New England area as well as from the Caribbean . For 10 years she worked as a production manager for STSC , a software company in Rockville , Maryland . She later moved into the software publishing division and managed the distribution and sales of software through international resellers around the world . She also serves on the board of directors of Woodmont Country Club .
The Falks have two daughters , Daina , ( born 1983 ) an honors graduate of Duke University and an accomplished Beverly Hills photographer , and Jocelyn ( born 1988 ) , a dean 's list student majoring in television and communication at Syracuse University .
= = Sports marketing , promotions , and contracts = =
= = = ProServ and signing of Michael Jordan = = =
After many attempts to establish contact with agents Bob Woolf of Boston and Larry Fleisher , Falk turned to ProServ 's Donald Dell in 1974 . Falk attempted to get Dell on the phone for " six or seven weeks . " Finally , annoyed at Dell 's seeming unavailability , Falk called Dell 's office " about 17 times in a three @-@ hour period " until Dell took his call . When Dell informed him that ProServ was not hiring , Falk offered to work for free . Dell consented to take on Falk as an unpaid intern while he was attending law school , finally offering him a full @-@ time job starting at $ 13 @,@ 000 after his graduation from George Washington University Law School in 1975 .
Dell was a former pro tennis player and primarily represented tennis players , so he allowed Falk to handle a large portion of ProServ 's NBA dealings . Falk proved to be a capable agent and negotiator , as he signed the # 1 NBA Draft picks in 1976 ( John Lucas ) and 1981 ( Mark Aguirre ) , and negotiated the first million @-@ dollar NBA shoe deal for James Worthy in 1982 .
ProServ had an inside track with North Carolina after they successfully represented a number of N.C. basketball alumni , including Tom LaGarde , Phil Ford , Dudley Bradley , and James Worthy . In 1984 , the same year Michael Jordan entered the NBA Draft , Frank Craighill and Lee Fentress , two of Dell 's ProServ partners , left to start a competing firm , Advantage International . Dell and Falk signed # 3 pick Jordan , while Craighill and Fentress signed Sam Perkins .
= = = Nike shoe deal : " Air Jordan " = = =
After signing Jordan , Falk quickly made the first great deal for him : the Nike shoe deal . At the start of the 80s , only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar had a six @-@ figure shoe deal for $ 100 @,@ 000 ( with Adidas ) , and Nike was a small player next to companies like Converse , which had virtually owned the market on basketball shoes through the 1970s . After James Worthy signed an 8 @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 2 million endorsement deal with New Balance in 1982 , also negotiated by Falk , Falk decided to make large demands to shoe companies for Jordan 's services , including his own shoe line and a royalty .
" We decided to stretch the envelope " , Falk said . " Instead of calling up the companies and asking them how much they would pay Michael Jordan , we called them up and asked them to make a presentation and explain what they could do to promote him . Needless to say , this got a lot of quizzical replies . "
Unbeknownst to Falk and Jordan , Nike had decided to target Jordan as their player of the future . Jordan himself was initially reticent ; throughout college he had worn Converse because of the company 's endorsement deal with Tar Heels coach Dean Smith , and off the court , he wore Adidas . Jordan had never worn or even seen a Nike shoe before the company contacted him .
Nike 's initial offer was $ 250 @,@ 000 , his own shoe line , and a percentage of the revenues . Jordan already had a standing offer from Adidas for $ 500 @,@ 000 , and Falk demanded that Nike match the figure in addition to the revenue percentage . Nike came back with an offer of $ 500 @,@ 000 and a smaller cut . Falk agreed .
" David Falk elected to take more guaranteed money and less revenue percentage " , said ( Nike Scout ) Sonny Vaccaro . " So out of the chute he lost himself a lot of money . But in retrospect , it really amounted to nothing . It wasn 't a big @-@ time bidding war . Probably the most determining thing was Adidas wasn 't going to offer him a lot of money . It was the first time that the athlete was going to share in the royalties of the shoe . That was the gamble . "
The deal was all the more significant because it was considered difficult to market African @-@ American players in 1984 , especially in a team sport like basketball . In fact , Nike insisted on several " outs " in its initial contract with Jordan : the shoe line could be dropped if certain sales figures were not met , or if Jordan failed to make the NBA All @-@ Star Game in his first three years . The shoe line was expected to earn $ 3 million for Nike in about three to four years . As it turned out , the Air Jordan sneaker earned Nike $ 130 million in 1985 alone , making their $ 500 @,@ 000 contract with Jordan one of the great bargains of all time , a precursor to Jordan 's more lucrative deals with Nike , including a 1997 deal for $ 30 million . Jordan 's relationship with Nike is often considered the most successful sports endorsement relationship in history .
= = = Marketing Michael Jordan = = =
Falk soon proved himself to be a capable agent with many innovative marketing ideas . He allowed Nike to establish Jordan 's primary image , then began splitting it up among other advertisers , including Coca @-@ Cola , Chevrolet , Gatorade , McDonald 's , Ball Park Franks , Wilson Sporting Goods , Rayovac , Wheaties , Hanes , and MCI . Falk 's ideas stretched to all areas of the marketplace , including a fragrance ( called simply " Michael Jordan " ) made by the Beverly Hills designer Bijan , which was cited as the best @-@ marketed product of 1996 by the American Marketing Association . Falk even came up with the idea of teaming Bugs Bunny and Jordan together in a feature film , and then sold the concept to Warner Bros. in 1993 . The ensuing film , Space Jam , was executive produced by Falk and released in 1996 . Perhaps most importantly , Falk " set a precedent by ' opting out ' Jordan from the league 's licensing program , in effect reclaiming Jordan 's image for his own use . " Jordan himself was very grateful for his agent 's remarkable negotiating and marketing abilities , even with Falk 's penchant for making powerful enemies along the way .
" A lot of people don 't like David , but he 's the best at what he does " , Jordan told USA Today last year . " What he does is get underneath your skin , whoever he 's negotiating with , because he figures out what your objectives are , your angles . He understands the market ; he understands the players . He 's a brash , arrogant , egotistical , aggressive negotiator , which is good , because when you have someone represent you , you want him to do that . Marketing @-@ wise , he 's great . He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan . ' "
Due partly to Falk 's tenacity and partly to Michael Jordan 's own professional success and personal magnetism , Jordan became " indisputably the most powerful and effective endorser of products in American history , ... ( making ) the business of hawking products more lucrative than playing the game . " Jordan 's success was such that he turned down $ 300 million worth of endorsement deals in the space of 4 months in 1998 .
= = = ProServ split , establishment and sale of FAME = = =
In 1992 , after great early success , Falk considered himself underpaid and underappreciated . He split with ProServ and Donald Dell to establish his own company , Falk Associates Management Enterprises ( FAME ) .
" I paid more in taxes this year ( 1996 ) than I earned in 17 years working for Donald Dell " , Falk said with some lingering bitterness . " I 'm all for loyalty , but that has to be a two @-@ way street . "
In the split , a messy professional divorce , Falk brought all of his considerable client list with him , but agreed to provide Dell with 50 % of fees for Dell 's former clients and 17 @.@ 5 % of Falk 's income for new contracts . Dell " sought arbitration to enforce the agreement , claiming that Falk ' unilaterally ' had rewritten clients ' third @-@ party contracts to reduce fees to Dell . "
Falk and partners Curtis Polk and Mike Higgins soon propelled FAME to the top of the NBA player representation business . At its peak , the company consisted of about 25 people and represented 45 players . During FAME 's 7 @-@ year existence , it represented " an unprecedented 6 first @-@ round draft picks in the NBA , negotiated over $ 400 million in contracts for its free @-@ agent clients , and negotiated four of the five largest contracts in team sports history . " Just prior to the company 's sale in 1998 , the contracts of Falk 's players totaled almost $ 800 million .
In 1998 , Falk sold FAME to the entertainment group SFX for $ 100 million , while remaining the group 's president . In the space of a year , SFX bought 14 private sports representation companies for a combined $ 1 @.@ 5 billion and consolidated them into SFX Sports Group in 1999 , naming Falk as Chairman . Ironically , one of the companies SFX acquired was ProServ , and Falk found himself in charge of the company that he had left on such bitter terms .
During his Chairmanship at SFX Sports Group from 1999 to 2001 , " Falk oversaw the acquisition of a dozen sports agencies that enabled SFX to represent approximately 20 percent of MLB and NBA players . " Largely due to the work of Falk and fellow agent Arn Tellem , the umbrella SFX Sports Group represented 78 NBA players in contract negotiations in 2000 , and came to represent approximately one @-@ third of NBA players in 2002 .
= = 1995 and 1998 NBA lockouts = =
= = = 1995 NBA lockout = = =
Falk was one of the key figures in the 1995 NBA lockout . The lockout originally occurred when the players wanted a soft salary cap , while the owners wanted a hard salary cap . Falk led a rebellion on the National Basketball Players Association ( NBPA ) by establishing a dissident faction of 16 players and a number of agents ( including players Michael Jordan , Patrick Ewing , Alonzo Mourning , Reggie Miller , and fellow agents Marc Fleisher and Arn Tellem ) that began advocating for NBPA decertification . The goal was to strip NBA management of antitrust protection , making the salary cap and other forms of collective bargaining violations of antitrust laws , win a settlement in court , and then immediately re @-@ form the Players ' Union . NBA Commissioner David Stern criticized Falk 's involvement in the negotiations , saying that he was " trashing his own clients . " Kenny Gattison , the Charlotte Hornets ' player representative , went so far as to blame the entire lockout on Falk .
" I think this whole thing has been manufactured by David Falk " , Gattison told The Charlotte Observer Friday night . " The guys he used to initiate the decertification drive aren 't concerned with the union and the everyday little guy . These guys have been in the league 10 or 11 years and have yet to voice an opinion about what 's going on . Then all of a sudden David Falk doesn 't like what 's going on . "
Despite considerable support , decertification was defeated by a vote of the Players ' Union , 226 – 134 . But even though Falk did not manage to decertify the NBPA , his influence helped to lead to the abandonement of a luxury tax on salaries , and ultimately led to a deal that increased the players ' portion of NBA revenues from 52 % to 57 % , as well as the salary structure that saw Michael Jordan make $ 33 million for the 1998 season alone . Some argued that the concessions Falk gained from the owners through his role in the 1995 lockout were the primary cause of another lockout that occurred just three seasons later .
= = = 1998 – 99 NBA lockout = = =
During the 1998 – 99 lockout , Falk was often described as the " invisible hand " that guided union negotiations . The NBPA President during the lockout , Patrick Ewing , was a client of Falk 's . Falk was also the agent of " nearly half " of the union 's 19 @-@ member negotiating committee , including Alonzo Mourning , Juwan Howard , and Dikembe Mutombo . Though his presence in negotiations was already assumed , Falk publicly stated in an October 31 , 1998 New York Times article that he would " roll up his sleeves and exert as much influence as he ( could ) behind the scenes , ... ( planning ) to take a more proactive role in ending the lockout . "
Shortly after his statements in the Times article , Falk and Arn Tellem , who together represented more than 70 of the NBA 's 400 players , organized a charity exhibition game , with part of the proceeds going to financially pinched NBA players . The rosters had a number of Falk clients , and some saw the game as a threat by Falk " to create a new league through a partnership with the entertainment giant SFX , which [ had ] recently purchased Falk 's company for $ 150 million . " The game was played on December 19 , 1998 in the Atlantic City Convention Center , featuring 16 All @-@ Stars and drawing a crowd of about 6 @,@ 000 people . Falk and the other organizers had originally planned to give 90 % of the proceeds to NBA players , but public criticism caused them to instead give almost all of the $ 1 million to national and local charities .
Meanwhile , Falk was being criticized on multiple fronts for his role in lockout negotiations . NBA Commissioner David Stern accused Falk and Arn Tellem specifically of " holding the deal hostage " to reap benefits for their high @-@ end clients . Fellow player agent Harold MacDonald disparaged what he saw as Falk 's excessive influence on the union 's president , Patrick Ewing :
" Every time I see Patrick say something , it 's almost like watching the Energizer bunny " , said the agent Harold MacDonald , who represents Derrick Coleman and Terry Mills . " I 'm just waiting for Falk to put in another battery , and off Patrick goes again . Hardly any influence ? Give me a break . "
Isiah Thomas , who was President of the Players ' Union from 1988 to 1994 , blasted Falk by saying that " he 's been trying to take over the union for years , " and many saw Falk as the controlling influence in the union 's negotiations . Falk 's involvement in the 1998 lockout also led to Mike Lupica famously dubbing Falk " Rasputin off the bench " in a New York Daily News article , " the rare person who could make a writer root for a sports owner . " The lockout finally ended just 29 hours before the cancellation of the entire NBA season after the players overwhelmingly ratified the latest deal put forward , 179 @-@ 5 .
= = Influence and inspiration = =
= = = Facilitating NBA trades = = =
Falk 's client list , with Michael Jordan its centerpiece , made him one of the primary movers and shakers in the NBA , able to leverage teams into agreeing to his terms on contracts and trades . Some speculated that Falk engineered as many as one of every five NBA trades during the height of his power , and he was often considered the second @-@ most powerful man in basketball behind NBA Commissioner David Stern . In The Sporting News ' list of the " 100 Most Powerful People in Sports " , Falk was listed no lower than # 32 for 10 straight years from 1991 to 2000 , peaking at # 14 from 1998 to 1999 .
" Falk has massive leverage " , says the general manager of one N.B.A. team who didn 't want his name used for fear of angering Falk . " If he just had Michael , he would be considered a marketing genius , which he is . But David represents so many players that he is a major force . He pretty much gets what he asks for . "
A 1999 deal in which Falk forced the Minnesota Timberwolves to trade Stephon Marbury gives a good indication of how Falk used his power . Falk threatened the Timberwolves by telling them that Marbury would walk away in free agency at the end of the season if he was not traded , as well as suggesting that he would dump his stable of free agents into the lap of Chicago Bulls GM Jerry Krause if Marbury was not moved . As the Minnesota Timberwolves started looking around for possible trade scenarios , Falk even went so far as to veto a trade that would have brought Kerry Kittles ( another Falk client ) to Minnesota for Marbury , claiming that Kittles had no interest in playing for Minnesota . The Timberwolves were eventually forced to send Marbury to New Jersey in a three @-@ team trade . Minnesota 's General Manager , Kevin McHale , was greatly embittered about the trade , and has been quoted as saying that " If a nuclear bomb dropped on earth , two things would survive : roaches and David Falk . "
A second trade which resulted from Falk 's influence was the 2000 mega @-@ deal which moved Knicks All @-@ Star center Patrick Ewing to the Seattle SuperSonics in a four @-@ team trade involving 12 players and 5 draft picks . Falk apparently made threats to the Knicks that he would move Glen Rice to the Miami Heat if they did not consent to trade Ewing , who supposedly wanted out of New York .
Falk was frequently blasted for making use of threats and side @-@ deals to move his clients around and maximize their earnings , but he remained unapologetic , arguing that he was simply looking after the best interests of his clients .
" That 's called leverage " , he said . " Every company in the world uses leverage whenever they engage in any negotiation . It 's bad for the teams and good for the players . I work for the players . "
= = = Building wealth for clients and himself = = =
As early as 1992 , even before his departure from ProServ , other NBA agents had begun acknowledging that Falk generally negotiated the contracts that defined the market for the year , and set the standard by which other agents were judged . By the end of the 1995 NBA lockout , Falk controlled enough top players that he was seen as " dictat ( ing ) the structure and the economics of the entire league , " so much so that during one six @-@ day period in the summer of 1996 , he negotiated six contracts — for Jordan , Alonzo Mourning , Juwan Howard , Kenny Anderson , Dikembe Mutombo and Lee Mayberry — worth more than $ 335 million . Since Falk usually earned 4 % of player contracts , which is the maximum amount allowed by the Players ' Union , he made roughly $ 13 million for these 6 deals alone . He was so successful at negotiating contracts that in 1998 , just before he sold FAME to SFX Entertainment , the contracts of Falk 's players totaled just under $ 800 million .
Falk also earned as much as 20 % of player endorsement deals and off @-@ court income , and with Michael Jordan 's endorsement deals alone soaring to over $ 40 million annually in the mid @-@ 90s , Falk counted his yearly income in the tens of millions . He also negotiated notable shoe endorsements for James Worthy , Boomer Esiason ( the first NFL player to endorse the Reebok Pump ) and Allen Iverson . Falk was not well @-@ liked around the league , with even NBA executives acknowledging that they felt he held a disproportionate amount of power . As the negotiator behind four of the five largest contracts in team sports history and the pre @-@ eminent agent in the NBA , Falk was a contributor to the spike in player salaries that saw the average NBA contract rise from $ 330 @,@ 000 in 1984 , the year Jordan was signed , to $ 4 @.@ 5 million in 2001 , when he stepped down as Chairman of SFX Sports Group . Falk himself scoffed at the venom that was frequently directed his way :
" There 's always something to criticize -- I have too much power or too many clients . I scoff at that . Think about it : If you lived on a block with $ 300 @,@ 000 houses and you sold yours for $ 2 @.@ 5 million , your neighbors would thank you . But in my business they don 't . That used to make me angry . Now I 'm just amused . "
= = = Professional legacy = = =
Falk 's enduring legacy can best be described as the NBA 's new star @-@ centered focus . Falk 's idea was that since most people bought Chicago Bulls tickets to see Michael Jordan , Jordan himself should get a large proportion of the benefit .
" Basketball is a hybrid between an individual and team sport " , Falk is saying . " Very gifted players almost make a team by themselves . In that environment , a Michael Jordan , Alonzo Mourning , Juwan Howard , Shaquille O 'Neal and Patrick Ewing bring in the fans . Fans come to watch them play primarily . They create marketing opportunities , new stadiums , luxury boxes , and they should be paid a disproportionate amount of money . The salary structure should be close to what it is in Hollywood , where Jim Carrey makes $ 16 million a film and the second star makes $ 2 million . That 's what I believe as an economics major and as a neo @-@ capitalist . "
As David Halberstam put it in his book Playing for Keeps : Michael Jordan and the World He Made ,
Michael Jordan and David Falk helped make each other , and each profited to a remarkable degree from their special collaboration . It is true that Michael Jordan was the person who in the end actually did the deeds , went on the court and hit the final jump shot again and again , but it is also true that David Falk helped revolutionize the process of representing a basketball player , going into a team sport and creating the idea of the individual player as a commercial superstar .
= = = Personal legacy and philanthropy = = =
On April 23 , 2008 , Syracuse University established The David B. Falk Center for Sport Management , an annex to the Carrier Dome , to better prepare graduates to enter the sports industry , and student @-@ athletes to manage realities of professional sports through life @-@ skills training , in its College of Human Ecology . It was supported by a $ 5 million gift from Falk and his wife Rhonda . The Falk Center 's inaugural event was a panel discussion on issues in contemporary sports at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Falk is chair of the university 's Sport Management Advisory Board .
On June 22 , 2009 , it was announced that Rick Burton was named the David B. Falk Distinguished Professor of Sport Management and will begin his position on August 20 , teaching courses in international sport , sport communications and sport marketing while pursuing scholarly work , research and other academic initiatives in the Department of Sport Management . Burton was the first executive director of the Warsaw Sports Marketing Center at the University of Oregon 's Lundquist College of Business , chief marketing officer for the U.S. Olympic Committee and commissioner of the National Basketball League in Sydney , Australia .
On March 24 , 2011 it was announced that Falk had made a pledge of an additional $ 15 million to Syracuse University and " The David B. Falk Center for Sports Management " .
In 2014 , Falk and Patrick Ewing announced a $ 3 @.@ 3 million donation to the John R. Thompson , Jr . Intercollegiate Athletics Center under construction at Georgetown University . The amount is a reference to Ewing 's number , 33 .
On Oct. 23 , 2015 , the Dean of the David B. Falk College of Sport and Human Dynamics , Diane Lyden Murphy , will lead a dedication ceremony to commemorate the opening of the new home of the college . For the first time in the college ’ s history — which dates back to 1917 when the School of Home Economics began as a course in the College of Agriculture and the first nutrition course was taught — Falk College ’ s academic disciplines and administrative offices are housed in a central location .
= = Other ventures = =
Falk is also on the board of directors of Sapphire Brands ; a founding investor in private aviation company , Marquis Jet and Golf GCX Partners ; and a founder and principal in Relevad Media Group , a digital alternative advertising company . Falk is a frequent guest lecturer at universities across the country , including Harvard , Yale , and Duke , and serves on the George Washington University National Law Center 's advisory board .
" My mother was a teacher , and I think that 's one reason that , amidst my deal @-@ making skills , I have a very strong pedagogical bent " , he says . " I really enjoy teaching , and believe it is one of the most important professions in our society . "
= = = Executive Producer = = =
Falk executive produced a number of sports @-@ related films , including Space Jam , which teamed Jordan with a number of Looney Tunes characters , Michael Jordan to the Max , the critically acclaimed large @-@ format feature , and the Sports Emmy Award @-@ winning On Hallowed Ground , a documentary on the history of the Rucker Park Basketball League .
= = = The Bald Truth = = =
Falk 's first book , The Bald Truth , was released on February 3 , 2009 .
= = Partial client list = =
Falk 's 2014 NBA player clients are in bold , while his non @-@ NBA player clients are in italics .
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= Auricularia auricula @-@ judae =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae , known as the Jew 's ear , wood ear , jelly ear or by a number of other common names , is a species of edible Auriculariales fungus found worldwide . The fruiting body is distinguished by its noticeably ear @-@ like shape and brown colouration ; it grows upon wood , especially elder . Its specific epithet is derived from the belief that Judas Iscariot hanged himself from an elder tree ; the common name " Judas 's ear " eventually became " Jew 's ear " , while today " jelly ear " and other names are sometimes used . The fungus can be found throughout the year in temperate regions worldwide , where it grows upon both dead and living wood .
In the West , A. auricula @-@ judae was used in folk medicine as recently as the 19th century for complaints including sore throats , sore eyes and jaundice , and as an astringent . Although it is not widely consumed in the West , it has long been popular in China , to the extent that Australia exported large volumes to China in the early twentieth century . Today , the fungus is a popular ingredient in many Chinese dishes , such as hot and sour soup , and also used in Chinese medicine . It is also used in Ghana , as a blood tonic . Modern research into possible medical applications have variously concluded that A. auricula @-@ judae has antitumour , hypoglycemic , anticoagulant and cholesterol @-@ lowering properties .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature as Tremella auricula by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum , and later ( 1789 ) described by Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard as Tremella auricula @-@ judae . However , the genus Tremella is now reserved for fungal species that live as parasites on other fungi . Tremella auricula @-@ judae is now considered a basionym . In 1791 , Bulliard transferred the species to the genus Peziza . In 1822 , Elias Magnus Fries transferred the species to Exidia , and , in so doing , sanctioned the name . In 1860 , Miles Joseph Berkeley described the species as a member of Hirneola , a genus described by Fries in 1848 , now considered synonymous with Auricularia .
The species was given the name Auricularia auricula @-@ judae in 1888 by Joseph Schröter . The specific name of A. auricula @-@ judae comprises auricula , the Latin word meaning ear , and Judae , meaning of Judas . Under binomial nomenclature , a species name can comprise only two words ; but the taxonomists responsible for this naming hyphenated the specific name to " bend the rules " and keep the name " within the letter of the law " . The name was criticised by mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd , who said " Auricularia auricula @-@ Judae is cumbersome and in addition is a slander on the Jews " . Though critical of Lucien Marcus Underwood , saying he " would probably not have known the Jew 's ear from the calves ' liver " , he followed him in using Auricularia auricula , which was in turn used by Bernard Lowy in an article on the entire genus . Despite this , Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is the currently recognised name for the species by many sources , though Auricularia auricula is still occasionally used .
As well as the obligate synonyms from Bulliard , Fries and Berkeley , there are numerous other synonymous names . Mycologist George Willard Martin , writing in 1943 , noted that the species was known by at least 12 binomials , of which none appeared to be valid , and noted that " the citations given for the various names are extremely erratic " . Mycologist Mary F. Barrett attributes " such multiplication of names " to " the wide distribution of the Judas ' ear , its ability to grow upon many different kinds of decaying wood , and to its great variation in size , colour and shape " .
The fungus is associated with Judas Iscariot because of the belief that he hanged himself on an elder tree after his betrayal of Jesus Christ . Folklore suggests that the ears are Judas 's returned spirit , and are all that are left to remind us of his suicide . The common name of the fungus was originally " Judas 's ear " , but this was later shortened to " Judas ear " and , in the late 19th century , shortened again to " Jew 's ear " . Common names for the fungus which refer to Judas can be traced back to at least the end of the 16th century ; for instance , in the 17th century , Thomas Browne wrote of the species :
In Jews ' ears something is conceived extraordinary from the name , which is in propriety but fungus sambucinus , or an excrescence about the roots of elder , and concerneth not the nation of the Jews , but Judas Iscariot , upon a conceit he hanged on this tree ; and is become a famous medicine in quinsies , sore throats , and strangulations , ever since .
While the term " Jew 's meat " was a deprecatory term used for all fungi in the Middle Ages , the term is unrelated to the name " Jew 's ear " . A further change of name to " jelly ear " was recommended in the List of Recommended Names for Fungi . The idea was rejected by mycologist Patrick Harding who considered it " to be the result of political correctness where it is not necessary " , and who " will continue to call [ the species ] Jew 's ear " , explaining that , while anti @-@ Semitism was commonplace in Britain , the name " Jew 's ear " is in reference to Judas , who was a Jew . However , the name has been adopted in some recent field guides .
Unrelated common names include the " ear fungus " , " common ear fungus " , " the Chinese Fungus " , " the pig 's ear " , " the wood ear " , " the black wood ear " , " the tree ear " , and " Kikurage " . The species was known as " fungus sambuca " among herbalists , in reference to Sambuca , the generic name for elder .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of A. auricula @-@ judae is normally 3 to 8 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) across , but can be as much as 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . It is distinctively shaped , typically being reminiscent of a floppy ear , though the fruit bodies can also be cup @-@ shaped . It is normally attached to the substrate laterally and sometimes by a very short stalk . The species has a tough , gelatinous , elastic texture when fresh , but it dries hard and brittle . The outer surface is a bright reddish @-@ tan @-@ brown with a purplish hint , often covered in tiny , downy hairs of a grey colour . It can be smooth , as is typical of younger specimens , or undulating with folds and wrinkles . The colour becomes darker with age . The inner surface is a lighter grey @-@ brown in colour and smooth . It is sometimes wrinkled , again with folds and wrinkles , and may have " veins " , making it appear even more ear @-@ like .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
The spores of A. auricula @-@ judae are long and sausage shaped , ranging in size from 16 to 18 micrometres ( μm ) long by 6 to 8 μm thick . The spores themselves are white , cream or yellowish , and are hyaline . The spores can sometimes be seen in a whitish mass on the underside of the fruit body . The species has elongated cylindrical basidia with three transverse septa ( internal cross @-@ walls dividing the hyphae ) . Basidia 60 @-@ 72x 4 @-@ 7.5μm ; sterigmata lateral , well developed , 3 @-@ 4.5μm long . Spores smooth , hyaline , reniform to allantoid , 14 @-@ 18 Χ 6 @-@ 8μm , guttulate . Hairs on the fruit body are from 85 to 100 μm in length , and 5 to 6 μm in diameter . They are hyaline , lack a central strand and have rounded tips . They do not grow in dense tufts .
= = = Similar species = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is similar to A. fuscosuccinea in colour and texture , and " may be confused with it if only external features are considered " . The spore and basidia sizes of the two species are slightly different , but this is not a reliable way to tell them apart . A. cornea is another similar species in the same genus , but has distinct internal differences , is normally more pilose ( more covered in soft hair ) and tends to fruit in larger numbers .
= = Habitat , ecology and distribution = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae grows upon the wood of deciduous trees and shrubs , favouring elder . In up to 90 % of cases , the mushroom is found on elder , but it is often incorrectly assumed to grow exclusively on elder . It has also been recorded on Acer pseudoplatanus ( known in the United Kingdom as sycamore ) , beech , ash , spindle , and in one particular case , the sycamore draining board of an old sink in Hatton Garden . Recently , A. auricula @-@ judae has been recorded from semi @-@ evergreen to evergreen and wet evergreen shola forests in the Western Ghats , India . This species occurs scattered and in clusters on dead or dying branches of trees , on main trunk , decaying logs , etc . This species occurs during the monsoon period in large imbricate clusters and under high humid conditions produces exceptionally large sized basidiomes . A. auricula @-@ judae growing in wet evergreen and shola forests shows remarkable variation in size , shape and colour . In Australia , it is found in Eucalyptus woodland and rainforests ; in the rainforests , it can grow in very large colonies on fallen logs . It favours older branches , where it feeds as a saprophyte ( on dead wood ) or a weak parasite ( on living wood ) , and it causes white rot .
Commonly growing solitarily , it can also be gregarious ( in a group ) or caespitose ( in a tuft ) . Spores are ejected from the underside of the fruit bodies with as many as several hundred thousand an hour , and the high rate continues when the bodies have been significantly dried . Even when they have lost some 90 % of their weight through dehydration , the bodies continue to release a small number of spores . It is found all year , but is most common in autumn . It is widespread throughout temperate and sub @-@ tropical zones worldwide , and can be found across Europe , North America , Asia , Australia , South America and Africa . There has been some debate about the appearance of the species in the tropics ; while it has been frequently reported there , Bernard Lowy , in an article on Auricularia , said that " of the specimens I have examined , none could be assigned here " .
= = Uses = =
= = = Food = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has a soft , jelly @-@ like texture . Though edible , it was not held in high culinary regard in the west for many years . It has been likened to " eating an Indian rubber with bones in it " , while in 19th @-@ century Britain , it was said that " it has never been regarded here as an edible fungus " . It has a mild flavour , and is useful for mixed mushroom recipes , but is still considered bland in the west . It can be dried and rehydrated , sometimes swelling to a very large size . Young specimens are best , but the species is not edible when raw , needing to be cooked thoroughly . The whole fruit body can be eaten , but should be thoroughly washed before cooking . Cooking can sometimes take a comparatively long time . The nutritional content of 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) of dried fungus includes 370 kcal , 10 @.@ 6 g of protein , 0 @.@ 2 g of fat , 65 g of carbohydrate , 5 @.@ 8 g ash , and 0 @.@ 03 % mg of carotene . Fresh mushrooms contain about 90 % moisture . Dried specimens may be ground up into a powder and used to absorb excess liquid in soups and stews , as it rehydrates into tiny fragments .
Both A. auricula @-@ judae and the similar A. polytricha are popular in China , where the medicinal use of food is common ; a soup containing the species is used medicinally for dealing with colds and fevers by reducing the heat of the body . There is evidence that the species were being cultivated in China as early as the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . Li Shizhen , in his Pen Tsao Kang Mu , quotes Tang Ying @-@ chuan from that period as saying " ... put the steamed bran on logs , cover with straw , Wood Ear will grow " . In the early 20th century , large volumes of A. auricula @-@ judae were exported from Australia to China , and it is today still sold in Asian food shops for culinary use . It is also popular in Vietnam , although the climate is there more suited to A. polytricha . A report on small @-@ scale fungi cultivation concluded that A. auricula @-@ judae would be suitable for cultivation only in cooler climates . According to a 2010 publication , the annual production of Auricularia species worldwide is the fourth highest among all industrially cultivated culinary and medicinal mushrooms , and in China , the estimated output was roughly 1 @.@ 655 million tonnes ( based on 2003 data ) , most of which are A. polytricha however ( which has by and large replaced A. auricula @-@ judae in international trade ) .
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae is also in cultivation elsewhere in the world , for instance , in Ghana . In the Brong @-@ Ahafo and Ashanti regions , it is grown with what is referred to as the " plastic bag method " . Sawdust is packed into polypropylene bags and then sterilised by steam for several hours . Once the sawdust has cooled , Sorghum grain spawn is added , and the bags are kept in moderately dark conditions . Once the sawdust is exposed to a humid environment , A. auricula @-@ judae fruit bodies begin to grow . Elsewhere in the world , a study on the use of mushrooms by the Bini people inhabiting a remote village in southern Nigeria found that the local inhabitants collected and ate A. auricula @-@ judae , but that it was not one of the mushrooms they used medicinally .
Collection of the mushroom for culinary use has also been documented in Nepal . However , the Nepalese do not consider it a choice mushroom for eating ; of the three grades given to edible mushrooms , it was given the worst . Again , unlike other mushrooms , no medicinal use was reported . The mushroom has also been the only non @-@ morel species exported from Nepal for culinary use .
Other places where A. auricula @-@ judae has been recorded as commonly consumed include Poland , Mozambique and Indonesia , while , in Bolivia , Goeldi 's monkeys have been recorded as commonly eating the sporocarps .
= = = Folk medicine = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has been used as a medicinal mushroom by many herbalists . It was used as a poultice to treat inflammations of the eye , as well as a palliative for throat problems . The 16th @-@ century herbalist John Gerard , writing in 1597 , recommended A. auricula @-@ judae for a very specific use ; other fungi were used more generally . He recommends the preparation of a liquid extract by boiling the fruit bodies in milk , or else leaving them steeped in beer , which would then be sipped slowly in order to cure a sore throat . The resultant broth was probably not dissimilar to the Chinese soups that use A. polytricha . Carolus Clusius , writing in 1601 , also said that the species could be gargled to cure a sore throat , and John Parkinson , writing in 1640 , reported that boiling in milk or steeping in vinegar was " the onely use the are put unto that I know " .
Writing in 1694 , herbalist John Pechey described A. auricula @-@ judae by saying " It grows to the Trunk of the Elder @-@ Tree . Being dried it will keep a good year . Boyl 'd in Milk , or infus 'd in Vinegarm ' tis good to gargle the Mouth or Throat in Quinsies , and other inflammations of the Mouth and Throat . And being infus 'd in some proper Water , it is good in Diseases of the Eyes . " The species also saw use as an astringent due to its ability to absorb water . There are recorded medicinal usages from Scotland , where it was again used as a gargle for sore throats , and from Ireland , where , in an attempt to cure jaundice , it was boiled in milk . The medicinal use of A. auricula @-@ judae continued until at least 1860 , when it was still sold at Covent Garden ; at the time , it was not considered edible in the United Kingdom .
Medicinal use in Indonesia was also recorded in the 1930s , and was more recently reported in modern @-@ day Ghana . A report for the 2005 Commonwealth Forestry Conference examining the possible effects of deforestation in southern Ghana on medicinal and edible fungi found that A. auricula @-@ judae was in use as a blood tonic .
= = = Pharmacology = = =
Auricularia auricula @-@ judae has been the subject of research into possible medicinal applications . Experiments in the 1980s concluded that two glucans isolated from the species showed potent antitumour properties when used on mice artificially implanted with Sarcoma 180 tumours . This was despite the conclusion of earlier research indicating that , while aqueous extracts from several other fungal species had antitumour effects , extracts from A. auricula @-@ judae did not . Further , research on genetically diabetic mice showed that a polysaccharide extracted from A. auricula @-@ judae had a hypoglycemic effect ; mice fed with food including the polysaccharide showed reduced plasma glucose , insulin , urinary glucose and food intake .
Another chemical extracted from the species was an acidic polysaccharide ( made up of mostly mannose , glucose , glucuronic acid and xylose ) which showed anticoagulant properties . The article concluded that " the polysaccharides from these mushrooms may constitute a new source of compounds with action on coagulation , platelet aggregation and , perhaps , on thrombosis " . Another study reported that the species may be effective in stopping platelet binding in vitro , with possible uses regarding hypercholesterolemia . Research has shown that A. auricula @-@ judae can be used to lower cholesterol levels generally , and , in particular , is one of two fungi shown to reduce the level of bad cholesterol .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The species is referred to in Christopher Marlowe 's play The Jew of Malta . Iathamore proclaims : " The hat he wears , Judas left under the elder when he hanged himself " . Later , the species was probably partially the inspiration for Emily Dickinson 's poem beginning " The Mushroom is the Elf of Plants " , which depicts a mushroom as the " ultimate betrayer " . Dickinson had both a religious and naturalistic background , and so it is more than likely that she knew of the common name of A. auricula @-@ judae , and of the folklore surrounding Judas 's suicide .
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= Jersey Act =
The Jersey Act was introduced to prevent the registration of most American @-@ bred Thoroughbred horses in the British General Stud Book . It had its roots in the desire of the British to halt the influx of American @-@ bred racehorses of possibly impure bloodlines during the early 20th century . Many American @-@ bred horses were exported to Europe to race and retire to a breeding career after a number of US states banned gambling , which depressed Thoroughbred racing as well as breeding in that country . The loss of breeding records during the American Civil War and the late beginning of the registration of American Thoroughbreds led many in the British racing establishment to doubt that the American @-@ bred horses were purebred .
In 1913 the Jockey Club and the owners of the General Stud Book passed a regulation named by the foreign press after the Jockey Club 's senior steward , Lord Jersey , prohibiting the registration of horses in the book unless all of their ancestors had been registered . Despite protests from American breeders the regulation was in force until 1949 . Among the factors influencing its relaxation were the racing success of ineligible horses in Europe and the damage being caused to British and Irish breeders by the unavailability of French Thoroughbreds during and after the Second World War . In addition , by 1949 the impure ancestors of the American bloodlines had receded far back in most horses ' ancestry .
= = Background = =
Before the introduction in 1913 of what became popularly known — " with questionnable taste " according to a correspondent writing in The Times — as the Jersey Act , Thoroughbred horses in the United Kingdom were registered in the General Stud Book , the stud book for British and Irish Thoroughbreds . The rules allowed a horse to be registered if all of the horse 's ancestors were registered in the General Stud Book or if it had been bred outside of Britain or Ireland and was registered in the stud book of its country of origin . Overall the General Stud Book had the most stringent rules for registration of Thoroughbreds at the time , around 1900 ; other countries , including the United States , France , Australia and Russia , were considered by the British and Irish to be much laxer and to have allowed some non @-@ Thoroughbred horses into their national stud books .
The outlawing of race @-@ track betting in parts of the United States between 1900 and 1913 led to a large influx of American @-@ bred horses into Britain and Ireland , giving rise to fears among British breeders that they would be swamped by the American bloodlines and their own stock would become worthless . The biggest state to outlaw betting was New York , which passed the Hart – Agnew Law in 1908 . By 1911 , the average price for yearlings sold at auction was at a record low of $ 230 ( $ 5 @,@ 840 as of 2016 ) . Before 1900 , most horses were imported into Britain to race , and rarely stayed for a breeding career . The outlawing of gambling resulted in large numbers of American horses that could no longer be supported , and many were shipped to Europe for racing . Because of the downturn in the horse market in the US , it was assumed that most of the horses sent to Europe would stay there permanently and , after retirement from the racetrack , would enter their breeding careers outside the US . Between 1908 and 1913 , over 1500 Thoroughbreds were exported from the United States . Those exported included 24 horses who had been or would later become champions – among them Artful , Colin , Henry of Navarre , Peter Pan , and Ballot .
The American Stud Book , the registration book for American Thoroughbreds , was not founded until 1873 , much later than the General Stud Book , and the rules for registration required only that a horse have five generations of ancestors in the American Stud Book or other national stud books , unlike the General Stud Book rules . In addition , many breeding records were destroyed during the American Civil War , as fighting during that conflict took place in noted American Thoroughbred breeding centers . The result was that most American Thoroughbreds in 1913 were unable to show an unblemished pedigree according to the General Stud Book rules . Adding to the problem was the fact that American horses were beginning to win the big horse races in England , starting with Iroquois , who won the 1881 Epsom Derby .
J. B. Haggin , an American breeder and owner of the historic Elmendorf Farm , had begun to ship large contingents of horses to England for sale , including the 1908 Grand National steeplechase winner Rubio , and the fear was that if other American breeders followed his lead , the English racing market would be overwhelmed . As a first step , the English racing authorities began to limit the number of training licences at Newmarket Racecourse , turning away a number of American breeders . The General Stud Book rules for registration were also amended in 1909 to restrict registration to horses whose ancestry entirely traced to horses already registered in the General Stud Book , but horses registered in other national stud books were still allowed to be imported and registered .
= = Introduction = =
The owners of the General Stud Book , Weatherbys , consulted with the Jockey Club , the United Kingdom 's racing authority , and discussions were held about the problems in pedigrees recorded in the American Stud Book . At a meeting of the Jockey Club in spring 1913 , Victor Child Villiers , Lord Jersey , the club 's senior steward , proposed a resolution limiting the registration of American bloodlines . It passed unanimously in May , and a new regulation was placed in the General Stud Book , Volume 22 :
No horse or mare can , after this date , be considered as eligible for admission unless it can be traced without flaw on both sire 's and dam 's side of its pedigree to horses and mares themselves already accepted in the earlier volumes of the book .
Although named the Jersey Act by a critical foreign press , after Lord Jersey , the new regulation did not have the force of law as it was promulgated by the registration authorities of the Thoroughbred horse , not by the United Kingdom government . Nor was it promulgated by the Jockey Club , which had no authority over registration , only over racing matters . The regulation required that any horse registered in the General Stud Book trace in every line to a horse that had already been registered in the General Stud Book , effectively excluding most American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds .
= = Effects = =
The new rule was not applied retroactively , therefore all American @-@ bred horses registered before 1913 remained on the register , and their descendants were also eligible for registration . Of the 7 @,@ 756 mares in Volume 27 of the General Stud Book , published in 1933 , 930 would have been ineligible under the new rule . The Jersey Act did have an immediate impact however , as the winner of the 1914 Epsom Derby , Durbar II , was ineligible for registration , as his dam , Armenia , was bred in the United States and was not herself eligible for the General Stud Book .
The main problem for American breeders was the presence of the blood of Lexington in their breeding programs . Lexington 's pedigree on his dam 's side was suspect in the eyes of British racing authorities , and as he had been the leading sire of racehorses in the United States for 16 years , his descendants were numerous . Most American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds traced to Lexington at least once , and he was not the only horse with suspect bloodlines registered in the American Stud Book .
Most British breeders thought the regulation necessary and welcomed it , whereas most American breeders found it insulting , and believed that it was intended merely to protect the British racehorse market . The rule did adversely affect many British breeders as well though , including even one senior member of the Jockey Club , Lord Coventry , whose successful line of racehorses was ineligible for registration . Initially there was little foreign complaint or organized opposition , probably owing to the effect of the gambling bans in the United States on the domestic horse market . The American Jockey Club did not even remark on the Jersey Act in its official publication , the Racing Calendar , and no mention of it appears in the Jockey Club 's meeting minutes for 1913 . Contributing to the lack of outcry was a legal ruling in New York allowing oral betting at racetracks , which led to the growth of racing in the United States ; by 1920 the American breeding market had rebounded and was booming .
The Jersey Act did not prevent the racing of horses containing the banned bloodlines , as horses with the suspect breeding raced and won in England , but they were considered to be " half @-@ bred " . A number of American @-@ bred horses carrying the lines of Lexington had already been imported into England , including Americus , Rhoda B , and Sibola , and because they were grandfathered in , they and their descendants were allowed to be registered in the General Stud Book . Neither did it prevent the racing of horses that were not registered in the General Stud Book ; it just prevented registration in the General Stud Book . American bloodlines , whether registered in the General Stud Book or not , dominated English racing in the 1920s and 1930s . Horses that were ineligibile for General Stud Book registration , but were allowed to race , were identified with a Maltese cross in programs and auction listings .
A number of American breeders , including the then @-@ chairman of the American Jockey Club , William Woodward , Sr. , lobbied hard throughout the 1930s to have the regulation removed . Woodward , and other defenders of the American bloodlines , argued that the racing performance of the horses proved their purity , even if they could not produce papers that did so . Woodward declared in 1935 that " If we do not get together , we will grow apart . " Those arguing for keeping the Jersey Act in effect pointed out that the General Stud Book is a record of bloodlines , not a work recording racing ability .
The Jersey Act 's major effect was the opposite of what was intended . In the years before the Second World War British and Irish breeders had relied on imported Thoroughbreds from France to enrich their breeding lines , a source that was unavailable during the war , and concerns were beginning to be expressed that the situation might lead to excessive inbreeding . Additionally , by the end of the war American @-@ bred lines were some of the most successful racing lines in the world , effectively making the British and Irish breeding programmes that did not use them second @-@ rate , and harming the rebuilding of English racing . There were even calls for the creation of an international stud book to record all Thoroughbred pedigrees , thus eliminating any perceived slight on the bloodlines that were excluded from the General Stud Book .
= = 1949 amendment = =
Weatherbys , publishers of the Stud Book , approached the Jockey Club in 1948 to ask if it agreed that the Jersey Act was " too restrictive " . The rule was subsequently modified in June 1949 , after the racing careers of a number of horses such as Tourbillon and Djebel persuaded the Jockey Club to reconsider . A number of French @-@ bred Thoroughbreds began to race in England after the Second World War , but because they carried American lines they were considered half @-@ breds . In 1948 two of England 's five classic races were won by half @-@ bred horses , My Babu and Black Tarquin , prompting the Jockey Club to amend the rule in the preface to the General Stud Book , to state that :
Any animal claiming admission from now onwards must be able to prove satisfactorily some eight or nine crosses pure blood , to trace back for at least a century , and to show such performances of its immediate family on the Turf as to warrant the belief in the purity of its blood .
The amendment removed the stigma of not being considered purebred from American @-@ bred horses . A major consideration was that by the late 1940s most of the horses with suspect pedigrees were so far back in most horses ' ancestry that it no longer made much sense to exclude them . Neither did it make much sense to exclude some of the most successful racehorses in Europe from registration . Weatherby 's further amended its regulations in 1969 , introducing the word " thoroughbred " to describe the horses registered in previous volumes of the General Stud Book . In 2006 , Blood @-@ Horse Publications , publisher of The Blood @-@ Horse magazine , chose the " repeal " of the Jersey Act as the 39th most important moment in American Thoroughbred horse racing history .
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= Little Wapwallopen Creek =
Little Wapwallopen Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) long and flows through Rice Township , Dorrance Township , Conyngham Township , and Hollenback Township . The watershed of the creek has an area of 39 @.@ 5 square miles ( 102 km2 ) . The creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and is not considered to be impaired . It has two named tributaries : Pond Creek and Nuangola Outlet . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek .
Little Wapwallopen Creek ranges from slightly acidic to slightly basic . It is a significant source of flooding in Conyngham Township , Dorrance Township , and Rice Township . Numerous bridges have been constructed across the creek . The surficial geology in its vicinity consists of alluvium , alluvial terrace , alluvial fan , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , Wisconsinan Till , and wetlands . Numerous bridges have also been constructed across the creek .
= = Course = =
Little Wapwallopen Creek begins in Boyle Pond in Rice Township . It flows west for several tenths of a mile and passes through another pond before turning south @-@ southwest for more than a mile ( two kilometers ) . It then turns west for a few tenths of a mile and receives Nuangola Outlet , its first named tributary , from the right . The creek turns south @-@ southwest for more than a mile before turning southwest and crossing Interstate 81 and entering Dorrance Township . Several tenths of a mile further downstream , it passes through Andy Pond and turns west @-@ northwest for a short distance . It then turns west @-@ southwest for considerably more than a mile before turning west and then west @-@ northwest . The creek then turns north for a few tenths of a mile before turning west for several tenths of a mile . For the next few miles , it flows roughly west @-@ southwest , entering Conyngham Township . The creek then turns south for several tenths of a mile , briefly entering Hollenback Township before turning north and flowing alongside Hess Mountain as it reenters Conyngham Township . Its valley broadens and it flows west @-@ southwest for a few miles , receiving the tributary Pond Creek and crossing Pennsylvania Route 239 . A short distance further downstream , it reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River .
Little Wapwallopen Creek is approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) long . It joins the Susquehanna River 168 @.@ 16 miles ( 270 @.@ 63 km ) upriver of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Little Wapwallopen Creek has numerous unnamed tributaries and two named tributaries : Nuangola Outlet and Pond Creek . Pond Creek joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 1 @.@ 52 miles ( 2 @.@ 45 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 9 @.@ 69 square miles ( 25 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Nuangola Outlet joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 14 @.@ 55 miles ( 23 @.@ 42 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 2 @.@ 35 square miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) .
= = Hydrology = =
The discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth has been observed to range from 0 @.@ 87 to 54 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 025 to 1 @.@ 529 m3 / s ) . The turbidity level of the creek at this location was once measured to be fewer than 5 Jackson Turbidity Units . Its specific conductance ranged from 60 to 80 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The creek 's pH ranged between a slightly acidic 6 @.@ 3 and a slightly basic 7 @.@ 4 . The concentration of water hardness ranged from 19 to 23 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 019 to 0 @.@ 023 oz / cu ft ) . The creek is not considered to be impaired as of 2006 .
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the waters of Little Wapwallopen Creek was measured in the 1970s to be 11 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0110 oz / cu ft ) . The carbon dioxide concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 5 to 9 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00050 to 0 @.@ 00969 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of bicarbonate ranged from 8 to 12 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0080 to 0 @.@ 0120 oz / cu ft ) and no carbonate was observed .
The concentration of organic nitrogen in Little Wapwallopen Creek was once measured to be 0 @.@ 06 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) and the ammonia concentration was once measured to be 0 @.@ 064 milligrams per liter ( 6 @.@ 4 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates was measured to be 0 @.@ 74 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00074 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites was measured to be 0 @.@ 13 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00013 oz / cu ft ) .
In the 1970s , the concentration of calcium in the waters of Little Wapwallopen Creek were found to range from 5 @.@ 00 to 5 @.@ 90 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00499 to 0 @.@ 00589 oz / cu ft ) . The magnesium concentration ranged from 1 @.@ 50 to 2 @.@ 20 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00150 to 0 @.@ 00220 oz / cu ft ) . The combined concentrations of sodium and potassium ranged from 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0023 to 0 @.@ 0030 oz / cu ft ) and the recoverable iron concentration was once measured at 0 @.@ 08 milligrams per liter ( 8 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The sulfate concentration ranged from 12 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter and the concentration of chloride ranged from 2 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0023 to 0 @.@ 0070 oz / cu ft ) .
The concentration of dissolved solids in Little Wapwallopen Creek was once measured to be 60 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 060 oz / cu ft ) .
At its mouth , the peak annual discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 750 cubic feet per second ( 78 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 149 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 7 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 200 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 12 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 350 m3 / s ) . Upstream of the tributary Pond Creek , the peak annual discharge of the creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 150 cubic feet per second ( 61 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of 4 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 120 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 170 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 10 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 290 m3 / s ) .
At a point 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) downstream of Blue Ridge Trail , the peak annual discharge of Little Wapwallopen Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 40 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 300 cubic feet per second ( 65 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 700 cubic feet per second ( 76 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 110 m3 / s ) . At a point 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) upstream of Blue Ridge Trail , the peak annual discharge of the creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 35 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of 2 @,@ 070 cubic feet per second ( 59 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 470 cubic feet per second ( 70 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 550 cubic feet per second ( 101 m3 / s ) .
= = Geography , geology , and climate = =
The elevation near the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek is 495 feet ( 151 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is approximately 1 @,@ 220 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level . The course of the creek is tortuous .
Alluvium , which consists of stratified sand , silt , and gravel , as well as some boulders , occurs in the valley of Little Wapwallopen Creek to a depth of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) or more . Numerous deposits of Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift are present as well . Alluvial terrace also occurs near the creek , which is the only place in the quadrangle of Sybertsville that contains it in the surficial geology . Wisconsinan Loess , which consists of windblown silt and fine sand , occurs in the southern part of the creek 's valley in the Sybertsville quadrangle . The remains of outwash terraces also occur near the creek in that quadrangle .
In the Sybertsville quadrangle , the surficial geology in the valley of Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly consists of alluvium , alluvial terrace , alluvial fan , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , and some small patches of Wisconsinan Till . The surficial geology on the valley slopes and uplands mainly consists of bedrock . In the quadrangle of Freeland , the surficial geology near Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly features Wisconsinan Till , Wisconsinan Ice @-@ Contact Stratified Drift , and alluvium . The surficial geology near the creek in the Wilkes @-@ Barre West quadrangle mainly consists of Wisconsinan Till , with some scattered areas of bedrock and alluvium .
The Berwick Axis , which is also known as the Montour Axis , crosses the Susquehanna River half a mile downstream of the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek . There is concealed Marcellus shale near the creek in Hollenback Township .
The water temperature of Little Wapwallopen Creek near Wapwallopen was measured several times during the 1970s . The values ranged from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in May 1971 to 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( 67 @.@ 1 ° F ) in September 1972 .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Little Wapwallopen Creek has an area of 39 @.@ 5 square miles ( 102 km2 ) . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Berwick . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Wilkes @-@ Barre West . It also flows through the quadrangles of Freeland and Sybertsville . The creek is one of the major streams in Luzerne County .
The land in the 100 year floodplain of Little Wapwallopen Creek mainly consists of agricultural and forested land . However , there are also some areas of rural residential land . A natural gas pipeline 42 inches ( 110 cm ) in diameter and owned by the Transcontinental Gas Pipeline Company crosses an unnamed tributary of Little Wapwallopen Creek .
A 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) lake known as Lilly Lake is in the watershed of Little Wapwallopen Creek , on one of its tributaries . A pond known as Triangle Pond is also in the upper reaches of the watershed . Henry C. Bradsby 's book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania described Round Pond as being in the watershed as well . A swamp known as Turner Swamp is also in the watershed . Other lakes in the creek 's vicinity include Andy Pond , Lake Blytheburn , Boyle Pond , Nuangola Lake , and the Ice Ponds . Many patches of wetlands are found in the watershed 's upper reaches .
A package wastewater treatment facility operated by the Crestwood School District discharges into Little Wapwallopen Creek in Rice Township . It has a capacity of 11 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 42 @,@ 000 l ) per day . Another package wastewater treatment facility is operated by Wilbar Realty in the same township and discharges into the creek . It serves 176 homes in Laurel Lake Village and has a capacity of 87 @,@ 500 US gallons ( 331 @,@ 000 l ) .
Little Wapwallopen Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Conyngham Township , along with the Susquehanna River . The creek is also the main source of flooding in Dorrance Township and one of the main sources in Rice Township . A 100 year flood of the creek would flood substantial areas . Such flooding would also be exacerbated by backwater flooding from the Susquehanna River .
= = History = =
Little Wapwallopen Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1179707 .
Historically , a Native American path went from Council Cup up the Little Wapwallopen Creek valley and to Wilkes @-@ Barre . The path ran from Council Cup to the creek and then northeast alongside it before going past Lily Lake and over Penobscot Mountain towards where Wilkes @-@ Barre is now located . The first person to settle in Conyngham Township was Martin Harter , who settled on the creek near its mouth in 1795 .
In the late 1800s , there was an old ferry road near the mouth of Little Wapwallopen Creek . A railroad bridge also crosses the creek . Historically , a road ran from a small settlement on Big Wapwallopen Creek to an even smaller one on Little Wapwallopen Creek , near where Church Road presently is . The Glen Brook Water Company once had plans to construct a dam on the creek and also on its tributary Pond Creek . The Wilkes @-@ Barre Ice Company and the Hazleton Ice Company also dammed a stream in the creek 's watershed in 1912 and 1916 respectively , forming the Ice Ponds .
A concrete stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying Blytheburn Road was built over Little Wapwallopen Creek in 1920 . It is 33 @.@ 1 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) long . A concrete slab bridge was built across the creek in 1935 and repaired in 2007 . It is 23 @.@ 0 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) long and carries T @-@ 477 / Weyhenmyr Street . In 1940 , a bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was constructed over the creek in Conyngham Township . This bridge is a steel stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge with a length of 65 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 8 m ) long .
A three @-@ span bridge carrying Interstate 81 northbound over Little Wapwallopen Creek was constructed in Rice Township in 1964 and repaired in 1987 . This bridge is a prestressed box beam bridge with a length of 162 @.@ 1 feet ( 49 @.@ 4 m ) . A bridge of the same type was built over the creek for Interstate 81 southbound in 1965 . This bridge was also repaired in 1987 and is 185 @.@ 0 feet ( 56 @.@ 4 m ) long . In 1975 , a prestressed stringer / multi @-@ beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 3008 / Ruckle Hill Road was built over the creek . This bridge is 92 @.@ 9 feet ( 28 @.@ 3 m ) long and is in Conyngham Township . A prestressed box beam or girders bridge was built in Dorrance Township in 1988 . It is 63 @.@ 0 feet ( 19 @.@ 2 m ) long . Another bridge of the same type , but with a length of 37 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 @.@ 3 m ) was constructed in 1996 for T @-@ 406 / Georges Road . A steel girder and floorbeam system bridge was built over the creek in 1997 . It is 60 @.@ 0 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long and carries T @-@ 392 / Hollow Road .
Floodwaters from Little Wapwallopen Creek reached a height of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) over St. Marys Road in Dorrance Township during a storm in 1972 . This is the only recorded flooding of a developed area caused by a major storm in the township . The creek also once flooded to a depth of 18 to 20 inches ( 46 to 51 cm ) over Hislop Road in Rice Township .
In August 2002 , the Pennsylvania Environmental Council received $ 57 @,@ 897 @.@ 76 to carry out a restoration plan on the upper reaches of Little Wapwallopen Creek . Since 2005 , a project to remedy streambank erosion on the creek has been successful . The creek has a watershed association known as the Little Wapwallopen Creek Watershed Association .
= = Biology = =
The drainage basin of Little Wapwallopen Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its mouth upstream for 4 @.@ 40 miles ( 7 @.@ 08 km ) to T @-@ 392 . They also do so in the tributary Pond Creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth .
Henry C. Bradsby 's 1893 book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania stated that Long Pond and Round Pond , two ponds in the watershed , had a large fish population . The creek was stocked with 700 fingerling , yearling , and adult brook trout in 1909 .
The greenway of Little Wapwallopen Creek has been proposed as a conservation area in the Open Space , Greenways & Outdoor Recreation Master Plan for Luzerne County and Lackawanna County .
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= What It 's Like Being Alone =
What It 's Like Being Alone is a Canadian television program which aired on CBC Television in 2006 . It is a black comedy created by Brad Peyton , and combines clay animation with voice work by Stacey DePass , Adam Reid , Dwayne Hill , Julie Lemieux , Peter Cugno , and Andrew Sabiston .
Having debuted on 26 June 2006 , the series lasted only until 18 September of that year . The storylines of the thirteen episodes that aired during this timeframe center on the many attempts of fictional mutant children living in an orphanage to get adopted . Princess Lucy , a grey , fat , and warty orphan , is the main character , and the plot begins with her arrival at the orphanage . Critics regarded the series as unusual , and it received notably poor ratings . Commentators considered these ratings to reflect a generally poor performance of CBC programming in 2006 .
= = Characters = =
The storylines of What It 's Like Being Alone revolve around the residents of the fictional Gurney Orphanage , a dark , run @-@ down building . The orphanage has been described by a columnist as Victorian , and it may be set in a bog on the Canadian island of Newfoundland .
Aldous is the eldest of the orphans . She is tall , depressed , very gothic and obsessed with her own death , and carries a black umbrella . She spends most of her time moping about the orphanage and writing depressing poetry . It is insinuated that she actually cares for the other orphans , without letting this on too much . Aldous is voiced by Stacey DePass .
Armie is a boy with no limbs , except for his left arm . He glides around on a skateboard , and often falls over when he uses his arm for something . He is happy and hopeful , despite his obvious handicap . Armie is voiced by Adam Reid .
Brian Brain is an incredibly intelligent 9 @-@ year @-@ old boy with two brains and three eyes . He is often seen inventing things , or gloating about his superiority . His voice is provided by Andrew Sabiston .
Byron and Beasly is a blue baby with two heads . Byron is constantly teased by Beasly , the more demonic head . They vomit acid , and are nearly impossible to bathe . No one is credited with voicing this character .
Charlie is a somewhat homosexual boy who is always on fire . Though he tries not to harm other people , someone or something always ends up burning . Like the other orphan characters , Charlie was part of the story from the beginning , and was specifically inspired by one of Peyton 's jokes , " What ’ s it like being alone ? Like a sunset , but only if you 're on fire . " Charlie is voiced by Peter Cugno .
Princess Lucy is a short , fat , warty and grey girl who believes she is a princess . She is ego @-@ centric , and quite crude , and has a long , lizard @-@ like tongue ; she often carries a lollipop . She firmly believes that she is the most deserving of parents . Princess Lucy is voiced by Dwayne Hill , who was also part of the " Story Department . " Peyton has said that she is his favourite character .
Sammy Fishboy resembles a swamp monster . Outside of his tank , he must always keep a running hose over his head . He often is very rude , especially when he is drunk . He is in love with Isabella , a stone mermaid aquarium decoration , and becomes depressed when it is not around . Sammy is voiced by Julie Lemieux .
Seymore Talkless is an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy with no mouth and one giant eye . He expresses his emotions through his violin or a variety of signs that have a word or phrase written on them , and expresses panic through crazed hand gestures . No one is credited with voicing this character .
Nanny Goodapple is the orphans ' caretaker . She never speaks , and glides around the other characters . When out , she leaves the welfare of the other children in Aldous ' hands . Nanny Goodapple is also something of a souse . No one is credited with voicing this character .
= = Plot = =
= = = Pilot = = =
The pilot of the series aired with some anticipation . Beforehand , columnist Randall Denley had written that " I suspect [ it ] will be the highlight of the evening , " noting the series had been described as " wondrous and fiendishly humorous . " The first episode , titled " The Gurney Orphanage For Beginners , " features Princess Lucy and her suitcase falling from the sky in front of the orphanage and killing three rabbits . Upon getting up and seeing the orphanage , Princess Lucy believes she has found her castle and royal family . Instead , she is surprised to find the building is full of mutant orphans , and devastated to learn she is an orphan herself . She tries to escape , but finds any way out blocked by a lake monster and a dangerous forest , among other things .
Eventually , a woman agrees to adopt Lucy . However , the other orphans see that the woman will probably not provide the best home for her , and intervene . Lucy ultimately decides that she belongs in the orphanage more so than her ideal castle .
= = = Series = = =
The series was continued with twelve more episodes : Themes explored include " social issues , pop culture references and humour . " Due to the show having the visual appearance of a children 's television series , each episode was preceded by a content warning , stating that the show was intended for an adult audience and that " parental discretion " was advised .
" Do Orphans Dream of Electric Parents ? " is the second episode . It is about Brian Brain inventing robots and making them his parents , only to find that the robots want to divorce each other . In the next episode , " An Orphans Life Indeed " , Princess Lucy seeks a best friend , but her vanity causes her to decide that only she can be her own best friend . Lucy then clones herself , but the clones prove troublesome . Seymore , who is in love with Lucy , ultimately solves the problem by slaughtering the clones with a chainsaw . One critic remarked that this was a particularly " disturbing " scene for the series .
The fourth episode , called " The Perfect Lesson " , sees the orphans trying to perform a play to impress visiting prospective parents . It is from this episode that the show 's title is derived , as the play repeatedly refers to " what it 's like being alone " . This was followed by the episode aired on 24 July , " The Poster Child " which is about a corporation that attempts to adopt Aldous to use her in advertisements . Aldous , under a witch 's curse , must accept this shallow adoption or die .
In the episode " Fire the Reverend " , a religious speaker visits the orphanage and confuses Charlie with Satan ; the real Satan and his son later emerge , and Charlie finds out that while he is mistaken for being evil , Satan 's son is trying to shed the perception that he is good . Eventually Charlie saves the day by persuading Satan and his son to leave the orphanage . The seventh episode is entitled " Red , White and Orphanage " . It is about another orphanage abducting Brian Brain in order to exploit him in their plans for world domination . This was followed by " Sammy 's Episode " , which is about Sammy taking various medications , as well as shock therapy . The ninth episode is " A Tale of Almost Unbearable Sadness , " which is focussed on declining morale in the orphanage and exploration of the dangerous forest .
Alternate names for the tenth episode are " Lucky Lucy " and " You Gotta Know When to Hold ' em " . In it , Princess Lucy bets that Byron and Beasly cannot be cleaned and wins . She afterwards gambles more but nearly loses the orphanage in the process . The episode " Armie Loves Cigarettes " sees Armie taking up smoking . According to the Internet Movie Database , the second last episode and season finale aired on the same day , 18 September . The twelfth and second last episode is called " A Frightful Flu , " and in it Aldous entrusts care for the ailing orphans to a witch . The final episode , " Silver Screen Lucy " or " The Sweet Stink of Success , " is about the orphans making short films to impress a prospective parent , but he ends up adopting Nanny Goodapple and Beasly and Byron , leaving the orphanage to Aldous .
= = Production = =
The show was created by Brad Peyton of Newfoundland and Labrador , who explained that he identified himself as a " freak " growing up , and was thus motivated to try " celebrating flawed characters " in his work ; he also employed stereotypical views of orphanages in the series . Peyton had previously made a black comedy short film called Evelyn : The Cutest Evil Dead Girl , and afterwards declined to shoot a major film . Instead , he turned to What It 's Like Being Alone . He described the genesis of the series :
I had a friend who was depressed , so I went over to her house and started drawing . I made her a little book . She liked it and said I should try to sell it . So I photocopied 200 at Kinkos and sold them at Pages Books . Made like $ 150 dollars . That book turned into What It 's Like Being Alone .
Peyton explained the writing by saying " it always comes out of an emotional place . " One of the writers was Karen Walton , who had previously written the Canadian werewolf film Ginger Snaps . The producers chose the type of animation due to Peyton 's personal interest in it , although he later claimed that a day 's work could lead to seconds ' worth of material . A factory was needed with 8 to 10 teams , with some of the animators having previously worked on the Tim Burton film Corpse Bride . The characters were made out of plastic and foam . Additionally , some animation was done through computers . Each character 's figure had a number of add @-@ on lips to express various sounds , and their eyes and eyebrows were also adjusted frequently during production . The figures could also be fastened into a surface , moved and fastened in again to portray movement . Peyton remarked that " The hardest thing is timing and pacing . " Still , he also liked to emphasize that the series did not cost too much money to produce .
The airing of the series had been stalled for a year , perhaps due to difficulties within the CBC . To get CBC to adopt the series , Peyton showed the company a commercial with the CBC logo in blood , remarking that " It 's been way too long that you 've waited to have your logo covered in blood . " He had also said that What It 's Like Being Alone was meant to attract university and high school students as an audience , and he felt that these people did not ordinarily watch the CBC . CBC itself was looking for original material , and was enthusiastic about the series because it seemed to stand out among Canadian television productions . Peyton 's co @-@ producer was Fred Fuchs , who later rose in the CBC staff ; one critic believed Fuchs ' promotion to be a reason why CBC adopted the series .
= = Reception = =
Critics generally found the series to be unusual . CBC critic Stephen Cole commented that What It 's Like Being Alone has " arguably the most surreal opening sequence in TV history " with a shift in view from a black and white Canadian flag to the orphan characters . He questioned whether the show indicated the CBC had adopted " Addams Family values " and said that it was " the wildest CBC comedy since Twitch City . "
One television critic briefly said that What It 's Like Being Alone is a " weird show , " and simply advised individual viewers to see it for themselves . If they " relate " to it , the critic added , " a ' Yikes ! ' is in order . " Bill Brioux of the Toronto Sun commented that in combining a feel one would usually expect from Tim Burton with elements of Sesame Street , What It 's Like Being Alone would probably not appeal fully to any demographic , despite its originality . Additionally , he felt Princess Lucy would be tiresome , and said he had hoped the show were more amusing .
In terms of ratings , the series did not do well . The Toronto Star described it as one of CBC 's " prime @-@ time dogs " with an audience of 78 @,@ 000 people . The executive Richard Stursberg was blamed for cancelling the more popular Da Vinci 's City Hall and This is Wonderland to make room for this and other shows , and in general for being a " one @-@ man wrecking ball " for the CBC ( the series The One : Making a Music Star had also flopped on CBC in 2006 ) . On 18 September , the series finale had only 163 @,@ 000 viewers , part of the perceived " shocking " low ratings CBC received that year , along with the low ratings of the documentary series Hockey : A People 's History and a mini @-@ series about former @-@ Quebec premier René Lévesque .
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= Economy of England in the Middle Ages =
The economy of England in the Middle Ages , from the Norman invasion in 1066 , to the death of Henry VII in 1509 , was fundamentally agricultural , though even before the invasion the market economy was important to producers . Norman institutions , including serfdom , were superimposed on an existing system of open fields and mature , well @-@ established towns involved in international trade . Over the next five centuries the economy would at first grow and then suffer an acute crisis , resulting in significant political and economic change . Despite economic dislocation in urban and extraction economies , including shifts in the holders of wealth and the location of these economies , the economic output of towns and mines developed and intensified over the period . By the end of the period , England had a weak government , by later standards , overseeing an economy dominated by rented farms controlled by gentry , and a thriving community of indigenous English merchants and corporations .
The 12th and 13th centuries saw a huge development of the English economy . This was partially driven by the growth in the population from around 1 @.@ 5 million at the time of the creation of the Domesday Book in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300 . England remained a primarily agricultural economy , with the rights of major landowners and the duties of serfs increasingly enshrined in English law . More land , much of it at the expense of the royal forests , was brought into production to feed the growing population or to produce wool for export to Europe . Many hundreds of new towns , some of them planned , sprung up across England , supporting the creation of guilds , charter fairs and other important medieval institutions . The descendants of the Jewish financiers who had first come to England with William the Conqueror played a significant role in the growing economy , along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that came to become major players in the wool trade of the north . Mining increased in England , with the silver boom of the 12th century helping to fuel a fast @-@ expanding currency .
Economic growth began to falter by the end of the 13th century , owing to a combination of over @-@ population , land shortages and depleted soils . The loss of life in the Great Famine of 1315 – 17 shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased ; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population , with major implications for the post @-@ plague economy . The agricultural sector shrank , with higher wages , lower prices and shrinking profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system of cash rents for lands . The Peasants Revolt of 1381 shook the older feudal order and limited the levels of royal taxation considerably for a century to come . The 15th century saw the growth of the English cloth industry and the establishment of a new class of international English merchant , increasingly based in London and the South @-@ West , prospering at the expense of the older , shrinking economy of the eastern towns . These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company . Together with improvements in metalworking and shipbuilding , this represents the end of the medieval economy , and the beginnings of the early modern period in English economics .
= = Invasion and the early Norman period ( 1066 – 1100 ) = =
William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066 , defeating the Anglo @-@ Saxon King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings and placing the country under Norman rule . This campaign was followed by fierce military operations known as the Harrying of the North in 1069 – 70 , extending Norman authority across the north of England . William 's system of government was broadly feudal in that the right to possess land was linked to service to the king , but in many other ways the invasion did little to alter the nature of the English economy . Most of the damage done in the invasion was in the north and the west of England , some of it still recorded as " wasteland " in 1086 . Many of the key features of the English agricultural and financial system remained in place in the decades immediately after the conquest .
= = = Agriculture and mining = = =
= = = = English agriculture = = = =
Agriculture formed the bulk of the English economy at the time of the Norman invasion . Twenty years after the invasion , 35 % of England was covered in arable land , 25 % was put to pasture , 15 % was covered by woodlands and the remaining 25 % was predominantly moorland , fens and heaths . Wheat formed the single most important arable crop , but rye , barley and oats were also cultivated extensively . In the more fertile parts of the country , such as the Thames valley , the Midlands and the east of England , legumes and beans were also cultivated . Sheep , cattle , oxen and pigs were kept on English holdings , although most of these breeds were much smaller than modern equivalents and most would have been slaughtered in winter .
= = = = Manorial system = = = =
In the century prior to the Norman invasion , England 's great estates , owned by the king , bishops , monasteries and thegns , had been slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance , wills , marriage settlements or church purchases . Most of the smaller landowning nobility lived on their properties and managed their own estates . The pre @-@ Norman landscape had seen a trend away from isolated hamlets and towards larger villages engaged in arable cultivation in a band running north – south across England . These new villages had adopted an open field system in which fields were divided into small strips of land , individually owned , with crops rotated between the field each year and the local woodlands and other common lands carefully managed . Agricultural land on a manor was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage and cultivate directly , called demesne land , and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants , who would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord 's demesne fields or through cash or produce . Around 6 @,@ 000 watermills of varying power and efficiency had been built in order to grind flour , freeing up peasant labour for other more productive agricultural tasks . The early English economy was not a subsistence economy and many crops were grown by peasant farmers for sale to the early English towns .
The Normans initially did not significantly alter the operation of the manor or the village economy . William reassigned large tracts of land amongst the Norman elite , creating vast estates in some areas , particularly along the Welsh border and in Sussex . The biggest change in the years after the invasion was the rapid reduction in the number of slaves being held in England . In the 10th century slaves had been very numerous , although their number had begun to diminish as a result of economic and religious pressure . Nonetheless , the new Norman aristocracy proved harsh landlords . The wealthier , formerly more independent Anglo @-@ Saxon peasants found themselves rapidly sinking down the economic hierarchy , swelling the numbers of unfree workers , or serfs , forbidden to leave their manor and seek alternative employment . Those Anglo @-@ Saxon nobles who had survived the invasion itself were rapidly assimilated into the Norman elite or economically crushed .
= = = = Creation of the forests = = = =
The Normans also established the royal forests . In Anglo @-@ Saxon times there had been special woods for hunting called " hays " , but the Norman forests were much larger and backed by legal mandate . The new forests were not necessarily heavily wooded but were defined instead by their protection and exploitation by the crown . The Norman forests were subject to special royal jurisdiction ; forest law was " harsh and arbitrary , a matter purely for the King 's will " . Forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds , raw materials , goods and money . Revenue from forest rents and fines came to become extremely significant and forest wood was used for castles and royal ship building . Several forests played a key role in mining , such as the iron mining and working in the Forest of Dean and lead mining in the Forest of High Peak . Several other groups bound up economically with forests ; many monasteries had special rights in particular forests , for example for hunting or tree felling . The royal forests were accompanied by the rapid creation of locally owned parks and chases .
= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
Although primarily rural , England had a number of old , economically important towns in 1066 . A large amount of trade came through the Eastern towns , including London , York , Winchester , Lincoln , Norwich , Ipswich and Thetford . Much of this trade was with France , the Low Countries and Germany , but the North @-@ East of England traded with partners as far away as Sweden . Cloth was already being imported to England before the invasion through the mercery trade .
Some towns , such as York , suffered from Norman sacking during William 's northern campaigns . Other towns saw the widespread demolition of houses to make room for new motte and bailey fortifications , as was the case in Lincoln . The Norman invasion also brought significant economic changes with the arrival of the first Jews to English cities . William I brought over wealthy Jews from the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London , apparently to carry out financial services for the crown . In the years immediately after the invasion , a lot of wealth was drawn out of England in various ways by the Norman rulers and reinvested in Normandy , making William immensely wealthy as an individual ruler .
The minting of coins was decentralised in the Saxon period ; every borough was mandated to have a mint and therefore a centre for trading in bullion . Nonetheless , there was strict royal control over these moneyers , and coin dies could only be made in London . William retained this process and generated a high standard of Norman coins , leading to the use of the term " sterling " as the name for the Norman silver coins .
= = = Governance and taxation = = =
William I inherited the Anglo @-@ Saxon system in which the king drew his revenues from : a mixture of customs ; profits from re @-@ minting coinage ; fines ; profits from his own demesne lands ; and the system of English land @-@ based taxation called the geld . William reaffirmed this system , enforcing collection of the geld through his new system of sheriffs and increasing the taxes on trade . William was also famous for commissioning the Domesday Book in 1086 , a vast document which attempted to record the economic condition of his new kingdom .
= = Mid @-@ medieval growth ( 1100 – 1290 ) = =
The 12th and 13th centuries were a period of huge economic growth in England . The population of England rose from around 1 @.@ 5 million in 1086 to around 4 or 5 million in 1300 , stimulating increased agricultural outputs and the export of raw materials to Europe . In contrast to the previous two centuries , England was relatively secure from invasion . Except for the years of the Anarchy , most military conflicts either had only localised economic impact or proved only temporarily disruptive . English economic thinking remained conservative , seeing the economy as consisting of three groups : the ordines , those who fought , or the nobility ; laboratores , those who worked , in particular the peasantry ; and oratores , those who prayed , or the clerics . Trade and merchants played little part in this model and were frequently vilified at the start of the period , although they were increasingly tolerated towards the end of the 13th century .
= = = Agriculture , fishing and mining = = =
= = = = English agriculture and the landscape = = = =
Agriculture remained by far the most important part of the English economy during the 12th and 13th centuries . There remained a wide variety in English agriculture , influenced by local geography ; in areas where grain could not be grown , other resources were exploited instead . In the Weald , for example , agriculture centred on grazing animals on the woodland pastures , whilst in the Fens fishing and bird @-@ hunting was supplemented by basket @-@ making and peat @-@ cutting . In some locations , such as Lincolnshire and Droitwich , salt manufacture was important , including production for the export market . Fishing became an important trade along the English coast , especially in Great Yarmouth and Scarborough , and the herring was a particularly popular catch ; salted at the coast , it could then be shipped inland or exported to Europe . Piracy between competing English fishing fleets was not unknown during the period . Sheep were the most common farm animal in England during the period , their numbers doubling by the 14th century . Sheep became increasingly widely used for wool , particularly in the Welsh borders , Lincolnshire and the Pennines . Pigs remained popular on holdings because of their ability to scavenge for food . Oxen remained the primary plough animal , with horses used more widely on farms in the south of England towards the end of the 12th century . Rabbits were introduced from France in the 13th century and farmed for their meat in special warrens .
The underlying productivity of English agriculture remained low , despite the increases in food production . Wheat prices fluctuated heavily year to year , depending on local harvests ; up to a third of the grain produced in England was potentially for sale , and much of it ended up in the growing towns . Despite their involvement in the market , even the wealthiest peasants prioritised spending on housing and clothing , with little left for other personal consumption . Records of household belongings show most possessing only " old , worn @-@ out and mended utensils " and tools .
The royal forests grew in size for much of the 12th century , before contracting in the late 13th and early 14th centuries . Henry I extended the size and scope of royal forests , especially in Yorkshire ; after the Anarchy of 1135 – 53 , Henry II continued to expand the forests until they comprised around 20 % of England . In 1217 the Charter of the Forest was enacted , in part to mitigate the worst excesses of royal jurisdiction , and established a more structured range of fines and punishments for peasants who illegally hunted or felled trees in the forests . By the end of the century the king had come under increasing pressure to reduce the size of the royal forests , leading to the " Great Perambulation " around 1300 ; this significantly reduced the extent to the forests , and by 1334 they were only around two @-@ thirds the size they had been in 1250 . Royal revenue streams from the shrinking forests diminished considerably in the early 14th century .
= = = = Development of estate management = = = =
The Normans retained and reinforced the manorial system with its division between demesne and peasant lands paid for in agricultural labour . Landowners could profit from the sales of goods from their demesne lands and a local lord could also expect to receive income from fines and local customs , whilst more powerful nobles profited from their own regional courts and rights .
During the 12th century major landowners tended to rent out their demesne lands for money , motivated by static prices for produce and the chaos of the Anarchy between 1135 and 1153 . This practice began to alter in the 1180s and 1190s , spurred by the greater political stability . In the first years of John 's reign , agricultural prices almost doubled , at once increasing the potential profits on the demesne estates and also increasing the cost of living for the landowners themselves . Landowners now attempted wherever possible to bring their demesne lands back into direct management , creating a system of administrators and officials to run their new system of estates .
New land was brought into cultivation to meet demand for food , including drained marshes and fens , such as Romney Marsh , the Somerset Levels and the Fens ; royal forests from the late 12th century onwards ; and poorer lands in the north , south @-@ west and in the Welsh Marches . The first windmills in England began to appear along the south and east coasts in the 12th century , expanding in number in the 13th , adding to the mechanised power available to the manors . By 1300 it has been estimated that there were more than 10 @,@ 000 watermills in England , used both for grinding corn and for fulling cloth . Fish ponds were created on most estates to provide freshwater fish for the consumption of the nobility and church ; these ponds were extremely expensive to create and maintain . Improved ways of running estates began to be circulated and were popularised in Walter de Henley 's famous book Le Dite de Hosebondrie , written around 1280 . In some regions and under some landowners , investment and innovation increased yields significantly through improved ploughing and fertilisers – particularly in Norfolk , where yields eventually equalled later 18th @-@ century levels .
= = = = Role of the Church in agriculture = = = =
The Church in England was a major landowner throughout the medieval period and played an important part in the development of agriculture and rural trade in the first two centuries of Norman rule . The Cistercian order first arrived in England in 1128 , establishing around 80 new monastic houses over the next few years ; the wealthy Augustinians also established themselves and expanded to occupy around 150 houses , all supported by agricultural estates , many of them in the north of England . By the 13th century these and other orders were acquiring new lands and had become major economic players both as landowners and as middlemen in the expanding wool trade . In particular , the Cistercians led the development of the grange system . Granges were separate manors in which the fields were all cultivated by the monastic officials , rather than being divided up between demesne and rented fields , and became known for trialling new agricultural techniques during the period . Elsewhere , many monasteries had significant economic impact on the landscape , such as the monks of Glastonbury , responsible for the draining of the Somerset Levels to create new pasture land .
The military crusading order of the Knights Templar also held extensive property in England , bringing in around £ 2 @,@ 200 per annum by the time of their fall . It comprised primarily rural holdings rented out for cash , but also included some urban properties in London . Following the dissolution of the Templar order in France by Philip IV of France , Edward II ordered their properties to be seized and passed to the Hospitaller order in 1313 , but in practice many properties were taken by local landowners and the Hospital was still attempting to reclaim them twenty @-@ five years later .
The Church was responsible for the system of tithes , a levy of 10 % on " all agrarian produce ... other natural products gained via labour ... wages received by servants and labourers , and to the profits of rural merchants " . Tithes gathered in the form of produce could be either consumed by the recipient , or sold on and bartered for other resources . The tithe was relatively onerous for the typical peasant , although in many instances the actual levy fell below the desired 10 % . Many clergy moved to the towns as part of the urban growth of the period , and by 1300 around one in twenty city dwellers was a clergyman . One effect of the tithe was to transfer a considerable amount of agriculture wealth into the cities , where it was then spent by these urban clergy . The need to sell tithe produce that could not be consumed by the local clergy also spurred the growth of trade .
= = = = Expansion of mining = = = =
Mining did not make up a large part of the English medieval economy , but the 12th and 13th centuries saw an increased demand for metals in the country , thanks to the considerable population growth and building construction , including the great cathedrals and churches . Four metals were mined commercially in England during the period , namely iron , tin , lead and silver ; coal was also mined from the 13th century onwards , using a variety of refining techniques .
Iron mining occurred in several locations , including the main English centre in the Forest of Dean , as well as in Durham and the Weald . Some iron to meet English demand was also imported from the continent , especially by the late 13th century . By the end of the 12th century , the older method of acquiring iron ore through strip mining was being supplemented by more advanced techniques , including tunnels , trenches and bell @-@ pits . Iron ore was usually locally processed at a bloomery , and by the 14th century the first water @-@ powered iron forge in England was built at Chingley . As a result of the diminishing woodlands and consequent increases in the cost of both wood and charcoal , demand for coal increased in the 12th century and it began to be commercially produced from bell @-@ pits and strip mining .
A silver boom occurred in England after the discovery of silver near Carlisle in 1133 . Huge quantities of silver were produced from a semicircle of mines reaching across Cumberland , Durham and Northumberland – up to three to four tonnes of silver were mined each year , more than ten times the previous annual production across the whole of Europe . The result was a local economic boom and a major uplift to 12th @-@ century royal finances . Tin mining was centred in Cornwall and Devon , exploiting alluvial deposits and governed by the special Stannary Courts and Parliaments . Tin formed a valuable export good , initially to Germany and then later in the 14th century to the Low Countries . Lead was usually mined as a by @-@ product of mining for silver , with mines in Yorkshire , Durham and the north , as well as in Devon . Economically fragile , the lead mines usually survived as a result of being subsidised by silver production .
= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
= = = = Growth of English towns = = = =
After the end of the Anarchy , the number of small towns in England began to increase sharply . By 1297 , 120 new towns had been established , and in 1350 – by when the expansion had effectively ceased – there were around 500 towns in England . Many of these new towns were centrally planned : Richard I created Portsmouth , John founded Liverpool , and successive monarchs followed with Harwich , Stony Stratford , Dunstable , Royston , Baldock , Wokingham , Maidenhead and Reigate . The new towns were usually located with access to trade routes in mind , rather than defence , and the streets were laid out to make access to the town 's market convenient . A growing percentage of England 's population lived in urban areas ; estimates suggest that this rose from around 5 @.@ 5 % in 1086 to up to 10 % in 1377 .
London held a special status within the English economy . The nobility purchased and consumed many luxury goods and services in the capital , and as early as the 1170s the London markets were providing exotic products such as spices , incense , palm oil , gems , silks , furs and foreign weapons . London was also an important hub for industrial activity ; it had many blacksmiths making a wide range of goods , including decorative ironwork and early clocks . Pewter @-@ working , using English tin and lead , was also widespread in London during the period . The provincial towns also had a substantial number of trades by the end of the 13th century – a large town like Coventry , for example , contained over three hundred different specialist occupations , and a smaller town such as Durham could support some sixty different professions . The increasing wealth of the nobility and the church was reflected in the widespread building of cathedrals and other prestigious buildings in the larger towns , in turn making use of lead from English mines for roofing .
Land transport remained much more expensive than river or sea transport during the period . Many towns in this period , including York , Exeter and Lincoln , were linked to the oceans by navigable rivers and could act as seaports , with Bristol 's port coming to dominate the lucrative trade in wine with Gascony by the 13th century , but shipbuilding generally remained on a modest scale and economically unimportant to England at this time . Transport remained very costly in comparison to the overall price of products . By the 13th century , groups of common carriers ran carting businesses , and carting brokers existed in London to link traders and carters . These used the four major land routes crossing England : Ermine Street , the Fosse Way , Icknield Street and Watling Street . A large number of bridges were built during the 12th century to improve the trade network .
In the 13th century , England was still primarily supplying raw materials for export to Europe , rather than finished or processed goods . There were some exceptions , such as very high @-@ quality cloths from Stamford and Lincoln , including the famous " Lincoln Scarlet " dyed cloth . Despite royal efforts to encourage it , however , barely any English cloth was being exported by 1347 .
= = = = Expansion of the money supply = = = =
There was a gradual reduction in the number of locations allowed to mint coins in England ; under Henry II , only 30 boroughs were still able to use their own moneyers , and the tightening of controls continued throughout the 13th century . By the reign of Edward I there were only nine mints outside London and the king created a new official called the Master of the Mint to oversee these and the thirty furnaces operating in London to meet the demand for new coins . The amount of money in circulation hugely increased in this period ; before the Norman invasion there had been around £ 50 @,@ 000 in circulation as coin , but by 1311 this had risen to more than £ 1 million . At any particular point in time , though , much of this currency might be being stored prior to being used to support military campaigns or to be sent overseas to meet payments , resulting in bursts of temporary deflation as coins ceased to circulate within the English economy . One physical consequence of the growth in the coinage was that coins had to be manufactured in large numbers , being moved in barrels and sacks to be stored in local treasuries for royal use as the king travelled .
= = = = Rise of the guilds = = = =
The first English guilds emerged during the early 12th century . These guilds were fraternities of craftsmen that set out to manage their local affairs including " prices , workmanship , the welfare of its workers , and the suppression of interlopers and sharp practices " . Amongst these early guilds were the " guilds merchants " , who ran the local markets in towns and represented the merchant community in discussions with the crown . Other early guilds included the " craft guilds " , representing specific trades . By 1130 there were major weavers ' guilds in six English towns , as well as a fullers ' guild in Winchester . Over the following decades more guilds were created , often becoming increasingly involved in both local and national politics , although the guilds merchants were largely replaced by official groups established by new royal charters .
The craft guilds required relatively stable markets and a relative equality of income and opportunity amongst their members to function effectively . By the 14th century these conditions were increasingly uncommon . The first strains were seen in London , where the old guild system began to collapse – more trade was being conducted at a national level , making it hard for craftsmen to both manufacture goods and trade in them , and there were growing disparities in incomes between the richer and poorer craftsmen . As a result , under Edward III many guilds became companies or livery companies , chartered companies focusing on trade and finance , leaving the guild structures to represent the interests of the smaller , poorer manufacturers .
= = = = Merchants and the development of the charter fairs = = = =
The period also saw the development of charter fairs in England , which reached their heyday in the 13th century . From the 12th century onwards , many English towns acquired a charter from the Crown allowing them to hold an annual fair , usually serving a regional or local customer base and lasting for two or three days . The practice increased in the next century and over 2 @,@ 200 charters were issued to markets and fairs by English kings between 1200 and 1270 . Fairs grew in popularity as the international wool trade increased : the fairs allowed English wool producers and ports on the east coast to engage with visiting foreign merchants , circumnavigating those English merchants in London keen to make a profit as middlemen . At the same time , wealthy magnate consumers in England began to use the new fairs as a way to buy goods like spices , wax , preserved fish and foreign cloth in bulk from the international merchants at the fairs , again bypassing the usual London merchants .
Some fairs grew into major international events , falling into a set sequence during the economic year , with the Stamford fair in Lent , St Ives ' in Easter , Boston 's in July , Winchester 's in September and Northampton 's in November , with the many smaller fairs falling in @-@ between . Although not as large as the famous Champagne fairs in France , these English " great fairs " were still huge events ; St Ives ' Great Fair , for example , drew merchants from Flanders , Brabant , Norway , Germany and France for a four @-@ week event each year , turning the normally small town into " a major commercial emporium " .
The structure of the fairs reflected the importance of foreign merchants in the English economy and by 1273 only one @-@ third of the English wool trade was actually controlled by English merchants . Between 1280 and 1320 the trade was primarily dominated by Italian merchants , but by the early 14th century German merchants had begun to present serious competition to the Italians . The Germans formed a self @-@ governing alliance of merchants in London called the " Hanse of the Steelyard " – the eventual Hanseatic League – and their role was confirmed under the Great Charter of 1303 , which exempted them from paying the customary tolls for foreign merchants . One response to this was the creation of the Company of the Staple , a group of merchants established in English @-@ held Calais in 1314 with royal approval , who were granted a monopoly on wool sales to Europe .
= = = = Jewish contribution to the English economy = = = =
The Jewish community in England continued to provide essential money @-@ lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws , and grew in the 12th century by Jewish immigrants fleeing the fighting around Rouen . The Jewish community spread beyond London to eleven major English cities , primarily the major trading hubs in the east of England with functioning mints , all with suitable castles for protection of the often persecuted Jewish minority . By the time of the Anarchy and the reign of Stephen , the communities were flourishing and providing financial loans to the king .
Under Henry II , the Jewish financial community continued to grow richer still . All major towns had Jewish centres , and even smaller towns , such as Windsor , saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants . Henry II used the Jewish community as " instruments for the collection of money for the Crown " , and placed them under royal protection . The Jewish community at York lent extensively to fund the Cistercian order 's acquisition of land and prospered considerably . Some Jewish merchants grew extremely wealthy , Aaron of Lincoln so much that upon his death a special royal department had to be established to unpick his financial holdings and affairs .
By the end of Henry 's reign the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to an aggressive campaign of tallage taxation and fines . Financial and anti @-@ Semite violence grew under Richard I. After the massacre of the York community , in which numerous financial records were destroyed , seven towns were nominated to separately store Jewish bonds and money records and this arrangement ultimately evolved into the Exchequer of the Jews . After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign , the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community , imprisoning the wealthier members , including Isaac of Norwich , until a huge , new taillage was paid . During the Baron 's War of 1215 – 17 , the Jews were subjected to fresh anti @-@ Semitic attacks . Henry III restored some order and Jewish money @-@ lending became sufficiently successful again to allow fresh taxation . The Jewish community became poorer towards the end of the century and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I , being largely replaced by foreign merchants .
= = = Governance and taxation = = =
During the 12th century the Norman kings attempted to formalise the feudal governance system initially created after the invasion . After the invasion the king had enjoyed a combination of income from his own demesne lands , the Anglo @-@ Saxon geld tax and fines . Successive kings found that they needed additional revenues , especially in order to pay for mercenary forces . One way of doing this was to exploit the feudal system , and kings adopted the French feudal aid model , a levy of money imposed on feudal subordinates when necessary ; another method was to exploit the scutage system , in which feudal military service could be transmuted to a cash payment to the king . Taxation was also an option , although the old geld tax was increasingly ineffective due to a growing number of exemptions . Instead , a succession of kings created alternative land taxes , such as the tallage and carucage taxes . These were increasingly unpopular and , along with the feudal charges , were condemned and constrained in the Magna Carta of 1215 . As part of the formalisation of the royal finances , Henry I created the Chancellor of the Exchequer , a post which would lead to the maintenance of the Pipe rolls , a set of royal financial records of lasting significance to historians in tracking both royal finances and medieval prices .
Royal revenue streams still proved insufficient and from the middle of the 13th century there was a shift away from the earlier land @-@ based tax system towards one based on a mixture of indirect and direct taxation . At the same time , Henry III had introduced the practice of consulting with leading nobles on tax issues , leading to the system whereby the Parliament of England agreed on new taxes when required . In 1275 , the " Great and Ancient Custom " began to tax woollen products and hides , with the Great Charter of 1303 imposing additional levies on foreign merchants in England , with the poundage tax introduced in 1347 . In 1340 , the discredited tallage tax system was finally abolished by Edward III . Assessing the total impact of changes to royal revenues between 1086 and 1290 is difficult . At best , Edward I was struggling in 1300 to match in real terms the revenues that Henry II had enjoyed in 1100 , and considering the growth in the size of the English economy , the king 's share of the national income had dropped considerably .
In the English towns the burgage tenure for urban properties was established early on in the medieval period , and was based primarily on tenants paying cash rents rather than providing labour services . Further development of a set of taxes that could be raised by the towns included murage for walls , pavage for streets , and pontage , a temporary tax for the repair of bridges . Combined with the lex mercatoria , which was a set of codes and customary practices governing trading , these provided a reasonable basis for the economic governance of the towns .
The 12th century also saw a concerted attempt to curtail the remaining rights of unfree peasant workers and to set out their labour rents more explicitly in the form of the English Common Law . This process resulted in the Magna Carta explicitly authorising feudal landowners to settle law cases concerning feudal labour and fines through their own manorial courts rather than through the royal courts . These class relationships between lords and unfree peasants had complex economic implications . Peasant workers resented being unfree , but having continuing access to agricultural land was also important . Under those rare circumstances where peasants were offered a choice between freedom but no land , and continued servitude , not all chose freedom and a minority chose to remain in servitude on the land . Lords benefited economically from their control of the manorial courts and dominating the courts made it easier to manipulate land ownership and rights in their own favour when land became in particularly short supply at the end of this period . Many of the labour duties lords could compel from the local peasant communities became less useful over the period . Duties were fixed by custom , inflexible and understandably resented by the workers involved . As a result , by the end of the 13th century the productivity of such forced labour was significantly lower than that of free labour employed to do the same task . A number of lords responded by seeking to commute the duties of unfree peasants to cash alternatives , with the aim of hiring labour instead .
= = Mid @-@ medieval economic crisis – the Great Famine and the Black Death ( 1290 – 1350 ) = =
= = = Great Famine = = =
The Great Famine of 1315 began a number of acute crises in the English agrarian economy . The famine centred on a sequence of harvest failures in 1315 , 1316 and 1321 , combined with an outbreak of murrain , a sickness amongst sheep and oxen in 1319 – 21 and the fatal ergotism , a fungus amongst the remaining stocks of wheat . Many people died in the ensuing famine , and the peasantry were said to have been forced to eat horses , dogs and cats as well as conducted cannibalism against children , although these last reports are usually considered to be exaggerations . Poaching and encroachment on the royal forests surged , sometimes on a mass scale . Sheep and cattle numbers fell by up to a half , significantly reducing the availability of wool and meat , and food prices almost doubled , with grain prices particularly inflated . Food prices remained at similar levels for the next decade . Salt prices also increased sharply due to the wet weather .
Various factors exacerbated the crisis . Economic growth had already begun to slow significantly in the years prior to the crisis and the English rural population was increasingly under economic stress , with around half the peasantry estimated to possess insufficient land to provide them with a secure livelihood . Where additional land was being brought into cultivation , or existing land cultivated more intensively , the soil may have become exhausted and useless . Bad weather also played an important part in the disaster ; 1315 – 16 and 1318 saw torrential rains and an incredibly cold winter , which in combination badly impacted on harvests and stored supplies . The rains of these years were followed by drought in the 1320s and another fierce winter in 1321 , complicating recovery . Disease , independent of the famine , was also high during the period , striking at the wealthier as well as the poorer classes . The commencement of war with France in 1337 only added to the economic difficulties . The Great Famine firmly reversed the population growth of the 12th and 13th centuries and left a domestic economy that was " profoundly shaken , but not destroyed " .
= = = Black Death = = =
The Black Death epidemic first arrived in England in 1348 , re @-@ occurring in waves during 1360 – 62 , 1368 – 69 , 1375 and more sporadically thereafter . The most immediate economic impact of this disaster was the widespread loss of life , between around 27 % mortality amongst the upper classes , to 40 – 70 % amongst the peasantry . Despite the very high loss of life , few settlements were abandoned during the epidemic itself , but many were badly affected or nearly eliminated altogether . The medieval authorities did their best to respond in an organised fashion , but the economic disruption was immense . Building work ceased and many mining operations paused . In the short term , efforts were taken by the authorities to control wages and enforce pre @-@ epidemic working conditions . Coming on top of the previous years of famine , however , the longer @-@ term economic implications were profound . In contrast to the previous centuries of rapid growth , the English population would not begin to recover for over a century , despite the many positive reasons for a resurgence . The crisis would dramatically affect English agriculture , wages and prices for the remainder of the medieval period .
= = Late medieval economic recovery ( 1350 – 1509 ) = =
The events of the crisis between 1290 and 1348 and the subsequent epidemics produced many challenges for the English economy . In the decades after the disaster , the economic and social issues arising from the Black Death combined with the costs of the Hundred Years War to produce the Peasants Revolt of 1381 . Although the revolt was suppressed , it undermined many of the vestiges of the feudal economic order , and the countryside became dominated by estates organised as farms , frequently owned or rented by the new economic class of the gentry . The English agricultural economy remained depressed throughout the 15th century ; growth at this time came from the greatly increased English cloth trade and manufacturing . The economic consequences of this varied considerably from region to region , but generally London , the South and the West prospered at the expense of the Eastern and the older cities . The role of merchants and trade became increasingly seen as important to the country , and usury gradually became more widely accepted , with English economic thinking increasingly influenced by Renaissance humanist theories .
= = = Governance and taxation = = =
Even before the end of the first outbreak of the Black Death , there were efforts by the authorities to stem the upward pressure on wages and prices , with parliament passing the emergency Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 and the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . The efforts to regulate the economy continued as wages and prices rose , putting pressure on the landed classes , and in 1363 parliament attempted unsuccessfully to centrally regulate craft production , trading and retailing . A rising amount of the royal courts ' time was involved in enforcing the failing labour legislation – as much as 70 % by the 1370s . Many land owners attempted to vigorously enforce rents payable through agricultural service rather than money through their local manor courts , leading to attempts by many village communities to legally challenge local feudal practices using the Domesday Book as a legal basis for their claims . With the wages of the lower classes still rising , the government also attempted to regulate demand and consumption by reinstating the sumptuary laws in 1363 . These laws banned the lower classes from consuming certain products or wearing high @-@ status clothes , and reflected the significance of the consumption of high @-@ quality breads , ales and fabrics as a way of signifying social class in the late medieval period .
The 1370s also saw the government facing difficulties in funding the war with France . The impact of the Hundred Years War on the English economy as a whole remains uncertain ; one suggestion is that the high taxation required to pay for the conflict " shrunk and depleted " the English economy , whilst others have argued for a more modest or even neutral economic impact for the war . The English government clearly found it difficult to pay for its army and from 1377 turned to a new system of poll taxes , aiming to spread the costs of taxation across the entirety of English society .
= = = = Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 = = = =
One result of the economic and political tensions was the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , in which widespread rural discontent was followed by an invasion of London involving thousands of rebels . The rebels had many demands , including the effective end of the feudal institution of serfdom and a cap on the levels of rural rents . The ensuing violence took the political classes by surprise and the revolt was not fully put down until the autumn ; up to 7 @,@ 000 rebels were executed in the aftermath . As a result of the revolt , parliament retreated from the poll tax and instead focused on a system of indirect taxes centring on foreign trade , drawing 80 % of tax revenues from the exports of wool . Parliament continued to collect direct tax levies at historically high levels up until 1422 , although they reduced them in later years . As a result , successive monarchs found that their tax revenues were uncertain , and Henry VI enjoyed less than half the annual tax revenue of the late 14th century . England 's monarchs became increasingly dependent on borrowing and forced loans to meet the gap between taxes and expenditure and even then faced later rebellions over levels of taxation , including the Yorkshire rebellion of 1489 and the Cornish rebellion of 1497 during the reign of Henry VII .
= = = Agriculture , fishing and mining = = =
= = = = Collapse of the demesne and the creation of the farming system = = = =
The agricultural sector of the English economy , still by far the largest , was transformed by the Black Death . With the shortage of manpower after the Black Death , wages for agricultural labourers rapidly increased and continued to then grow steadily throughout the 15th century . As their incomes increased , labourers ' living conditions and diet improved steadily . A trend for labourers to eat less barley and more wheat and rye , and to replace bread in their diet with more meat , had been apparent since before the Black Death , but intensified during this later period . Nonetheless , England 's much smaller population needed less food and the demand for agricultural products fell . The position of the larger landowners became increasingly difficult . Revenues from demesne lands were diminishing as demand remained low and wage costs increased ; nobles were also finding it more difficult to raise revenue from their local courts , fines and privileges in the years after the Peasants Revolt of 1381 . Despite attempts to increase money rents , by the end of the 14th century the rents paid from peasant lands were also declining , with revenues falling as much as 55 % between the 1380s and 1420s .
Noble and church landowners responded in various ways . They began to invest significantly less in agriculture and land was increasingly taken out of production altogether . In some cases entire settlements were abandoned , and nearly 1 @,@ 500 villages were lost during this period . Landowners also abandoned the system of direct management of their demesne lands , which had begun back in the 1180s , and turned instead to " farming " out large blocks of land for fixed money rents . Initially , livestock and land were rented out together under " stock and lease " contracts , but this was found to be increasingly impractical and contracts for farms became centred purely on land . Many of the rights to church parish tithes were also " farmed " out in exchange for fixed rents . This process was encouraged by the trend for tithe revenues being increasing " appropriated " by central church authorities , rather than being used to support local clergy : around 39 % of parish tithes had been centralised in this way by 1535 . As the major estates transformed , a new economic grouping , the gentry , became evident , many of them benefiting from the opportunities of the farming system . Land distribution remained heavily unequal ; estimates suggest that the English nobility owned 20 % of English lands , the Church and Crown 33 % , the gentry 25 % , and the remainder was owned by peasant farmers . Agriculture itself continued to innovate , and the loss of many English oxen to the murrain sickness in the crisis increased the number of horses used to plough fields in the 14th century , a significant improvement on older methods .
= = = = Forests , fishing and mining = = = =
The royal forests continued to diminish in size and decline in economic importance in the years after the Black Death . Royal enforcement of forest rights and laws became harder after 1348 and certainly after 1381 , and by the 15th century the royal forests were a " shadow of their former selves " in size and economic significance . In contrast , the English fishing industry continued to grow , and by the 15th century domestic merchants and financiers owned fleets of up to a hundred fishing vessels operating from key ports . Herring remained a key fishing catch , although as demand for herring declined with rising prosperity , the fleets began to focus instead on cod and other deep @-@ sea fish from the Icelandic waters . Despite being critical to the fishing industry , salt production in England diminished in the 15th century due to competition from French producers . The use of expensive freshwater fish ponds on estates began to decline during this period , as more of the gentry and nobility opted to purchase freshwater fish from commercial river fisheries .
Mining generally performed well at the end of the medieval period , helped by buoyant demand for manufactured and luxury goods . Cornish tin production plunged during the Black Death itself , leading to a doubling of prices . Tin exports also collapsed catastrophically , but picked up again over the next few years . By the turn of the 16th century , the available alluvial tin deposits in Cornwall and Devon had begun to decline , leading to the commencement of bell and surface mining to support the tin boom that had occurred in the late 15th century . Lead mining increased , and output almost doubled between 1300 and 1500 . Wood and charcoal became cheaper once again after the Black Death , and coal production declined as a result , remaining depressed for the rest of the period – nonetheless , some coal production was occurring in all the major English coalfields by the 16th century . Iron production continued to increase ; the Weald in the South @-@ East began to make increased use of water @-@ power , and overtook the Forest of Dean in the 15th century as England 's main iron @-@ producing region . The first blast furnace in England , a major technical step forward in metal smelting , was created in 1496 in Newbridge in the Weald .
= = = Trade , manufacturing and the towns = = =
= = = = Shrinking towns = = = =
The percentage of England 's population living in towns continued to grow but in absolute terms English towns shrunk significantly as a consequence of the Black Death , especially in the formerly prosperous east . The importance of England 's Eastern ports declined over the period , as trade from London and the South @-@ West increased in relative significance . Increasingly elaborate road networks were built across England , some involving the construction of up to thirty bridges to cross rivers and other obstacles . Nonetheless , it remained cheaper to move goods by water , and consequently timber was brought to London from as far away as the Baltic , and stone from Caen brought over the Channel to the South of England . Shipbuilding , particular in the South @-@ West , became a major industry for the first time and investment in trading ships such as cogs was probably the single biggest form of late medieval investment in England .
= = = = Rise of the cloth trade = = = =
Cloth manufactured in England increasingly dominated European markets during the 15th and early 16th centuries . England exported almost no cloth at all in 1347 , but by 1400 around 40 @,@ 000 cloths a year were being exported – the trade reached its first peak in 1447 when exports reached 60 @,@ 000 . Trade fell slightly during the serious depression of the mid @-@ 15th century , but picked up again and reached 130 @,@ 000 cloths a year by the 1540s . The centres of weaving in England shifted westwards towards the Stour Valley , the West Riding , the Cotswolds and Exeter , away from the former weaving centres in York , Coventry and Norwich .
The wool and cloth trade was primarily now being run by English merchants themselves rather than by foreigners . Increasingly , the trade was also passing through London and the ports of the South @-@ West . By the 1360s , 66 – 75 % of the export trade was in English hands and by the 15th century this had risen to 80 % ; London managed around 50 % of these exports in 1400 , and as much as 83 % of wool and cloth exports by 1540 . The growth in the numbers of chartered trading companies in London , such as the Worshipful Company of Drapers or the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London , continued , and English producers began to provide credit to European buyers , rather than the other way around . Usury grew during the period , and few cases were prosecuted by the authorities .
There were some reversals . The attempts of English merchants to break through the Hanseatic league directly into the Baltic markets failed in the domestic political chaos of the Wars of the Roses in the 1460s and 1470s . The wine trade with Gascony fell by half during the war with France , and the eventual loss of the province brought an end to the English domination of the business and temporary disruption to Bristol 's prosperity until wines began to be imported through the city a few years later . Indeed , the disruption to both the Baltic and the Gascon trade contributed to a sharp reduction in the consumption of furs and wine by the English gentry and nobility during the 15th century .
There were advances in manufacturing , especially in the South and West . Despite some French attacks , the war created much coastal prosperity thanks to the huge expenditure on shipbuilding during the war , and the South @-@ West also became a centre for English piracy against foreign vessels . Metalworking continued to grow , and in particular pewter working , which generated exports second only to cloth . By the 15th century pewter working in London was a large industry , with a hundred pewter workers recorded in London alone , and pewter working had also spread from the capital to eleven major cities across England . London goldsmithing remained significant but saw relatively little growth , with around 150 goldsmiths working in London during the period . Iron @-@ working continued to expand and in 1509 the first cast @-@ iron cannon was made in England . This was reflected in the rapid growth in the number of iron @-@ working guilds , from three in 1300 to fourteen by 1422 .
The result was a substantial influx of money that in turn encouraged the import of manufactured luxury goods ; by 1391 shipments from abroad routinely included " ivory , mirrors , paxes , armour , paper ... , painted clothes , spectacles , tin images , razors , calamine , treacle , sugar @-@ candy , marking irons , patens ... , ox @-@ horns and quantities of wainscot " . Imported spices now formed a part of almost all noble and gentry diets , with the quantities being consumed varying according to the wealth of the household . The English government was also importing large quantities of raw materials , including copper , for manufacturing weapons . Many major landowners tended to focus their efforts on maintaining a single major castle or house rather than the dozens a century before , but these were usually decorated much more luxurious than previously . Major merchants ' dwellings , too , were more lavish than in previous years .
= = = = Decline of the fair system = = = =
Towards the end of the 14th century , the position of fairs began to decline . The larger merchants , particularly in London , began to establish direct links with the larger landowners such as the nobility and the church ; rather than the landowner buying from a chartered fair , they would buy directly from the merchant . Meanwhile , the growth of the indigenous England merchant class in the major cities , especially London , gradually crowded out the foreign merchants upon whom the great chartered fairs had largely depended . The crown 's control over trade in the towns , especially the emerging newer towns towards the end of the 15th century that lacked central civic government , was increasingly weaker , making chartered status less relevant as more trade occurred from private properties and took place all year around . Nonetheless , the great fairs remained of importance well into the 15th century , as illustrated by their role in exchanging money , regional commerce and in providing choice for individual consumers .
= = Historiography = =
The first studies into the medieval economy of England began in the 1880s , principally around the work of English jurist and historian Frederic Maitland . This scholarship , drawing extensively on documents such as the Domesday Book and the Magna Carta , became known as the " Whiggish " view of economic history , focusing on law and government . Late Victorian writers argued that change in the English medieval economy stemmed primarily from the towns and cities , leading to a progressive and universalist interpretation of development over the period , focusing on trade and commerce . Influenced by the evolution of Norman laws , Maitland argued that there was a clear discontinuity between the Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman economic systems .
In the 1930s the Whiggish view of the English economy was challenged by a group of scholars at the University of Cambridge , led by Eileen Power . Power and her colleagues widened the focus of study from legal and government documents to include " agrarian , archaeological , demographic , settlement , landscape and urban " evidence . This was combined with a neo @-@ positivist and econometric leaning that was at odds with the older Victorian tradition in the subject . Power died in 1940 , and her student and later husband , Michael Postan took forward their work , coming to dominate the post @-@ war field . Postan argued that demography was the principal driving force in the medieval English economy . In a distinctly Malthusian fashion , Postan proposed that the English agrarian economy saw little technical development during the period and by the early 14th century was unable to support the growing population , leading to inevitable famines and economic depression as the population came back into balance with land resources . Postan began the trend towards stressing continuities between the pre- and post @-@ invasion economies , aided by fresh evidence emerging from the use of archaeological techniques to understand the medieval economy from the 1950s onwards .
A Marxist critique of Postan emerged from the 1950s onwards , captured in the academic journal Past & Present . This school of thought agreed that the agrarian economy was central to medieval England , but argued that agrarian issues had less to do with demography than with the mode of production and feudal class relations . In this model the English economy entered the crisis of the early 14th century because of the struggles between landlords and peasant for resources and excessive extraction of rents by the nobility . Similar issues underpinned the Peasants Revolt of 1381 and later tax rebellions . Historians such as Frank Stenton developed the " honour " as a unit of economic analysis and a focus for understanding feudal relations in peasant communities ; Rodney Hilton developed the idea of the rise of the gentry as a key feature for understanding the late medieval period .
Fresh work in the 1970s and 1980s challenged both Postan 's and Marxist approaches to the medieval economy . Local studies of medieval economics , often in considerable detail and fusing new archaeological techniques and rescue archaeology with historical sources , often ran counter to their broader interpretations of change and development . The degree to which feudalism really existed and operated in England after the initial years of the invasion was thrown into considerable doubt , with historians such as David Crouch arguing that it existed primarily as a legal and fiscal model , rather than an actual economic system . Sociological and anthropological studies of contemporary economies , including the work of Ester Boserup showed many flaws with Postan 's key assumptions about demography and land use . The current academic preference is to see the English medieval economy as an " overlapping network of diverse communities " , in which active local choices and decisions are the result of independent agency , rather than historical determinism .
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= Mortensrud ( station ) =
Mortensrud is a rapid transit station on the Østensjø Line of the Oslo Metro . It is located in Mortensrud in the Søndre Nordstrand borough of Oslo , Norway . Construction of the station started in 1995 , which was taken into use on 24 November 1997 , when it became the terminal station of the line — following a 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) extension from Skullerud . The extension cost NOK 215 million to build , and most of the section is in tunnels . The station is built in concrete , wood and stone , and cost NOK 35 million . It is served by line 3 , in addition to being an important bus terminal for the borough , including a feeder service to Bjørndal . Travel time along the 13 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) section to the city center is 24 minutes . In 2001 – 02 , the station had 2 @,@ 077 daily boarding passengers . The station serves the surrounding residential area , as well as an adjacent shopping center . South of the station is a turning line for trains .
= = History = =
The Østensjø Line opened as a light rail on 18 December 1923 . On 29 October 1967 , the upgraded metro standard was first used , and the line was connected to the Oslo Metro . A month later , the extension to Skullerud opened . The work with building the extension between Skullerud and Mortensrud was originally planned to start in 1992 , with completion planned for 1994 . However , construction did not start until 1995 . The 2 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) extension is built to allow speeds of 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) , and represents a considerable longer distance between stations than what is normal on the network . Most of the section is in tunnels , though there are also two viaducts . The extension ( without the new station ) cost NOK 215 million . The line runs somewhat south of the station , allowing space to line up trains , and for future further extension of the line .
The station was taken into use on 24 November 1997 , but not officially opened until 4 January 1998 . On the day of the official opening , the bus terminal was taken into use . The station costs NOK 35 million . At the time , it was estimated to have about 6000 daily users — both boarding and disembarking , including the bus terminal .
= = Facilities = =
The station is located in the residential area of Mortensrud , in Søndre Nordstrand . Mortensrud is an open station without any barriers and free access from the bus stops . The station area is one storey below from the surrounding area . It has step @-@ free access , and at the same level as the buses . Only the western portion of the two side platforms is in use , where direct connection can be made with buses . The station is located adjacent to the shopping center at Mortensrud . The station is designed by Arkitektskap . It is built in concrete , covered in red brick , steel , natural rock and wood , that will allow lianas to grow on them . The roofover the western platform is curved , and made of wood and glass . There is an underground parking lot in two levels .
= = Service = =
Mortensrud is served by line 3 on the Østensjø Line , operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter . The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes , except in the late evening and on weekend mornings , when there is a 30 @-@ minute headway . Travel time along the 13 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 24 minutes . In 2001 – 02 , the station had 2 @,@ 077 daily boarding passengers .
The station functions as a major bus terminal for Søndre Nordstrand . Ruter operates feeder bus services to Dal , Brenna , Kantarellen ( all no . 72 ) and Bjørndal ( no . 71 ) . The station is the end station of route 74 to the city center , and an intermediate stop on route 76 to Helsfyr and Hvervenbukta . Routes 71E and 73 to the city center also serve the station during rush hour .
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= Vorbunker =
The Vorbunker ( upper bunker or forward bunker ) was an underground concrete structure originally intended to be a temporary air @-@ raid shelter for Adolf Hitler and his guards and servants . It was located behind the large reception hall that was added onto the old Reich Chancellery , in Berlin , Germany , in 1936 . The bunker was officially called the " Reich Chancellery Air @-@ Raid Shelter " until 1943 , when the complex was expanded with the addition of the Führerbunker , located one level below . On 16 January 1945 , Hitler moved into the Führerbunker . He was joined by his senior staff , including Martin Bormann . Later , Eva Braun and Joseph Goebbels moved into the Führerbunker while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in the upper Vorbunker . The Goebbels family lived in the Vorbunker until their deaths on 1 May 1945 .
= = Construction = =
In 1933 , Adolf Hitler decided to expand the Reich Chancellery ( Reichskanzlei ) , which he considered too small for his needs . On 21 July 1935 , Leonhard Gall submitted plans for a large reception hall ( that could also be used as a ballroom ) to be built onto the old Chancellery . The drawings were unique because of the large cellar that led a further one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half meters down to a bunker which later became known as the Vorbunker .
The Vorbunker 's roof was 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) thick , twice as thick as that of the bunker underneath the nearby Air Ministry building . The thick walls of the Vorbunker supported the weight of the reception hall overhead . It had three entry points , to the north , west , and south . Construction was completed in 1936 . It had 12 rooms branching out from a single corridor .
The Führerbunker was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive program of subterranean construction in Berlin . It was finished by 1944 and was connected to the Vorbunker by a stairway set at right angles ( not a spiral staircase ) . The two bunkers could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door . A permanent guard detail was posted by the steel door . The Führerbunker was located about 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery , 120 meters ( 390 ft ) north of the new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße 6 . The Führerbunker was located 2 @.@ 5 meters lower than the Vorbunker and to the west @-@ southwest of it . The accommodations for Hitler were moved to the Führerbunker , and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high @-@ quality furniture taken from the Chancellery , along with several framed oil paintings .
= = Events = =
The first air @-@ raid drills for the Berlin central government district , which included the Reich Chancellery , occurred in the autumn of 1937 . The protocol for the drills stated , in part :
To carry out the air raid drills , a precise regulation is required for the three office buildings , Wilhelmstraße 77 , Wilhelmstraße 78 and Voßstraße 1 ... The officials and residents of Wilhelmstraße 78 and Voßstraße 1 can go to the substitute shelters in Wilhelmstraße 78 and Voßstraße 1 . The inhabitants of the Reich Chancellor House , Wilhelmstraße 77 , will use the shelter under the ballroom .
The only residents of Wilhelmstraße 77 were Hitler and his bodyguards , adjutants , orderlies and servants . It is unknown if the Vorbunker was used before January 1945 . Hitler transferred his headquarters to the Führerbunker in Berlin on 16 January 1945 , where he ( along with his influential private secretary , Reichsleiter Martin Bormann and others ) remained until the end of April . Thereafter , the Vorbunker was used by various military officers and housed men from Hitler 's personal bodyguard . In April 1945 , as the Battle in Berlin raged on , Joseph Goebbels showed his strong support for Hitler by moving his family into the Vorbunker . He occupied a room in the Führerbunker which had recently been vacated by Hitler 's personal physician , Theodor Morell . Two rooms in the Vorbunker were used for food supply . Constanze Manziarly , Hitler 's personal cook / dietitian , made meals in the kitchen , which was equipped with a refrigerator and a wine store .
On the evening of 1 May 1945 , Goebbels arranged for an SS dentist , Helmut Kunz , to inject his six children with morphine so that when they were unconscious , an ampule of cyanide could be crushed in each of their mouths . According to Kunz 's later testimony , he gave the children morphine injections but it was Magda Goebbels and SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Stumpfegger , Hitler 's personal doctor , who administered the cyanide .
Afterwards , Goebbels and his wife went up the stairs to ground level and through the Führerbunker 's emergency exit to the bombed @-@ out garden behind the Reich Chancellery . There are several different accounts on what followed . According to one account , Goebbels shot his wife and then himself . Another account was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards by Goebbels ' SS adjutant , Günther Schwägermann . Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out into the Chancellery garden . He waited in the stairwell and heard the " shots " sound . Schwägermann then walked up the remaining stairs and outside . There he saw the lifeless bodies of the couple . Following Joseph Goebbels ' prior order , Schwägermann told an SS soldier to make sure Goebbels ' was dead . The soldier fired into Goebbels ' body , which did not move . The bodies were then doused with petrol , but the remains were only partially burned and not buried .
At 01 : 00 on 2 May , the Soviets picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease @-@ fire and stating that emissaries would come under a white flag to Potsdamer bridge . Early in the morning of 2 May , the Soviets captured the Reich Chancellery . General of the Artillery Helmuth Weidling , the commander of the Berlin Defense Area , surrendered with his staff at 06 : 00 . Down in the Führerbunker , Chief of the Army General Staff General Hans Krebs and Hitler 's Chief Adjutant Generalleutnant Wilhelm Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to the head . Johannes Hentschel , the master electro @-@ mechanic for the bunker complex , stayed after everyone else had either committed suicide or left , as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water . He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09 : 00 on 2 May . The bodies of Goebbels six children were discovered on 3 May . They were found in their beds in the Vorbunker ; the clear mark of cyanide appeared on their faces .
= = Post @-@ war events = =
The ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany . The bunker complex largely survived , although some areas were partially flooded . In December 1947 the Soviets tried to blow up the bunkers , but only the separation walls were damaged . In 1959 the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery , including the bunker complex . In 1974 , 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) of water was pumped from inside the bunkers , and the East Germany Stasi conducted a survey of the interior of the Vorbunker and took external measurements of the Führerbunker . Since it was near the Berlin Wall , the site was undeveloped and neglected until after reunification .
During the construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site in 1988 – 89 , several underground sections of the bunker complex were uncovered by work crews . In April 1988 , the East German government allowed several visits to the site by photo @-@ journalists . Water was pumped out of the Vorbunker for four days before access could be made via the underground passageway which led from the Chancellery . The interior floor of the Vorbunker was covered with a muddy sludge from having been underwater for so many years . Old empty wine bottles were found on the floor of the kitchen and wine store room . Still present in the room next to the kitchen were the broken frames of the bunk beds used by the Goebbels children . At the end of the hallway were the stairs leading down to the Führerbunker . However , the men could go no further than the mid @-@ landing , as the Führerbunker was still underwater and the ceiling beyond the doorway had collapsed due to the demolitions performed in 1947 . After these inspections , work crews for the most part removed and destroyed the bunker complex . The Vorbunker 's top and external walls were the first structures to be torn down . The construction of buildings in the area around the complex was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable . The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker ( which had been in the Chancellery gardens ) was occupied by a car park .
On 8 June 2006 , during the lead @-@ up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup , an information board was installed to mark the location of the bunker complex . Hitler 's bodyguard , Rochus Misch , one of the last people living who was in the bunker complex at the time of Hitler 's suicide , was on hand for the ceremony . The board , including a schematic diagram , can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud @-@ Kolmar @-@ Straße , two small streets about three minutes ' walk from Potsdamer Platz .
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= Francis Amasa Walker =
Francis Amasa Walker ( July 2 , 1840 – January 5 , 1897 ) was an American economist , statistician , journalist , educator , academic administrator , and military officer in the Union Army .
Walker was born into a prominent Boston family , the son of the economist and politician Amasa Walker , and he graduated from Amherst College at the age of 20 . He received a commission to join the 15th Massachusetts Infantry and quickly rose through the ranks as an assistant adjutant general . Walker fought in the Peninsula Campaign and was wounded at the Battle of Chancellorsville but subsequently participated in the Bristoe , Overland , and Richmond @-@ Petersburg Campaigns before being captured by Confederate forces and held at the infamous Libby Prison . In July 1866 , he was nominated by President Andrew Johnson and confirmed by the United States Senate for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general United States Volunteers , to rank from March 13 , 1865 , when he was age 24 .
Following the war , Walker served on the editorial staff of the Springfield Republican before using his family and military connections to gain appointment as the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics from 1869 to 1870 and Superintendent of the 1870 census where he published an award @-@ winning Statistical Atlas visualizing the data for the first time . He joined Yale University 's Sheffield Scientific School as a professor of political economy in 1872 and rose to international prominence serving as a chief member of the 1876 Philadelphia Exposition , American representative to the 1878 International Monetary Conference , President of the American Statistical Association in 1882 , and inaugural President of the American Economic Association in 1886 , and vice president of the National Academy of Sciences in 1890 . Walker also led the 1880 census which resulted in a twenty @-@ two volume census , cementing Walker 's reputation as the nation 's preeminent statistician .
As an economist , Walker debunked the wage @-@ fund doctrine and engaged in a prominent scholarly debate with Henry George on land , rent , and taxes . Walker argued in support of bimetallism and although he was an opponent of the nascent socialist movement , he argued that obligations existed between the employer and the employed . He published his International Bimetallism at the height of the 1896 presidential election campaign in which economic issues were prominent . Walker was a prolific writer , authoring ten books on political economy and military history . In recognition of his contributions to economic theory , beginning in 1947 , the American Economic Association recognized the lifetime achievement of an individual economist with a " Francis A. Walker Medal " .
Walker accepted the presidency of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1881 , a position he held for fifteen years until his death . During his tenure , he placed the institution on more stable financial footing by aggressively fund @-@ raising and securing grants from the Massachusetts government , implemented many curricular reforms , oversaw the launch of new academic programs , and expanded the size of the Boston campus , faculty , and student enrollments . MIT 's Walker Memorial Hall , a former students ' clubhouse and one of the original buildings on the Charles River campus , was dedicated to him in 1916 .
= = Background = =
Walker was born in Boston , Massachusetts , the youngest son of Hanna ( née Ambrose ) and Amasa Walker , a prominent economist and state politician . The Walkers had three children , Emma ( born 1835 ) , Robert ( born 1837 ) , and Francis . Because the Walkers ' next @-@ door neighbor was Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , the junior Walker and junior Holmes were playmates as young children and renewed their friendship later in life . The family moved from Boston to North Brookfield , Massachusetts in 1843 and remained there . As a boy he had both a noted temper as well as a magnetic personality .
Beginning his schooling at the age of seven , Walker studied Latin at various private and public schools in Brookfield before being sent to the Leicester Academy when he was twelve . He completed his college preparation by the time he was fourteen and spent another year studying Greek and Latin under the future suffragist and abolitionist Lucy Stone , and entered Amherst College at the age of fifteen . Although he had planned to matriculate at Harvard after his first year at Amherst , Walker 's father believed his son was too young to enter the larger college and insisted he remain at Amherst . While he had entered with the class of 1859 , Walker became ill during his first year there and fell back a year . He was a member of the Delta Kappa and Athenian societies as a freshman , joined and withdrew from Alpha Sigma Phi as a sophomore on account of " rowdyism " , and finally joined Delta Kappa Epsilon . As a student , Walker was awarded the Sweetser Essay Prize and the Hardy Prize for extemporaneous speaking . He graduated in 1860 as Phi Beta Kappa with a degree in law . After graduation , he joined the law firm of Charles Devens and George Frisbie Hoar in Worcester , Massachusetts .
= = Military service = =
= = = 15th Massachusetts Infantry = = =
As tensions between the North and South increased over the winter of 1860 – 1861 , Walker equipped himself and began drilling with Major Devens ' 3rd Battalion of Rifles in Worcester and New York . Despite his older brother Robert serving in the 34th Massachusetts Infantry , his father objected to his youngest son mobilizing with the first wave of volunteers . Walker returned to Worcester but began to lobby William Schouler and Governor John Andrew to grant him a commission as a second lieutenant under Devens ' command of the 15th Massachusetts . Following his 21st birthday and the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 , Walker secured the consent of his father to join the war effort as well as assurances by Devens that he would receive an officer 's commission . However , the lieutenancy never materialized and Devens instead offered Walker an appointment as a sergeant major , which he assumed on August 1 , 1861 , after re @-@ tailoring his previously ordered lieutenant 's uniform to reflect his enlisted status . However , by September 14 , 1861 , Walker had been recommended by Devens and reassigned to Brig. Gen. Darius N. Couch as assistant adjutant general and promoted to captain . Walker remained in Washington , D.C. , over the winter of 1861 – 1862 and did not see combat until May 1862 at the Battle of Williamsburg . Walker also served at Seven Pines as well as at the Seven Days Battles of the Peninsula Campaign in the summer of 1862 under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan in the Army of the Potomac .
= = = Second Army Corps = = =
Walker remained at the Berkeley Plantation until his promotion on August 11 to major and transferral with General Couch to the II Corps of the Army of the Potomac . Although the II Corps later saw action at the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg , the latter being under the new command of Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside , Walker and the Corps did not join Burnsides 's Mud March over the winter . Walker was promoted to lieutenant colonel on January 1 , 1863 , and remained with the II Corps . He fought the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863 , where his hand and wrist were shattered and neck lacerated by an exploding shell . A record of the 1880 Census indicated that he had " compound fracture of the metacarpal bones of the left hand resulting in permanent extension of his hand . " Later in 1896 , as the President of MIT , he would receive one of the first radiographs in the country , which documented the extent of the damage to his hand . He did not return to service until August 1863 . Walker participated in the Bristoe Campaign and narrowly escaped encirclement during the Battle of Bristoe Station before withdrawing and encamping near the Berry Hill Plantation for much of the winter and spending some leave in the North .
After extensive reorganization during the winter of 1863 – 1864 , Walker and the Army of the Potomac fought in the Overland Campaign through May and June 1864 . The Battle of Cold Harbor in early June took a substantial toll on the ranks of the II Corps and Walker injured his knee during the battle . In the ensuing Richmond @-@ Petersburg Campaign , Walker was appointed a brevet colonel . However , on August 25 , 1864 , as he rode to find Maj. Gen. John Gibbon at the front during the Second Battle of Ream 's Station , Walker was surrounded and captured by the 11th Georgia Infantry . On August 27 , Walker was able to escape from a marching prisoner column with another prisoner but was recaptured by the 51st North Carolina Infantry after trying to swim across the Appomattox River and nearly drowning . After being held as a prisoner in Petersburg , he was transferred to the infamous Libby Prison in Richmond , where his older brother was also held . In October 1864 , Walker was released with thirty other prisoners as a part of an exchange .
Walker returned to North Brookfield to recuperate and resigned his commission on January 8 , 1865 , as a result of his injuries and health . At the end of the war , Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock recommended that Walker be brevetted as a brigadier general of U.S. Volunteers in recognition of his meritorious services during the war and especially his gallant conduct at Chancellorsville . On July 9 , 1866 , Walker was nominated by President Andrew Johnson for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from March 13 , 1865 ( when he was age 24 ) , for gallant conduct at the battle of Chancellorsville and meritorious services during the war . The U.S. Senate confirmed the award on July 23 , 1866 .
After the war , Walker became a companion of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States .
= = Postbellum activity = =
By late spring 1865 , Walker regained sufficient strength and began to assist his father by lecturing on political economy at Amherst as well as assisting him in the preparation of The Science of Wealth . He also taught Latin , Greek , and mathematics at the Williston Seminary in Easthampton , Massachusetts until being offered an editorial position at the Springfield Republican by Samuel Bowles . At the Republican , Walker wrote on Reconstruction era politics , railroad regulation , and representation .
= = = 1870 Census = = =
While his editorial career was moving forward , Walker called upon his own as well as his father 's political contacts to secure an appointment under David Ames Wells as the Chief of the U.S. Bureau of Statistics and Deputy Special Commissioner of Internal Revenue in January 1869 . On January 29 , 1869 , Major General J.D. Cox , who had also previously served in McClellan 's army and was currently the Secretary of the Interior under President Grant 's administration , notified the twenty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old Walker that he was being nominated to become the Superintendent of the 1870 census . After he was confirmed by the Senate , Walker sought to strike a moderate reformist position free from the inefficient and unscientific methods of the 1850 and 1860 censuses ; however , the required legislation was not passed and the census proceeded under the rules governing previous collections . Among the problems facing Walker included a lack of authority to determine , enforce , or control the marshals ' personnel , methods , or timing all of which were regularly manipulated by local political interests . Additionally , the 1870 census would not only occur five years after Civil War but would also be the first in which emancipated African Americans would be fully counted in the census .
Owing to the confluence of these problems , the Census was completed and tabulated several months behind schedule to much popular criticism , and led indirectly to a deterioration in Walker 's health during the spring of 1871 . Walker took leave to travel to England with Bowles that summer to recuperate and upon return that fall , despite an offer from The New York Times to join their editorial board with an annual salary of $ 8 @,@ 000 ( $ 143 @,@ 300 in 2009 ) , accepted Secretary Columbus Delano 's offer to become the U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs in November 1871 . The appointment was simultaneously a go @-@ around to continue to fund Walker 's federal responsibilities as Census superintendent despite Congress ' cessation of appropriations for the position as well as a political opportunity to replace a scandal @-@ ridden predecessor . Walker continued to work on the Census for several years thereafter , culminating in the publication of the Statistical Atlas of the United States that was unprecedented in its use of visual statistics and maps to report the results of the Census . The Atlas won him praise from both the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as well as a First Class medal from the International Geographical Congress .
= = = Indian Bureau = = =
Despite his Census @-@ related efforts , Walker did not neglect his obligations as Indian Affairs Superintendent . In the post @-@ war era , the government redoubled efforts to issue western land grants to settlers , ranchers , miners , and railroads which only served to heighten tensions with the Native American tribes who had already been displaced from their homelands as well as stripped of their ostensible sovereignty following an 1872 act of Congress . The U.S. Army and various Indian tribes engaged in open hostilities throughout the 1860s and 1870s . Walker harbored no benevolence for the Indians , characterizing them as " voluptuary , " " garrulous , " " lazy , " " cowardly in battle , " and " beggar @-@ like " even after an expedition along the Platte River to meet various chieftains . Walker echoed Grant 's recommendation that the Native Americans be secured on reservations of limited mineral or agricultural value so they could be educated and reformed . In November 1872 , an eruption of settler @-@ Indian violence in Oregon known as the Modoc War hastened Walker 's disinterest in the position and he resigned as Commissioner on December 26 , 1872 to take a faculty position at Yale . However , Walker also criticized his successors ' graft , corruption , and abuse of power in subsequent years and published The Indian Question in 1874 .
= = = Other engagements = = =
1876 was a busy year for Walker . Henry Brooks Adams sought to recruit Walker to be the Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of his Boston Post after failing to recruit Horace White and Charles Nordhoff for the position . That spring , Walker was nominated to run for the Secretary of the State of Connecticut , running on a platform that would later be embodied by the " Mugwump " movement , but ultimately lost to Marvin H. Sanger by a margin of 7 @,@ 200 votes out of 99 @,@ 000 cast . In the summer , the faculty of Amherst attempted to recruit him to become the President , but the position went instead to the Rev. Julius Hawley Seelye to appease the more conservative trustees .
Walker 's rise to prominence was further accelerated by his appointment by Charles Francis Adams , Jr. as the Chief of the Bureau of Awards at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia . Previous world expositions in Europe were fraught with national factionalism and a superabundance of awards . Walker imposed a much leaner operation replacing juries with judges and being more selective in awarding prizes . Walker won formal international recognition when he was named a " Knight Commander " by Sweden and Norway and a " Comendador " by Spain . He was also invited to serve as Assistant Commissioner General for the 1878 Paris Exposition . The Centennial Exposition affected Walker 's later career by greatly increasing his interest in technical education as well as introducing him to MIT President John D. Runkle and Treasurer John C. Cummings .
= = = 1880 Census = = =
Walker accepted a re @-@ appointment as the superintendent of the 1880 Census because a new law , spearheaded by Congressman James A. Garfield , had been passed to allow him to appoint trained census enumerators free from political influence . Notably , the 1880 Census 's results suggested population throughout the Southern states had increased improbably over Walker 's 1870 census but an investigation revealed that the latter had been inaccurately enumerated . Walker publicized the discrepancy even as it effectively discredited the accuracy his 1870 work . The tenth Census resulted in the publication of twenty @-@ two volumes , was popularly regarded as the best census of any up to that time , and definitively established Walker 's reputation as the preeminent statistician in the nation . The Census was again delayed as a result of its size and was the subject of praise and criticism on its comprehensiveness and relevance . Walker also used the position as a bully pulpit to advocate for the creation of a permanent Census Bureau to not only ensure that professional statisticians could be trained and retained but that the information could be better popularized and disseminated . Following Garfield 's 1880 election , there was wide speculation that he would name Walker to be Secretary of the Interior , but Walker had accepted the offer to become President of MIT in the spring of 1881 instead .
= = Academic career = =
As his Census obligations diminished in 1872 , Walker reconsidered becoming an editorialist and even briefly entertained the idea of becoming a shoe manufacturer with his brother @-@ in @-@ law back in North Brookfield . However , in October 1872 , he was unanimously offered to fill Daniel Coit Gilman 's vacated post at Yale 's recently established Sheffield Scientific School led by the mineralogist George Jarvis Brush . While at Yale , Walker served as a member of the School Committee at New Haven ( 1877 – 1880 ) and the Connecticut Board of Education ( 1878 – 1881 ) .
Walker was awarded honorary or ad eundem degrees from Amherst ( M.A. 1863 , Ph.D. 1875 , LL.D. 1882 ) , Yale ( M.A. 1873 , LL.D. 1882 ) , Harvard ( LL.D. 1883 ) , Columbia ( LL.D. 1887 ) , St. Andrews ( LL.D. 1888 ) , Dublin ( LL.D. 1892 ) , Halle ( Ph.D. 1894 ) , and Edinburgh ( LL.D. 1896 ) . He was elected as an honorary member of the Royal Statistical Society in 1875 and the National Academy of Sciences in 1878 where he served as the vice president from 1890 until his death . In addition to being elected as the president of the American Statistical Association in 1882 , he helped found and launch the International Statistical Institute in 1885 and was named its " President @-@ adjoint " in 1893 . Walker also served as the inaugural president of the American Economic Association from 1885 to 1892 . He took appointments as a lecturer at Johns Hopkins University ( its first professor of economics ) from 1877 to 1879 , lecturer at Harvard University in 1882 , 1883 , and 1896 , and trustee at Amherst College from 1879 to 1889 .
= = = Wages @-@ fund theory = = =
Walker 's scholarly contributions are widely recognized as having broadened , liberalized , and modernized economic and statistical theory with his contributions to wages , wealth distribution , money , and social economics . Although his arguments presage both neoclassical economics and institutionalism , he is not readily classified into either . As a Professor of Political Economy , his first major scholarly contribution was on his The Wages Question which set out to debunk the wage @-@ fund doctrine as well as address the then @-@ radical notion of obligations between the employer and the employed . His theory of wage distribution later came to be known as residual theory and set the stage for contributions by John Bates Clark on the marginal productivity theory . Despite Walker 's advocacy of profit sharing and expansion of educational opportunities using trade and industrial schools , he was an avowed opponent of the nascent socialist movement and published critiques of Edward Bellamy 's popular novel Looking Backward .
= = = Henry George debates = = =
Beginning in 1879 , Walker and the political economist Henry George engaged in a prominent debate over economic rents , land , money , and taxes . Based on a series of lectures delivered at Harvard , Walker published his Land and Its Rent in 1883 as a criticism of George 's 1879 Progress and Poverty . Walker 's position on international bimetallism influenced his arguments that the primary cause of economic depressions was not land speculation , but rather constriction of the money supply . Walker also criticized George 's assumptions that technical progress was always labor saving and whether land held for speculation was unproductive or inefficient .
= = = Bimetallism = = =
In August 1878 , Walker represented the United States at the third International Monetary Conference in Paris while also attending the 1878 Exposition . Not only were the attempts by the United States to re @-@ establish an international silver standard defeated , but Walker also had to scramble to complete the report on the Exposition in only four days . Although he returned to the U.S. in October disheartened by the failure of the conference and exhausted by his obligations at the Exposition , the trip had secured Walker a commanding national and international reputation .
Walker published International Bimetallism in 1896 roundly critiquing the demonetization of silver out of political pressure and the impact of this change on prices and profits as well as worker employment and wages . Walker 's reputation and position on the issue isolated him among public figures and made him a target in the press . The book was published in the midst of the 1896 presidential election pitting populist " silver " candidate William Jennings Bryan against the capitalist " gold " candidate William McKinley and the competing interpretations of the nation 's leading economist 's stance on the issue became a political football during the campaign . The presidential candidate and economist were not close allies as Walker advocated a double standard by all leading financial nations while Bryan argued for the United States ' unilateral shift to a silver standard . The rift was heightened by the east @-@ west divide on the issue as well as Walker 's general distaste for political populism ; Walker 's position was supported by conservative bankers and statesmen like Henry Lee Higginson , George F. Hoar , John M. Forbes , and Henry Cabot Lodge .
= = = Other interests = = =
Political Economy , the first edition published in 1883 , was one of the most widely used textbooks of the 19th century as a component of the American Science Series . Robert Solow criticized the third edition ( 1888 ) for being devoid of facts , figures , and mostly full of off @-@ the @-@ cuff judgments on the practices and capacities of native Americans and immigrants , but generally embodying the state of the art of economics at the time .
Walker also took an interest in demographics later in his career , particularly towards the issues of immigration and birth rates . He published The Growth of the United States in 1882 and Restriction on Immigration in 1896 arguing for increasing restrictions out of concern about the diminished industrial and intellectual capacity of the most recent wave of immigrants . Walker also argued that unrestricted immigration was the major reason behind nineteenth @-@ century native American fertility decline , but while the argument was politically popular and became widely accepted in mobilizing restrictions on immigration , it rested upon a surprisingly facile statistical analysis that was later refuted . Writing on immigrants from southern Italy , Hungary , Austria , and Russia in The Atlantic , Walker claimed ,
" The entrance into our political , social , and industrial life of such vast masses of peasantry , degraded below our utmost conceptions , is a matter which no intelligent patriot can look upon without the gravest apprehension and alarm . These people have no history behind them which is of a nature to give encouragement . They have none of the inherited instincts and tendencies which made it comparatively easy to deal with the immigration of the olden time . They are beaten men from beaten races ; representing the worst failures in the struggle for existence . Centuries are against them , as centuries were on the side of those who formerly came to us . They have none of the ideas and aptitudes which fit men to take up readily and easily the problem of self @-@ care and self @-@ government , such as belong to those who are descended from the tribes that met under the oak @-@ trees of old Germany to make laws and choose chieftains . "
Based upon his experiences in the military , Walker published two books describing the history of the Second Army Corps ( 1886 ) as well as a biography of General Winfield Scott Hancock ( 1884 ) . Walker was elected Commander of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1883 was also the President of the National Military Historical Association .
= = MIT presidency = =
Established in 1861 and opened in 1865 , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) saw its financial stability severely undermined following the Panic of 1873 and subsequent Long Depression . Seventy @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old founder William Barton Rogers was elected interim president in 1878 after John Daniel Runkle stepped down . Rogers wrote Walker in June 1880 to offer him the Presidency , and Walker evidently debated the opportunity for some time as Rogers sent follow @-@ up inquiries in January and February 1881 requesting his committed decision . Walker ultimately accepted in early May and was formally elected President by the MIT Corporation on May 25 , 1881 , resigning his Yale appointment in June and his Census directorship in November . However , the assassination attempt on President Garfield in July 1881 and the ensuing illness before Garfield 's death in September upset Walker 's transition and delayed his formal introduction to the faculty of MIT until November 5 , 1881 . On May 30 , 1882 , during Walker 's first Commencement exercises , Rogers died mid @-@ speech where his last words were famously " bituminous coal " .
MIT 's inability to secure a more stable financial footing during this era can largely be attributed to the existence of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard . Given the choice between funding technological research at the oldest university in the nation , or at an independent and adolescent institution , potential benefactors were indifferent or even hostile to funding MIT 's competing mission . Earlier overtures from Harvard President Charles William Eliot towards consolidation of the two schools were rejected or disrupted by Rogers in 1870 and 1878 . Despite his tenure at the analogous Sheffield School of Yale University , Walker remained committed to MIT 's independence from a larger institution . Walker also repeatedly received overtures from Leland Stanford to become the first president of his new university in Palo Alto , California , but Walker remained committed to MIT owing to his Boston upbringing .
= = = Aid and expansion = = =
In light of the difficulties in raising capital for these expansions and despite MIT 's privately endowed status , Walker and other members of the Corporation lobbied the Massachusetts legislature for a $ 200 @,@ 000 grant to aid in the industrial development of the Commonwealth ( $ 4 @,@ 446 @,@ 000 in 2009 dollars ) . After intensive negotiations that called upon Walker 's extensive connections and civic experience , in 1887 the legislature made a grant of $ 300 @,@ 000 over two years to the Institute , which would lead to a total of $ 1 @.@ 6 million in grants from the Commonwealth before the practice was discontinued in 1921 .
Walker sought to erect a new building to address the increasingly cramped conditions of the original Boylston Street campus located near Copley Square , in the increasingly fashionable and crowded Back Bay neighborhood of Boston . Because the stipulations of the original land grant prevented MIT from covering more than two @-@ ninths of its current lot , Walker announced his intention to build the industrial expansion on a lot directly across from the Trinity Church fully intending that expected opposition would lead to favorable terms for selling the proposed land and funding construction elsewhere . With the financial health of the Institute only beginning to recover , Walker began construction on the partially @-@ funded expansion , fully expecting the immediacy of the project to be a persuasive tool for raising its funds . The strategy was only partially successful , as the 1883 building had laboratory facilities that were second @-@ to @-@ none but also lacked the outward architectural grandeur of its sister building and was generally considered an eyesore on its surroundings . Mechanical shops were moved out of the original Rogers Building in the mid @-@ 1880s to accommodate other programs , and in 1892 the Institute began construction on another Copley Square building .
New programs were also launched under Walker 's tenure : Electrical Engineering in 1882 , Chemical Engineering in 1888 , Sanitary Engineering in 1889 , Geology in 1890 , Naval Architecture in 1893 .
= = = Reforms = = =
Although Walker continued Census @-@ related activities , he began to lecture on political economy as well as establishing a new general course of study ( Course IX ) emphasizing economics , history , law , English , and modern languages . Walker also set out to reform and expand the Institute 's organization by creating a smaller Executive Committee , apart from the fifty @-@ member Corporation , to handle regular administrative issues . Walker emphasized the importance of faculty governance by regularly attending their meetings and seeking their advice on major decisions .
Walker also sought to improve the state of student life and alumni relations by supporting the creation of a gymnasium , dormitories , and the Technology Club , which served to foster a stronger identity and loyalty among the largely commuter student body . He also won considerable praise from the student body by reducing the required time spent for recitation and preparation , limiting the faculty to examinations lasting no longer than three hours , expanding entrance examinations to other cities , starting a summer curriculum , and launching masters and doctoral graduate degree programs . These reforms were largely a response to Walker 's on @-@ going defense of the Institute and its curriculum from outside accusations of overwork , poor writing , inapplicable skills , and status as a " mere " trade school . Between 1881 and 1897 , enrollments quadrupled from 302 to 1 @,@ 198 students , annual degrees granted increased from 28 to 179 , faculty appointments quadrupled from 38 to 156 , and the endowment grew thirteenfold from $ 137 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 798 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @,@ 046 @,@ 000 to $ 46 @,@ 367 @,@ 000 in 2009 dollars ) .
While MIT is a private institution , Walker 's extensive civic activities as President set the precedent for future presidents to use the post to fulfill civic and cultural obligations throughout Boston . He served as a member of the Massachusetts Board of Education ( 1882 – 1890 ) , Boston School Committee ( 1885 – 1888 ) , Boston Art Commission ( 1885 – 1897 ) , Boston Park Commission ( 1890 – 1896 ) , Massachusetts Historical Society ( 1883 – 1897 ) , and a trustee of the Boston Public Library in 1896 . Walker was committed to a variety of reforms in public and normal schools such as secular curricula , expanding the emphasis on arithmetic , reducing the emphasis on ineffectual home exercises , and increasing the pay and training of teachers .
= = Personal life = =
Walker married Exene Evelyn Stoughton on August 16 , 1865 ( born October 11 , 1840 ) . They had five sons and two daughters together : Stoughton ( b . June 3 , 1866 ) , Lucy ( b . September 1 , 1867 ) , Francis ( b . 1870 – 1871 ) , Ambrose ( b . December 28 , 1870 ) , Eveline ( b . 1875 – 1876 ) , Etheredge ( b . 1876 – 1877 ) , and Stuart ( b . 1878 – 1879 ) . Walker was an avid spectator and supporter of college football and baseball , and was a regular Yale enthusiast at the annual Harvard @-@ Yale football game , even during his MIT presidency .
Following a trip to a dedication in the " wilderness of Northern New York " in December 1896 , Walker returned exhausted and ill . He died on January 5 , 1897 as a result of apoplexy . His funeral service was conducted at Trinity Church , and Walker was buried at Walnut Grove cemetery in North Brookfield , Massachusetts . His grave can be found in Section 1 Lot 72 .
= = Legacy = =
Following Walker 's death , alumni and students began to raise funds to construct a monument to him and his fifteen years as leader of the university . Although the funds were easily raised , plans were delayed for over two decades as MIT made plans to move to a new campus on the western bank of the Charles River in Cambridge . The new Beaux @-@ Arts campus opened in 1916 , and featured a neo @-@ classical Walker Memorial building housing a gymnasium , students ' club and lounge , and a commons room .
Despite his prominence and leadership in the fields of economics , statistics , and political economy , Walker 's Course IX on General Studies was dissolved shortly after his death , and a seventy @-@ year debate followed over the appropriate role and scope of humanistic and social studies at MIT . Graduation requirements changed over the years , but have always included some number of courses in the humanities . Since 1975 , all undergraduate students are required to take eight classes distributed across the MIT School of Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences before receiving their degrees . To address continuing concerns about poor communications skills , a Communication Requirement has been added for two of the classes taken in a designated major to be " communication @-@ intensive " , including " substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation " .
Beginning in 1947 , the American Economic Association recognized the lifetime achievement of an individual economist with a " Francis A. Walker Medal " . The quinquennial award was discontinued in 1982 after the creation of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences effectively made it superfluous . The medal was awarded to Wesley Clair Mitchell in 1947 , John Maurice Clark in 1952 , Frank Knight in 1957 , Jacob Viner in 1962 , Alvin Hansen in 1967 , Theodore Schultz in 1972 , and Simon Kuznets in 1977 .
= = Principal works = =
The Indian Question ( 1874 )
The Wages Question : A treatise on Wages and the Wages Class ( 1876 )
Money ( 1878 )
Money in its Relation to Trade and Industry ( 1879 )
Political Economy ( first edition , 1883 )
Land and its Rent ( 1883 )
History of the Second Army Corps ( 1886 )
Life of General Hancock ( 1894 )
The Making of the Nation ( 1895 )
International Bimetallism ( 1896 )
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= Manal al @-@ Sharif =
Manal al @-@ Sharif ( Arabic : منال الشريف ) is a women 's rights activist from Saudi Arabia who helped start a women 's right to drive campaign in 2011 . A women 's rights activist who had previously filmed herself driving , Wajeha al @-@ Huwaider , filmed al @-@ Sharif driving a car as part of the campaign . The video was posted on YouTube and Facebook . Al @-@ Sharif was detained and released on 21 May and rearrested the following day . On 30 May , al @-@ Sharif was released on bail , on the conditions of returning for questioning if requested , not driving and not talking to the media . The New York Times and Associated Press associated the women 's driving campaign with the wider pattern of the Arab Spring and the long duration of al @-@ Sharif 's detention with Saudi authorities ' fear of protests .
Following her driving campaign , al @-@ Sharif remained an active critic of the Saudi government , tweeting on issues including imprisoned female foreign workers , the lack of elections for the Shura Council , and the murder of Lama al @-@ Ghamdi . Her work has been recognized by Foreign Policy , Time , and the Oslo Freedom Forum .
= = Background = =
Manal al @-@ Sharif graduated from King Abdulaziz University with a Bachelor of Science in computing and a Cisco Career Certification . Until May 2012 , she worked as an Internet Security Consultant for Saudi Aramco , the Saudi national oil company . She also wrote for Al Watan , a Saudi daily .
= = Women 's rights campaigns = =
In addition to her professional career , al @-@ Sharif has campaigned for women 's rights in Saudi Arabia for many years . According to the New York Times , al @-@ Sharif " has a reputation for pulling stunts to highlight the lack of rights for women " . Regarding the 2011 women driving campaign , Amnesty International stated that " Manal al @-@ Sharif is following in a long tradition of women activists around the world who have put themselves on the line to expose and challenge discriminatory laws and policies " .
= = = Women 's driving rights in Saudi Arabia = = =
As of 2013 , women in Saudi Arabia have limited freedom of movement and in practice are not allowed to drive motor vehicles . In 1990 , dozens of women in Riyadh drove their cars in protest , were imprisoned for one day , had their passports confiscated , and some of them lost their jobs . In September 2007 , the Association for the Protection and Defense of Women 's Rights in Saudi Arabia , co @-@ founded by Wajeha al @-@ Huwaider and Fawzia al @-@ Uyyouni , gave a 1 @,@ 100 signature petition to King Abdullah asking for women to be allowed to drive . On International Women 's Day 2008 , Huwaider filmed herself driving and received international media attention after the video was posted on YouTube . Inspired by the Arab Spring , a woman from Jeddah , Najla Hariri , started driving in the second week of May 2011 , stating " Before in Saudi , you never heard about protests . [ But ] after what has happened in the Middle East , we started to accept a group of people going outside and saying what they want in a loud voice , and this has had an impact on me . "
= = = 2011 women driving campaign = = =
In 2011 , a group of women including Manal al @-@ Sharif started a Facebook campaign named " Teach me how to drive so I can protect myself " or " Women2Drive " that says that women should be allowed to drive . The campaign calls for women to start driving from 17 June 2011 . By 21 May 2011 , about 12 @,@ 000 readers of the Facebook page had expressed their support . Al @-@ Sharif describes the action as acting within women 's rights , and " not protesting " . Wajeha al @-@ Huwaider was impressed by the campaign and decided to help .
In late May , Al @-@ Sharif drove her car in Khobar with al @-@ Huwaider filming . The video was posted to YouTube and Facebook . In the video , al @-@ Sharif stated , " This is a volunteer campaign to help the girls of this country [ learn to drive ] . At least for times of emergency , God forbid . What if whoever is driving them gets a heart attack ? " She was detained by the religious police ( CPVPV ) on 21 May and released after six hours . By 23 May 2011 , about 600 @,@ 000 people had watched the video .
The YouTube video of al @-@ Sharif 's drive became inaccessible at its original location , the Facebook page for the campaign was deleted , and the Twitter account used by al @-@ Sharif was " copied and altered " . Supporters republished the original video and Facebook page and a summary of al @-@ Sharif 's five recommended rules for the 17 June campaign were published on a blog and by the New York Times .
On 22 May , al @-@ Sharif was detained again and the Director General of Traffic Administration , Major @-@ General Suleiman Al @-@ Ajlan , was questioned by journalists regarding traffic regulations related to women driving . Al @-@ Ajlan stated that the journalists should " put the question " to members of the Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia . RTBF suggested that al @-@ Sharif had been sentenced to five days ' imprisonment .
The New York Times described al @-@ Sharif 's campaign as a " budding protest movement " that the Saudi government tried to " swiftly extinguish " . Associated Press said that Saudi authorities " cracked down harder than usual on al @-@ Sharif , after seeing her case become a rallying call for youths anxious for change " in the context of the Arab Spring . Both news organisations attributed the long duration of al @-@ Sharif 's detention to Saudi authorities ' fear of a wider protest movement in Saudi Arabia . Amnesty International declared Al @-@ Sharif to be a prisoner of conscience and called for her immediate and unconditional release .
The day after al @-@ Sharif 's arrest , another woman was detained for driving a car . She drove with two women passengers in Ar Rass and was detained by traffic police in the presence of the CPVPV . She was released after signing a statement that she would not drive again . In reaction to al @-@ Sharif 's arrest , several more Saudi women published videos of themselves driving during the following days . On 26 May , authorities said that al @-@ Sharif would remain in detention until 5 June 2011 , according to Waleed Abu Al @-@ Khair . Al @-@ Sharif was conditionally freed on 30 May . Her lawyer Adnan al @-@ Saleh said that she had been charged with " inciting women to drive " and " rallying public opinion " . The conditions of Al @-@ Sharif 's release include bail , returning for questioning if requested , not driving and not talking to the media . As possible reasons for al @-@ Sharif 's early release , The National cited al @-@ Sharif having written a letter to King Abdullah , 4 @,@ 500 Saudis signing an online petition to the King , and " an outpouring of indignation and disbelief by both Saudis and critics abroad that Ms al @-@ Sharif was jailed for something that is not a moral or criminal offence . "
Al @-@ Sharif filed an objection with the General Directorate of Traffic in Riyadh on 15 November 2011 because of officials rejecting her driver 's licence application . Samar Badawi filed a similar lawsuit on 4 February 2012 .
= = = 2011 women prisoners campaign = = =
Following her 30 May release from prison , al @-@ Sharif started a Twitter campaign called " Faraj " to release Saudi , Filipino and Indonesian women prisoners in the Dammam women 's prison who " are locked up just because they owe a small sum of money but cannot afford to pay the debt " . Al @-@ Sharif said that the women prisoners were mostly domestic workers who remained in prison after completing their prison terms , because they could not pay their debts and because their former Saudi employers did not help to release them or fund their flights to return to their countries of origin . She referred to 22 Indonesian women and named four women needing help and stated the amount of their debts . She called for donations to be made directly to the director of the Dammam women 's prison in order to reimburse the women 's debts and free them .
= = Post @-@ campaign = =
On 23 January 2012 , al @-@ Sharif was mistakenly reported dead in a car crash in Jeddah . On 25 January , The Guardian confirmed that she was in fact alive , and that the actual victim was an " unnamed member of a desert community " who was not involved in the female driving campaign .
Following al @-@ Sharif 's arrests , she reported being increasingly marginalized by her employers at Aramco . She quit following a dispute over her trip to Norway to receive the Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent .
In December 2012 , al @-@ Sharif criticized an initiative by the Saudi government to inform husbands via SMS when their wives or dependents leave the country , in accordance with a law making men the legal guardians of their wives . " The small fact of the SMS story gives you the idea of the bigger problem with the whole guardianship system " , she wrote on Twitter . When King Abdullah appointed women to the advisory Shura Council for the first time in January 2013 , al @-@ Sharif criticized the reform as too small , noting that the Council was still not an elected body and could not pass legislation . In February , she worked to bring international attention to the case of five @-@ year @-@ old Lama al @-@ Ghamdi , whose father Fayhan al @-@ Ghamdi fatally raped , beat , and burned her ; he served four months in jail and paid 200 @,@ 000 riyals ( roughly US $ 50 @,@ 000 ) in blood money .
= = Recognition = =
Foreign Policy magazine named al @-@ Sharif one of the Top 100 Global Thinkers of 2011 , and she was listed in Forbes list of Women Who ( Briefly ) Rocked in the same year . In 2012 , al @-@ Sharif was named one of the Fearless Women of the year by The Daily Beast , and Time magazine named her one of the 100 Most Influential People of 2012 . She was also one of three people awarded the first annual Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent at the Oslo Freedom Forum .
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= Samus Aran =
Samus Aran ( Japanese : サムス ・ アラン , Hepburn : Samusu Aran ) is the protagonist of the Metroid science fiction action @-@ adventure game series by Nintendo . She was introduced in the 1986 video game Metroid .
Samus Aran is an ex @-@ soldier of the Galactic Federation who turned into a Galactic bounty hunter , usually fitted with a powered exoskeleton with weapons that include directed @-@ energy weapons and missiles . Throughout the series , she executes missions given to her by the Galactic Federation while hunting the antagonistic Space Pirates and their leader Ridley along with the parasitic energy @-@ draining organisms called Metroids .
Samus has appeared in every Metroid video game and has also been featured in media outside of the series , including the comic book version of Captain N : The Game Master and the Super Smash Bros. series . She is well known as one of the earliest female protagonists in video game history and has remained a popular character over a quarter @-@ century after her first appearance .
= = Character = =
Super Metroid 's Player 's Guide describes Samus as an athletic woman who is 6 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) tall and weighs 198 pounds ( 90 kg ) without her armor . She is mostly seen inside the Power Suit , a powered exoskeleton which protects her from most dangers she encounters and can be enhanced by power @-@ ups collected during gameplay . Typically , one of her suit 's arms carries a cannon , which can be charged to shoot an extra @-@ powerful blast , a limited number of missiles , and various beams . Samus 's suit can collapse into a sphere , a mode called the Morph Ball , allowing her to roll through tight areas such as tunnels . The suit can scan objects to learn more about them , and has a grapple beam used to cross large distances , such as chasms . Since Metroid II : Return of Samus , Samus has been accompanied by her Gunship , which is used in the games to save progress and restore health and ammunition . ( While there are other rooms in the series containing devices that can be used to save progress , they may not necessarily provide all functions accessed inside the Gunship . ) Appearances of Samus outside the Power Suit occur mostly in cutscenes , such as ending screens showing Samus in more revealing clothing . Metroid : Zero Mission also introduced the Zero Suit , a form @-@ fitting jumpsuit that she dons below the Power Suit .
The Metroid e @-@ manga covers Samus 's origins . She was born and raised on the mining planet K @-@ 2L , and when she was a child , the planet was raided by Space Pirates led by Ridley in an attack that killed both her parents and destroyed the planet . The orphaned Samus was then found by a bird @-@ like alien race known as the Chozo , who brought her to their home planet , Zebes . Samus was infused with Chozo DNA to give her a strong resistance to foreign environments , then trained as a warrior and given one of the alien race 's artifacts , the Power Suit . She enlisted in the Galactic Federation Police , but left for disagreements with her commanding officer , Adam Malkovich . Samus then started working as a freelance bounty hunter , and is called on by the Galactic Federation to execute missions " because of her superior skills and sense of justice " . Most of her missions revolve around the galaxy whilst getting rid of unsavory elements like the enigmatic organism known as Metroids , who can drain life energy and are frequently used as biological weapons .
= = = Conception and development = = =
The style for the original Metroid game was designed to be a cross between the side @-@ scrolling gameplay of the Super Mario games and the exploration and puzzle @-@ solving aspects of The Legend of Zelda series with inspiration from science fiction . The game 's characters were conceived by Makoto Kano , while Hiroji Kiyotake designed the main protagonist Samus Aran . Samus is able to collapse into a ball to travel through tight areas . The ability , called the Maru Mari ( meaning " round ball " in Japanese ) in the original Metroid ( 1986 ) , and later the more popular title of Morph Ball in Super Metroid , was conceived by the developers because it required less effort to animate than " a cyborg crawling on all fours " , and the producer for Metroid , Gunpei Yokoi , took advantage of this shortcut .
The original game 's atmosphere was influenced by Ridley Scott 's film Alien . The series ' co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto recalled , " We were partway through the development process when one of the staff members said ' Hey , wouldn 't that be kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman ? ' " The developers voted on the concept , and it passed . The game 's instruction manual refers to Samus as if she were male to keep her true gender a secret until the end of the game . Sakamoto noted that during the course of the Metroid series , developers constantly try to express Samus 's femininity without turning her into a sex object . Samus 's image was based on actress Sigourney Weaver in her role as Ellen Ripley from Aliens , and actress Kim Basinger from 9 ½ Weeks and My Stepmother Is an Alien . Sakamoto and Kiyotake said that the character 's last name " Aran " was taken from Edson Arantes do Nascimento , the birth name of famous soccer player Pelé .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Metroid games = = =
In Metroid , the Galactic Federation sends Samus to track down the Space Pirates on their home planet of Zebes . Deep within their base , she battles Mother Brain , the organism that controls the base 's defenses , and she escapes just as the base self @-@ destructs . In Metroid II : Return of Samus , the Galactic Federation commissions Samus to exterminate all Metroid creatures on the planet SR388 . She travels deep into the planet 's caverns . After dispatching a Metroid Queen , Samus discovers a small Metroid hatchling , which imprints on her , thinking she is its mother . She spares its life and takes it back to her gunship .
In Super Metroid , just after giving the hatchling to a Federation research station , Samus tracks the hatchling ( stolen by Ridley ) to a newly rebuilt Space Pirate base on Zebes . She travels deep underground , eventually finding the now @-@ fully @-@ grown Metroid , then battling a newly rebuilt and more powerful Mother Brain . The Metroid hatchling sacrifices itself to save Samus , and Samus in turn defeats Mother Brain and escapes as the entire planet is destroyed . In Metroid Fusion , Samus returns to SR388 , where a parasitic infection nearly kills her . Federation scientists surgically remove large sections of her corrupted Varia Suit and inject her with the Metroid hatchling 's DNA to save her . To prevent the parasites from spreading beyond SR388 and the space station orbiting above it , Samus sets the station to crash into the planet .
Metroid : Other M , which takes place between Super Metroid and Fusion , provides more information about Samus 's backstory and her emotional connection to both the Metroid hatchling and her former commander , Adam Malkovich , as well as her relation to all four Mother Brain designs , namely Zebes ' Mother Brains , Aurora Unit 313 and MB .
In Metroid Prime , Samus travels to the planet Tallon IV , which contains a Chozo colony in ruins and a Space Pirate base . There she learns of Phazon , a mysterious mutagen that can alter the genetic material of any organism . Samus is eventually able to access the source of the planet 's Phazon contamination , a meteor impact crater , where she defeats the Phazon @-@ infused creature Metroid Prime . In Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes , Samus is sent to the planet Aether , a Phazon meteor @-@ ravaged planet split into light and dark dimensions . There she battles the Ing , creatures that are able to possess other organisms , and Dark Samus , an evil doppelgänger of herself formed from the remains of Metroid Prime . In Metroid Prime Hunters , Samus competes against six rival bounty hunters in a race to recover an alien ultimate weapon . In Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption , Samus is infected by Phazon and is slowly corrupted by the mutagen while she works to prevent it from spreading to other planets . By the end of the game , she renders all Phazon inert by destroying its original source , the planet Phaaze , and destroys Dark Samus .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Samus was featured in a series of comic books called Captain N : The Game Master , published by Valiant Comics in 1990 , based on the animated series of the same name , despite Samus never appearing in the cartoon version . In the comics , Samus is depicted as brash , money @-@ hungry , and fiercely independent . 1UP.com described Samus in the Captain N comics as " rambunctious , reckless , and gets into fighting contests with Lana over Kevin 's affections , which makes for some of the most entertaining situations in the series . " Comic book and manga adaptations of Metroid games were also developed .
Samus is a playable character in all four games in the Super Smash Bros. series of multiplayer fighting games , where she can use her array of weapons in combat against characters from other video games . Super Smash Bros. Brawl and the fourth Super Smash Bros. game also feature an alternate form of Samus called Zero Suit Samus , in which the heroine loses her Power Suit and has a different set of movements and attacks . She also stars in the Subspace Emissary fighting Ridley with Pikachu by her side . In the fourth Super Smash Bros. game , Samus in her power suit and her zero suit are listed as two separate characters , to avoid confusion with their move sets whereas in the previous game , Samus could access her zero suit by activating her final smash . Samus also receives a significant power upgrade with rocket powered boots which will work well for recovery .
Samus makes cameo appearances in the games Galactic Pinball ( 1995 ) , Super Mario RPG ( 1996 ) , Kirby Super Star ( 1996 ) , and Kirby 's Dream Land 3 ( 1997 ) , and also makes a non @-@ playable appearance in Dead or Alive : Dimensions by Metroid : Other M co @-@ developers Team Ninja .
Many various figures based on the character were produced by various manufacturers . First 4 Figures built 2 @,@ 500 Varia Suit Samus figures , selling all of them . Good Smile Company produced a figma and a statue of Samus based on the Other M Samus . Samus also launched as one of the twelve original Amiibo in November 2014 .
= = Reception and cultural impact = =
Samus was one of the first major female protagonists in a video game . Although Toby Masuyo ( " Kissy " ) from Namco 's Alien Sector ( Baraduke ) predates her by one year as a female protagonist , 2013 's Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition declared Samus as " the first playable human female character in a mainstream videogame " , and as being " enduringly " popular , noting that sales of the Metroid series has exceeded 17 @.@ 44 million copies as of September 2012 . As a woman in a male @-@ dominated role , Samus has been widely considered a breakthrough for female characters in video games .
In 2009 , GameDaily called Samus the video game industry 's " first dominant female , a femme de force that didn 't rely on a man to save her , " also ranking her number one on a list of the top Nintendo characters of all time . In 2010 , James Hawkins of Joystick Division ranked her as number one top " badass lady " in video games , adding that she " made every other character on this list possible , " while UGO.com ranked her as 20th in a list of top heroes of all @-@ time . In 2011 , Nintendo Power listed Samus as their third favourite hero , citing her bravery in the face of dangerous situations , while UGO.com also included her on the list of video game characters who need their own movies . That same year , Empire ranked her as the 26th greatest video game character , adding , " whether you see her as a breakthrough for feminism or just another faceless sci @-@ fi warrior , 1986 's unexpected reveal that showed women could be more in gaming lore than eye candy for geeky boys was a refreshing and unforgettable moment . " In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked her as the fiftth " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in video games , adding : " Whether she 's 2D or 3D , in a sidescroller or FPS , her strength and determination always shine through , allowing her the power to defeat floating aliens and space pirates alike . " In 2013 , Complex ranked her as the 11th " most badass " video game character of all time , as well as the number one greatest heroine in video game history , and the third greatest soldier in video games .
Samus ' reveal in the original Metroid , which UGO.com called the original " jaw @-@ dropping moment " in gaming , was named as the greatest twist in video games by Game Informer in 2007 and as the greatest moment in Nintendo 's history by GameDaily in 2008 . The Irish Times found it refreshing to learn that the series ' protagonist , who is " well disguised under the suit of heavy armour " , is female , but Rupert Goodwins of The Independent wrote that the " Transformer @-@ like suit she wears could just as easily contain a large centipede ; it 's hardly a breakthrough for feminism . " According to the 2007 book Gaming Lives in the Twenty @-@ First Century : Literate Connections , Samus was perhaps the most nonsexualized female video @-@ game character ever , a belief shared by Steve Rabin in Introduction to Game Development , which also considered Samus as one of Nintendo 's most popular video game mascots . In 2002 , Justin Hoeger of The Sacramento Bee opined that " unlike most other female video game characters , Samus isn 't some husky @-@ voiced bimbo in tight leather included only for sex appeal . Samus is tough , silent , heavily armed and spends most of her time in a bulky suit of high @-@ tech Power Armor . " That same year , however , an article in Toronto Star retorted that the " sexual politics " surrounding Samus and the Metroid series needed to stop , arguing that the original " big crazy shock to the gaming public " was " some seriously misspent energy " as she " is not a woman for the benefit of the sweaty / excited crowd , and neither is she a standard @-@ bearer nor a courageous leader in the struggle for video game civil rights . She is a supremely talented action figure , and in the closeups on her helmet you can kind of see that she wears mascara , but that is all . " UGO.com included Samus ' one @-@ piece bathing swimsuit on the list of the best alternate costumes and IGN chose " Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) " by Aerosmith as Samus ' theme song because she " spends her time running around in a manly battle suit blasting first and taking names later . " Featuring her in their 2004 list of " top ten forces of good " ( one section on their list of top 50 " retro " game characters ) , Retro Gamer opined she has remained " a distinct female character , not relying on cheap thrills to capture the attention of gamers , which is more than can be said for some . "
Nevertheless , much of her media reception came from her sex appeal . GameTrailers named Samus number one on a 2006 list of the top ten women of gaming , and number three among top ten " gamer babes " in 2007 . GameDaily ranked Samus seventh on a list of the top " hottest game babes " , describing her as " a refreshing change of pace , a tough , no nonsense warrior that isn 't afraid to remove her famous orange and yellow power suit and let her hair down , especially to reveal her skin tight clothing . " She was also listed on GameDaily 's list of " hottest " blondes in video games , described as both one of Nintendo 's most famous protagonists as well as a " curvaceous , drop @-@ dead @-@ gorgeous woman , " and used to illustrate the " smart and sexy heroine " concept on their list of top video game archetypes . In 2008 , Spike placed Samus on the top of their list of " video game vixen " as " a foxy broad that conceals her curves inside a weapon of death and destruction , " while MSN India listed her as one of " the best @-@ looking game characters with perfect figures . " In 2009 , UGO.com ranked Samus as 11th on a list of the top " girls of gaming " and as the eighth " hottest sci @-@ fi girl " , also including her in the 2011 list of 50 video game " hotties " . Her Zero Suit was ranked by ScrewAttack as fourth on their 2010 list of the sexiest outfits in games on GameTrailers , while Sarah Warn of AfterEllen ranked Samus as the tenth " hottest " female video game character . In 2011 , GameFront featured her twice on the list of the " best boobs in video game history " , at 40th spot for her reveal in the original game and at sixth place for her modern appearance in " a ridiculously form @-@ fitting jumpsuit . " That same year , Lisa Foiles of The Escapist ranked the Zero Suit Samus as number one " hottest blonde chick " in video games . In 2012 , Complex ranked her as the 24th " hottest " video game character , also ranking her as the fourth top " hot female killer " from video games , while Nixie Pixel from Revision3 placed Samus on top of her sexiest " game girls " list . In 2013 , Steve Jenkins of CheatCodes.com declared Samus the tenth " hottest video game girl " of all time . Thanh Niên ranked her as the tenth most sexy female character in 2015 , in particular for her Zero Suit .
Samus has been well received by the video game community . In 2001 , IGN remarked that Samus has a cult following greater than most other female video game characters . She was chosen by the users of IGN as the most requested character who should have her own movie franchise by the website 's users , the staff remarking that her tragic past makes her a perfect candidate for a movie , especially the loss of both her parents to the Space Pirates . Among their list of voted characters , IGN considered Samus to be the video game character that " could lead the pack of video game adaptations that actually manage to live up to the source material . " Samus appeared in multiple GameFAQs " Character Battle " contests , winning the " Character Battle V " in 2006 . In 2009 , GameSpot featured her in their poll " All Time Greatest Game Hero " , in which she lost to Mario in the semi @-@ finals . Paul O 'Connor , the lead game designer for Sammy Studios and a fan of the Metroid series , remarked that players empathize and identify with Samus because she is often rewarded for indulging in her curiosity . The book Videogames and Art noted that in the original Metroid the player is not briefed on Samus 's past or future ; the only interaction that they have with the character is by being her through gameplay , while bits of information can be gleaned from the handbook and through concept art , adding , " Samus is very rare for the character intimacy gained solely through game play and for her stasis and then drastic change , " referring to the revelation that she is a woman . MMA and actress Ronda Rousey told GameSpot in a 2016 interview that she " always wanted to be Samus " if a live @-@ action Metroid film is made .
In his review of Super Smash Bros. , GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann called Samus one of the characters that made Nintendo " what it is today . " Samus was ranked fifth on GameDaily 's 2009 list of top characters in the Smash Bros. series , while IGN ranked her as the third @-@ best character for Super Smash Bros. Her controversial portrayal in Metroid : Other M received mixed reactions . Unlike other Metroid games , where Samus took full advantage of weapons and abilities available , she deactivated most of them until Commander Adam Malkovich authorized their use , despite obvious uses for them . G4 TV considered the portrayal of Samus as " sexist " , stating that as she " cannot possibly wield the amount of power she possesses unless directed to by a man " and that her anxiety attack cannot be reconciled with her previous portrayals . The A.V. Club echoed the misgivings about Samus 's immaturity , petulant behavior , and misguided loyalty . According to GamePro , while the story and Samus ' monologues did not compel them , " it helped contextualize her entire existence " which developed the character to " an actual human being who 's using the vastness of space to try and put some distance between herself and the past . " 1UP.com 's Justin Hayward found the portrayal " lifeless and boring " and " nonsensical " . GamesRadar wrote that Other M painted Samus , widely considered a strong female lead character , as " an unsure , insecure woman who desperately wants the approval of her former [ male ] commanding officer . " Game Informer listed her 1st on their list of the top ten " dorks " of 2010 , citing her " lame backstory " in Other M. On the other hand , Bob " Moviebob " Chipman from ScrewAttack applauded the elaboration on Samus 's character , arguing that her breakdown is an accurate depiction of posttraumatic stress disorder and that she is portrayed as a three @-@ dimensional character , a step up from the fans ' long @-@ standing misconceptions of Samus as " pathologically emotionless man @-@ hating ice queen , " while " supposedly enlightened gamers and game commentators " are making gender assumptions that are " all in [ their heads ] . "
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= Morihei Ueshiba =
Morihei Ueshiba ( 植芝 盛平 , Ueshiba Morihei , December 14 , 1883 – April 26 , 1969 ) was a martial artist and founder of the Japanese martial art of Aikido . He is often referred to as " the founder " Kaiso ( 開祖 ) or Ōsensei ( 大先生 / 翁先生 ) , " Great Teacher " .
The son of a landowner from Tanabe , Ueshiba studied a number of martial arts in his youth , and served in the Japanese Army during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . After being discharged in 1907 , he moved to Hokkaidō as the head of a pioneer settlement ; here he met and studied with Takeda Sokaku , the founder of Daitō @-@ ryū aiki @-@ jūjutsu . On leaving Hokkaido in 1919 , Ueshiba joined the Ōmoto @-@ kyō movement , a Shinto sect , in Ayabe , where he served as a martial arts instructor and opened his first dojo . He accompanied the head of the Ōmoto @-@ kyō group , Onisaburo Deguchi , on an expedition to Mongolia in 1924 , where they were captured by Chinese troops and returned to Japan . The following year , he experienced a great spiritual enlightenment , stating that , " a golden spirit sprang up from the ground , veiled my body , and changed my body into a golden one . " After this experience , his martial arts skill appeared to be greatly increased .
Ueshiba moved to Tokyo in 1926 , where he set up the Aikikai Hombu Dojo . In the aftermath of World War II the dojo was closed , but Ueshiba continued training at another dojo he had set up in Iwama . From the end of the war until the 1960s , he worked to promote aikido throughout Japan and abroad . He died from liver cancer in 1969 .
= = Early years = =
Morihei Ueshiba was born in Tanabe , Wakayama Prefecture , Japan on December 14 , 1883 , the fourth child ( and only son ) born to Yoroku Ueshiba and his wife Yuki .
The young Ueshiba was raised in a somewhat privileged setting . His father was a rich landowner who also traded in lumber and fishing and was politically active . Ueshiba was a rather weak , sickly child and bookish in his inclinations . At a young age his father encouraged him to take up sumo wrestling and swimming and entertained him with stories of his great @-@ grandfather Kichiemon , who was considered a very strong samurai in his era . The need for such strength was further emphasized when the young Ueshiba witnessed his father being attacked by followers of a competing politician .
At the age of six Ueshiba was sent to study at the Jizōderu Temple , but had little interest in the rote learning of Confucian education . However , his schoolmaster was also a priest of Shingon Buddhism , and taught the young Ueshiba some of the esoteric chants and ritual observances of the sect , which Ueshiba found intriguing . He went to Tanage Higher Elementary School and then to Tanabe Prefectural Middle School , but left formal education in his early teens , enrolling instead at the a private abacus academy , the Yoshida Institute , to study accountancy . On graduating from the academy , he worked at a local tax office for a few months , but the job did not suit him and in 1901 he left for Tokyo , funded by his father . Ueshiba Trading , the stationery business which he opened there was short @-@ lived ; unhappy with life in the capital , he returned to Tanabe less than a year later after suffering a bout of beri @-@ beri . Shortly thereafter he married his childhood acquaintance Hatsu Itokawa .
In 1903 , Ueshiba was called up for military service . He failed the initial physical examination , being shorter than the regulation 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) . To overcome this , he stretched his spine by attaching heavy weights to his legs and suspending himself from tree branches ; when he re @-@ took the physical exam he had increased his height by the necessary half @-@ inch to pass . He was assigned to the Osaka Fourth Division , 37th Regiment , and was a corporal by the following year ; after serving on the front lines during the Russo @-@ Japanese War he was promoted to sergeant . He was discharged in 1907 , and again returned to his father 's farm in Tanabe . Here he befriended the writer and philosopher Minakata Kumagusu , becoming involved with Minakata 's opposition to the Meiji government 's Shrine Consolidation Policy . He and his wife had their first child , a daughter named Matsuko , in 1911 .
Ueshiba studied several martial arts during his early life , and was renowned for his physical strength during his youth . His training in Gotō @-@ ha Yagyū @-@ ryu under Masakatsu Nakai was sporadic due to his military service , although he was granted a diploma in the art within a few years . In 1901 he received some instruction from Tozawa Tokusaburōin in Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū jujutsu and he studied judo with Kiyoichi Takagi in Tanabe in 1911 .
= = Hokkaidō = =
In 1912 , Ueshiba and his wife left Tanabe and moved to Japan 's northernmost island , Hokkaidō . At the time , Hokkaidō was still largely unsettled by the Japanese , being occupied primarily by the indigenous Ainu . Ueshiba was the leader of the Kishū Settlement Group , a collective of eighty @-@ five pioneers who intended to settle in the Shirataki district and live as farmers . Poor soil conditions and bad weather led to crop failures during the first three years of the project , but the group still managed to cultivate mint and farm livestock . The burgeoning timber industry provided a boost to the settlement 's economy , but a fire in 1917 razed the entire village , leading to the departure of around twenty families . Ueshiba , elected to the village council that year , led the reconstruction efforts . In the summer of 1918 , Hatsu gave birth to their first son , Takemori .
In Hokkaidō , the young Ueshiba met Takeda Sokaku , the founder of Daitō @-@ ryū aiki @-@ jūjutsu at the Hisada Inn in Engaru , in March 1915 . Ueshiba was deeply impressed with Takeda 's martial art . He requested formal instruction and began studying Takeda 's style of jūjutsu in earnest , going so far as to construct a dojo at his home and inviting his new teacher to be a permanent house guest . He received a kyoju dairi certificate , or teaching license , for the system from Takeda in 1922 , when Takeda visited him in Ayabe . He also received a Yagyū Shinkage @-@ ryū sword transmission scroll from Takeda . Ueshiba then became a representative of Daitō @-@ ryū , toured with Takeda as a teaching assistant and taught the system to others .
= = Onisaburo Deguchi and Ōmoto @-@ kyō = =
In November 1919 , Ueshiba learned that his father Yoroku was ill , and was not expected to survive . Leaving most of his possessions to Sokaku , Ueshiba left Shirataki with the apparent intention returning to Tanabe to visit his ailing parent . En route , however , he made a detour to Ayabe , near Kyoto , intending to visit Onisaburo Deguchi , the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto @-@ kyō religion in Ayabe . Having met Deguchi , Ueshiba stayed at the Ōmoto @-@ kyō headquarters for several days . On his return to Tanabe , he found that his father had died . Within a few months , he was back in Ayabe , having decided to become a full @-@ time student of Ōmoto @-@ kyō . In 1920 Deguchi asked Ueshiba to become the group 's martial arts instructor , and a dojo — the first of several that Ueshiba was to lead — was constructed on the centre 's grounds . Ueshiba also taught Takeda 's Daitō @-@ ryū in neighbouring Hyōgo Prefecture during this period . His second son , Kuniharu , was born in 1920 in Ayabe , but died from illness the same year , along with three @-@ year @-@ old Takemori .
In 1921 , in an event known as the First Ōmoto @-@ kyō Incident ( Ōmoto jiken ) , the Japanese authorities raided the compound , destroying the main buildings on the site and arresting Deguchi on charges of lèse @-@ majesté . Ueshiba 's dojo was undamaged , however , and over the following two years he worked closely with Deguchi to reconstruct the group 's centre , becoming heavily involved in farming work . His son Kisshomaru Ueshiba was born in the summer of 1921 .
Three years later , in 1924 , Onisaburo Deguchi led a small group of Ōmoto @-@ kyō disciples , including Ueshiba , on a journey to Mongolia at the invitation of retired naval captain Yutaro Yano and his associates within the ultra @-@ nationalist Black Dragon Society . Deguchi 's intent was to establish a new religious kingdom in Mongolia , and to this end he had distributed propaganda suggesting that he was the reincarnation of Genghis Khan . Allied with the Mongolian bandit Lu Zhankui , Deguchi 's group were arrested in Tongliao by the Chinese authorities — fortunately for Ueshiba , whilst Lu and his men were executed by firing squad , the Japanese group were released into the custody of the Japanese consul . They were returned under guard to Japan , where Deguchi was imprisoned for breaking the terms of his bail .
After returning to Ayabe , Ueshiba began a regimen of spiritual training , regularly retreating by himself to the mountains or performing misogi in the Nachi Falls . As his prowess as a martial artist increased , his fame began to spread . He was challenged by many established martial artists , some of whom subsequently became his students after being defeated by him . In the autumn of 1925 he was asked to give a demonstration of his art in Tokyo , at the behest of Admiral Isamu Takeshita ; one of the spectators was Yamamoto Gonnohyōe , who requested that Ueshiba stay in the capital to instruct the Imperial Guard in his martial art . After a couple of weeks , however , Ueshiba took issue with several government officials who voiced concerns about his connections to Deguchi ; he cancelled the training and returned to Ayabe .
Ōmoto @-@ kyō priests still oversee the Aiki @-@ jinja Taisai ceremony in Ueshiba 's honor every April 29 at the Aiki Shrine in Iwama .
= = Tokyo = =
In 1926 Takeshita invited Ueshiba to visit Tokyo again . Ueshiba relented and returned to the capital , but while residing there was stricken with a serious illness . Deguchi visited his ailing student and , concerned for his health , commanded Ueshiba to return to Ayabe . The appeal of returning increased after Ueshiba was questioned by the police following his meeting with Deguchi ; the authorities were keeping the Ōmoto @-@ kyō leader under close surveillance . Angered at the treatment he had received , Ueshiba went back to Ayabe again . Six months later , however , and this time with Deguchi 's blessing , he and his family moved permanently to Tokyo . Arriving in October 1927 , they set up home in the Shirokane district . The building , however , was too small to house the growing number of aikido students , and so the Ueshibas moved to larger premises , first in Mita district , then in Takanawa , and finally to a purpose @-@ built hall in Shinjuku . This last location , originally named the Kobukan 皇武館 , would eventually become the Aikikai Hombu Dojo . During its construction , Ueshiba rented a property nearby , where he was visited by Jigoro Kano , the founder of judo .
In 1932 , Ueshiba 's daughter Matsuko was married to the swordsman Kiyoshi Nakakura , who was adopted as Ueshiba 's heir under the name Morihiro Ueshiba . The marriage ended after a few years , and Nakakura left the family in 1937 .
Between 1940 and 1942 he made several visits to Manchukuo ( Japanese occupied Manchuria ) where he was the principal martial arts instructor at Kenkoku University .
= = Iwama = =
From 1935 onwards , Ueshiba had been purchasing land in Iwama in Ibaraki Prefecture . In 1942 , having acquired around 17 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ; 0 @.@ 027 sq mi ) of farmland there , he left Tokyo and moved to Iwama permanently , settling in a small farmer 's cottage . Here he founded the Aiki Shuren Dojo , also known as the Iwama dojo . During all this time he traveled extensively in Japan , particularly in the Kansai region teaching his aikido . Despite the prohibition on the teaching of martial arts after World War II , Ueshiba and his students continued to practice in secret at the Iwama dojo ; the Hombu dojo in Tokyo was in any case being used as a refugee centre for citizens displaced by the severe firebombing .
The prohibition ( on aikido , at least ) was lifted in 1948 with the creation of the Aiki Foundation , established by the Japanese Ministry of Education with permission from the Occupation forces . The Hombu dojo re @-@ opened the following year . After the war , however , Ueshiba delegated most of the work of running the Hombu dojo and the Aiki Federation to his son Kisshomaru , choosing to spend much of his time in prayer , meditation , calligraphy and farming . He still travelled extensively to promote aikido , however , even visiting Hawaii in 1961 . He also appeared in a television documentary on aikido : NTV 's The Master of Aikido , broadcast in January 1960 .
In his later years , he was regarded as very kind and gentle as a rule , but there are also stories of terrifying scoldings delivered to his students . For instance , he once thoroughly chastised students for practicing jō ( staff ) strikes on trees without first covering them in protective padding .
= = Death = =
In 1969 , Ueshiba became ill . He led his last training session on March 10 , and was subsequently taken to hospital where he was diagnosed with cancer of the liver . He died suddenly on April 26 , 1969 . Two months later , his wife Hatsu also died . ( 植芝 はつ ; Ueshiba Hatsu , née Itokawa Hatsu ; 1881 – 1969 )
= = Development of aikido = =
Aikido — usually translated as the Way of Unifying Spirit or the Way of Spiritual Harmony — is a fighting system that focuses on throws , pins and joint locks together with some striking techniques . It is unusual among the martial arts for its heavy emphasis on protecting the opponent and on spiritual and social development .
Ueshiba developed aikido after experiencing three instances of spiritual awakening . The first happened in 1925 , after Ueshiba had defeated a naval officer 's bokken ( wooden katana ) attacks unarmed and without hurting the officer . Ueshiba then walked to his garden and had a spiritual awakening .
I felt the universe suddenly quake , and that a golden spirit sprang up from the ground , veiled my body , and changed my body into a golden one . At the same time my body became light . I was able to understand the whispering of the birds , and was clearly aware of the mind of God , the creator of the universe .
At that moment I was enlightened : the source of budō [ the martial way ] is God 's love – the spirit of loving protection for all beings ...
Budō is not the felling of an opponent by force ; nor is it a tool to lead the world to destruction with arms . True Budō is to accept the spirit of the universe , keep the peace of the world , correctly produce , protect and cultivate all beings in nature .
His second experience occurred in 1940 when engaged in the ritual purification process of misogi .
Around 2am as I was performing misogi , I suddenly forgot all the martial techniques I had ever learned . The techniques of my teachers appeared completely new . Now they were vehicles for the cultivation of life , knowledge , and virtue , not devices to throw people with .
His third experience was in 1942 during the worst fighting of World War II , Ueshiba had a vision of the " Great Spirit of Peace " .
The Way of the Warrior has been misunderstood . It is not a means to kill and destroy others . Those who seek to compete and better one another are making a terrible mistake . To smash , injure , or destroy is the worst thing a human being can do . The real Way of a Warrior is to prevent such slaughter – it is the Art of Peace , the power of love .
The technical curriculum of aikido was undoubtedly most greatly influenced by the teachings of Takeda Sokaku . The basic techniques of aikido seem to have their basis in teachings from various points in the Daitō @-@ ryū curriculum . In the earlier years of his teaching , from the 1920s to the mid @-@ 1930s , Ueshiba taught the Daitō @-@ ryū aiki @-@ jūjutsu system ; his early students ' documents bear the term aiki @-@ jūjutsu . Indeed , Ueshiba trained one of the future highest grade earners in Daitō @-@ ryū , Takuma Hisa , in the art before Takeda took charge of Hisa 's training .
The early form of training under Ueshiba was noticeably different from later forms of aikido . It had a larger curriculum , increased use of strikes to vital points ( atemi ) and a greater use of weapons . The schools of aikido developed by Ueshiba 's students from the pre @-@ war period tend to reflect the harder style of the early training . These students included Kenji Tomiki ( who founded the Shodokan Aikido sometimes called Tomiki @-@ ryū ) , Noriaki Inoue ( who founded Shin 'ei Taidō ) , Minoru Mochizuki ( who founded Yoseikan Budo ) , Gozo Shioda ( who founded Yoshinkan Aikido ) . Many of these styles are therefore considered " pre @-@ war styles " , although some of these teachers continued to train with Ueshiba in the years after World War II .
Later , as Ueshiba seemed to slowly grow away from Takeda , he began to change his art . These changes are reflected in the differing names with which he referred to his system , first as aiki @-@ jūjutsu , then Ueshiba @-@ ryū , Asahi @-@ ryū , and aiki budō . In 1942 , the martial art that Ueshiba developed finally came to be known as aikido .
As Ueshiba grew older , more skilled , and more spiritual in his outlook , his art also changed and became softer and more circular . Striking techniques became less important and the formal curriculum became simpler . In his own expression of the art there was a greater emphasis on what is referred to as kokyū @-@ nage , or " breath throws " which are soft and blending , utilizing the opponent 's movement in order to throw them . Ueshiba regularly practiced cold water misogi , as well as other spiritual and religious rites , and viewed his studies of aikido as part of this spiritual training .
= = Students = =
Over the years , Ueshiba trained a large number of students , many of whom have grown into great teachers in their own right . Some of them were uchideshi , or live @-@ in students . There are roughly four generations of students . A partial list follows :
= = Honors = =
Medal of Honor ( Japan ) , 1960 .
Order of the Rising Sun , Gold Rays with Rosette , 1964 .
Order of the Sacred Treasure ( Japan ) , 1968 .
= = Works = =
Morihei Ueshiba , The Secret Teachings of Aikido ( 2008 ) , Kodansha International , ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7700 @-@ 3030 @-@ 6 [ 1 ]
Morihei Ueshiba , Budo : Teachings of the Founder of Aikido ( 1996 ) , Kodansha International , ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7700 @-@ 2070 @-@ 3 [ 2 ]
Morihei Ueshiba , The Essence of Aikido : Spiritual Teachings of Morihei Ueshiba ( 1998 ) , Kodansha International , ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7700 @-@ 2357 @-@ 5 [ 3 ]
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= Deuce ' n Domino =
Deuce ' n Domino was the name of a professional wrestling tag team consisting of Deuce Shade and Dice Domino , who were managed for the majority of their run by Cherry Pie and briefly by Maryse . The pair teamed together in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) from 2006 through 2008 . Deuce and Domino first began teaming together alongside Domino 's storyline sister Cherry , in OVW , WWE 's developmental territory in Louisville , Kentucky . While working in OVW , Deuce ' n Domino , who at the time were known as " The Throwbacks " and later " The Untouchables " , won the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship on three occasions . In addition , they captured the Deep South Wrestling Tag Team Championship .
The team were called up to the SmackDown ! roster in January 2007 , where the team underwent a name change to " Deuce ' n Domino . " Three months after their debut , Deuce ' n Domino went on to win the WWE Tag Team Championship . After losing the title in August 2007 , the group parted ways with Cherry , but replaced her with Maryse in May 2008 . The following month , Deuce ' n Domino disbanded after a series of losses . After the split , Deuce was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft . Domino , meanwhile , played an enhancement talent on SmackDown ! . Cherry and Domino were released from WWE in late 2008 , while Deuce was released in June 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Ohio Valley Wrestling = = =
Before forming a team , both Deuce Shade and Dice Domino competed in singles competition , occasionally against each other , in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . In January 2006 , Deuce and Domino formed a partnership with Domino 's storyline sister , Cherry Pie , as their manager . The trio adopted a 1950s greaser in @-@ ring persona , to become known as " The Throwbacks " .
During their time together they underwent an image change , including changing their name to " The Untouchables " and dropping Shade , Dice , and Pie from their respective names . The team would become OVW Southern Tag Team Champions after Deuce defeated The Miz on March 19 , 2006 in a singles match after Miz 's partner , Chris Cage , left the organization and forced The Miz to defend the title on his own . The team , however , lost the title the following month to Roadkill and Kasey James in a three @-@ way match , which also involved Kenny and Mikey of The Spirit Squad .
The group soon began a scripted rivalry with the team of CM Punk and Seth Skyfire , which saw The Untouchables winning the Southern Tag Team Title from them on August 2 , 2006 . The Untouchables later engaged in another rivalry with Shawn Spears and Cody Runnels . They also won the Deep South Wrestling ( DSW ) Tag Team Championship after making a surprise appearance at a DSW show on October 5 , 2006 . They lost the South Tag Team Championship on October 12 to The Major Brothers . In addition , the team lost the OVW Southern Tag Team Title to Spears and Runnels , prompting Cherry to leave The Untouchables to side with Spears and Runnels briefly before betraying them . The team won the Southern Tag Team Championship on another occasion , before losing them to Spears and Rhodes in a street fight , thus ending their feud .
= = = SmackDown ! = = =
The team was called up to WWE 's SmackDown ! roster in January 2007 , with the team undergoing a name change to " Deuce ' n Domino " . Despite the name change , they retained their greaser personas , adding to their ring entrance an arrival in a 1950s era car . Deuce ' n Domino won their debut tag team match .
On the February 2 episode of SmackDown ! , the team defeated the then @-@ WWE Tag Team Champions Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a non @-@ title match . Deuce ' n Domino faced London and Kendrick in a WWE Tag Team Championship match at February 's pay @-@ per @-@ view event , No Way Out , but lost when Kendrick pinned Deuce via roll @-@ up . On the April 20 episode of SmackDown ! , they defeated London and Kendrick for the WWE Tag Team Championship when London was , in storyline , injured after missing a moonsault to the outside . Kendrick was left to defend the title by himself , and was pinned after being hit with Deuce ' n Domino 's West Side Stomp finishing move . Three weeks later , London and Kendrick competed against William Regal and Dave Taylor . Deuce ' n Domino interfered , causing Regal and Taylor to be disqualified . This made both teams number one contenders leading to a triple threat tag team match the following week where Deuce ' n Domino retained the tag title .
At the July event , Vengeance : Night of Champions , after insulting former Tag Team Champions Tony Garea and Rick Martel , Deuce ' n Domino defeated Sgt. Slaughter and " Superfly " Jimmy Snuka to retain their title . During a tag team match with Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and JTG ) in late June , Domino suffered an injury , which was diagnosed as a broken nose and a possible broken orbital bone socket in his eye . The injury would keep him out of the ring for a month .
Deuce n ' Domino later engaged in a rivalry with Batista and Ric Flair . On the August 31 episode of SmackDown ! , the team lost their tag team championship to Matt Hardy and the reigning WWE United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter . During the last few months of 2007 , Deuce ' n Domino engaged in a short scripted rivalry with Hardy and MVP , Jimmy Wang Yang and Shannon Moore , Jesse and Festus , and Finlay and Hornswoggle . At the beginning of 2008 , the team suffered a series of losses . At WrestleMania XXIV in March , the team participated in a 24 @-@ man Interpromotional Battle Royal , in which the winner would face then ECW Champion Chavo Guerrero later that night . Deuce ' n Domino , however , did not win the match .
= = = Split = = =
On the May 23 episode of SmackDown , Deuce ' n Domino parted ways with Cherry and replaced her with Maryse . On the June 20 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , following a loss to Jesse and Festus , their second straight loss in two weeks , Deuce and Domino engaged in a fight with each other , and Deuce performed the Crack ' em in da Mouth finishing move on Domino . Deuce then threw his jacket over Domino , dissolving their partnership . The split was then further cemented when Deuce was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft . Following the draft , Domino was predominantly featured as an enhancement talent — a wrestler who consistently loses to make his opponents look stronger — on SmackDown weekly . In August 2008 , Domino and Cherry were released from their WWE contracts . The following year , Deuce was released from the WWE as well .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing tag team moves
Crack ' em in da Mouth ( Running big boot to a seated opponent 's face ( Deuce ) , usually preceded by a snapmare ( Domino ) )
Simultaneous cutter ( Deuce ) / diving double axe handle ( Domino ) combination – early 2007
West Side Stomp ( Bearhug ( Domino ) / Jumping hook kick ( Deuce ) combination )
Managers
Cherry
Maryse
Entrance themes
" All About Cool " by Jim Johnston
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Deep South Wrestling
Deep South Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 3 times )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
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= My Love Is Pink =
" My Love Is Pink " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their fifth studio album , Change ( 2007 ) . It was written by band members Keisha Buchanan and Heidi Range in collaboration with the songwriting and production team Xenomania , who produced the song . " My Love Is Pink " is an uptempo dance , electro and pop song , reminiscent of those performed by British girl group , Girls Aloud . The song was released on 10 December 2007 in the United Kingdom and Ireland as the second single from Change . It received mixed reviews from critics , who praised the composition and sound , but criticised its lyrical content . The song peaked at number five on the UK Commercial Pop Club chart and number 51 on the Slovakian Singles Chart . The Sugababes performed " My Love Is Pink " at the Oxegen 2008 festival .
= = Background and composition = =
" My Love Is Pink " was written by Sugababes members Keisha Buchanan and Heidi Range in collaboration with the British songwriting and production team Xenomania , consisting of Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Lisa Cowling and Nick Coler . Higgins and Xenomania produced the song . It was mixed by Powell and Higgins ; programmed it with Cooper and Gray . " My Love Is Pink " was sent to digital retailers in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 10 December 2007 as the second single from Change .
The song is an uptempo pop and electro record with a high @-@ energy dance beat . The instrumentation is provided by keyboards and a guitar . Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as a " slightly unhinged handbag anthem operating at the point where nineties dance and noughties electro collide " . Several critics noted similarities between the song and those performed by British girl group , Girls Aloud . " My Love Is Pink " was also considered by critics to be a gay anthem .
= = Reception = =
The song received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards its composition . Thomas H Green of The Daily Telegraph described it as " belligerently fizzing pop " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian labelled the track as " propulsive " and regarded it as a classy example of the group 's " trademark clever , referential pop " . Victoria Segal of The Times described " My Love Is Pink " as indestructible , and wrote that it confirms the group 's status as " the bionic band " . Lauren Murphy of Entertainment Ireland characterised it as one of the album 's " sense @-@ stirring tracks " , while BBC 's Tom Young praised the track as " sassy and Girls Aloud @-@ like " . According to Leon McDermott of The Sunday Herald , the song " jumps and squelches with its sassy brio " . A critic from The Liverpool Daily Post & Echo considered it one of the album 's highlights .
However , the song 's lyrics were a focal point for criticism . Andy Gill of The Independent dismissed it as a " euphemism too far " , while Keith Bruce of The Sunday Herald called the song " lyrically awful " . Gavin Martin of the Daily Mirror described it a " frisky but a pale reflection of past G.A.Y. disco glories " . Hot Press magazine 's Pete Murphy felt that the song was a let @-@ down and called it " standard dancefloor fodder veneered with a patina of urban and / or Afro @-@ Caribbean sophistication " . A writer for The Scotsman stated that regarded the song as " another of those anonymous , mass @-@ produced party hits sung by a faceless rent @-@ a @-@ vocalist " . Upon its release as a single , " My Love Is Pink " peaked at number five on the UK Commercial Pop Club chart , and number 51 on the Slovakian Singles Chart .
= = Live performances = =
" My Love Is Pink " was included in the set list for the Sugababes ' 2008 Change Tour , in which they wore silver , plastic dresses . The trio performed the song at the Oxegen 2008 festival as part of a set list , which included their number one singles " Freak like Me " , " Round Round " , " Hole in the Head " , " Push the Button " and " About You Now " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital single
My Love Is Pink ( Radio Version ) – 3 : 44
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Keisha Buchanan , Heidi Range , Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Lisa Cowling , Nick Coler
Production – Brian Higgins , Xenomania
Mixing – Tim Powell , Brian Higgins
Keyboards – Tim Powell , Brian Higgins , Miranda Cooper , Matt Gray
Guitar – Nick Coler , Owen Parker
Programming – Tim Powell , Brian Higgins , Miranda Cooper , Matt Gray
Vocals – Sugababes
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Change , Island Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Moses Gill =
Moses Gill ( January 18 , 1734 – May 20 , 1800 ) was a Massachusetts politician who briefly served as the state 's Acting Governor . He is the state 's only acting governor to die in office . A successful businessman , he became one of the leading settlers of Princeton , Massachusetts , entering politics shortly before the American Revolutionary War . He served on the Massachusetts Provincial Congress 's executive committee until the state adopted its constitution in 1780 , after which he continued to serve on the state 's Governor 's Council .
Elected lieutenant governor in 1794 , he served in that office under Governors Samuel Adams and Increase Sumner until the latter died shortly after winning reelection in 1799 . Gill served an apparently undistinguished term as acting governor until his own death in 1800 , ten days before his successor , Caleb Strong , assumed office . Gill was a significant benefactor and founder of Leicester Academy , and supported the congregational church in Princeton , where the family had a large estate .
= = Early life and family = =
Moses Gill was born January 18 , 1734 to John and Elizabeth ( Abbot ) Gill in Charlestown , Massachusetts . He was one the younger sons in a long line of children which included John Gill , who would become well known in the colonies as printer of the Boston Gazette . Gill entered business as a local merchant in Boston . In 1759 he married Sarah Prince , daughter to pastor Thomas Prince of Boston 's Old South Church . Upon her father 's death the couple inherited Prince 's lands in western Worcester County , one of the largest tracts in what became the town of Princeton . In 1767 he retired from his business activities , and the couple divided their time between Boston and Princeton . Sarah died childless in 1771 . Gill remarried in 1772 to Rebecca Boylston , a scion of the influential Boylston family and sister of Harvard College benefactor Nicholas Boylston . They were also childless ; when his brother John died , Gill adopted one of his sons . The Gills were known to own several slaves .
= = Political career = =
In 1774 Gill entered politics , winning election to the provincial assembly . The assembly was dissolved by Governor Thomas Gage under the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act ( a punishment of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party ) , but its members met shortly afterwards and reconstituted themselves as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress . Gill served on this body 's executive council , which functioned as the de facto executive of the state until its constitution was adopted in 1780 . When the American Revolutionary War broke in April 1775 , Gill became involved in the early military organization of the Siege of Boston , heading the provincial congress ' supply committee . He was also delegated , along with General Artemas Ward , to meet George Washington in Springfield and escort him to the army camps outside Boston .
Because of his prominence in Worcester County Gill was appointed to the county 's district court when it was reorganized after the revolution began . In this role he sat on the panel that heard the preliminary cases in 1781 involving Quock Walker , an African American seeking a declaration of his freedom . Gill 's panel decided in Walker 's favor , and the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court eventually confirmed the judgments on appeal , declaring that slavery was incompatible with the state constitution .
He continued to serve in the General Court ( state legislature ) , winning election to the state senate annually from 1780 , and being chosen by that body to serve on the Governor 's Council . He stood for election to the United States House of Representatives in the 1789 election ( the first after the adoption of the United States Constitution ) but was defeated by Jonathan Grout . After the death of the immensely popular Governor John Hancock in 1793 , the state 's gubernatorial election of 1794 was a wide open race . Gill was one of several nominees for lieutenant governor , and received more votes than all nominees except the winning gubernatorial candidate , Samuel Adams . With no candidates for lieutenant governor receiving a majority , the General Court decided the election , choosing Gill . He thereafter won annual reelection to that post . In 1796 the aging Adams announced he would not run for reelection the following spring , and again the election was a wide open affair . The party system was still taking shape in the state , and the Federalists nominated Increase Sumner , while more populist factions that had previously supported Hancock and Adams nominated Gill and James Sullivan . Although Gill polled well in Boston and the eastern counties ( present @-@ day Maine ) , the Federalists won a decisive victory over the divided opposition . Since he was also nominated by one faction as lieutenant governor , Gill was again returned to that post . The principal issues in this and subsequent elections were over federal policy : specifically the national response to threats of war with Revolutionary France , and the consequent need for increased taxes to arm the nation . Gill 's politics are unclear : historian Anson Morse is of the opinion that his popularity was not sufficient to head the ticket of either the Federalists or the Democratic @-@ Republicans . Historian John Barry observes that Gill 's term as acting governor , even though it was for essentially a full year , was " too short to be particularly distinguished " .
Sumner easily won reelection in 1798 and 1799 , but was ill during the 1799 race , which he won by a landslide . Constitutional issues were raised because he was on his deathbed and it was uncertain that he could even take the oath of office . Sumner finally took the oath of office in early June , but died a few days later , at which point Gill became acting governor . Gill served out Sumner 's term , and was considered a candidate for the governorship as the 1800 election approached . The election primarily pitted Federalist Caleb Strong against Democratic @-@ Republican Elbridge Gerry , and was won by Strong . Gill was derided by his opponents as the preferred candidate of the wealthy , and Federalists were accused of promoting him as a candidate in order to divide the opposition . Gill died on May 20 , before Strong was informed of the victory , resulting in the only time in the state 's history when the offices of governor and lieutenant governor were both formally vacant . As a result , the Governor 's Council ruled the state for ten days . ( The council had governed several times during the colonial period under similar circumstances ; the state constitution was amended in 1918 to remove the council from the gubernatorial succession . )
= = Charitable concerns and legacy = =
Gill was a member and major supporter of the Congregational Church in Princeton , and a founding trustee and benefactor of Leicester Academy . He was also for many years president of the Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Indians . Gill , Massachusetts is named in his honor .
Gill also made civic contributions to the town of Princeton . Land he donated became the town 's original center ( located about one @-@ half mile from the current town center ) . This land includes one the town 's earliest cemeteries , which is where Gill and other members of his family are interred . His estate , located near the town center , was reputed to be one of the largest and most magnificent of its time in Worcester County . His second wife 's nephew , Ward Nicholas Boylston , inherited the estate ; in addition to many other charitable works , Boylston was a major contributor to the establishment of Princeton 's present town center .
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