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= Meteorological history of Hurricane Katrina =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Katrina , an extremely destructive Category 5 hurricane , began on August 23 , 2005 when it originated as Tropical Depression Twelve near the Bahamas . The next day , the tropical depression strengthened to a tropical storm , and was named Katrina ; it proceeded to make landfall on the southern tip of the U.S. state of Florida as a minimal hurricane .
In passing across Florida , Katrina did not attain any more strength but did manage to maintain hurricane status . After passing over Florida , the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico allowed it to rapidly intensify to the sixth strongest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history . Afterward , Katrina made landfall as a Category 3 storm near Buras @-@ Triumph , Louisiana , and once more near the Mississippi / Louisiana border . Katrina progressed northward through the central United States and finally dissipated near the Great Lakes on August 31 , when it was absorbed by a cold front .
= = Formation = =
Tropical Depression Twelve formed over the southeastern Bahamas at 5 : 00 p.m. EDT ( 2100 UTC ) on August 23 , 2005 , partially from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten , which had dissipated due to the effects of a nearby upper tropospheric trough . While the normal standards for numbering tropical depressions in the Atlantic indicate that the old name / number is retained when a depression dissipates and regenerates , satellite data indicated that a second tropical wave combined with Tropical Depression Ten north of Puerto Rico to form a new , much more advanced system , which was then designated as Tropical Depression Twelve . Simultaneously , the trough in the upper troposphere weakened , causing the wind shear in the area to relax , thereby allowing the new tropical depression to develop . In a later re @-@ analysis , it was determined that the low @-@ level circulation of Ten had completely detached and dissipated , with only the remnant mid @-@ level circulation moving on and merging with the aforementioned second tropical wave . As a result , the criteria for keeping the same name and identity were not met .
= = First landfall = =
As the atmospheric conditions surrounding Tropical Depression Twelve were favorable for tropical development , the system began to intensify and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24 . A burst of convection allowed Katrina to become the fifth hurricane of the 2005 season on August 25 , only two hours before it made landfall around 6 : 30 p.m. EST ( 2230 UTC ) between Hallandale Beach and Aventura , Florida . Katrina struck the peninsula with 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds , and had a well @-@ defined eye on NEXRAD weather radar , which remained intact throughout its passage over Florida . Parts of the Florida Keys experienced tropical storm winds throughout August 26 , with the Dry Tortugas briefly experiencing hurricane @-@ force winds .
= = Gulf of Mexico = =
The initial National Hurricane Center forecasts predicted that Katrina would begin turning northward after landfall , eventually to hit the Florida Panhandle approximately three to four days later . Katrina , however , continued a westerly and west @-@ southwesterly track , which eventually shifted the forecast track westward to New Orleans .
Immediately after the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico , the low wind shear , good upper @-@ level outflow , and the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf Loop Current caused Katrina to intensify rapidly . On August 27 , the storm was upgraded to Category 3 intensity , becoming the third major hurricane of the season . An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification of maximum winds for about 18 hours , but almost doubled the radius of the storm . A second period of rapid intensification started by 7 : 00 p.m. CDT on August 27 , and by 12 : 40 a.m. CDT on August 28 , Katrina was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . It became a Category 5 ( the first in the Gulf of Mexico since Hurricane Allen 25 years prior ) storm by 7 : 00 a.m. CDT , twelve hours after the beginning of the second round of rapid intensification , and reached its peak intensity at 1 : 00 p.m. CDT with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) , gusts of 215 mph ( 344 km / h ) and a central pressure of 902 mbar ( 26 @.@ 64 inHg ) . The minimum pressure made Katrina , at the time , the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record ( Hurricanes Rita and Wilma would later surpass Katrina that same year ) . As the hurricane approached New Orleans , the Weather Forecast Office in Slidell , Louisiana issued two strongly worded warnings of the storm 's danger .
By the afternoon of August 28 , the storm was large enough that some areas of the Gulf Coast were already experiencing tropical storm @-@ force winds . The center of Katrina was about 180 statute miles ( 290 km ) from the mouth of the Mississippi River , but tropical storm @-@ force winds extended 230 mi ( 370 km ) from the center of the storm , and hurricane @-@ force winds extended about 105 miles ( 170 km ) away . Overnight on August 29 , and into the morning of the next day , Katrina quickly weakened ( in terms of maximum sustained winds ) as it began to enter another eyewall replacement cycle . The inner eyewall deteriorated before an outer eyewall had fully formed , playing an important role in the weakening . In 18 hours , the hurricane 's maximum sustained winds decreased from 170 mph ( 280 km / h ) to 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . However , storm surge remained high at landfall because large waves greater than 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in height were generated beforehand ( with a buoy recording a 55 ft / 16 @.@ 7 m wave at sea ) , when Katrina was at Categories 4 and 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The waves then combined with the storm surge of the large Category 3 hurricane .
= = Second and third landfalls = =
Katrina made its second landfall at 6 : 10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) near Buras @-@ Triumph , Louisiana . Because Katrina had just weakened from Category 4 and due to the shape of the coastline , sustained Category 4 winds likely existed on land while the eye was over water . At landfall , hurricane @-@ force winds extended 120 miles ( 190 km ) from the center , the storm 's pressure was 920 mbar ( 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) , and its forward speed was 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) . As it made its way up the eastern Louisiana coastline , most communities in Plaquemines , St. Bernard Parish , and Slidell in St. Tammany Parish were severely damaged by storm surge and the strong winds of the eyewall , which also grazed eastern New Orleans , causing in excess of $ 1 billion worth of damage to the city ( see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans ) .
Original estimates indicated that Katrina had made this landfall as a Category 4 hurricane , with 135 mph ( 220 km / h ) winds ; however , as indicated above , the storm weakened just before landfall to Category 3 intensity . The reasons for this weakening are not completely known yet ; while the eye @-@ wall replacement cycle played a part , slightly increasing shear , dropping sea @-@ surface temperatures , dry air on the western semicircle of the storm and interaction with the continental landmass also may have played a role in weakening the cyclone . This follows the trend of previous strong cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico : all cyclones with minimum central pressures of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) or less have weakened over the 12 hours before making landfall in the Gulf Coast of the United States .
A few hours later , after weakening slightly , Katrina made its third landfall near the Louisiana – Mississippi border with 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) sustained winds and 928 mbar ( 27 @.@ 37 inHg ) pressure , still at Category 3 intensity . Its minimum pressure at its second landfall was 920 mbar ( 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) , making Katrina the third strongest hurricane on record to make landfall on the United States , behind Hurricane Camille 's 909 mbar ( 26 @.@ 85 inHg ) reading in 1969 , and the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane 's 892 mbar ( 26 @.@ 35 inHg ) record .
Because the storm was so large , highly destructive eye @-@ wall winds and the strong northeastern quadrant of the storm pushed record storm surges onshore , smashing the entire Mississippi Gulf Coast , including towns in Mississippi such as Waveland , Bay St. Louis , Pass Christian , Long Beach , Gulfport , Biloxi , Ocean Springs , Gautier and Pascagoula , and , in Alabama , Bayou La Batre . The surges peaked at 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) in Bay St. Louis , Mississippi , and at 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) as far away as Mobile , Alabama , which saw its highest storm surge since 1917 . Storm surge was particularly high due to the hydrology of the region , the hurricane 's extreme size , and the fact that it weakened only shortly before landfall . As Katrina moved inland diagonally over Mississippi , high winds cut a swath of damage that affected almost the entire state .
= = Demise = =
Katrina maintained hurricane strength well into Mississippi , but weakened thereafter , losing hurricane strength more than 150 miles ( 240 km ) inland , near Meridian , Mississippi . It was downgraded to a tropical depression near Clarksville , Tennessee and broke in half . One half continued to race northward , affecting the Central United States along its path , and was last distinguishable in the eastern Great Lakes region on August 31 . On August 31 , Katrina was absorbed by a frontal boundary and became a powerful extratropical low , causing 1 @.@ 97 – 6 @.@ 69 inches ( 50 – 170 mm ) of rain in 12 hours , as well as gale @-@ force wind gusts from 31 to 61 mph ( 50 to 98 km / h ) in southeastern Quebec and northern New Brunswick . In the region of Saguenay and Côte @-@ Nord , rain caused breakdowns and failure in roads . The Côte @-@ Nord region was isolated from the rest of Quebec for at least 1 week . The other half of Katrina broke off in the eastern part of the Appalachians , primarily leading to a significant tornado outbreak in the area from central Georgia to central Pennsylvania , killing two people and causing millions of dollars in additional damage .
At 11 : 00 p.m. EDT on August 31 , the center of the remnant low of what was Katrina had been completely absorbed by a frontal boundary in southeastern Canada , with no discernible circulation .
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= Washington State Route 168 =
State Route 168 ( SR 168 ) is a legislated , but not constructed , state highway located in Washington , United States . The highway is meant to serve as an alternate crossing through the Cascade Range , supplementing the seasonal Chinook Pass on SR 410 . Proposals were first drawn in the 1930s , and the highway has been codified in law under its current designation since 1970 , however no construction has occurred .
= = Route description = =
The highway is legislated to begin in Greenwater , in Pierce County , at a junction with SR 410 . The road would continue east through Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest , Naches Pass , and Wenatchee National Forest to its eastern terminus with SR 410 north of Cliffdell , in Yakima County . The highway would pass near Pyramid Peak , which has a maximum altitude of 5 @,@ 718 ft ( 1 @,@ 743 m ) . Currently , a crossing similar to the legislated highway is covered by a variety of Forest Routes , including Road 19 and Road 70 .
Two main reasons for creating the highway exist . First , SR 168 would be an all @-@ season route through Naches Pass ( elevation 4 @,@ 923 feet ( 1 @,@ 501 m ) ) . SR 410 closes annually due to avalanche dangers near Chinook Pass ( elevation 5 @,@ 430 feet ( 1 @,@ 655 m ) ) . Second , SR 168 would allow commercial vehicles to bypass Mount Rainier National Park , where they are prohibited on SR 410 . The current restriction detours commercial traffic south to U.S. Route 12 over White Pass or north to Interstate 90 over Snoqualmie Pass .
= = History = =
Plans for a Naches Tunnel or highway date back to the early 1930s , designated as the Naches Pass Link of Primary State Highway 5 . The state legislature appropriated $ 50 thousand ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 58 million in 2015 ) for a study on the feasibility of a new highway . In the early 1960s , Governor Albert Rosellini established a committee to study the feasibility of a toll road . The route was considered feasible by the committee , and they estimated tolls of $ 1 @.@ 50 per vehicle ( equivalent to $ 28 @.@ 00 in 2015 ) would need to be levied to pay for the highway . Proponents of the new highway were pushing to have U.S. Route 10 routed over the pass , away from the routing over Snoqualmie Pass ; however this never occurred . Ultimately , the highway was not built as the state considered the highway unfeasible . The highway has been codified in Washington law since 1970 , while the tunnel through Naches Pass has been codified in state law since 1959 .
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= Bernard Stone =
Bernard " Berny " L. Stone ( November 24 , 1927 – December 22 , 2014 ) was alderman of the 50th Ward of the City of Chicago , Illinois from 1973 to 2011 . The 50th Ward encompasses part of Chicago 's far North Side and includes the West Ridge , West Rogers Park and Peterson Park neighborhoods . First elected to the Council in 1973 , Stone was the second longest @-@ serving alderman ( after Edward M. Burke ) . His tenure spanned the terms of seven Mayors , from Richard J. Daley to Richard M. Daley . Stone was also Vice Mayor of the City of Chicago from 1998 to 2011 .
Stone was a member of the " Vrdolyak 29 " , which opposed Mayor Harold Washington 's agenda . For most of his life a Democrat , Stone followed Alderman Edward Vrdolyak to the Republican Party , and unsuccessfully challenged Carol Moseley Braun for Cook County Recorder of Deeds . Stone was a protagonist in a protracted legal conflict with the neighboring suburb of Evanston in 1993 – 1994 . Employees of Stone 's 2007 re @-@ election campaign were convicted of vote fraud in 2010 . Stone was " outspoken " and " relished the rough and tumble of politics " .
= = Early life and education = =
Stone was born on November 24 , 1927 in Chicago to Jewish immigrant parents . He was educated in the Chicago Public Schools system at Von Humboldt Elementary and Tuley High School , which is now Roberto Clemente Community Academy . Stone enlisted in the United States Army in 1945 . Stone attended Wright Junior College , now known as Wilbur Wright College , and John Marshall Law School .
= = Early attempts at elected office = =
In 1956 , Stone ran in the Democratic primary for the Illinois House of Representatives , but was defeated by Esther Saperstein , who went on to serve in the Illinois House for ten years and became Illinois ' first female state senator .
In 1963 , Stone was one of a record 233 candidates filing to run for Chicago alderman , and one of ten challengers to the incumbent in the 50th Ward , Republican Alderman Jack I. Sperling , who sought a third four @-@ year term . Stone filed without the endorsement of a political party . By February , 1963 , Stone was not on the ballot for the February 26 , 1963 election .
= = 1973 campaign for alderman = =
On January 29 , 1973 , the Supreme Court of Illinois appointed Alderman Sperling to fill a vacancy as Cook County Circuit Court judge . The Chicago City Council called a special election for June 5 , 1973 to fill vacant City Council seats , including the 50th Ward alderman seat . Stone was an employee in the office of Cook County Sheriff Richard Elrod and the vice president of the 50th Ward Regular Democratic Organization , which endorsed him for alderman . Stone was one of five candidates who filed to finish Sperling 's term . Another candidate , independent Theodore Berland , was a medical writer and nationally recognized anti @-@ noise activist who was chiefly responsible for Chicago 's anti @-@ noise ordinance . Stone organized the " Concerned Citizens of the 50th Ward " to counter neighboring Lincolnwood 's opposition to a bridge over the North Shore Channel at Pratt Avenue , which Stone called a " necessity " for the 50th Ward . In the first round of voting , Stone led with 47 % of the vote and Berland finished second , with 27 % . In the run @-@ off election on July 3 , 1973 , Stone defeated Berland 12 @,@ 882 to 10 @,@ 958 , with a turnout of about 53 % , winning the 50th Ward for Democrats for the first time since 1955 .
= = The Republican years ( 1987 – 1990 ) = =
Former Alderman and former Cook County Democratic Party chairman Edward R. Vrdolyak converted to the Republican Party and encouraged Stone to follow suit and run for Cook County Recorder of Deeds . By threatening Republican Party of Cook County leadership that he would run for county Chairman and Cook County State 's Attorney , Vrdolyak brokered a deal to slate himself for Clerk of the Circuit Court of Cook County and Stone for Cook County Recorder of Deeds . On October 29 , 1987 , Stone announced he had joined the Republican Party and expressed his intention to run for Recorder . " I can no longer be part of a party that punishes law @-@ abiding , tax @-@ paying citizens and communities " , Stone said , adding that he also felt " the Democratic Party is drifting away from America 's historically strong commitment to Israel " .
On November 25 , 1987 , Chicago Mayor Harold Washington died . Stone announced his candidacy for mayor to fellow aldermen on November 29 and to the public on December 1 . Many saw Stone 's mayoral candidacy as an attempt to publicize his Recorder race . Two days later the City Council elected Alderman Eugene Sawyer as mayor .
In 1988 , Stone ran as a Republican against African @-@ American Democratic Illinois State Representative Carol Moseley Braun for Cook County Recorder of Deeds . Stone told reporters that although he did not expect their newspapers ' endorsements , " Just run a picture of Braun . That 's all I ask " . Stone included Braun 's photograph in his campaign flyers . Stone was defeated by Braun and contributed to a sweep of Cook County offices by Democrats .
In 1989 , Stone unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for Mayor of Chicago , to unseat Mayor Sawyer . Richard M. Daley defeated Sawyer in the Democratic primary and Republican nominee Edward Vrdolyak in the general election to become mayor . In 1990 , Stone returned to the Democratic Party .
= = " Berny 's Wall " = =
Although resident and corporate relations between Chicago and neighboring suburb Evanston are generally cordial and co @-@ operative , Stone was a protagonist in perhaps the most significant altercation in recent decades . The Evanston City Council adopted the Southwest II Tax Increment Financing ( TIF ) District , also called the Howard @-@ Hartrey TIF , on April 27 , 1992 , in order to incent the development of a disused 23 @-@ acre Bell and Howell distribution center . A city contractor installed a $ 150 @,@ 000 , 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) high , three @-@ block @-@ long , continuous steel guardrail down the middle of Howard Street , from Kedzie Avenue to California Avenue , blocking vehicles from crossing between Evanston and Chicago , to protect residents from the vehicular traffic expected at a proposed shopping center on the Evanston side of Howard Street that was projected to open in 1995 . A Cook County Circuit Court judge denied Evanston 's request for a restraining order to halt the erection of the barrier , which became known in the media as " Berny 's Wall " . The Chicago Tribune editorialized calling Stone " silly " and the guardrail a " senseless idea ... just an insipid ploy by a useless alderman who has too much time on his hands and too much of the taxpayers ' money at his disposal " .
On May 28 , 1993 , Evanston Mayor Lorraine H. Morton , Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley , Stone , and city officials met at Chicago City Hall , and hours later , Morton announced that Evanston would drop legal action against Chicago . The next day , after consultation with Evanston 's corporation counsel and others , Evanston announced they would continue legal recourse in conjunction with negotiations . Stone demanded that Evanston pick up the cost of the installation and removal of the guardrail . On June 1 , 1993 , the Evanston City Council voted to refuse to contribute funds , to continue their lawsuit , and to defer modifications to the site plan until the barrier was dismantled .
Testimony began July 25 , 1994 . Chicago Transportation Commissioner Joseph Boyle Jr. and Planning Commissioner Valerie Jarrett testified that the guardrail had been installed at Stone 's request without the benefit of traffic or planning studies . A partner of the shopping center 's construction firm testified that Stone had discussed with him in 1992 the idea of siting the project on vacant land near the Lincoln Village Shopping Center , a site that was scheduled to be redistricted into the 50th Ward in 1995 . Evanston officials said Stone was jealous of the project going to Evanston . On September 21 , 1994 , the judge ruled that the March 25 , 1993 resolution which Stone ushered through the Chicago City Council authorized Chicago 's Department of Transportation commissioner to consider a barrier , declared that the Department had no authority to install the guardrail , ordered Chicago to remove it and pay all costs including Evanston 's legal fees , and dismissed Chicago 's countersuit to block the shopping center . Chicago 's request for a stay pending appeal was denied , Bell and Howell agreed to pay the estimated $ 35 @,@ 000 to remove the barrier , and removal began on October 4 , 1994 . " The party isn 't over until the fat man sings , and I 'm the fat man " , said Stone . The Chicago Tribune editorialized calling the barrier " a petty , indulgent waste of money at the people 's expense " .
Stone passed legislation through the Chicago City Council to change to one @-@ way , northbound only , portions of Kedzie and Sacramento Avenues , two Chicago streets south of the shopping center . After the changes were implemented November 10 , 1994 , Stone 's office received numerous complaints , and by November 16 Kedzie was again a two @-@ way street .
On November 3 , 1999 , the City of Chicago established the Lincoln Avenue TIF district , including the Lincoln Village Shopping Center area .
= = Sleeping in Council Chambers = =
A photograph of Stone asleep in Council Chambers , during a hearing on an ordinance restricting the use of a cell phone while operating an automobile , ran on the front page of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times in January , 2004 . " Some aldermen have a tendency while they 're thinking to close their eyes and that may register with their constituency as not paying attention or , perhaps , even sleeping during the session " , Stone later explained . Stone fell asleep at his desk in Council Chambers in City Hall during the City Council 's Finance Committee debate on the controversial parking meter lease in December , 2008 and was photographed by the press . Stone was videotaped sleeping during a Finance Committee hearing on the transparency of the City 's tax increment financing program in March , 2009 .
= = Campaign employees convicted of vote fraud = =
On September 4 , 2007 , speaking from the floor of Council Chambers during a meeting of the Buildings Committee , Stone warned fellow aldermen of an ongoing investigation into absentee balloting . On January 28 , 2008 , two employees of Stone 's 2007 re @-@ election campaign were arrested and charged with improperly influencing voters , primarily from the ward 's Indian and Pakistani communities , to vote absentee for Stone . Anish Eapen , a precinct captain and a ward superintendent with the city 's Streets and Sanitation Department , was charged with " official misconduct , absentee ballot fraud , and mutilation of election materials " . Eapen allegedly partnered with Armando Ramos , an unemployed student , who was also charged with absentee ballot fraud and mutilation of election materials . Stone accused the state attorney 's office of acting at the behest of the area 's U.S. Representative , Jan Schakowsky . " We know where this all started . We know it 's politically based . ... Her [ Schakowsky 's ] aide was soliciting the state 's attorney to investigate . It 's absolutely a devious political trick " , he said . Schakowsky denied involvement . Bond was set at $ 50 @,@ 000 and $ 40 @,@ 000 for Eapen and Ramos , respectively .
City Inspector General David H. Hoffman called for Eapen to be fired . For nearly two years , Eapen was on paid administrative leave from his $ 83 @,@ 940 @-@ a @-@ year job with the city . On October 8 , 2009 , Streets and Sanitation Department Commissioner Tom Byrne found Eapen a job tracking equipment . Stone blamed Byrne 's predecessor for Eapen 's paid leave , saying " Mike Picardi has no cojones " .
On October 24 , 2008 , during the annual budget hearing process , Inspector General Hoffman testified before the Committee on the Budget of the Chicago City Council . " It is my intent , Mr. Inspector General , to wipe your entire office out of the budget " , Stone told Hoffman . " It is my intent to submit a budget amendment which will destroy your department " . " He 's come after me , so I 'm going after him . That 's the way the game is played " , Stone said . Stone 's amendment came before the Budget Committee on November 17 , 2008 and was tabled 14 @-@ 2 .
Eapen and Ramos waived their right to trial by jury . In a bench trial , four members of a family who lived in the ward testified that Eapen came to their homes , watched as they completed the absentee ballot applications and absentee ballots , collected their ballots , and mailed them . One family member , who was not registered to vote , testified that Eapen filled out her ballot and she signed it . Another witness testified that when she told Stone in his office that Ramos filled out her ballot , Stone was dismissive , saying , " This meeting is over " . Stone commented on the testimony , " I have no recollection of what she is talking about " .
On June 24 , 2010 , Cook County Judge Marcus Salone found Eapen and Ramos each guilty on one count of attempted mutilation of voting materials and additional counts of attempted absentee ballot violations . On August 4 , 2010 , Salone sentenced Eapen and Ramos to prison terms of 364 days and 270 days , respectively . " This is a kiss " , Salone said of the sentences . " I think the evidence is overwhelming . The reality is that Mr. Eapen and Mr. Ramos attempted to steal democracy and they did it in a vicious way " . Stone called the case " a witch hunt " , said that Ramos and Eapen were " political prisoners " , and compared their crimes to " spitting on the sidewalk " . Stone said Inspector General Hoffman targeted his staff while failing to investigate other aldermen 's staffs . " They are not the ones who attempted to steal democracy . The one who attempted to steal democracy was David Hoffman " , Stone said . " This is a miscarriage of justice " .
= = Committees = =
Stone was the Chairman of the City Council Committee on Buildings , and also served on the following City Council committees : Budget and Government Operations , Finance , Historical Landmark Preservation , Housing and Landmark Preservation , Traffic Control and Safety , and the Committee on Committees .
= = Loss in 2011 run @-@ off = =
In 2008 , Illinois State Senator Ira Silverstein defeated Stone in the voting for the 50th Ward Democratic committeeman , an unpaid party post . In February 2011 , in a five @-@ way race for alderman including Silverstein 's wife , Certified Public Accountant Debra Silverstein , no candidate garnered 50 % plus one of the vote , forcing a run @-@ off . In the April 2011 run @-@ off , Debra Silverstein prevailed with 62 % of the vote to 38 % for Stone . On election night , Stone said Silverstein would be " a disaster for this ward . There ’ s no way I 'll help her . She knows nothing " . Stone 's tenure as alderman spanned seven Chicago Mayors , including two Mayors Daley .
= = Political philosophy = =
Stone stated his political philosophy as " You take care of the people who take care of you – you know , the people who voted for you . That 's not Chicago politics , that 's Politics 101 " .
= = Personal life = =
Stone married his wife , Lois ( d . 1995 ) , in 1949 . They had three daughters and a son .
Stone worshipped at Congregation Ezras Israel and served on their Board of Directors . Stone also served on the Board of Directors for the Bernard Horwich Jewish Community Center , the Associated Talmud Torahs , and the Jewish National Fund .
In 2003 , Stone 's son , Jay , unsuccessfully challenged incumbent 32nd Ward Alderman Theodore Matlak . Stone supported Matlak , calling his son " an embarrassment " who " doesn 't know what he 's doing " . Father and son remained on good terms .
Stone died on December 22 , 2014 at age 87 from complications from a fall . Stone was remembered by the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun @-@ Times as " outspoken " ; by Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel as " fiercely loyal to his constituents " ; and in a City Council resolution as " a vigorous advocate for the people of the 50th Ward " .
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= History of the board game Monopoly =
The history of the board game Monopoly can be traced back to the early 20th century . The earliest known version of Monopoly , known as The Landlord 's Game , was designed by an American , Elizabeth Magie , and first patented in 1904 but existed as early as 1902 . Magie , a follower of Henry George , originally intended The Landlord 's Game to illustrate the economic consequences of Ricardo 's Law of Economic rent and the Georgist concepts of economic privilege and land value taxation . A series of board games were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land . By 1933 , a board game had been created much like the version of Monopoly sold by Parker Brothers and its related companies through the rest of the 20th century , and into the 21st . Several people , mostly in the Midwestern United States and near the East Coast , contributed to the game 's design and evolution .
By the 1970s , the idea that the game had been created solely by Charles Darrow had become popular folklore ; it was printed in the game 's instructions for many years , in a 1974 book devoted to Monopoly , and was cited in a general book about toys even as recently as 2007 . Even a guide to family games published for Reader 's Digest in 2003 only gave credit to Darrow and Elizabeth Magie , erroneously stating that Magie 's original game was created in the 19th century , and not acknowledging any of the game 's development between Magie 's creation of the game , and the eventual publication by Parker Brothers .
Also in the 1970s , Professor Ralph Anspach , who had himself published a board game intended to illustrate the principles of both monopolies and trust busting , fought Parker Brothers and its then parent company , General Mills , over the copyright and trademarks of the Monopoly board game . Through the research of Anspach and others , much of the early history of the game was " rediscovered " and entered into official United States court records . Because of the lengthy court process , including appeals , the legal status of Parker Brothers ' copyright and trademarks on the game was not settled until 1985 . The game 's name remains a registered trademark of Parker Brothers , as do its specific design elements ; other elements of the game are still protected under copyright law . At the conclusion of the court case , the game 's logo and graphic design elements became part of a larger Monopoly brand , licensed by Parker Brothers ' parent companies onto a variety of items through the present day . Despite the " rediscovery " of the board game 's early history in the 1970s and 1980s , and several books and journal articles on the subject , Hasbro ( Parker Brothers ' current parent company ) did not acknowledge any of the game 's history before Charles Darrow on its official Monopoly website as recently as June 2012 . Nor did Hasbro acknowledge anyone other than Darrow in materials published or sponsored by them , at least as recently as 2009 .
International tournaments , first held in the early 1970s , continue to the present , although the last national tournaments and world championship were held in 2009 . Starting in 1985 , a new generation of spin @-@ off board games and card games appeared on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean . In 1989 , the first of many video game and computer game editions was published . Since 1994 , many official variants of the game , based on locations other than Atlantic City , New Jersey ( the official U.S. setting ) or London ( the official Commonwealth setting , excepting Canada ) , have been published by Hasbro or its licensees . In 2008 , Hasbro permanently changed the color scheme and some of the gameplay of the standard U.S. Edition of the game to match the UK Edition , although the U.S. standard edition maintains the Atlantic City property names . Hasbro also modified the official logo to give the " Mr. Monopoly " character a 3 @-@ D computer @-@ generated look , which has since been adopted by licensees USAopoly , Winning Moves and Winning Solutions . And Hasbro has also been including the Speed Die , introduced in 2006 's Monopoly : The Mega Edition by Winning Moves Games , in versions produced directly by Hasbro ( such as the 2009 Championship Edition ) .
= = Game development 1903 – 1934 = =
In 1903 , the Georgist Lizzie Magie applied for a patent on a game called The Landlord 's Game with the object of showing that rents enriched property owners and impoverished tenants . She knew that some people would find it hard to understand the logic behind the idea , and she thought that if the rent problem and the Georgist solution to it were put into the concrete form of a game , it might be easier to demonstrate . She was granted the patent for the game in January 1904 . The Landlord 's Game became one of the first board games to use a " continuous path " , without clearly defined start and end spaces on its board . Another innovation in gameplay attributed to Magie is the concept of " ownership " of a place on a game board , such that something would happen to the second ( or later ) player to land on the same space , without the first player 's piece still being present . A copy of Magie 's game that she had left at the Georgist community of Arden , Delaware and dating from 1903 – 1904 , was presented for the PBS series History Detectives . This copy featured property groups , organized by letters , later a major feature of Monopoly as published by Parker Brothers .
Although The Landlord 's Game was patented , and some hand @-@ made boards were made , it was not actually manufactured and published until 1906 . Magie and two other Georgists established the Economic Game Company of New York , which began publishing her game . Magie submitted an edition published by the Economic Game Company to Parker Brothers around 1910 , which George Parker declined to publish . In the UK , it was published in 1913 by the Newbie Game Company under the title Brer Fox an ' Brer Rabbit . Shortly after the game 's formal publication , Scott Nearing , a professor in what was then known as the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce at the University of Pennsylvania , began using the game as a teaching tool in his classes . His students made their own boards , and taught the game to others . After Nearing was dismissed from the Wharton School , he began teaching at the University of Toledo . A former student of Nearing , Rexford Guy Tugwell , also taught The Landlord 's Game at Wharton , and took it with him to Columbia University . Apart from commercial distribution , it spread by word of mouth and was played in slightly variant homemade versions over the years by Quakers , Georgists , university students ( including students at Smith College , Princeton , and MIT ) , and others who became aware of it .
A shortened version of Magie 's game , which eliminated the second round of play that used a Georgist concept of a single land value tax , had become common during the 1910s , and this variation on the game became known as Auction Monopoly . The auctioning part of the game came through a rule that auctioned any unowned property to all game players when it was first landed on . This rule was later dropped by the Quakers , and in the current game of Monopoly an auction takes place only when an unowned property is not purchased outright by the player that first lands on it . That same decade , the game became popular around the community of Reading , Pennsylvania . Another former student of Scott Nearing , Thomas Wilson , taught the game to his cousin , Charles Muhlenberg around 1915 – 1916 . The original patent on The Landlord 's Game expired in 1921 . By this time , the hand made games became known simply as Monopoly . Charles Muhlenberg and his wife , Wilma , taught the game to Wilma 's brothers , Louis and Ferdinand " Fred " Thun , in the early 1920s .
Simultaneous to these events , Magie moved back to Illinois , and married Andrew Phillips . She moved to the Washington , D.C. area with her husband by 1923 , and re @-@ patented a revised version of The Landlord 's Game in 1924 ( under her married name , Elizabeth Magie Phillips ) . This version , unlike her first patent drawing , included named streets ( though the versions published in 1910 based on her first patent also had named streets ) . Magie sought to regain control over the plethora of hand @-@ made games . For her 1924 edition , a couple of streets on the board were named after Chicago streets and locations , notably " The Loop " and " Lake Shore Drive . " This revision also included a special " monopoly " rule and card that allowed higher rents to be charged when all three railroads and utilities were owned , and included " chips " to indicate improvements on properties . Magie again approached Parker Brothers about her game , and George Parker again declined , calling the game " too political " . Parker is , however , credited with urging Magie to take out her 1924 patent .
After the Thuns learned the game , they began teaching its rules to their fraternity brothers at Williams College around 1926 . Daniel W. Layman , in turn , learned the game from the Thun brothers ( who later tried to sell copies of the game commercially , but were advised by an attorney that the game could not be patented , as they were not its inventors ) . Layman later returned to his hometown of Indianapolis , Indiana , and began playing the game with friends there , ultimately producing hand @-@ made versions of the board based on streets of that city . Layman then commercially produced and sold the game , starting in 1932 , with a friend in Indianapolis , who owned a company called Electronic Laboratories . This game was sold under the name The Fascinating Game of Finance ( later shortened to Finance ) . Layman soon sold his rights to the game , which was then licensed , produced and marketed by Knapp Electric . The published board featured four railroads ( one per side ) , Chance and Community Chest cards and spaces , and properties grouped by symbol , rather than color . Also in 1932 , one edition of The Landlord 's Game was published by the Adgame Company with a new set of rules called Prosperity , also by Magie .
It was in Indianapolis that Ruth Hoskins learned the game , and took it back to Atlantic City . After she arrived , Hoskins made a new board with Atlantic City street names , and taught it to a group of local Quakers . It has been argued that their greatest contribution to the game was to reinstate the original Lizzie Magie rule of " buying properties at their listed price " rather than auctioning them , as the Quakers did not believe in auctions . Another source states that the Quakers simply " didn 't like the noise of the auctioneering . " Among the group taught the game by Hoskins were Eugene Raiford and his wife , who took a copy of the game with Atlantic City street names to Philadelphia . Due to the Raifords ' unfamiliarity with streets and properties in Philadelphia , the Atlantic City @-@ themed version was the one taught to Charles Todd , who in turn taught Esther Darrow , wife of Charles Darrow . After learning the game , Darrow then began to distribute the game himself as Monopoly . Darrow initially made the sets of the Monopoly game by hand with the help of his first son , William Darrow , and his wife . Their new sets retained Charles Todd 's misspelling of " Marvin Gardens " . Charles Darrow drew the designs with a drafting pen on round pieces of oilcloth , and then his son and his wife helped fill in the spaces with colors and make the title deed cards and the Chance cards and Community Chest cards . After the demand for the game increased , Darrow contacted a printing company , Patterson and White , which printed the designs of the property spaces on square carton boards . Darrow 's game board designs included elements later made famous in the version eventually produced by Parker Brothers , including black locomotives on the railroad spaces , the car on " Free Parking " , the red arrow for " Go " , the faucet on " Water Works " , the light bulb on " Electric Company " , and the question marks on the " Chance " spaces , though many of the actual icons were created by a hired graphic artist . While Darrow received a copyright on his game in 1933 , its specimens have disappeared from the files of the United States Copyright Office , though proof of its registration remains .
= = Acquisition by Parker Brothers = =
Darrow first took the game to Milton Bradley and attempted to sell it as his personal invention . They rejected it in a letter dated May 31 , 1934 . After Darrow sent the game to Parker Brothers later in 1934 , they rejected the game as " too complicated , too technical , [ and it ] took too long to play . " Darrow received a rejection letter from the firm dated October 19 , 1934 . During this time , the " 52 design errors " story was invented as a reason why Parker rejected Monopoly , but this has more recently been proven to be part of the Parker @-@ invented " creation myth " surrounding the game .
In early 1935 , however , the company heard about the game 's excellent sales during the Christmas season of 1934 in Philadelphia and at F.A.O. Schwarz in New York City . Robert Barton , President of Parker Brothers , contacted Darrow and scheduled a new meeting in New York City . On March 18 , Parker Brothers bought Darrow 's game , helped him take out a patent on it , and purchased his remaining inventory . By April , 1935 , the company had learned that Darrow was not the sole inventor of the game , but sought out an affidavit by Darrow to repeat his statements to the contrary , and thus bolster their claim to the game . Parker Brothers subsequently decided to buy out Magie 's 1924 patent and the copyrights of other commercial variants of the game to claim that it had legitimate undisputed rights to the game .
Robert Barton , president of Parker Brothers , bought the rights to Finance from Knapp Electric later in 1935 . Finance would be redeveloped , updated , and continued to be sold by Parker Brothers into the 1970s . Other board games based on a similar principle , such as a game called Inflation , designed by Rudy Copeland and published by the Thomas Sales Co . , in Fort Worth , Texas , also came to the attention of Parker Brothers management in the 1930s , after they began sales of Monopoly . Copeland continued sales of the latter game after Parker Brothers attempted a patent lawsuit against him . Parker Brothers held the Magie and Darrow patents , but settled with Copeland rather than going to trial , since Copeland was prepared to have witnesses testify that they had played Monopoly before Darrow 's " invention " of the game . The court settlement allowed Copeland to license Parker Brothers ' patents . Other agreements were reached on Big Business by Transogram , and Easy Money by Milton Bradley , based on Daniel Layman 's Finance . Another clone , called Fortune , was sold by Parker Brothers , and became combined with Finance in some editions .
Monopoly was first marketed on a broad scale by Parker Brothers in 1935 . A Standard Edition , with a small black box and separate board , and a larger Deluxe Edition , with a box large enough to hold the board , were sold in the first year of Parker Brothers ' ownership . These were based on the two editions sold by Darrow . Parker Brothers sets were the first to include metal tokens for playing pieces . George Parker himself rewrote many of the game 's rules , insisting that " short game " and " time limit " rules be included . On the original Parker Brothers board ( reprinted in 2002 by Winning Moves Games ) , there were no icons for the Community Chest spaces ( the blue chest overflowing with gold coins came later ) and no gold ring on the Luxury Tax space . Nor were there property values printed on spaces on the board . The Income Tax was slightly higher ( being $ 300 or 10 % , instead of the later $ 200 or 10 % ) . Some of the designs known today were implemented at the behest of George Parker . The Chance cards and Community Chest cards were illustrated ( though some prior editions consisted solely of text ) , but were without " Rich Uncle Pennybags " , who was introduced in 1936 .
Late in 1935 , after learning of The Landlord 's Game and Finance , Robert Barton held a second meeting with Charles Darrow in Boston . Darrow admitted that he had copied the game from a friend 's set , and he and Barton reached a revised royalty agreement , granting Parker Brothers worldwide rights and releasing Darrow from legal costs that would be incurred in defending the origin of the game .
= = = Licensing outside the United States = = =
In December 1935 , Parker Brothers sent a copy of the game to Victor Watson , Sr. of Waddington Games . Watson and his son Norman tried the game over a weekend , and liked it so much that Waddington took the ( then extraordinary ) step of making a transatlantic " trunk call " to Parker Brothers , the first such call made or received by either company . This impressed Parker Brothers sufficiently that Waddington was granted licensing rights for Europe and the then @-@ British Commonwealth , excluding Canada . Waddingtons version , their first board game , with locations from London substituted for the original Atlantic City ones , was first produced in 1936 .
The game was very successful in the United Kingdom and France , but the 1936 German edition , published by Schmidt Spiele disappeared from the market within three years . This edition , featuring locations from Berlin , was denounced , allegedly by Joseph Goebbels to the Hitler Youth due to the game 's " Jewish @-@ speculative character . " It is also alleged that the real reason behind the Nazi denouncement was due to the high @-@ ranking members ( i.e. Goebbels , again ) who lived on those sections of the game board given the highest property values , and not wanting to be associated with a game . The game last appeared in a pre @-@ World War II Schmidt Spiele catalog in 1938 . A new German edition , with " generic " street and train station names ( i.e. , not chosen from a single German city ) would not appear until 1953 . The 1936 German edition , with the original cards and Berlin locations , was reprinted in 1982 by Parker Brothers and again in 2003 ( in a wooden box ) , and 2011 ( in a red metal tin ) by Hasbro .
Waddington licensed other editions from 1936 to 1938 , and the game was exported from the UK and resold or reprinted in Switzerland , Belgium , Australia , Chile , The Netherlands , and Sweden . In Italy , under the fascists , the game was changed dramatically so that it would have an Italian name , locations in Milan , and major changes in the rules . This was for compliance under Italian law of the period . Italian publishers Editrice Giochi produced the game in Italy until 2009 , having held a unique licensing agreement from Parker Brothers and their own copyright dating back to 1935 / 1936 . As of 2009 , Hasbro has taken over the publishing of the game in Italy , but have also , for now , kept the Milan @-@ based properties .
In Austria , versions of the game first appeared as Business and Spekulation ( Speculation ) , and eventually evolved to become Das Kaufmännische Talent ( DKT ) ( The Businessman 's Talent ) . Versions of DKT have been sold in Austria since 1940 . The game first appeared as Monopoly in Austria in about 1981 . The Waddingtons edition was imported into The Netherlands starting in 1937 , and a fully translated edition first appeared in 1941 .
Waddingtons later produced special games during World War II which secretly contained files , a compass , a map printed on silk , and real currency hidden amongst the Monopoly money , to enable prisoners of war to escape from German camps . However , this story has come under recent scrutiny and is being disputed .
Collector Albert C. Veldhuis features a map on his " Monopoly Lexicon " website showing which versions of the game were remade and distributed in other countries , with the Atlantic City , London , and Paris versions being the most influential . After World War II , homemade games would sometimes appear behind the Iron Curtain , despite the fact that the game was effectively banned . Monopoly is cited as the board game played most often and most duplicated via hand made copies in the former German Democratic Republic . One official version of the game was printed for the Soviet Union by Parker Brothers in 1988 . After the Cold War ended , official editions have been published throughout eastern Europe by Parker , Tonka and Hasbro . Hungary was the first , in 1992 , followed by the Czech Republic and Poland in 1993 , Croatia in 1994 , Slovenia in 1996 , Romania and a new edition for Russia in 1997 , and Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and Slovakia , all in 2001 .
= = Marketing within the United States 1930s = =
In 1936 , Parker Brothers published four further editions along with the original two : the Popular Edition , Fine Edition , Gold Edition , and Deluxe Edition , with prices ranging from US $ 2 to US $ 25 in 1930s money . After Parker Brothers began to release its first editions of the game , Elizabeth Magie Phillips was profiled in the Washington D.C. Evening Star newspaper , which discussed her two editions of The Landlord 's Game . In December 1936 , wary of the Mah @-@ Jongg and Ping @-@ Pong fads that had left unsold inventory stuck in Parker Brothers ' warehouse , George Parker ordered a stop to Monopoly production as sales leveled off . However , during the Christmas season , sales picked up again , and continued a resurgence . In early 1937 , as Parker Brothers was preparing to release the board game Bulls and Bears with Darrow 's photograph on the box lid ( though he had no involvement with the game ) , a Time magazine article about the game made it seem as if Darrow himself was the sole inventor of both Bulls and Bears and Monopoly :
= = Parker Brothers ' Marketing 1940s – 1960s = =
At the start of World War II , both Parker Brothers and Waddington stockpiled materials they could use for further game production . During the war , Monopoly was produced with wooden tokens in the U.S. , and the game 's cellophane cover was eliminated . In the UK , metal tokens were also eliminated , and a special spinner was introduced to take the place of dice . The game remained in print for a time even in the Netherlands , as the printer there was able to maintain a supply of paper . Elizabeth Magie 's second patent on The Landlord 's Game expired in September , 1941 , and it is believed that after the expiration , she was no longer promoted as an inventor of Monopoly . The game itself remained popular during the war , particularly in camps , and soldiers playing the game became part of the product 's advertising in 1944 .
After the war , sales went from 800 @,@ 000 a year to over one million . The French and German editions re @-@ entered production , and new editions for Spain , Greece , Finland and Israel were first produced . By the late 1950s , Parker Brothers printed only game sets with board , pieces and materials housed in a single white box . Several copies of this edition were exhibited at the American National Exhibition in Moscow in 1959 . All of them were stolen from the exhibit . In the early 1960s , " Monopoly happenings " began to occur , mostly marathon game sessions , which were recognized by a Monopoly Marathon Records Documentation Committee in New York City . In addition to marathon sessions , games were played on large indoor and outdoor boards , within backyard pits , on the ceiling in a University of Michigan dormitory room , and underwater . In 1965 , a 30th anniversary set was produced in a special plastic case .
= = End of Parker Brothers ' Independence = =
= = = Marketing under General Mills 1968 – 1985 = = =
Parker Brothers was acquired by General Mills in February 1968 . The first Monopoly edition in Braille is published in 1973 . Also in 1973 , as the Atlantic City Commissioner of Public Works considered name changes for Baltic and Mediterranean Avenues , fans of the board game , with support from the president of Parker Brothers , successfully lobbied for the city to keep the names . After Parker Brothers was taken over by General Mills , the Monopoly license to Waddingtons was renegotiated ( as was the Clue / Cluedo license to Parker Brothers / General Mills by Waddingtons ) . By 1974 , Parker Brothers had sold 80 million sets of the game . In 1975 , another anniversary edition was produced , but this edition came in a cardboard box looking much like a standard edition . Parker Brothers was under management by General Mills as the first six Monopoly Tournaments were held . See " The Monopoly Tournaments " below .
= = = Kenner Parker Toys and Kenner Parker Tonka 1985 – 1991 = = =
Kenner was combined with Parker Brothers and spun off as Kenner Parker Toys in 1985 . Regular and Deluxe 50th Anniversary editions of Monopoly were released that same year . The spinoff game Advance to Boardwalk was first published in 1985 . Kenner Parker was acquired by Tonka in 1987 . The 1987 / 1988 Monopoly Tournaments were held under Kenner Parker Tonka management .
In the United Kingdom , Monopoly publisher Waddingtons produced its first non @-@ London edition in 1989 , creating a Limited Edition based on Leeds as a charity fundraiser .
= = = Monopoly ( game show ) = = =
In 1990 , Merv Griffin Enterprises turned Monopoly into a prime time game show , airing after Super Jeopardy ! on Saturday nights on ABC . The program was hosted by Mike Reilly and announced by Charlie O 'Donnell .
= = Marketing 1990s = =
Monopoly Junior was first published in 1990 . Kenner Parker Tonka was acquired by Hasbro in 1991 . An all @-@ Europe edition was published by Parker Brothers in 1991 for the nations of the then European Communities , using the Ecu ( European Currency Unit ) . After acquisition by Hasbro , publication of Monopoly in the U.S. ceased at the Parker Brothers plant in Salem , Massachusetts in November 1991 .
In 1994 , the license to the company that would become USAopoly was issued , and they produced a San Diego , California edition as their first board . In 1995 , a license for new game variations and reprints of Monopoly was granted to Winning Moves Games . See the Localizations , licenses , and spin @-@ offs section below for details on further releases by both companies .
In 1995 , a 60th Anniversary edition was released in a gold box . In late 1998 , Hasbro announced a campaign to add an all @-@ new token to U.S. standard edition sets of Monopoly . Voters were allowed to select from a biplane , a piggy bank , and a sack of money — with votes being tallied through a special website , via a toll @-@ free phone number , and at FAO Schwarz stores .
In March 1999 , Hasbro announced that the winner was the sack of money ( with 51 percent of the vote , compared to 29 percent for the biplane and 20 percent for the piggy bank ) . Thus , the sack of money became the first new token added to the game since the early 1950s . In 1999 , Hasbro renamed the Rich Uncle Pennybags mascot " Mr. Monopoly " , and released Star Wars : Episode I , Pokémon and Millennium editions of Monopoly . A second European edition is released in 1999 , this time using the Euro as currency , but incorrectly listing Geneva as the capital of Switzerland .
= = Marketing 2000s = =
A 65th Anniversary Edition was released in a variation of the white box in 2000 . In 2001 , the European Edition is reissued , correcting the mistake of the 1999 printing , and correctly listing Bern as the capital of Switzerland . In 2005 , a 70th Anniversary Edition was released in a silver @-@ metallic tin with a plastic slip case . Also starting in 2005 , various " Here & Now " editions were released in multiple countries . The first release of this edition was for the UK market , and its success led to the selection of properties for a U.S. edition by online vote . The most popular properties were released on the U.S. " Here & Now " edition board in 2006 . This , in turn , led to a world @-@ wide " Here & Now " edition ( released in 2008 ) , along with other national editions ( including a second UK " Here and Now " edition ) with properties selected by online vote . The main principle of the " Here & Now " editions was " What if Monopoly had been invented today ? "
The first changes to the gameplay of the Monopoly game itself occurred with the publication of both the Monopoly Here & Now Electronic Banking Edition by Hasbro UK and Monopoly : The Mega Edition by Winning Moves Games in 2006 . The Electronic Banking Edition uses VISA @-@ branded debit cards and a debit card reader for monetary transactions , instead of paper bills . This edition is available in the UK , Germany , France , Australia and Ireland . A version was released in the U.S. in 2007 , albeit without the co @-@ branding by Visa . An electronic counter had been featured in the Stock Exchange editions released in Europe in the early 2000s ( decade ) , and is also a feature of the Monopoly City board game released in 2009 .
The Mega Edition has been expanded to include fifty @-@ two spaces ( with more street names taken from Atlantic City ) , skyscrapers ( to be played after hotels ) , train depots , the 1000 denomination of play money , as well as " bus tickets " and a speed die . Shortly after the release of Mega Monopoly in 2006 , Hasbro adopted the same blue version of the speed die into a special " Speed Die Edition " of the game . By 2008 , the die , now red , became a permanent addition to the game , though its use remains optional there . In 2009 's " Championship Edition " , use of the speed die is mandatory , as it also became mandatory in most of 2009 's Monopoly tournaments .
In addition to permanently adding the speed die in 2008 , Hasbro also instituted further changes to the United States standard edition of the board , including making Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues a brown color group , making the Income Tax space a flat $ 200 ( removing the 10 % option ) , changing the colors on the GO space from red to black , increasing the Luxury Tax to $ 100 ( from $ 75 ) , and changing certain of the Community Chest and Chance cards . The changes in these four areas made the U.S. standard edition more uniform with the UK and modern European editions . In 2009 , Winning Moves Games introduced " The Classic Edition " , with a pre @-@ 2008 game board and cards , re @-@ inclusion of the " sack of money " playing piece , and a plain MONOPOLY logo in the center of the board , with neither the 1985 or 2008 version of " Mr. Monopoly " present . Also in 2009 , Monopoly " theme packs " entered the retail market , including the Dog Lovers and Sports Fans editions , which include customized money , replacements for houses and hotels , and custom tokens , but no board .
= = Marketing 2010s = =
In early 2010 , Hasbro began selling the " Free Parking " and " Get out of Jail " add @-@ on games , which can be played alone or when a player lands on the respective Monopoly board spaces . If played during a Monopoly game , success at either game gets the winning player a " free taxi ride to any space on the board " or " out of jail free " , respectively . A new , customizable edition called " U @-@ Build " is also released . Later in 2010 , for the 75th anniversary of the game 's publication , Hasbro released Monopoly Revolution , giving the game a graphic redesign , as well as returning it to a round shape , which had not been seen since some of Darrow 's 1930s custom @-@ made sets . The game includes " bank cards " and keeps track of players ' assets electronically , as was introduced in the " Electronic Banking Edition " earlier in the decade . The game also features clear plastic playing pieces for movers , and electronic sound effects , triggered by certain events ( for instance , a " jail door slam " sound effect when a player goes to jail ) . Monopoly Live was announced at the New York Toy Fair in February , 2011 . The Monopoly Millionaire version of the game was released in 2012 .
In early 2013 , a board game version of the Monopoly Hotels online game was released . From January 8 to February 5 , 2013 , through the Monopoly page on Facebook in a campaign called " Save Your Token , " Hasbro took votes from the public to make another permanent change in the lineup of game tokens . The token with the least number of " Save Your Token " votes will be retired , and replaced with one of five other tokens , depending on which of the new candidates gets the most votes . The potential tokens were a robot , a helicopter , a cat , a guitar or a diamond ring . Neither the biplane nor the piggy bank from the 1998 vote are being considered this time . Early on February 6 , it was announced that the iron would be retired for having received the least votes , and the cat would be replacing it , having received the most votes . Starting in February 2013 , the U.S. discount chain Target will be selling a " Golden Token " set with the eight classic tokens and all five candidates . Special editions with the thirteen golden tokens have also been released in the UK and France . The first Monopoly game to have the new token lineup was released in June 2013 . In 2015 , the game celebrated its 80th anniversary with eight tokens from each decade in a special edition .
= = The Monopoly Tournaments 1973 – 2015 = =
The first Monopoly tournaments were suggested by Victor Watson of Waddington after the World Chess Championship 1972 . Such championships are also held for players of the board game Scrabble . The first European Championship was held in Reykjavík , Iceland , the same site as the 1972 World Chess Championship . Accounts differ as to the eventual winner : Philip Orbanes and Victor Watson name John Mair , representing Ireland and the eventual World Monopoly Champion of 1975 , as also having won the European Championship . Gyles Brandreth , himself a later European Monopoly Champion , names Pierre Milet , representing France , as the European Champion . One of the reasons there may be differing accounts of the eventual winner is attributable to a minor controversy with the final game . According to Parker Brothers ' Randolph " Ranny " P. Barton , an error was made by one of the participants and a protest was filed by an opponent . The judges ( Barton , Watson , and a representative from Miro , the French publishers of Monopoly ) weighed the options of starting the final game over and delaying the chartered plane that would take them home from Iceland vs allowing the game to stand with the error but allowing them to make their flight . In the end , the judges upheld the result of the game with the error uncorrected .
Victor Watson and Ranny Barton began holding tournaments in the UK and US , respectively . World Champions were declared in the United States in 1973 and 1974 ( and are still considered official World Champions by Hasbro ) . While the 1973 tournament , the first , matched three United States regional champions against the UK champion and thus could be argued as the first international tournament , true multinational international tournaments were first held in 1975 . Both authors ( Orbanes and Brandreth ) agree that John Mair was the first true World Champion , as decided in tournament play held in Washington , D.C. days after the conclusion of the European Championship ( which Mair had also won ) , in November 1975 .
By 1982 , tournaments in the United States featured a competition between tournament winners in all 50 states , competing to become the United States Champion . National tournaments were held in the US and UK the year before World Championships through 2003 – 2004 but during the same year as of 2009 ( see table , below ) . The determination of the US champion was changed for the 2003 tournament : winners of an Internet @-@ based quiz challenge were selected to compete , rather than one state champion for each of the 50 states . The tournaments are now typically held every six years . In the past , the US edition Monopoly board was used at the World championship level , while national variants are used at the national level . Since true international play began in 1975 , no World champion has come from the US , still considered the board game 's " birthplace . " However , Dana Terman , two @-@ time US Champion , placed second at the 1980 World Championship , Richard Marinaccio , the 2009 US Champion , placed third at the 2009 World Championship , and Brian Valentine , the 2015 US Representative , placed third at the 2015 World Championship .
Nicolò Falcone of Italy defeated players from 27 countries plus the defending champion in the 2015 World Championship held at The Venetian resort in Macau .
= = Localizations , licenses , and spin @-@ offs = =
The original hand made editions of the Monopoly game had been localized for the cities or areas in which it was played , and Parker Brothers has continued this practice . Their version of Monopoly has been produced for international markets , with the place names being localized for cities including London and Paris and for countries including the Netherlands and Germany , among others . By 1982 , Parker Brothers stated that the game " has been translated into over 15 languages .... " In 2009 , Hasbro reported that Monopoly is officially published in 27 languages , and has been licensed by them in 81 countries . As of January 2013 , Hasbro states that the game is now available in 43 languages and 111 countries .
The game has also inspired official spin @-@ offs , such as the board game Advance to Boardwalk from 1985 . There have been six card games : Water Works from 1972 , Free Parking from 1988 , Express Monopoly from 1993 , Monopoly : The Card Game from 1999 , Monopoly Deal from 2008 and Monopoly Millionaire Deal from 2012 . Finally , there have been two dice games : Don 't Go to Jail from 1991 and an update , Monopoly Express , ( 2006 – 2007 ) . A second product line of games and licenses exists in Monopoly Junior , first published in 1990 . In the late 1980s , official editions of Monopoly appeared for the Sega Master System and the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 . A television game show , produced by King World Productions , was attempted in the summer of 1990 , but lasted for only 12 episodes . In 1991 – 1992 , official versions appeared for the Apple Macintosh and Nintendo 's NES , SNES , and Game Boy . In 1995 , as Hasbro ( which had taken over Kenner Parker Tonka in 1991 ) was preparing to launch Hasbro Interactive as a new brand , they chose Monopoly and Trivial Pursuit to be their first two CD @-@ ROM games . The Monopoly CD @-@ ROM game also allowed for play over the Internet . CD @-@ ROM versions of the officially licensed Star Wars and FIFA World Cup ' 98 editions also were released . Later CD @-@ ROM exclusive spin @-@ offs , Monopoly Casino and Monopoly Tycoon , were also produced under license .
Various manufacturers of the game have created dozens of officially licensed versions , in which the names of the properties and other elements of the game are replaced by others according to the game 's theme . The first such license was awarded in 1994 , to the company that became USAopoly , starting with a San Diego edition of Monopoly and later including themes such as national parks , Star Trek , Star Wars , Nintendo , Disney characters , Pokémon , Peanuts , various particular cities ( such as Las Vegas and New York City ) , states , colleges and universities , the World Cup , NASCAR , individual professional sports teams , and many others . USAopoly also sells special corporate editions of Monopoly . Official corporate editions have been produced for Best Buy , the Boy Scouts of America , FedEx , and UPS , among others . In 1995 , a second license was awarded to Winning Moves Games in Massachusetts . Winning Moves has produced a new board game and card games based on Monopoly in the United States . Winning Moves also produces official localized editions of the game in the UK , France , Germany and Australia . The Doctor Who 50th Anniversary Edition of Monopoly is a special case , having been originally produced by Winning Moves in the UK , and resold by USAopoly within the US . A third license was awarded in 2000 by Hasbro to Winning Solutions , Inc . , which produces specialty deluxe editions mostly for sale by specialized retailers . Other licensed localized editions of the game are being published in Nigeria and The Netherlands , among other locations .
When creating some of the modern licensed editions , such as the Looney Tunes and The Powerpuff Girls editions of Monopoly , Hasbro included special variant rules to be played in the theme of the licensed property . Infogrames , which has published a CD @-@ ROM edition of Monopoly , also includes the selection of " house rules " as a possible variant of play . Electronic Arts , which publishes current electronic versions of the game , such as for the Nintendo Wii , also includes the selection of certain house rules .
Unofficial versions of the game , which share some of the same playing features , but also incorporate changes so as not to infringe on copyrights , have been created by firms such as Late for the Sky Production Company and Help on Board . These are done for smaller cities , sometimes as charity fundraisers , and some have been created for college and university campuses . Others have non @-@ geographical themes such as Wine @-@ opoly and Chocolate @-@ opoly . There is also a version called Make Your Own -OPOLY , which allows you to customize all the game equipment and rules to your liking .
Before the creation of Hasbro Interactive , and after its later sale to Infogrames , official computer and video game versions have been made available on many platforms . In addition to the versions listed above , they have been produced for Amiga , BBC Micro , Game Boy Advance , Game Boy Color , GameCube , PC , Nintendo 64 , PlayStation , PlayStation 2 , Sega Genesis , Xbox , and mobile phones . A version for Windows CE was planned in 1999 . A handheld electronic game was first released in 1998 that allowed for one human player against up to three player @-@ selected or randomly chosen AI " personalities " out of five . A Nintendo DS release ( along with Battleship , Boggle , and Yahtzee ) has been published ( by Atari ) , as well as a stand @-@ alone edition for the same console ( by EA ) . In 2001 , Stern Pinball , Inc. released a pinball machine version of Monopoly , designed by Pat Lawlor .
= = = House rules and custom rules = = =
The official Parker Brothers rules and board remained largely unchanged from 1936 to 2008 . Ralph Anspach argued against this during an on @-@ air conversation with The Monopoly Book author Maxine Brady in 1975 , calling it an end to " steady progress " and an impediment to progress . Several authors who have written about the board game have noted many of the " house rules " that have become common among players , although they do not appear in Parker Brothers ' rules sheets . Gyles Brandreth included a section titled " Monopoly Variations , " Tim Moore notes several such rules used in his household in his Foreword , Phil Orbanes included his own section of variations , and Maxine Brady noted a few in her preface . Authors Noel Gunther and Richard Hutton published Beyond Boardwalk and Park Place in 1986 , as a guide , per the cover , " to making Monopoly fun again " , by introducing new variations of rules and strategies . R. Wayne Schmittberger , a former editor of Games magazine , acknowledged the work of Gunther and Hutton in his own 1992 guide New Rules for Classic Games ( which includes several pages of Monopoly variations and suggestions that vary from the standard rules of the game ) .
= = Anti @-@ Monopoly , Inc. vs. General Mills Fun Group , Inc. court case 1976 – 1985 = =
Starting in 1974 , Parker Brothers and its then corporate parent , General Mills , attempted to suppress publication of a game called Anti @-@ Monopoly , designed by San Francisco State University economics professor Ralph Anspach and first published the previous year . Anspach began to research the game 's history , and argued that the copyrights and trademarks held by Parker Brothers should be nullified , as the game came out of the public domain . Among other things , Anspach discovered the empty 1933 Charles B. Darrow file at the United States Copyright Office , testimony from the Inflation game case that was settled out of court , and letters from Knapp Electric challenging Parker Brothers over Monopoly . As the case went to trial in November 1976 , Anspach produced testimony by many involved with the early development of the game , including Catherine and Willard Allphin , Dorothea Raiford and Charles Todd . Willard Allphin attempted to sell a version of the game to Milton Bradley in 1931 , and published an article about the game 's early history in the UK in 1975 . Raiford had helped Ruth Hoskins produce the early Atlantic City games . Even Daniel Layman was interviewed , and Darrow 's widow was deposed . The presiding judge , Spencer Williams , originally ruled for Parker Brothers / General Mills in 1977 , allowing the Monopoly trademark to stand , and allowing the companies to destroy copies of Anspach 's Anti @-@ Monopoly . Anspach appealed .
In December 1979 , the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Professor Anspach , with an opinion that agreed with the facts about the game 's history and differed from Parker Brothers ' " official " account . The court also upheld a " purchasing motivation " test ( described in the decision as a " Genericness Doctrine " ) , a " test by which the trademark was valid only if consumers , when they asked for a Monopoly game , meant that they wanted Parker Brothers ' version .... " This had the effect of potentially nullifying the Monopoly trademark , and the court returned the case to Judge Williams . Williams heard the case again in 1980 , and in 1981 he again held for Parker Brothers . Anspach appealed again , and in August 1982 the appeals court again reversed . The case was then appealed by General Mills / Parker Brothers to the United States Supreme Court , which decided not to hear the case in February 1983 , and denied a petition for rehearing in April . This allowed the appeals court 's decision to stand and further allowed Anspach to resume publication of his game .
With the trademark nullified , the name " Monopoly " entered the public domain , where the naming of games was concerned , and a profusion of non @-@ Parker @-@ Brothers variants were published . Parker Brothers and other firms lobbied the United States Congress and obtained a revision of the trademark laws . The case was finally settled in 1985 , with Monopoly remaining a valid trademark of Parker Brothers , and Anspach assigning the Anti @-@ Monopoly trademark to the company but retaining the ability to use it under license . Anspach received compensation for court costs and the destroyed copies of his game , as well as unspecified damages . He was allowed to resume publication with a legal disclaimer . Anspach later self @-@ published a book about his research and legal fights with General Mills , Kenner Parker Toys , and Hasbro .
= = = Legal status = = =
Parker Brothers / Hasbro now claims trademark rights to the name and its variants , and has asserted it against others such as the publishers of Ghettopoly . Professor Anspach assigned the Anti @-@ Monopoly trademark back to Parker Brothers , and Hasbro now owns it . Anspach 's game remains in print . The previous publishers were a company called Talicor , but the game is currently distributed and sold by University Games worldwide .
Various patents have existed on the game of Monopoly and its predecessors , such as The Landlord 's Game , but all have now expired . The specific graphics of the game board , cards , and pieces are protected by copyright law and trademark law , as is the specific wording of the game 's rules .
= = Monopoly as a brand = =
Parker Brothers created a few accessories and licensed a few products shortly after it began publishing the game in 1935 . These included a money pad and the first stock exchange add @-@ on in 1936 , a birthday card , and a song by Charles Tobias ( lyrics ) and John Jacob Loeb ( music ) . At the conclusion of the Anti @-@ Monopoly case , Kenner Parker Toys began to seek trademarks on the design elements of Monopoly . It was at this time that the game 's main logo was redesigned to feature " Rich Uncle Pennybags " ( now " Mr. Monopoly " ) reaching out from the second " O " in the word Monopoly . To commemorate the game 's 50th anniversary in 1985 , the company commissioned artist Lou Brooks to redesign and illustrate the main logo as a red street sign @-@ like banner , as well as the character Rich Uncle Pennybags reaching out of the " O. " Brooks was also hired at the time to develop and illustrate the game 's special " Commemorative Edition " embossed tin box packaging . The art was also carried over onto the more traditional cardboard game box which was revised for the anniversary .
All items stamped with the red MONOPOLY logo also feature the word " Brand " in small print . In the mid @-@ 1980s , after the success of the first " collector 's tin anniversary edition " ( for the 50th anniversary ) , an edition of the game was produced by the Franklin Mint , the first edition to be published outside Parker Brothers . At about the same time , McDonald 's started its first Monopoly game promotions , considered the company 's most successful , which continue to the present . The twentieth such promotion was sponsored in 2012 .
In recent years , the Monopoly brand has been licensed onto a line of slot machines built by WMS Gaming ( first introduced in 1998 , six models had been made by 2000 , and over 20 by 2005 ) . The slots were named " Most Innovative Gaming Product in 1999 and voted " most popular " in 2001 . The brand has also been licensed onto instant @-@ win lottery tickets , and lines of 1 : 64 scale model cars produced by Johnny Lightning , which also included collectible game tokens . Other licenses have been issued for clothing and accessories , including a line of bathroom accessories . Licensee Winning Moves Games also had a Monopoly Calculator that could be used as a standard calculator , or used to aid in transactions during a game .
= = = Official sites = = =
The official U.S. Monopoly web site
The official UK Monopoly web site
Monopoly on Facebook
= = = History = = =
U.S. Patent 748 @,@ 626 – Patent for the first version of The Landlord 's Game , Issued Jan 5 , 1904
U.S. Patent 1 @,@ 509 @,@ 312 – Patent for the second version of The Landlord 's Game , Issued Sep 23 , 1924
U.S. Patent 2 @,@ 026 @,@ 082 – Patent awarded to C.B. Darrow for " Monopoly " on December 31 , 1935
The History of The Landlord 's Game and Monopoly .
History of Monopoly at World of Monopoly
Online photo album of many historical U.S. Monopoly sets , from Charles Darrow 's sets through the 1950s
Another online photo album of early Parker Brothers and Waddington sets , 1935 – 1954 .
Under the Boardwalk – The MONOPOLY Story – Film detailing the early history of the game with interviews including Phil Orbanes , Randolph Barton , Victor Watson , & Charles Darrow II .
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= Humbert Roque Versace =
Captain Humbert Roque " Rocky " Versace ( July 2 , 1937 – September 26 , 1965 ) was a United States Army officer of Puerto Rican @-@ Italian descent who was awarded the United States ' highest military decoration — the Medal of Honor — for his heroic actions while a prisoner of war ( POW ) during the Vietnam War . He was the first member of the U.S. Army to be awarded the Medal of Honor for actions performed in Southeast Asia while in captivity .
= = Early years = =
Humbert Roque Versace was born in Honolulu , Hawaii on July 2 , 1937 . He was the eldest of five children born to Marie Teresa Ríos ( 1917 – 1999 ) — the author of three books , including the Fifteenth Pelican , on which The Flying Nun ( starring Sally Field ) , the TV series of the 1960s , was based — and Colonel Humbert Joseph Versace ( 1911 – 1972 ) . Versace grew up in Alexandria , Virginia and attended Gonzaga College High School in Washington , D.C. during his freshman and sophomore years . His junior year he attended Frankfurt American High School in Germany . He graduated from Norfolk Catholic High School in his senior year . He joined the Armed Forces in Norfolk , Virginia . As had his father before him , Versace entered the United States Military Academy West Point . He graduated in 1959 and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant of Armor in the U.S. Army .
He was a member of Ranger Class 4 – 60 and was awarded the Ranger Tab on December 18 , 1959 . Upon graduation from Ranger School , Capt. Versace attended Airborne School and was awarded the parachutist badge . He then served with 3rd Battalion , 40th Armor , 1st Cavalry Division in the Republic of Korea as an M @-@ 48 tank platoon leader from March 1960 to April 1961 . Captain Versace was then assigned to the 3d U.S. Infantry ( Old Guard ) , where he served as a tank platoon leader in Headquarters and Headquarters Company . After volunteering for duty in Vietnam , he attended the Military Assistance Institute , the Intelligence course at Fort Holabird , Maryland , and the USACS Vietnamese language Course at the Presidio of Monterey .
= = Vietnam War = =
On May 12 , 1962 , Versace began his first tour of duty in the Republic of Vietnam as an intelligence advisor . In May 1963 he volunteered for a six @-@ month extension of his tour , planning to attend seminary at the conclusion of his service and join the Catholic priesthood , hoping to return to Vietnam as a missionary working with orphans .
Less than two weeks before the end of his tour , on October 29 , 1963 , while visiting a Military Academy classmate in Detachment A @-@ 23 , 5th Special Forces Group in the Mekong Delta , Versace accompanied several companies of South Vietnamese Civilian Irregular Defense ( CIDG ) troops who had attacked to remove a Viet Cong ( VC ) command post located in the U Minh Forest , a VC stronghold . A VC Main Force battalion ambushed and overran Versace 's unit , wounding him in the process . He was able to provide enough covering fire so that the CIDG forces could withdraw from the killing zone .
A second government force of about 200 men operating only a few thousand yards from the main fight learned of the disaster too late to help . U.S. authorities said the communist radio jammers had knocked out both the main channel and the alternate channel on all local military radios . Versace was captured and taken to a prison deep in the jungle along with two other Americans , Lieutenant Nick Rowe and Sergeant Dan Pitzer . He tried to escape four times , but failed in his attempts . Versace insulted the Viet Cong during the indoctrination sessions and cited the Geneva Convention treaty time after time . The Viet Cong separated Versace from the other prisoners . The last time the prisoners heard his voice , he was loudly singing " God Bless America " . On September 26 , 1965 , North Vietnam 's " Liberation Radio ” announced the execution of Captain Humbert Roque Versace . Versace 's remains have never been recovered . His headstone at Arlington National Cemetery stands above an empty grave and can be located in the Memorial section MG @-@ 108 .
Upon learning of their son 's fate , Marie Teresa Rios Versace and her husband , Colonel Versace , tried to find out what they could about the circumstances . She went to Paris in the late 1960s , trying unsuccessfully to see the North Vietnamese delegation as it arrived for peace talks . Rios Versace expressed her frustration and anguish in poems .
Nominations to award Versace the Medal of Honor were initiated in 1969 , but the nomination failed and he was posthumously awarded the Silver Star instead . The quest for a Medal of Honor for Versace languished until the " Friends of Rocky Versace " reinitiated the crusade once more in 1999 . Language added by Congress in the 2002 Defense Authorization Act ended the standoff and authorized the award of the nation 's highest military decoration for combat valor to Versace .
On July 8 , 2002 , in a ceremony in the White House East Room , Versace was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor by President George W. Bush for his heroism , the first time an Army POW had been awarded the nation 's highest honor for actions in captivity . Present were his surviving siblings , Dr. Stephen Versace , Richard ( former coach of the Indiana Pacers ) , Michael and Trilby Versace . On November 7 , 2008 , the Department of the Army announced that the Silver Star awarded to Versace was revoked because the Silver Star award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor .
HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON , DC , 29 December 2009
IV — SILVER STAR @-@ REVOKE . So much of Department of the Army General Orders , No. 31 , Headquarters , Department of the Army , Washington , D.C. , dated 1 July 1971 , pertaining to the award of the Silver Star to Captain Humbert R. Versace , United States Army , is herein revoked ; as announced in United States Human Resources Command , Permanent Orders 312 @-@ 07 , dated 7 November 2008 .
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Humbert Roque Versace
Rank and organization : Captain , U.S. Army , Intelligence Advisor , Special Operations
Place : Republic of Vietnam
Entered service at : Norfolk , Virginia
Born : Honolulu , Hawaii
Citation :
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while a prisoner of war during the period of October 29 , 1963 to September 26 , 1965 in the Republic of Vietnam . While accompanying a Civilian Irregular Defense Group patrol engaged in combat operations in Thoi Binh District , An Xuyen Province , Republic of Vietnam on October 29 , 1963 , Captain Versace and the CIDG assault force were caught in an ambush from intense mortar , automatic weapons , and small arms fire from elements of a reinforced enemy Main Force battalion . As the battle raged , Captain Versace fought valiantly and encouraged his CIDG patrol to return fire against overwhelming enemy forces . He provided covering fire from an exposed position to enable friendly forces to withdraw from the killing zone when it was apparent that their position would be overrun , and was severely wounded in the knee and back from automatic weapons fire and shrapnel . He stubbornly resisted capture with the last full measure of his strength and ammunition . Taken prisoner by the Viet Cong , he demonstrated exceptional leadership and resolute adherence to the tenets of the Code of Conduct from the time he entered into a prisoner of war status . Captain Versace assumed command of his fellow American prisoners , and despite being kept locked in irons in an isolation box , raised their morale by singing messages to popular songs of the day , and leaving inspiring messages at the latrine . Within three weeks of captivity , and despite the severity of his untreated wounds , he attempted the first of four escape attempts by dragging himself on his hands and knees out of the camp through dense swamp and forbidding vegetation to freedom . Crawling at a very slow pace due to his weakened condition , the guards quickly discovered him outside the camp and recaptured him . Captain Versace scorned the enemy 's exhaustive interrogation and indoctrination efforts , and inspired his fellow prisoners to resist to the best of their ability . When he used his Vietnamese language skills to protest improper treatment of the American prisoners by the guards , he was put into leg irons and gagged to keep his protestations out of earshot of the other American prisoners in the camp . The last time that any of his fellow prisoners heard from him , Captain Versace was singing God Bless America at the top of his voice from his isolation box . Unable to break his indomitable will , his faith in God , and his trust in the United States of America and his fellow prisoners , Captain Versace was executed by the Viet Cong on September 26 , 1965 . Captain Versaces extraordinary heroism , self @-@ sacrifice , and personal bravery involving conspicuous risk of life above and beyond the call of duty were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Army , and reflect great credit to himself and the U.S. Armed Forces .
= = In memory = =
The name Humbert R Versace is inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial ( " The Wall " ) on Panel 01E , Row 033 . On July 6 , 2002 , Rocky Versace Plaza in Alexandria , Virginia was dedicated in honor of Humbert R. Versace . There is a statue with the likeness of Versace in the Plaza , which was made possible with a donation of $ 125 @,@ 000 raised by the citizens of Alexandria , Virginia . On July 9 , 2002 , the day after the White House Medal of Honor ceremony , Secretary of the Army Thomas E. White and Army Chief of Staff General Eric K. Shinseki inducted Versace into the Pentagon Hall of Heroes .
In 2003 , he was inducted into the Military Intelligence Corps Hall of Fame . The Military Intelligence Hall of Fame is a Hall of Fame established by the Military Intelligence Corps of the United States Army in 1988 to honor soldiers and civilians who have made exceptional contributions to Military Intelligence . The Hall is administered by the United States Army Intelligence Center at Fort Huachuca , Arizona .
The name of Humbert Roque Versace was engraved in " El Monumento de la Recordación " ( Monument of Remembrance ) , dedicated to Puerto Rico 's fallen military members and situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan , Puerto Rico , and unveiled by Puerto Rico Senate President Kenneth McClintock ( see copy of speech ) and PR National Guard Adjutant General Col. David Carrión on Memorial Day , 2007 .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Among Capt. Humbert Roque Versace 's military decorations are the following :
Medal of Honor
Purple Heart
POW Medal
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
National Defense Service Medal
Vietnam Service Medal
Vietnam Campaign Medal
Badges :
Combat Infantryman Badge
Parachutist badge
Tabs :
Special Forces Tab
Ranger Tab
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= Plug @-@ in electric vehicle =
A plug @-@ in electric vehicle ( PEV ) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity , such as wall sockets , and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels . PEV is a subset of electric vehicles that includes all @-@ electric or battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) , plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles ( PHEVs ) , and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles .
Plug @-@ in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles . They have lower operating and maintenance costs , and produce little or no local air pollution . They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power , depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries . Plug @-@ in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all @-@ electric mode . Despite their potential benefits , market penetration of plug @-@ in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations . As of 2016 , plug @-@ in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium @-@ ion battery packs . Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and , in the case of all @-@ electric vehicles , drivers ' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars . Plug @-@ in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all @-@ electric vehicles , because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted , giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks .
Several national and local governments have established tax credits , subsidies , and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug @-@ in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all @-@ electric range . The term " plug @-@ in electric drive vehicle " is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentive . In China , plug @-@ in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles ( NEVs ) , and only pure electric vehicles and plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles are subject to purchase incentives . Cumulative global sales of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the 1 @.@ 5 million unit milestone in May 2016 . Despite their rapid growth , plug @-@ in electric cars represented just 0 @.@ 1 % of the one billion cars on the world 's roads by the end of 2015 .
As of September 2015 , there were almost 70 models of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and light @-@ duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world . As of March 2016 , the Nissan Leaf is the world 's all @-@ time top selling highway @-@ capable all @-@ electric car , with global sales of almost 220 @,@ 000 units , followed by the Tesla Model S with about 120 @,@ 000 units sold worldwide , and the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , which together with its sibling the Opel / Vauxhall Ampera has combined global sales of over 110 @,@ 000 units . Ranking next are the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with about 102 @,@ 000 units sold , and the Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 75 @,@ 000 delivered worldwide .
As of June 2016 , cumulative sales by country are led by the United States with a stock of about 474 @,@ 000 highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles delivered since 2008 . China ranks second with almost 390 @,@ 000 units sold between 2011 and May 2016 , followed by Japan with more than 150 @,@ 000 plug @-@ ins sold between 2009 and April 2016 . Over 500 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in passenger cars and utility vans have been registered in Europe up until May 2016 , making the continent the world 's largest light @-@ duty plug @-@ in regional market . European sales are led by Norway with over 105 @,@ 000 units registered through May 2016 , followed by the Netherlands with over 93 @,@ 300 units registered at the end of May 2016 , and France with about 89 @,@ 600 units registered through May 2016 . China is the world 's leader in the plug @-@ in heavy @-@ duty segment , including electric all @-@ electric buses , and plug @-@ in commercial and sanitation trucks . The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 passed the 500 @,@ 000 unit milestone in March 2016 .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Plug @-@ in electric vehicle = = =
A plug @-@ in electric vehicle ( PEV ) is any motor vehicle with rechargeable battery packs that can be charged from the electric grid , and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion . Plug @-@ in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid @-@ enabled vehicles ( GEV ) and also as electrically chargeable vehicles .
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) , plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles , ( PHEVs ) , and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles . Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicles ( HEVs ) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine and regenerative braking , they can not be recharged from an off @-@ vehicle electric energy source , and therefore , they do not belong to the category of plug @-@ in electric vehicles .
" Plug @-@ in electric drive vehicle " is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all @-@ electric range . In some European countries , particularly in France , " electrically chargeable vehicle " is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives . While the term " plug @-@ in electric vehicle " most often refers to automobiles or " plug @-@ in cars " , there are several other types of plug @-@ in electric vehicle , including scooters , motorcycles , neighborhood electric vehicles or microcars , city cars , vans , light trucks or light commercial vehicles , buses , trucks or lorries , and military vehicles .
= = = Battery electric vehicles = = =
A battery electric vehicle ( BEV ) uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs as its only source for propulsion . BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines ( ICEs ) for propulsion .
A plug @-@ in hybrid operates as an all @-@ electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge @-@ depleting mode , but it switches to charge @-@ sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge ( SOC ) threshold , exhausting the vehicle 's all @-@ electric range ( AER ) .
= = = Plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles = = =
A plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV or PHV ) , also known as a plug @-@ in hybrid , is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source . A plug @-@ in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all @-@ electric vehicle : it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion , but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged , allowing operation in all @-@ electric mode until the battery is depleted .
= = = Aftermarket conversions = = =
An aftermarket electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle ( ICEV ) or hybrid electric vehicle ( HEV ) to electric propulsion , creating an all @-@ electric or plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicle .
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions . The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug @-@ in hybrid , but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker , the easiest conversions are for 2004 – 2009 Toyota Prius and for the Ford Escape / Mercury Mariner Hybrid .
= = = New energy vehicles = = =
In China the term new energy vehicles ( NEVs ) refers to vehicles that are partially or fully powered by electricity , such as battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) and plug @-@ in hybrids ( PHEVs ) . The Chinese government began implementation of its NEV program in 2009 to foster the development and introduction of new energy vehicles .
= = Advantages = =
= = = Lower operating and maintenance costs = = =
Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on @-@ board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat , and the rest while the engine is idling . Electric motors , on the other hand , are more efficient at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle . Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting , and modern plug @-@ in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking . Typically , conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15 % of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories , and diesel engines can reach on @-@ board efficiencies of 20 % , while electric drive vehicles typically have on @-@ board efficiencies of around 80 % .
In the United States , as of early 2010 with a national average electricity rate of US $ 0 @.@ 10 per kWh , the cost per mile for a plug @-@ in electric vehicle operating in all @-@ electric mode is estimated between $ 0 @.@ 02 to $ 0 @.@ 04 , while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $ 0 @.@ 08 to $ 0 @.@ 20 , considering a gasoline price of $ 3 @.@ 00 per gallon . As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline and increases in global demand , the cost difference in favor of PEVs is expected to become even more advantageous .
According to Consumer Reports , as of December 2011 the Nissan Leaf has a cost of 3 @.@ 5 cents per mile and the Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3 @.@ 8 cents per mile . The Volt cost per mile is higher because it is heavier than the Leaf . These estimates are based on the fuel economy and energy consumption measured on their tests and using a U.S. national average rate of 11 cents per kWh of electricity . When the Volt runs in range @-@ extended mode using its premium gasoline @-@ powered engine , the plug @-@ in hybrid has a cost of 12 @.@ 5 cents per mile . The out @-@ of @-@ pocket cost per mile of the three most fuel efficient gasoline @-@ powered cars as tested by the magazine are the Toyota Prius , with a cost of 8 @.@ 6 cents per miles , the Honda Civic Hybrid with 9 @.@ 5 cents per mile , the Toyota Corolla with 11 @.@ 9 cents per mile , and the Hyundai Elantra 13 @.@ 1 cents per mile . The analysis also found that on trips up to 100 mi ( 160 km ) , the Volt is cheaper to drive than the Prius and the other three cars due to the Volt 's 35 mi ( 56 km ) driving range on electricity . The previous operating costs do not include maintenance , depreciation or other costs .
All @-@ electric and plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles , since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles , and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine . PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks .
The following table compares out @-@ of @-@ pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to its official ratings for fuel economy ( miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in the case of plug @-@ in electric vehicles ) for series production all @-@ electric passenger vehicles rated by the EPA as of December 2015 , versus EPA rated most fuel efficient plug @-@ in hybrid with long distance range ( Chevrolet Volt - second generation ) , gasoline @-@ electric hybrid car ( Toyota Prius Eco - fourth generation ) , and EPA 's average new 2016 vehicle , which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg @-@ US ( 9 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 30 mpg @-@ imp ) .
The following table compares EPA 's estimated out @-@ of @-@ pocket fuel costs and fuel economy ratings of serial production plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles rated by EPA as of May 2016 expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( mpg @-@ e ) , versus the most fuel efficient gasoline @-@ electric hybrid car , the 2016 Toyota Prius Eco ( fourth generation ) , rated 56 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ; 67 mpg @-@ imp ) , and EPA 's average new 2016 vehicle , which has a fuel economy of 25 mpg @-@ US ( 9 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 30 mpg @-@ imp ) . The table also shows the fuel efficiency for plug @-@ in hybrids in all @-@ electric mode expressed as KWh / 100 mile , the metric used by EPA to rate electric cars before November 2010 .
The Edison Electric Institute ( EEI ) conducted an analysis that demonstrated that between January 1976 and February 2012 the real price for gasoline has been much more volatile than the real price of electricity in the United States . The analysis is based on a plug @-@ in electric vehicle with an efficiency of 3 @.@ 4 miles per kW @-@ hr ( like the Mitsubishi i MiEV ) and a gasoline @-@ powered vehicle with a fuel economy rated at 30 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 36 mpg @-@ imp ) ( like the 2012 Fiat 500 ) . The EEI estimated that operating a plug @-@ in would have had an equivalent cost of around US $ 1 @.@ 50 a gallon in the late 1970s and early 1980s , and around US $ 1 @.@ 00 a gallon since the late 1990s . In contrast , the price to operate an internal combustion engine vehicle has had much ample variations , costing more than US $ 3 @.@ 50 per gallon during the 1979 energy crisis , then had a couple of lows with prices at less than US $ 1 @.@ 50 during 1999 and 2001 , only to climb and reach a maximum of more than US $ 4 @.@ 00 before the beginning of the 2007 – 2009 financial crisis , by early 2012 has fluctuated around US $ 3 @.@ 50 . The analysis found that the cost of an equivalent electric @-@ gallon of gasoline would have been not only cheaper to operate during the entire analysis period but also that equivalent electricity prices are more stable and have been declining in terms of equivalent dollars per gallon .
= = = Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions = = =
Electric cars , as well as plug @-@ in hybrids operating in all @-@ electric mode , emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power , such as particulates ( soot ) , volatile organic compounds , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . The clean air benefit is usually local because , depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries , air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants . In a similar manner , plug @-@ in electric vehicles operating in all @-@ electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power , but from the point of view of a well @-@ to @-@ wheel assessment , the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation . This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug @-@ in electric vehicles . From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis , the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind , solar , hydroelectric , or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well @-@ to @-@ wheel emissions . On the other hand , when PEVs are recharged from coal @-@ fired plants , they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles . In the case of plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine , tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy .
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region . For example , France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug @-@ in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants ; California , where most energy comes from natural gas , hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits . The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix . On the other hand , emission benefits in Germany , China , India , and the central regions of the United States are limited or non @-@ existent because most electricity is generated from coal . However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas . Cities with chronic air pollution problems , such as Los Angeles , México City , Santiago , Chile , São Paulo , Beijing , Bangkok and Kathmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities . Nevertheless , the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global .
= = = = Carbon footprint during production = = = =
Ricardo
A report published in June 2011 , prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK 's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership , found that hybrid electric cars , plug @-@ in hybrids and all @-@ electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles , but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle . The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries . As an example , 43 percent of production emissions for a mid @-@ size electric car are generated from the battery production , while for standard mid @-@ sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle , around 75 % of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider . The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies :
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid @-@ sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical , and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions .
Volkswagen
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life @-@ cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD , and independent inspection agency . The study found that CO
2 emissions during the use phase of its all @-@ electric VW e @-@ Golf are 99 % lower than those of the Golf 1 @.@ 2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany , Austria and Switzerland . Accounting for the full lifecycle , the e @-@ Golf reduces emissions by 61 % , offsetting higher production emissions . When the actual EU @-@ 27 electricity mix is considered , the e @-@ Golf emissions are still 26 % lower than those of the conventional Golf 1 @.@ 2 TSI . Similar results were found when comparing the e @-@ Golf with the Golf 1 @.@ 6 TDI . The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime .
= = = = Well @-@ to @-@ wheel GHG emissions in the U.S. = = = =
Environmental Protection Agency
The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug @-@ in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market . Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle , and for plug @-@ in hybrid electric vehicles , it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine . These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report " Light @-@ Duty Automotive Technology , Carbon Dioxide Emissions , and Fuel Economy Trends : 1975 Through 2014 . " All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5 @-@ cycle label methodology , using a weighted 55 % city and 45 % highway driving . For the first time , the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles , with emphasis in plug @-@ in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1 % , the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions .
For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions , the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug @-@ in hybrids . Some , like the Chevrolet Volt , can operate in all @-@ electric mode without using gasoline , and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV , which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle , but that can deliver substantial all @-@ electric driving in blended mode . In addition , since the all @-@ electric range of plug @-@ in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack , the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver , for both , electric only and blended EV modes . Since all @-@ electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions , the utility factor applies only to plug @-@ in hybrids . The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( mpg @-@ e ) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug @-@ in hybrids available in the U.S. market , and EPA 's best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs .
In order to account for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity , and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region , the EPA considered three scenarios / ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor , the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor , and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains . The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2 / kWh in California to 986 g CO2 / kWh in the Rockies , with a national average of 648 g CO2 / kWh .
Union of Concerned Scientists
The Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug @-@ in car batteries from the perspective of the full life @-@ cycle ( well @-@ to @-@ wheel analysis ) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region . The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all @-@ electric car to establish the analysis baseline , and electric @-@ utility emissions are based on EPA 's 2009 estimates . The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers . The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas , nuclear , hydroelectric or renewable sources , the potential of plug @-@ in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant . On the other hand , in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal , hybrid electric cars produce less CO2 equivalent emissions than plug @-@ in electric cars , and the best fuel efficient gasoline @-@ powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV . In the worst @-@ case scenario , the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal , a plug @-@ in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city / highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 36 mpg @-@ imp ) . In contrast , in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas , the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline @-@ powered car rated at 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) .
The study concluded that for 45 % of the U.S. population , a plug @-@ in electric car will generate lower CO2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline @-@ powered car capable of combined 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) , such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c . The UCS also found that for 37 % of the population , the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline @-@ powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 49 to 60 mpg @-@ imp ) , such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h . Only 18 % of the population lives in areas where the power @-@ supply is more dependent on burning carbon , and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 37 to 48 mpg @-@ imp ) , such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus . The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug @-@ in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile , and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline @-@ powered car rated at 33 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 1 L / 100 km ) .
In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report . The 2014 analysis found that 60 % of Americans , up from 45 % in 2009 , live in regions where an all @-@ electric car produce fewer CO2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid . The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement . First , electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis . The 2014 study used electric @-@ utility emissions based on EPA 's 2010 estimates , but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5 % from 2010 to 2014 , actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study . Second , electric vehicles have become more efficient , as the average 2013 all @-@ electric vehicle used 0 @.@ 33 kWh per mile , representing a 5 % improvement over 2011 models . Also , some new models are cleaner than the average , such as the BMW i3 , which is rated at 0 @.@ 27 kWh by the EPA . An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline @-@ powered car with about 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ) , up from 39 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ) for the average electric car in the 2012 study . In states with a cleaner mix generation , the gains were larger . The average all @-@ electric car in California went up to 95 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 5 L / 100 km ) equivalent from 78 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ) in the 2012 study . States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag , such as Colorado , where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 41 mpg @-@ imp ) gasoline @-@ powered car . The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power .
In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles ( BEVs ) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life @-@ cycle , cradle @-@ to @-@ grave analysis . The two BEVs modeled , midsize and full @-@ size , are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015 , the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all @-@ electric cars representative of those sold today , on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline @-@ powered vehicles , despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing . Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold , excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving . The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ) in regions covering two @-@ thirds of the U.S. population , up from 45 % in 2009 . Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015 , the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 5 L / 100 km ) fuel economy rating . The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV @-@ related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012 . Electricity generation has been getting cleaner , as coal @-@ fired generation has declined while lower @-@ carbon alternatives have increased . In addition , electric cars are becoming more efficient . For example , the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt , have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010 , and other even more efficient BEV models , such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3 , have entered the market .
National Bureau of Economic Research
One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day . The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day . An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research ( NBER ) , published in November 2014 , developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States . The marginal analysis , applied to plug @-@ in electric vehicles , found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day . In some regions , such as the Western U.S. and Texas , CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car . However , in other regions , such as the Upper Midwest , charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road . The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions . This occurs because coal @-@ fired units , which have higher emission rates , are most commonly used to meet base @-@ level and off @-@ peak electricity demand ; while natural gas units , which have relatively low emissions rates , are often brought online to meet peak demand .
= = = = Well @-@ to @-@ wheel GHG emissions in several countries = = = =
A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug @-@ in electric vehicles in 20 countries . As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2 / km for an electric car and 40 g CO2 / km for a petrol car . The study found that in countries with coal @-@ intensive generation , PEVs are no different from conventional petrol @-@ powered vehicles . Among these countries are China , Indonesia , Australia , South Africa and India . A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a 20 mpg @-@ US ( 12 L / 100 km ; 24 mpg @-@ imp ) petrol car .
The country ranking was led by Paraguay , where all electricity is produced from hydropower , and Iceland , where electricity production relies on renewable power , mainly hydro and geothermal power . Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2 / km , which is equivalent to a 220 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 1 L / 100 km ; 260 mpg @-@ imp ) petrol car , and correspond to manufacturing emissions . Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation , including Sweden ( mostly hydro and nuclear power ) , Brazil ( mainly hydropower ) and France ( predominantly nuclear power ) . Countries ranking in the middle include Japan , Germany , the UK and the United States .
The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available , and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol @-@ powered car :
= = = Less dependence on imported oil = = =
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis . For the United States , the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruption . Also , there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil . A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations , including some countries with strong resource nationalism , unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests . In addition , for many developing countries , and particularly for the poorest African countries , high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments , all leading to lower economic growth .
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine vehicles for electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids , electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply .
= = = Vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid = = =
Plug @-@ in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power grid , thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks . A vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid ( V2G ) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time . During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid . In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $ 4 @,@ 000 per year per car . In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric ( BEVs ) and plug @-@ in hybrids ( PHEVs ) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate .
= = Disadvantages = =
= = = Cost of batteries and cost of ownership = = =
Cost of batteries
As of 2015 , plug @-@ in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium @-@ ion battery pack . According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council , the cost of a lithium @-@ ion battery pack was about US $ 1 @,@ 700 / kWh of usable energy , and considering that a PHEV @-@ 10 requires about 2 @.@ 0 kWh and a PHEV @-@ 40 about 8 kWh , the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV @-@ 10 is around US $ 3 @,@ 000 and it goes up to US $ 14 @,@ 000 for a PHEV @-@ 40 . As of June 2012 , and based on the three battery size options offered for the Tesla Model S , the New York Times estimated the cost of automotive battery packs between US $ 400 to US $ 500 per kilowatt @-@ hour . A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US $ 1 @,@ 300 per kWh in 2007 to US $ 500 per kWh in 2012 . The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US $ 300 per kWh in 2015 and US $ 125 per kWh by 2022 . Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug @-@ in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles .
According to a study published in February 2016 by Bloomberg New Energy Finance ( BNEF ) , battery prices fell 65 % since 2010 , and 35 % just in 2015 , reaching US $ 350 per kWh . The study concludes that battery costs are on a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022 . BNEF projects that by 2040 , long @-@ range electric cars will cost less than US $ 22 @,@ 000 expressed in 2016 dollars . BNEF expects electric car battery costs to be well below US $ 120 per kWh by 2030 , and to fall further thereafter as new chemistries become available .
Cost of ownership
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center , Harvard University , found that the gasoline costs savings of plug @-@ in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices , and assuming no government subidies . According to the study estimates , a PHEV @-@ 40 is US $ 5 @,@ 377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine , while a battery electric vehicles is US $ 4 @,@ 819 more expensive . These findings assumed a battery cost of US $ 600 per kWh , which means that the Chevrolet Volt battery pack cost around US $ 10 @,@ 000 and the Nissan Leaf pack costs US $ 14 @,@ 400 . The study also assumed a gasoline price of US $ 3 @.@ 75 per gallon ( as of mid June 2011 ) , that vehicles are driven 12 @,@ 000 miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ) per year , an average price of electricity of US $ 0 @.@ 12 per kWh , that the plug @-@ in hybrid is driven in all @-@ electric mode 85 % of the time , and that the owner of PEVs pay US $ 1 @,@ 500 to install a Level II 220 / 240 volt charger at home .
The study also include hybrid electric vehicles in the comparison , and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years , assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase , and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars , among other scenarios . Under the future scenarios considered , the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars ( US $ 1 @,@ 155 to US $ 7 @,@ 181 cheaper ) , while PHEVs , will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios , and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices . The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel , while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline @-@ powered engines . The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study .
According to a study by the Electric Power Research Institute published in June 2013 , the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles . For comparison , the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution . The study took into account the manufacturer 's suggested retail price , taxes , credits , destination charge , electric charging station , fuel cost , maintenance cost , and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf .
= = = Availability of recharging infrastructure = = =
Despite the widespread assumption that plug @-@ in recharging will take place overnight at home , residents of cities , apartments , dormitories , and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets , and they might be less likely to buy plug @-@ in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed . Electrical outlets or charging stations near their places of residence , in commercial or public parking lots , streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs , and in the case of EVs , to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination , commonly called range anxiety . Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers . However , this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors .
Several cities in California and Oregon , and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area and Silicon Valley , already have deployed public charging stations and have expansion plans to attend both plug @-@ ins and all @-@ electric cars . Some local private firms such as Google and Adobe Systems have also deployed charging infrastructure . In Google 's case , its Mountain View campus has 100 available charging stations for its share @-@ use fleet of converted plug @-@ ins available to its employees . Solar panels are used to generate the electricity , and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT website . As of December 2013 , Estonia is the first and only country that had deployed an EV charging network with nationwide coverage , with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a minimum distance of between 40 to 60 km ( 25 to 37 mi ) , and a higher density in urban areas .
The importance to build the infrastructure necessary to support electric vehicles is illustrated by the decision of Car2Go in San Diego , California , that due to insufficient charging infrastructure decided to replace all of its all @-@ electric car fleet with gasoline @-@ powered cars starting on 1 May 2016 . When the carsharing service started in 2011 , Car2Go expected 1 @,@ 000 charging stations to be deployed around the city , but only 400 were in place by early 2016 . As a result , an average of 20 % of the carsharing fleet is unavailable at any given time because the cars are either being charged or because they don ’ t have enough electricity in them to be driven . Also , many of the company ’ s 40 @,@ 000 San Diego members say they often worry their Car2Go will run out of charge before they finish their trip .
= = = = Battery swapping = = = =
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxiety and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place . Its business model considers that electric cars are built and sold separately from the battery pack . As customers are not allowed to purchase battery packs , they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips . Subscribed users pay a per @-@ distance fee to cover battery pack leasing , charging and swap infrastructure , the cost of sustainable electricity , and other costs . Better Place signed agreement for deployment in Australia , Denmark , Israel , Canada , California , and Hawaii . The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the electric car built with switchable battery technology sold for the Better Place network . The robotic battery @-@ switching operation was completed in about five minutes .
After implementing the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model in Israel and Denmark , Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013 . The company 's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure , about US $ 850 million in private capital , and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi . Less than 1 @,@ 000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark .
Tesla Motors designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping . In June 2013 , Tesla announced their goal to deploy a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations . At a demonstration event Tesla showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S takes just over 90 seconds , about half the time it takes to refill a gasoline @-@ powered car used for comparison purposes during the event . The first stations are planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California where , according to Tesla , a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco @-@ Los Angeles trip regularly . These will be followed by the Washington , DC to Boston corridor .
= = = = Other charging solutions = = = =
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan Leaf SV trim both have roof @-@ mounted solar panels . These solar panels are designed to trickle charge the batteries when the car is moving or parked . Another proposed technology is REVive , by REVA . When the REVA NXR 's batteries are running low or are fully depleted , the driver is able to send an SMS to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack . REVA has not provided details on how the system will work . The Fisker Karma uses solar panel in the roof to recharge the 12 @-@ volt lead @-@ acid accessory battery . The Nissan Leaf SL trim also has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof / spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary 12 @-@ volt lead @-@ acid battery .
= = = Potential overload of the electrical grid = = =
The existing electrical grid , and local transformers in particular , may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power load that might be required in certain areas with high plug @-@ in electric car concentrations . As recharging a single electric @-@ drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home , overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time , or during the normal summer peak loads . To avoid such problems , utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand . When market penetration of plug @-@ in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels , utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload . Also , some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time @-@ of @-@ day rates , utilities can provide an incentive for plug @-@ in owners to recharge mostly overnight , when rates are lower .
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project in Austin , Texas . The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug @-@ in electric car owners , and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same , which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug @-@ in cars return home in the evening . The Mueller neighborhood is the test ground , and as of June 2013 , the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone . This cluster of Volts was achieved thanks to GM 's commitment to match the federal government 's $ 7 @,@ 500 rebate incentive , which effectively halves the purchase price of the plug @-@ hybrid electric cars .
= = = Risks associated with noise reduction = = =
Electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids when operating in all @-@ electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise as compared to vehicles propelled by an internal combustion engine , thereby reducing harmful noise health effects . However , blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets , hence plug @-@ in electric cars and conventional hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds .
Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern , as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired . At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise . However , a 2011 study , commissioned by the UK Department for Transport ( DfT ) and conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory , found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles . In addition , the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) or slower roads , or where the pedestrian was disabled . A previous study did not found an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required .
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue , and as a result , the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , both launched in December 2010 , as well as the Fisker Karma plug @-@ in hybrid launched in 2011 launched in 2012 , include electric warning sounds to alert pedestrians , the blind and others to their presence . As of January 2014 , most of the hybrids and plug @-@ in electric and hybrids available in the United States , Japan and Europe make warning noises using a speaker system . The Tesla Model S is one of the few electric cars without warning sounds , because Tesla Motors will await until regulations are enacted . Volkswagen and BMW also decided to add artificial sounds to their electric drive cars only when required by regulation .
The Japanese Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near @-@ silent vehicles in January 2010 . In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010 . The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound . A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) in January , 2013 . It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 30 km / h ) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises . According to the NHTSA proposal carmakers would be able to pick the sounds the vehicles make from a range of choices , and similar vehicles would have to make the same sounds . The rules were scheduled to go into effect in September 2014 . However , in January 2015 the NHTSA rescheduled the date for a final ruling to the end of 2015 . Since the regulation comes into force three years after being rendered as a final rule , compliance was delayed to 2018 .
On 6 February 2013 , the European Parliament approved a draft law to tighten noise limits for cars to protect public health , and also to add alerting sounds to ensure the audibility of hybrid and electric vehicles to improve the safety of vulnerable road users in urban areas , such as blind , visually and auditorily challenged pedestrians , cyclists and children . The draft legislation states a number of tests , standards and measures that must first be developed for an Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems ( AVAS ) to be compulsory in the future . The approved amendment establishes that the sound to be generated by the AVAS should be a continuous sound and should be easily indicative of vehicle behavior and should sound similar to the sound of a vehicle of the same category equipped with an internal combustion engine . " In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of the AVAS for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years .
= = = Risks of battery fire = = =
Lithium @-@ ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged , and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion . To reduce these risks , lithium @-@ ion battery packs contain fail @-@ safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range . When handled improperly , or if manufactured defectively , some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating . Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium @-@ ion batteries . Reports of exploding cellphones have been reported in newspapers . In 2006 , batteries from Apple , HP , Toshiba , Lenovo , Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions . Also , during the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 's first year of service , at least four aircraft suffered from electrical system problems stemming from its lithium @-@ ion batteries , resulting in the whole Dreamliner fleet being voluntarily grounded in January 2013 .
Several plug @-@ in electric vehicle fire incidents have taken place since the introduction of mass @-@ production plug @-@ in electric vehicles in 2008 . Most of them have been thermal runaway incidents related to the lithium @-@ ion batteries and have involved the Zotye M300 EV , Chevrolet Volt , Fisker Karma , BYD e6 , Dodge Ram 1500 Plug @-@ in Hybrid , Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid , Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV and Outlander P @-@ HEV . As of November 2013 , four fires after a crash have been reported associated with the batteries of all @-@ electric cars involving a BYD e6 and three Tesla Model S cars .
The first modern crash @-@ related fire was reported in China in May 2012 , after a high @-@ speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen . The second reported incident occurred in the United States in October 1 , 2013 , when a Tesla Model S caught fire after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent , Washington state , and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack . A second reported fire occurred on October 18 , 2013 in Merida , Mexico . In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree . On November 6 , 2013 , a Tesla Model S being driven on Interstate 24 near Murfreesboro , Tennessee caught fire after it struck a tow hitch on the roadway , causing damage beneath the vehicle .
The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) is conducting a study due in 2014 to establish whether lithium @-@ ion batteries in plug @-@ electric vehicles pose a potential fire hazard . The research is looking at whether the high @-@ voltage batteries can cause fires when they are being charged and when the vehicles are involved in an accident . Both General Motors and Nissan have published a guide for firefighters and first responders to properly handle a crashed plug @-@ in electric @-@ drive vehicle and safely disable its battery and other high voltage systems .
= = = Rare earth metals availability and supply security = = =
Common technology for plug @-@ ins and electric cars is based on the lithium @-@ ion battery and an electric motor which uses rare earth elements . The demand for lithium , heavy metals , and other specific elements ( such as neodymium , boron and cobalt ) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug @-@ in electric vehicles in the mid and long term . As of 2011 , the Toyota Prius battery contains more than 20 lb ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of the rare earth element lanthanum , and its motor magnets use neodymium and dysprosium . While only 0 @.@ 25 oz ( 7 g ) of lithium carbonate equivalent ( LCE ) are required in a smartphone and 1 @.@ 1 oz ( 30 g ) in a tablet computer , electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems for homes , businesses or industry use much more lithium in their batteries . As of 2016 a hybrid electric passenger car might use 11 lb ( 5 kg ) of LCE , while one of Tesla 's high performance electric cars could use as much as 180 lb ( 80 kg ) .
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism , unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests , raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials .
Lithium
The main deposits of lithium are found in China and throughout the Andes mountain chain in South America . In 2008 Chile was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30 % , followed by China , Argentina , and Australia . In the United States lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada .
Nearly half the world 's known reserves are located in Bolivia , and according to the US Geological Survey , Bolivia 's Salar de Uyuni desert has 5 @.@ 4 million tons of lithium . Other important reserves are located in Chile , China , and Brazil . Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves . Already the Japanese and South Korean governments , as well as companies from these two countries and France , have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia 's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining and industrialization model suitable to Bolivian interests .
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California Berkeley , the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large @-@ scale battery production for electric vehicles , as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li @-@ based batteries ( about 10 kg of lithium per car ) could be built with current reserves , as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey . Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100 , including the lithium required for the potential widespread use of hybrid electric , plug @-@ in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles . The study estimated global lithium reserves at 39 million tons , and total demand for lithium during the 90 @-@ year period analyzed at 12 @-@ 20 million tons , depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates .
A 2016 study by Bloomberg New Energy Finance ( BNEF ) found that availability of lithium and other finite materials used in the battery packs will not be a limiting factor for the adoption of electric vehicles . BNEF estimated that battery packs will require less than 1 % of the known reserves of lithium , nickel , manganese , and copper through 2030 , and 4 % of the world ’ s cobalt . After 2030 , the study states that new battery chemistries will probably shift to other source materials , making packs lighter , smaller , and cheaper .
Rare earth elements
China has 48 % of the world 's reserves of rare earth elements , the United States has 13 % , and Russia , Australia , and Canada have significant deposits . Until the 1980s , the U.S. led the world in rare earth production , but since the mid @-@ 1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements . The mines in Bayan Obo near Baotou , Inner Mongolia , are currently the largest source of rare earth metals and are 80 % of China 's production . In 2010 China accounted for 97 % of the global production of 17 rare earth elements . Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5 % to 10 % a year .
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid @-@ 2010 as China imposed a 40 % export reduction , citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions . These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths . However , the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world , including the United States , Australia , Vietnam , and Kazakhstan .
In September 2010 , China temporarily blocked all exports of rare earths to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries . These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles , thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply . A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies . China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25 % , and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before . The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011 , which represent a 35 % reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010 .
On September 29 , 2010 , the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 ( H.R.6160 ) . The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements , and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy ( US DoE ) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry 's near @-@ complete dependence on China for the minerals . A similar bill , the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 ( S. 3521 ) , is being discussed in the U.S. Senate .
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals , Toyota Motor Corporation announced in January 2011 that it is developing an alternative motor for future hybrid and electric cars that does not need rare earth materials . Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet @-@ type motor used in the Prius , which uses two rare earths in its motor magnets . Other popular hybrids and plug @-@ in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf , the Chevrolet Volt and Honda Insight . For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012 , Toyota is using an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors that does not require rare earth materials . The Tesla Roadster and the Tesla Model S use a similar motor .
= = = Car dealers reluctance to sell = = =
With the exception of Tesla Motors , almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships , so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles , and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug @-@ in electric vehicles . Dealers decide which cars they want to stock , and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase . Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales . As with any new technology , and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles , retailers are central to ensuring that buyers , especially those switching to a new technology , have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology .
There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug @-@ in electric vehicles . PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline @-@ powered car . Plug @-@ in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required , which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions . Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance , resulting in loss of service revenue , and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits , their service departments . According to the National Automobile Dealers Association ( NADS ) , dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales . However , a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance . According to the New York Times , BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed , but only about 10 % of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology .
A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies ( ITS ) , at the University of California , Davis ( UC Davis ) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug @-@ in vehicles . ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug @-@ in vehicles in California ’ s major metro markets . The study also analyzed national and state @-@ level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index ( SSI ) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores . The researchers found that buyers of plug @-@ in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non @-@ premium conventional cars , while Tesla Motors earned industry @-@ high scores . According to the findings , plug @-@ in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers , including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings .
In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states , making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014 . The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople ’ s knowledge about electric cars . The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug @-@ in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline @-@ powered models . The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales ; a few outright discouraged it , and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug @-@ in model despite having one in stock . And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric @-@ car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs . Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions , sales people at Chevrolet , Ford , and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota . The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug @-@ in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead . Overall , the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “ discouraged sale of EV , ” with seven of them being in New York . However , at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited , the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline @-@ powered car instead .
The ITS @-@ Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug @-@ in customers . Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers , enrolling buyers in charging networks , and preparing incentive paperwork for customers . Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug @-@ in experts , many of whom drive plug @-@ ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car ’ s benefits to potential buyers . The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs .
= = Government incentives = =
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits , grants and other financial and non @-@ financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug @-@ in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles .
= = = Asia = = =
Japan
In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the " Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure " that went into effect on June 19 , 2009 , but retroactive to April 10 , 2009 . The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly and fuel efficient vehicles , according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria , and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles . The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases , consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade @-@ in ( non @-@ replacement program ) , and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier ( scrappage program ) .
China
On June 1 , 2010 , The Chinese government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60 @,@ 000 yuan ( ~ US $ 8 @,@ 785 ) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles and 50 @,@ 000 yuan ( ~ US $ 7 @,@ 320 ) for plug @-@ in hybrids in five cities .
= = = Europe = = =
As of 2010 , 17 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles . The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions , as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles .
In the UK the Plug @-@ in Car Grant scheme provided a 25 % incentive towards the cost of new plug @-@ in electric cars that qualify as ultra @-@ low carbon vehicles , capped at GB £ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 7 @,@ 800 ) until February 2016 . Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant . In December 2015 , the Department for Transport ( DfT ) announced that Plug @-@ in car grant was extended to encourage more than 100 @,@ 000 UK motorists to buy cleaner vehicles . The criteria for the Plug @-@ in Car Grant was updated and the maximum grant dropped from GB £ 5 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 7 @,@ 450 ) to GB £ 4 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 6 @,@ 700 ) . The eligible ultra @-@ low emission vehicles ( ULEVs ) must meet criteria in one of three categories depending on emission levels ( CO2 emissions bands between 50 and 75g / km ) and zero @-@ emission @-@ capable mileage ( minimum of 10 mi ( 16 km ) ) .
A price cap is in place , with all Category 1 plug @-@ in vehicles eligible for the full grant no matter what their purchase price , while Category 2 and 3 models with a list price of more than GB £ 60 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 90 @,@ 000 ) will not be eligible for the grant . Vehicles with a zero @-@ emission range of at least 70 miles ( 110 km ) ( category 1 ) , including hydrogen fuel cell vehicles , will get a full GB £ 4 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 6 @,@ 700 ) , but plug @-@ in hybrids ( categories 2 and 3 ) costing under GB £ 60 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 90 @,@ 000 ) will receive GB £ 2 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 3 @,@ 725 ) . Under the extended scheme , some plug @-@ in hybrid sports car will no longer be eligible for the grant , such as the BMW i8 because of its GB £ 100 @,@ 000 ( ~ US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) purchase price tag . The updated scheme went into force on 1 March 2016 .
Germany approved an incentive scheme in April 2016 with a budget of € 1 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 13 billion ) . The cost of the purchase incentive will be shared equally between the government and automakers . Electric car buyers will get a € 4 @,@ 000 ( US $ 4 @,@ 520 ) discount while buyers of plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles will get a discount of € 3 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 @,@ 390 ) . Premium cars , such as the Tesla Model S and BMW i8 , are not eligible to the incentive because there is a cap of € 60 @,@ 000 ( US $ 67 @,@ 800 ) for the purchase price . The scheme is scheduled to start as early as May 2016 . Nissan , Volkswagen , Daimler and BMW have signed up to participate in the scheme .
= = = North America = = =
United States
In the United States the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 , and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 ( ACES ) granted tax credits for new qualified plug @-@ in electric vehicles . The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ( ARRA ) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug @-@ ins , though the credit is lower than for new PEVs .
The federal tax credit for new plug @-@ in electric vehicles is worth $ 2 @,@ 500 plus $ 417 for each kilowatt @-@ hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh , and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $ 5 @,@ 000 . Therefore , the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $ 7 @,@ 500 . Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEVs and PHEV , and other non @-@ monetary incentives .
President Barack Obama set the goal of bringing 1 million plug @-@ in electric vehicles on the road by 2015 . However , considering the actual slow rate of PEV sales , as of mid @-@ 2012 several industry observers have concluded that this goal is unattainable . In September 2014 Governor of California Jerry Brown signed a bill , the Charge Ahead California Initiative , that sets a goal of placing at least 1 million zero @-@ emission vehicles and near @-@ zero @-@ emission vehicles on the road in California by January 1 , 2023 .
Canada
Ontario established a rebate between CA $ 5 @,@ 000 to CA $ 8 @,@ 500 ( ~ US $ 4 @,@ 900 to US $ 8 @,@ 320 ) , depending on battery size , for purchasing or leasing a new plug @-@ in electric vehicle after July 1 , 2010 . The rebates are available to the first 10 @,@ 000 applicants who qualify .
Quebec offers rebates of up to CA $ 8 @,@ 500 ( US $ 8 @,@ 485 ) from January 1 , 2012 , for the purchase of new plug @-@ in electric vehicles equipped with a minimum of 4 kWh battery , and new hybrid electric vehicles are eligible for a CA $ 1 @,@ 000 rebate . All @-@ electric vehicles with high @-@ capacity battery packs are eligible for the full C $ 8 @,@ 000 rebate , and incentives are reduced for low @-@ range electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids .
= = Production plug @-@ in electric vehicles available = =
During the 1990s several highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric cars were produced in limited quantities , all were battery electric vehicles , and they were available through leasing mainly in California . Popular models included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV . Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today . In the late 2000s began a new wave of mass production plug @-@ in electric cars , motorcycles and light trucks . However , as of 2011 , most electric vehicles in the world roads were low @-@ speed , low @-@ range neighborhood electric vehicles ( NEVs ) or electric quadricycles . Pike Research estimated there were almost 479 @,@ 000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011 . Just in China , a total of 200 @,@ 000 low @-@ speed small electric cars were sold in 2013 , most of which are powered by lead @-@ acid batteries . As of October 2015 , the GEM neighborhood electric vehicle is the market leader in North America , with global sales of more than 50 @,@ 000 units since 1998 .
As of August 2015 , there were almost 70 models of highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and light @-@ utility vans available in the world , with 45 different plug @-@ in electric passenger car models offered in Europe , 20 available in North America , 19 in China , 14 in Japan , and 7 in Australia . There are also available several commercial models of plug @-@ in motorcycles , all @-@ electric buses , and heavy @-@ duty trucks .
As of December 2015 , the Renault @-@ Nissan Alliance is the leading electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of 302 @,@ 000 all @-@ electric vehicles delivered since December 2010 , representing about half of the global light @-@ duty all @-@ electric market segment . Mitsubishi Motors ranks second , with global sales of about 135 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric vehicles since 2009 through December 2015 , consisting of all @-@ electric cars of the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV family , all @-@ electric Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV utility vans and trucks , and the plug @-@ in hybrid Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV . Ranking third is Tesla Motors with almost 125 @,@ 000 electric cars sold between 2008 and March 2016 . Next is General Motors with combined global sales since December 2010 of almost 113 @,@ 000 vehicles through December 2015 , consisting of over 106 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in hybrids of the Volt / Ampera family , over 4 @,@ 300 Chevrolet Spark EVs , and over 2 @,@ 400 Cadillac ELRs .
BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world 's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles , with 61 @,@ 722 units sold , mostly plug @-@ in hybrids , followed by Tesla Motors , with 50 @,@ 580 units sold in 2015 .
= = = Sales and main markets = = =
By mid @-@ September 2015 , the global stock of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone . When global sales are broken down by type of powertrain , all @-@ electric cars have oversold plug @-@ in hybrids , with the pure electrics capturing 60 % of global sales as of December 2015 . Sales of plug @-@ in electric vehicles achieved the one million milestone almost twice as fast as hybrid electric vehicles ( HEV ) . While it took four years and 10 months to reach one @-@ million PEV sales , it took more than around nine years and a few months for HEVs to reach its first million sales .
Between 2007 and 2010 , only 11 @,@ 768 plug @-@ in electric vehicles were sold worldwide . By comparison , during the Golden Age of the electric car at the beginning of the 20th century , the EV stock peaked at approximately 30 @,@ 000 vehicles . After the introduction of the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt in late December 2010 , the first mass @-@ production plug @-@ in cars by major carmakers , plug @-@ in car sales grew to about 50 @,@ 000 units in 2011 , jumped to 125 @,@ 000 in 2012 , and rose to almost 213 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric cars and utility vans in 2013 . Sales totaled over 315 @,@ 000 units in 2014 , up 48 % from 2013 . In five years , global sales of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles have increased more than ten @-@ fold , totaling more than 565 @,@ 00 units in 2015 . Plug @-@ in sales in 2015 increased about 80 % from 2014 , driven mainly by China and Europe . Both markets passed in 2105 the U.S. as the largest plug @-@ in electric car markets in terms of total annual sales , with China ranking as the world 's best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric passenger car country market in 2015 . Over 220 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in cars and vans were sold during the first five months of 2016 .
Since 2004 , cumulative global sales totaled over 1 @.@ 5 million plug @-@ in cars and utility vans by the end of May 2016 . Despite the rapid growth experienced , the plug @-@ in electric car segment represented just 0 @.@ 1 % of the one billion cars on the world 's roads by the end of 2015 . JATO Dynamics , based on LMC Automotive ’ s forecasts , estimates the global market is expected to reach sales in excess of 700 @,@ 000 units in 2016 due to strong growth in China , Europe and the United States .
Research published by Bloomberg New Energy Finance in February 2016 predicts that as battery prices continue to fall , light @-@ duty electric vehicles without government subsidies will be as affordable as internal combustion engine cars in most countries by the mid @-@ 2020s . As a result , the study forecasts that annual sales of electric vehicles will hit 41 million by 2040 , representing 35 % of new light duty vehicle sales . In another scenario the study considers that if new carsharing services are successful , together with the adoption of autonomous cars , they could boost electric @-@ vehicle market share to 50 % of new car saless by 2040 . On the other hand , the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) in its 2015 World Oil Outlook projected that the market share of battery electric cars and fuel cell cars will remain below 1 % in 2040 , while the share of hybrid electric cars is projected to grow from 1 % in 2013 to 14 % in 2040 .
As of June 2016 , cumulative sales of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles by country are led by the United States with a stock of about 474 @,@ 000 cars delivered since 2008 . China ranks second with 389 @,@ 885 units sold between 2011 and May 2016 , followed by Japan with 150 @,@ 142 plug @-@ in units sold between 2009 and April 2016 . As of May 2016 , more than 500 @,@ 000 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles have been registered in Europe , making the continent the world 's largest plug @-@ in regional market in the light @-@ duty segment , which includes utility vans . European registrations are led by Norway with about 105 @,@ 306 units registered since 2004 through May 2016 , followed by the Netherlands with 93 @,@ 310 units registered at the end of May 2016 , France with 89 @,@ 629 units registered since 2010 through May 2016 , the UK with 75 @,@ 914 plug @-@ in cars and vans registered since 2006 , Germany with 57 @,@ 452 plug @-@ in cars registered since 2010 , and Sweden with 21 @,@ 439 registrations since 2011 . The other top selling country is Canada with 20 @,@ 352 new plug @-@ in cars sold between 2011 and May 2016 . As of April 2016 , over 534 @,@ 000 new energy vehicles have been sold in China since 2011 , making the country the world 's leader in the plug @-@ in heavy @-@ duty segment , including electric buses , plug @-@ in trucks , and sanitation trucks . As of December 2015 , China is also the world 's largest electric bus market .
Sales of series production PEVs during its first two years in the global market have been lower than initially expected in all countries . However , an analysis by Scientific American found that at the international level and considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36 @-@ month introductory period , monthly sales of the Volt , Prius PHV and Leaf are performing better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods , with the exception of the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV , which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36 @-@ month introductory periods . A similar trend was found by the U.S. Department of Energy for the American market . Combined sales of plug @-@ in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid @-@ electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods , as shown in the graph at the left .
During 2014 , four of the ten top selling countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1 % of new car sales , Norway ( 13 @.@ 84 % ) , the Netherlands ( 3 @.@ 87 % ) , Sweden ( 1 @.@ 53 % ) , and Japan ( 1 @.@ 06 % ) . Also two small countries achieved this mark in 2014 , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 71 % ) and Estonia ( 1 @.@ 57 % ) . In 2015 nine countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share equal or higher than 1 % of total new car sales , up from six in 2014 . The nine countries are Norway ( 22 @.@ 39 % ) , the Netherlands ( 9 @.@ 74 % ) , Hong Kong ( 4 @.@ 84 % ) , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 93 % ) , Sweden ( 2 @.@ 62 % ) , Denmark ( 2 @.@ 29 % ) , Switzerland ( 1 @.@ 98 % ) , France ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , and the UK ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) . In 2015 the European plug @-@ in passenger car market share passed the one percent mark ( 1 @.@ 41 % ) for the first time .
The following table presents the top 10 countries according to their PEV market share of total new car sales between 2015 and 2013 . The market share for two selected regions , Europe and California , is also shown .
= = = = United States = = = =
As of June 2016 , the United States is the country with the largest fleet of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in the world , with about 474 @,@ 000 highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric cars sold since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008 . As of May 2016 , the American plug @-@ in stock represented 30 @.@ 7 % of the global stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles . California is the country 's largest regional market with 200 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric vehicles delivered by March 2016 , representing 47 % of all plug @-@ in cars sold in American market since 2008 . As of mid 2013 , 52 % of American plug @-@ in electric car registrations were concentrated in five metropolitan areas : San Francisco , Los Angeles , Seattle , New York , and Atlanta .
Nationwide sales climbed from 17 @,@ 800 units delivered in 2011 to 53 @,@ 200 during 2012 , and reached 97 @,@ 100 in 2013 , up 83 % from the previous year . Cumulative plug @-@ in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250 @,@ 000 unit milestone in August 2014 . During 2014 plug @-@ in electric car sales totaled 123 @,@ 248 units , up 27 @.@ 0 % from 2013 , and fell to 114 @,@ 248 in 2015 , down 7 @.@ 4 % from 2014 . A total of 64 @,@ 165 plug @-@ in cars were sold during the first half of 2016 , up 18 @.@ 9 % from the same period in 2015 . June 2016 is the best monthly plug @-@ in sales volume on record , with 13 @,@ 772 units delivered . The previous record was set in December 2015 , with over 13 @,@ 274 units delivered .
The market share of plug @-@ in electric passenger cars increased from 0 @.@ 14 % of new car sales in 2011 to 0 @.@ 37 % in 2012 , 0 @.@ 62 % in 2013 , and reached 0 @.@ 75 % of new car sales during 2014 . As plug @-@ in car sales slowed down during 2015 , the segment 's market share fell to 0 @.@ 66 % of new car sales . The market share increased to 0 @.@ 75 % during the first half of 2016 . The highest @-@ ever market share for plug @-@ in vehicles was achieved also in June 2016 with 0 @.@ 91 % of new car sales . California plug @-@ in sales in 2015 achieved a 3 @.@ 1 % market share , 4 @.@ 7 times higher than the U.S. , and its plug @-@ in market share was surpassed only by two countries , Norway ( 22 @.@ 4 % ) and the Netherlands ( 9 @.@ 7 % ) .
As of December 2014 , cumulative sales of plug @-@ in electric vehicles in the U.S. since December 2010 were led by plug @-@ in hybrids , with 150 @,@ 946 units sold representing 52 @.@ 7 % of all plug @-@ in car sales , while 135 @,@ 444 all @-@ electric cars ( 47 @.@ 3 % ) have been delivered to retail customers . This trend was reversed in 2015 , as the all @-@ electric segment grew much faster , with a total of 72 @,@ 303 all @-@ electric cars sold , up 6 @.@ 6 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while plug @-@ in hybrid were down 22 @.@ 4 % year @-@ on @-@ year , with 42 @,@ 959 units sold . As of December 2015 , a total of 206 @,@ 508 all @-@ electric cars and 193 @,@ 904 plug @-@ in hybrids had been sold in the U.S. since 2010 , with all @-@ electrics representing 51 @.@ 6 % of cumulative sales .
As of June 2016 , cumulative sales are led by the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid with 98 @,@ 558 units , followed by the Nissan Leaf all @-@ electric car with 95 @,@ 384 units delivered . The Leaf passed the Chevrolet Volt as the top selling PEV in March 2015 , but the Volt became once again the best selling plug @-@ in car in the American market in March 2016 . Both plug @-@ in cars were released in December 2010 . Launched in the U.S. market in June 2012 , the Tesla Model S ranks as the third top selling plug @-@ in electric car with 74 @,@ 861 units sold , followed by the Prius PHV , launched in February 2012 , with 42 @,@ 335 units . Ranking fifth is the Ford Fusion Energi with 34 @,@ 624 units delivered through June 2016 .
Plug @-@ in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 30 @,@ 200 units , followed the Volt with 18 @,@ 805 , and the Model S with 16 @,@ 689 units . The Tesla Model S was the top selling plug @-@ in car in the U.S. in 2015 with 25 @,@ 202 units delivered , followed by the Nissan Leaf with 17 @,@ 269 units , the Volt with 15 @,@ 393 , and the BMW i3 with 11 @,@ 024 . During the first half of 2016 the Model S continued as the top selling plug @-@ in car in the country with about 11 @,@ 700 units , followed by the Volt with 9 @,@ 808 , and the Fusion Energi with 7 @,@ 235 .
= = = = China = = = =
New energy vehicle sales between January 2011 and April 2016 totaled 534 @,@ 344 units , of which , almost 93 % were sold between January 2014 and April 2016 . These figures include heavy @-@ duty commercial vehicles such buses and sanitation trucks , and only include vehicles manufactured in the country as imports are not subject to government subsidies . As of March 2016 , the Chinese stock of plug @-@ in electric vehicles consisted of 366 @,@ 219 all @-@ electric vehicles ( 72 @.@ 9 % ) and 136 @,@ 353 plug @-@ in hybrids ( 27 @.@ 1 % ) .
As of December 2014 , a total of 83 @,@ 198 plug @-@ in electric passenger cars had been registered in the country since 2008 . With 176 @,@ 627 plug @-@ in passenger cars sold in 2015 , China passed the U.S. , the top selling country in 2014 , and became the world 's best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric car country market in 2015 . As of March 2016 , in terms of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in passenger car stock , China ranks second after the United States , with cumulative sales of around 300 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in cars . As of December 2015 , the Chinese plug @-@ in stock represented 21 % of the global cumulative sales of highway legal plug @-@ in electric passenger cars .
The stock of new energy vehicles sold in China since 2011 , and accounting for all segments , passed the 500 @,@ 000 unit milestone in March 2016 , making the country the world 's leader in the plug @-@ in heavy @-@ duty segment , including electric buses , plug @-@ in trucks , and sanitation trucks . Over 160 @,@ 000 heavy @-@ duty new energy vehicles have been sold between 2011 and 2015 , of which , 123 @,@ 710 ( 77 @.@ 2 % ) were sold in 2015 . Sales of commercial new energy vehicles in 2015 consisted of 100 @,@ 763 all @-@ electric vehicles ( 81 @.@ 5 % ) and 22 @,@ 947 plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles ( 18 @.@ 5 % ) . The share of all @-@ electric bus sales in the Chinese bus market climbed from 2 % in 2010 to 9 @.@ 9 % in 2012 , and was expected to be closed to 20 % for 2013 . As of December 2014 , China had about 36 @,@ 500 all @-@ electric buses . As of December 2015 , China is the world 's largest electric bus market , and by 2020 , the country is expected to account for more than 50 % of the global electric bus market .
A total of 8 @,@ 159 new energy vehicles were sold in China during 2011 , including passenger cars ( 61 % ) and buses ( 28 % ) . Of these , 5 @,@ 579 units were all @-@ electric vehicles and 2 @,@ 580 plug @-@ in hybrids . Electric vehicle sales represented 0 @.@ 04 % of total new car sales in 2011 . Sales of new energy vehicles in 2012 reached 12 @,@ 791 units , which includes 11 @,@ 375 all @-@ electric vehicles and 1 @,@ 416 plug @-@ in hybrids . New energy vehicle sales in 2012 represented 0 @.@ 07 % of the country 's total new car sales . During 2013 new energy vehicle sales totaled 17 @,@ 642 units , up 37 @.@ 9 % from 2012 and representing 0 @.@ 08 % of the nearly 22 million new car sold in the country in 2013 . Deliveries included 14 @,@ 604 pure electric vehicles and 3 @,@ 038 plug @-@ in hybrids . The QQ3 EV was the top selling new energy car in China between 2011 and 2013 , with 2 @,@ 167 units sold in 2011 , 3 @,@ 129 in 2012 , and 5 @,@ 727 in 2013 . Cumulative sales since January 2011 through March 2014 reached 13 @,@ 039 units .
New energy vehicle sales during 2014 reached 74 @,@ 763 units , up 320 % from 2013 , and representing a market share of 0 @.@ 32 % of the 23 @.@ 5 million new car sales sold in the country that year . Of these , 71 % were passenger cars , 27 % buses , and 1 % trucks . A total of 45 @,@ 048 all @-@ electric vehicles were sold in 2014 , up 210 % from a year earlier , and 29 @,@ 715 plug @-@ in hybrids , up 880 % from 2013 . The BYD Qin plug @-@ in hybrid , introduced in December 2013 , ranked as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in China in 2014 with 14 @,@ 747 units sold , and became the country 's top selling passenger NEV ever . The Qin was followed by the all @-@ electrics Zotye Zhidou E20 , with 7 @,@ 341 units , and BAIC E150 EV , with 5 @,@ 234 .
Domestically produced new energy vehicle sales in 2015 totaled a record 331 @,@ 092 units , consisting of 247 @,@ 482 all @-@ electric vehicles and 83 @,@ 610 plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles , up 449 % and 191 % from 2014 , respectively . Sales of plug @-@ in passenger cars , excluding imports , totaled 176 @,@ 627 units in 2015 , allowing China to rank as the world 's best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric car country market in 2015 . The plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment market share rose to 0 @.@ 84 % in 2015 , up from 0 @.@ 25 % in 2014 . The top selling passenger models in 2015 were the BYD Qin plug @-@ in hybrid with 31 @,@ 898 units sold , followed by the BYD Tang ( 18 @,@ 375 ) , and the all @-@ electrics Kandi EV ( 16 @,@ 736 ) , BAIC E150 / 160 / 200 EV ( 16 @,@ 488 ) , and the Zotye Z100 EV ( 15 @,@ 467 ) .
As of December 2015 , the BYD Qin continues to rank as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in passenger car in the country , with cumulative sales of 46 @,@ 787 units since its introduction . The BYD Qin was the world 's second best selling plug @-@ in hybrid car in 2015 after the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , and also ranked fifth among the world 's top selling plug @-@ in electric cars in 2015 . As a reflexion of the explosive growth of the Chinese plug @-@ in electric car market in 2015 , BYD Auto ended 2015 as the world 's best selling manufacturer of highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles , with around 60 @,@ 000 units sold , ahead of Tesla Motors ( 50 @,@ 580 ) .
Sales of domestically produced new energy vehicle sales totaled 58 @,@ 125 units during the first quarter of 2016 , consisting of 42 @,@ 131 all @-@ electric vehicles and 15 @,@ 994 plug @-@ in hybrid vehicles , up 140 % and 43 % from the same quarter in 2015 , respectively . Sales in the new energy passenger segment totaled 39 @,@ 500 units , consisting of 24 @,@ 480 all @-@ electric cars and 14 @,@ 800 plug @-@ in hybrids , up 63 % and 37 % from the same quarter in 2015 , correspondinly .
= = = = Japan = = = =
As of March 2016 , the stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in Japan is the third largest in the world after the United States and China , with about 150 @,@ 000 highway legal plug @-@ in electric vehicles sold in the country since 2009 . During 2012 , global sales of pure electric cars were led by Japan with a 28 % market share of total sales , followed by the United States with a 26 % share . Japan ranked second after the U.S. in terms of its share of plug @-@ in hybrid sales in 2012 , with a 12 % of global sales . A total of 30 @.@ 587 highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric vehicles were sold in Japan in 2013 . In 2014 the segment sales remained flat with 30 @,@ 390 units sold , and a market share of 1 @.@ 06 % of total new car sales in the country ( kei cars not included ) .
As of December 2014 , the Nissan Leaf is the market leader with 48 @,@ 641 units sold since December 2010 , followed by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with 19 @,@ 672 units sold since January 2013 . The Prius PHV has sold 19 @,@ 100 units between January 2012 and September 2014 , and the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV , launched for fleet customers in Japan in late July 2009 , with cumulative sales of 10 @,@ 423 i @-@ MiEVs through September 2014 . Combined sales of the van and truck version of the Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV reached 6 @,@ 291 units through December 2014 . Other models available in Japan are the Honda Accord Plug @-@ in Hybrid , Tesla Model S , BMW i3 , BMW i8 , and the Nissan e @-@ NV200 , but official sales figures are not available .
During 2013 sales were led by the Nissan Leaf with 13 @,@ 021 units , followed by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 9 @,@ 608 units . The Leaf continued as the market leader in 2014 with 14 @,@ 177 units sold , followed by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 10 @,@ 064 units , together representing about 80 % of the plug @-@ in segment sales in Japan in 2014 ( 30 @,@ 390 ) .
= = = = Europe = = = =
Cumulative sales of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in Europe passed the 500 @,@ 000 unit milestone in May 2016 , representing about a third of global sales . Of these , 192 @,@ 827 units ( 38 @.@ 6 % ) were registered in 2015 . Out of the plug @-@ in stock registered in 2015 , passenger cars accounted for 186 @,@ 170 units ( 96 @.@ 5 % ) . European sales in the light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric segment , which includes utility vans , were led by the Netherlands with almost 90 @,@ 000 units registered at the end of 2015 . Almost 25 % of the European stock is on the roads in the Nordic countries , with over 100 @,@ 000 registered plug @-@ in electric cars as of December 2015 . Combined registrations in the four countries in 2015 were up 91 % from 2014 . The stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles registered in Norway passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in April 2016 , making the country the fourth largest plug @-@ in market in the world after the U.S. , China and Japan , and becoming the leading European market .
A total of 1 @,@ 614 all @-@ electric cars and 1 @,@ 305 light @-@ utility vehicles were sold in 2010 . Sales jumped from 2 @,@ 919 units in 2010 to 13 @,@ 779 in 2011 , consisting of 11 @,@ 271 pure electric cars and 2 @,@ 508 commercial vans . In addition , over 300 plug @-@ in hybrids were sold in 2011 , mainly Opel Amperas . Light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicle sales totaled 34 @,@ 333 units in 2012 , consisting of 24 @,@ 713 all @-@ electric cars and vans , and 9 @,@ 620 plug @-@ in hybrids . The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera plug @-@ in hybrid was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units , closely followed by the all @-@ electric Nissan Leaf with 5 @,@ 210 units .
The plug @-@ in segment sales more than double to 71 @,@ 943 units in 2013 . Pure electric passenger and light commercial vehicles sales increased by 63 @.@ 9 % to 40 @,@ 496 units . In addition , a total of 31 @,@ 477 extended @-@ range cars and plug @-@ in hybrids were sold in 2013 . Registrations reached 104 @,@ 746 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles in 2014 , up 45 @.@ 6 % from 2013 . A total of 65 @,@ 199 pure electric cars and light @-@ utility vehicles were registered in Europe in 2014 , up 60 @.@ 9 % from 2013 . All @-@ electric passenger cars represented 87 % of the European all @-@ electric segment registrations . Extended @-@ range cars and plug @-@ in hybrid registrations totaled 39 @,@ 547 units in 2014 , up 25 @.@ 8 % from 2013 .
For the first time in the region , in 2015 plug @-@ in hybrids ( 195 @,@ 140 ) outsold all @-@ electric cars ( 89 @,@ 640 ) in the passenger car segment , however , when light @-@ duty plug @-@ in utility vehicles are accounted for , the all @-@ electric segment totaled 97 @,@ 687 registrations in 2015 , up 65 @,@ 199 in 2014 , and ahead of the plug @-@ in hybrid segment . Also in 2015 , the European market share of plug @-@ in electric cars passed the 1 % mark for the first time , with a 1 @.@ 41 % share of new car sales that year .
During 2013 took place a surge in sales of plug @-@ in hybrids in the European market , particularly in the Netherlands , with 20 @,@ 164 PHEVs registered during the year . Out of the 71 @,@ 943 highway @-@ capable plug @-@ in electric passenger cars and utility vans sold in the region during 2013 , plug @-@ in hybrids totaled 31 @,@ 447 units , representing 44 % of the plug @-@ in electric vehicle segment sales that year . This trend continued in 2014 . Plug @-@ in hybrids represented almost 30 % of the plug @-@ in electric drive sales during the first six months of 2014 , and with the exception of the Nissan Leaf , sales of the previous European best selling models fell significantly , while recently introduced models captured a significant share of the segment sales , with the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , Tesla Model S , BMW i3 , Renault Zoe , Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! , and the Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid ranking among the top ten best selling models .
In 2014 Norway was the top selling country in the light @-@ duty all @-@ electric market segment , with 18 @,@ 649 passenger cars and utility vans registered , more than doubling its 2013 sales . France ranked second with 15 @,@ 046 units registered , followed by Germany with 8 @,@ 804 units , the UK with 7 @,@ 730 units , and the Netherlands with 3 @,@ 585 car and vans registrations . The Netherlands was the top selling country in the plug @-@ in hybrid segment with 12 @,@ 425 passenger cars registered , followed by the UK with 7 @,@ 821 , Germany with 4 @,@ 527 , and Sweden 3 @,@ 432 units . Five European countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1 % of new car sales in 2014 , Norway ( 13 @.@ 84 % ) , the Netherlands ( 3 @.@ 87 % ) , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 71 % ) , Estonia ( 1 @.@ 57 % ) , and Sweden ( 1 @.@ 53 % ) .
In 2013 the top selling plug @-@ in was the Leaf with 11 @,@ 120 units sold , followed by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 8 @,@ 197 units . The Mitsubishi Outlander plug @-@ in hybrid was the top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in Europe in 2014 with 19 @,@ 853 units sold , surpassing of the Nissan Leaf ( 14 @,@ 658 ) , which fell to second place . Ranking third was the Renault Zoe with 11 @,@ 231 units .
For a second year running , the Mitsubishi ’ s Outlander P @-@ HEV was the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Europe with 31 @,@ 214 units sold in 2015 , up 57 % from 2014 . The Renault Zoe ranked second among plug @-@ in electric cars , with 18 @,@ 727 registrations , and surpassed the Nissan Leaf to become best selling pure electric car in Europe in 2015 . Ranking next were the Volkswagen Golf GTE plug @-@ in hybrid ( 17 @,@ 300 ) , followed by the all @-@ electric Tesla Model S ( 15 @,@ 515 ) and the Nissan Leaf ( 15 @,@ 455 ) , the BMW i3 , including its REx variant , ( 12 @,@ 047 ) , and the Audi A3 e @-@ tron plug @-@ in hybrid ( 11 @,@ 791 ) .
The Netherlands was the top selling country in the European light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric market segment , with 43 @,@ 971 passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015 . Norway ranked second with 34 @,@ 455 units registered , followed by the UK with 28 @,@ 188 units , France with 27 @,@ 701 car and vans registrations , and Germany with 23 @,@ 464 plug @-@ in cars . Eight European countries achieved plug @-@ in electric car sales with a market share higher than 1 % of new car sales in 2015 , Norway ( 22 @.@ 4 % ) , the Netherlands ( 9 @.@ 7 % ) , Iceland ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) , Sweden ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) , Denmark ( 2 @.@ 3 % ) , Switzerland ( 2 @.@ 0 % ) , France ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) and the UK ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) .
As of December 2015 , and accounting for cumulative sales since 2010 , the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV is the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the region with 59 @,@ 264 units delivered , followed by the Nissan Leaf with 48 @,@ 936 units , Renault Zoe with 38 @,@ 890 units , Tesla Model S with 28 @,@ 149 , and the BMW i3 with 23 @,@ 268 units . The Renault Kangoo Z.E. is the top selling all @-@ electric utility van with 21 @,@ 016 units .
= = = = = Norway = = = = =
The stock of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles registered in Norway passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in April 2016 , making the country the fourth largest plug @-@ in market in the world . Accounting for registrations of both new car sales and used imports , the Norwegian light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric fleet consist of about 81 @,@ 500 all @-@ electric passenger cars , almost 17 @,@ 100 plug @-@ in hybrids , and over 2 @,@ 000 all @-@ electric vans . The government 's target of 50 @,@ 000 all @-@ electric cars on Norwegian roads was reached in April 2015 , more than two years earlier than expected .
Sales of used imports in Norway are significant , and as of December 2015 , over 11 @,@ 500 used plug @-@ in vehicles from neighboring countries had been imported , mainly pure electric cars . Registrations of used all @-@ electric cars totaled 2 @,@ 086 units in 2013 , 3 @,@ 063 in 2014 and 5 @,@ 122 in 2015 . In addition , about 1 @,@ 300 used electric cars were imported into Norway before 2013 .
The Norwegian fleet of electric cars is one of the cleanest in the world because almost 100 % of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydropower . Norway , with about 5 @.@ 2 million people , is the country with the largest EV ownweship per capita in the world . In March 2014 , Norway became the first country where over one in every 100 registered passenger cars is plug @-@ in electric . The segment 's market penetration reached 2 % in March 2015 , and passed 3 % in December 2015 .
The Norwegian plug @-@ in electric vehicle market share of new car sales is the highest in the world , the EV segment market share rose from 1 @.@ 6 % in 2011 , to 3 @.@ 1 % in 2012 , and reached 5 @.@ 6 % of new car sales in 2013 . The Norwegian all @-@ electric segment increased its market share of new car sales to 12 @.@ 5 % in 2014 , and rises to 13 @.@ 8 % if plug @-@ in hybrids are accounted for . The combined sales of new plug @-@ in cars reached a market share of 23 @.@ 4 % of all new passenger cars sold in 2015 , with the all @-@ electric car segment reaching 17 @.@ 1 % , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment reached 5 @.@ 2 % .
Also , Norway was the first country in the world to have electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking . The Tesla Model S has been the top selling new car four times , twice in 2013 , first in September and again in December , one more time in March 2014 , and again in March 2015 . The Nissan Leaf has topped the monthly new car sales ranking twice , first in October 2013 and again in January 2014 . In March 2014 the Tesla Model S also broke the 28 @-@ year @-@ old record for monthly sales of a single model regardless of its power source , with 1 @,@ 493 units sold , surpassing the Ford Sierra , which sold 1 @,@ 454 units in May 1986 . In March 2015 another record was set , with three all @-@ electric cars ranking as the top 3 selling new cars in the country , the Tesla Model S with 1 @,@ 140 units , the Volkswagen e @-@ Golf with 956 ( out of a total of 1 @,@ 421 units sold by the Golf nameplate ) , and the Nissan Leaf with 526 .
Plug @-@ in electric vehicle registrations totaled 10 @,@ 769 units in 2013 , and the segment achieved a 6 @.@ 9 % market share of total 2013 car registrations . The Leaf continued as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2013 , with 4 @,@ 604 new units sold , followed by the Tesla Model S with 1 @,@ 986 units , and the Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! with 580 . A total of 23 @,@ 390 plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in 2014 including used imports . Combined sales of new and used plug @-@ in electric vehicles captured a 13 @.@ 84 % market share of total passenger car registrations in 2014 . Plug @-@ in electric car sales in 2014 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 4 @,@ 781 new registrations , followed by Tesla Model S with 4 @,@ 040 units . Norway ended 2014 as the top selling European country in the light @-@ duty all @-@ electric market segment , with 18 @,@ 649 passenger cars and utility vans registered .
A total of 39 @,@ 632 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in 2015 , up 69 @.@ 3 % from 2014 . New plug @-@ in sales totaled 34 @,@ 455 units , consisting of 25 @,@ 779 pure electric cars , 7 @,@ 964 plug @-@ in hybrids , and 712 all @-@ electric utility vans . A total of 5 @,@ 177 used imports were registered , of which , 5 @,@ 122 were pure electric cars . The Norwegian fleet of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vechicles reached 84 @,@ 401 units registered as of December 2015 , including both new and used imports , and consisting of 74 @,@ 024 all @-@ electric passenger and light @-@ duty vehicles , and 10 @,@ 377 plug @-@ in hybrids .
The combined sales of new plug @-@ in cars reached a market share of 23 @.@ 4 % of all new passenger cars sold in 2015 , with the all @-@ electric car segment reaching 17 @.@ 1 % , up from 12 @.@ 5 % in 2014 , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment reached 5 @.@ 2 % , up from 1 % in 2014 . The VW e @-@ Golf , with 8 @,@ 943 units sold , was the best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric car in Norway in 2015 , ahead of the Tesla Model S ( 4 @,@ 039 ) and the Nissan Leaf ( 3 @,@ 189 ) . The top selling plug @-@ in hybrid in 2015 was the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with 2 @,@ 875 units , followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE with 2 @,@ 000 , and the Audi A3 e @-@ tron with 1 @,@ 684 units .
As of December 2015 , the Nissan Leaf continued as the all @-@ time best selling plug @-@ in electric car in the country with a total of 15 @,@ 245 new Leafs registered since 2011 . In addition , a significant number of used imported Leafs from neighboring countries have been registered in the country , raising the stock of registered Leafs to over 20 @,@ 000 units , meaning that more than 10 % of Leafs sold in the world are on Norwegian roads by November 2015 . Ranking second is the Volkswagen e @-@ Golf , with 10 @,@ 961 new units registered since 2014 , flowed by the Tesla Model S , with 10 @,@ 062 new units registered in Norway through December 2015 , representing about 10 % of the Model S global sales .
The highest @-@ ever monthly market share for plug @-@ in electric passenger segment was achieved in March 2016 with 33 @.@ 5 % of new car sales ; the all @-@ electric car segment had a 18 @.@ 7 % market share among new passenger cars , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment had a 14 @.@ 8 % . Sales of new light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicles totaled 22 @,@ 425 units during the first half of 2016 , consisting of 11 @,@ 744 all @-@ electric cars , 10 @,@ 338 plug @-@ in hybrids , and 343 all @-@ electric vans . The combined sales of new plug @-@ in cars reached a market share of 28 @.@ 4 % of all new passenger cars sold during the first six months of 2016 , with the all @-@ electric car segment reaching 15 @.@ 1 % , down from 18 @.@ 4 % in the same period in 2015 , while the plug @-@ in hybrid segment reached a record 13 @.@ 3 % , up from 4 @.@ 5 % in 2015 . The all @-@ electric van segment captured 2 @.@ 2 % of new van sales , up from 0 @.@ 4 % during the same period the previous year . The VW e @-@ Golf continued as top selling all @-@ electric car during the first half of 2016 with 2 @,@ 859 units , representing 24 @.@ 3 % of the all @-@ electric car sales , while the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV was the top selling plug @-@ in hybrid , with 2 @,@ 843 units representing 27 @.@ 5 % of the segment sales .
= = = = = Netherlands = = = = =
A total of 93 @,@ 310 highway legal light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands by the end of May 2016 , consisting of 81 @,@ 124 range @-@ extended and plug @-@ in hybrids , 10 @,@ 690 pure electric cars , and 1 @,@ 496 all @-@ electric light utility vans . When buses , trucks , motorcycles , quadricycles and tricycles are accounted for , the Dutch plug @-@ in electric @-@ drive fleet climbs to 94 @,@ 726 units . The country 's electric vehicle stock reaches 128 @,@ 936 units when fuel cell electric vehicles ( 23 ) , mopeds ( 3 @,@ 682 ) , electric bicycles ( 30 @,@ 265 ) , and microcars ( 240 ) are accounted for .
As of May 2016 , the Netherlands ranks as the second top selling European market after Norway , and also has the world 's fifth largest light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicle stock . With 43 @,@ 971 plug @-@ in passenger cars and utility vans registered in 2015 , the Netherlands was the world 's third best @-@ selling country market for light @-@ duty plug @-@ in vehicles that year . The Netherlands is also among the country 's with the highest EV market penetration in the world .
Registrations of plug @-@ in electric car represented a 0 @.@ 57 % share of total new car registrations in the country during 2011 and 2012 . During 2013 plug @-@ in electric passenger car registrations totaled 22 @,@ 415 units , climbing 338 % from 2012 , the highest rate of growth of any country in the world in 2013 . The segment 's market share surged almost ten times from 2012 to 5 @.@ 37 % new car sales in the country during that year , the world 's second highest in 2013 after Norway ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) . The rapid growth of segment during 2013 , allowed the Netherlands to reach a market penetration for plug @-@ in vehicles of around 1 @.@ 71 vehicles per 1 @,@ 000 people , second only to Norway ( 4 @.@ 04 ) . The market share of the plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment in 2014 fell to 3 @.@ 86 % of total new passenger car registrations , after the end of some of the tax incentives . With 43 @,@ 769 plug @-@ in passenger cars registered in 2015 , the segment market share rose to a record 9 @.@ 7 % of new car sales in the Dutch market in 2015 , the second highest after Norway ( 22 @.@ 4 % ) .
In November 2013 , a total of 2 @,@ 736 Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEVs were sold , making the plug @-@ in hybrid the top selling new car in the country that month , representing a market share of 6 @.@ 8 % of all the new cars sold . Again in December 2013 , the Outlander P @-@ HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4 @,@ 976 units , representing a 12 @.@ 6 % market share of new car sales , contributing to a world record plug @-@ in vehicle market share of 23 @.@ 8 % of new car sales . The Netherlands is the second country , after Norway , where plug @-@ in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales . The strong increase of plug @-@ in car sles during the last months of 2013 was due to the end of the total exemption of the registration fee for corporate cars , which is valid for 5 years . From January 1 , 2014 , all @-@ electric vehicles pay a 4 % registration fee and plug @-@ in hybrids a 7 % fee .
A total of 15 @,@ 678 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands in 2014 , consisting of 12 @,@ 425 plug @-@ in hybrids , down 38 @.@ 4 % from 2013 , 2 @,@ 664 all @-@ electric cars , up 18 @.@ 3 % from a year earlier , and 589 vans , up 236 @.@ 6 % from 2013 . Sales in 2014 were led by the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 7 @,@ 666 units , followed by Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 3 @,@ 126 units , and Tesla Model S with 1 @,@ 465 units sold .
The top 5 best @-@ selling plug @-@ in electric cars in 2015 were all plug @-@ in hybrids , led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV ( 8 @,@ 757 ) , followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE ( 8 @,@ 183 ) , Audi A3 e @-@ tron ( 4 @,@ 354 ) , Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid ( 3 @,@ 851 ) , and Volkswagen Passat GTE ( 2 @,@ 879 ) . The top selling all @-@ electric car was the Tesla Model S ( 1 @,@ 842 ) . Plug @-@ in car sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2015 , with about 15 @,@ 900 units sold , and allowing the segment to reach a record market share of about 23 % . The surge in plug @-@ in car sales was due to reduction of the registration fees for plug @-@ in hybrids . From January 1 , 2016 , all @-@ electric vehicles continue to pay a 4 % registration fee , but for a plug @-@ in hybrid the fee rises from 7 % to 15 % if its CO2 emissions do not exceed 50 g / km . The rate for a conventional internal combustion car is 25 % of its book value .
As of December 2015 , the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV continues as the all @-@ time top @-@ selling plug @-@ in car in the country with 24 @,@ 506 registered . Ranking second is the Volvo V60 Plug @-@ in Hybrid ( 14 @,@ 470 ) , followed by the Volkswagen Golf GTE ( 8 @,@ 806 ) , Opel Ampera ( 4 @,@ 947 units ) , Tesla Model S ( 4 @,@ 832 ) , and Audi A3 e @-@ tron ( 4 @,@ 657 ) . A total of 78 @,@ 163 plug @-@ in hybrids out of 87 @,@ 531 passenger plug @-@ in electric vehicles were registered in the Netherlands as of 31 December 2015 , meaning that plug @-@ in hybrids dominate the Dutch market with a share of 89 @.@ 3 % of the country 's highway legal plug @-@ in electric car stock .
= = = = = France = = = = =
Since January 2010 , a total of 86 @,@ 909 light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles have been registered in France through April 2016 , consisting of 54 @,@ 066 electric passenger cars , 22 @,@ 473 all @-@ electric utility vans , and 10 @,@ 370 plug @-@ in hybrids . Electric car registrations increased from 184 units in 2010 to 2 @,@ 630 in 2011 . Sales in 2012 increased 115 % from 2011 to 5 @,@ 663 cars , allowing France to rank 4th among the top selling EV countries , with an 11 % market share of global all @-@ electric car sales in 2012 . Registrations reached 8 @,@ 779 electric cars in 2013 , up 55 @.@ 0 % from 2012 , and the all @-@ electric market share of total new car sales went up to 0 @.@ 49 % from 0 @.@ 3 % in 2012 .
In addition , 5 @,@ 175 electric utility vans were registered in 2013 , up 42 % from 2012 , and representing a market share of 1 @.@ 4 % of all new light commercial vehicles sold in 2013 . Sales of electric passenger cars and utility vans totaled 13 @,@ 954 units in 2013 , capturing a combined market share of 0 @.@ 65 of these two segments new car sales . When sales of pure electric cars and light utility vehicles are accounted together , France was the leading the European all @-@ electric market in 2012 and 2013 .
During 2014 sales of all @-@ electric vehicles in France passed the 10 @,@ 000 unit milestone for the first time . A total of 15 @,@ 045 all @-@ electric cars and vans were registered in 2014 , up 7 @.@ 8 % from 2013 . A total of 10 @,@ 560 pure electric passenger cars registered in 2014 , up 20 @.@ 3 % from the previous year . This figure rises to 10 @,@ 968 units if the BMW i3 with range extender is accounted for . All @-@ electric utility vans continued to be a significant share of the all @-@ electric segment , with 4 @,@ 485 units registered in 2014 , but down 13 @.@ 3 % from 2013 . All @-@ electric cars captured a 0 @.@ 59 % market share of the 1 @.@ 7 million new car registered in France in 2014 , while light @-@ duty electric vehicles reached a 1 @.@ 22 % market share of their segment . Combined both segments represented a market share of 0 @.@ 70 % of new registrations in the country in 2014 . Light @-@ duty all @-@ electric vehicle sales achieved its best monthly volume on record ever in December 2014 , with 2 @,@ 227 units registered , twice the volume registered the same month in 2013 . The slow down in sales that took place in the French EV market during the first half of 2014 , allowed Norway , with 18 @,@ 649 new all @-@ electric vehicles registered , to end 2014 as the top selling European market in the light @-@ duty all @-@ electric segment , and France ranked second . A total of 14 @,@ 833 light @-@ duty all @-@ electric vehicles were sold during the first nine months of 2015 , up 48 % from 2014 year @-@ on @-@ year .
In the French market plug @-@ in hybrids or rechargeable hybrids are classified and accounted together with conventional hybrid electric vehicles . Almost 1 @,@ 500 plug @-@ in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 2013 , 666 units in 2012 , and 808 units in 2013 . Plug @-@ in hybrid car registrations totaled 1 @,@ 519 units in 2014 , almost doubling registrations from a year earlier . Plug @-@ in hybrid sales were driven by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , with 820 units registered in 2014 , representing 54 % of the segment registrations in France that year . Between 2012 and 2014 , cumulative plug @-@ in hybrid registrations totaled 2 @,@ 985 units , rising cumulative French registrations of light @-@ duty plug @-@ in electric vehicles since 2005 to 46 @,@ 590 units , just ahead of the Netherlands ( 45 @,@ 020 ) , and making France the European country where there are more plug @-@ in electric vehicles on the road .
During 2012 , all @-@ electric car registrations in France were led by the Bolloré Bluecar with 1 @,@ 543 units . The Renault Kangoo Z.E. was the top selling utility electric vehicle with 2 @,@ 869 units registered in 2012 , representing a market share of 82 % of the segment . The Renault Twizy electric quadricycle , launched in March 2012 , sold 2 @,@ 232 units during 2012 , surpassing the Bolloré Bluecar , and ranked as the second best selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle after the Kangoo Z.E. During 2013 , registrations of pure electric cars were led by the Renault Zoe with 5 @,@ 511 units , representing 62 @.@ 8 % of total EV sales . Registrations of all @-@ electric light utility vehicles were led by the Renault Kangoo Z.E. with 4 @,@ 174 units , representing 80 @.@ 7 % of the segment sales .
The Zoe continued leading all @-@ electric vehicle registration in 2014 , with 5 @,@ 970 units registered , followed by the Kangoo Z.E. van with 2 @,@ 657 registrations , and the Nissan Leaf ranked next with 1 @,@ 600 units . As of December 2014 , the French leader in the all @-@ electric segment is the Renault Zoe with 11 @,@ 529 units registered since 2012 , followed by the Kangoo Z.E. utility van with 10 @,@ 483 units registered since 2010 , the Bolloré Bluecar with 3 @,@ 770 units , and the Nissan Leaf with 3 @,@ 645 units . Most units of the Bluecar are in operation for the Autolib ' carsharing service in Paris , and similar carsharing programs in Lyon and Bordeaux .
= = = = = United Kingdom = = = = =
About 71 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric vehicles have been registered in the UK up until March 2016 , including about 67 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in hybrids and all @-@ electric cars , and about 4 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in commercial vans . This figure includes a significant number of registered plug @-@ in electric cars and vans which were not eligible for the grant schemes . Since the launch of the Plug @-@ In Car Grant in January 2011 , a total of 66 @,@ 296 eligible cars have been registered through June 2016 , and , as of March 2016 , the number of claims made through the Plug @-@ in Van Grant scheme totaled 2 @,@ 167 units since the launch of the scheme in 2012 .
Before the introduction of series production plug @-@ in vehicles , a total of 1 @,@ 096 all @-@ electric vehicles were registered in the UK between 2006 and December 2010 . All @-@ electric car sales grew from 138 units in 2010 to 1 @,@ 082 units during 2011 . Before 2011 , the G @-@ Wiz , a heavy quadricycle , listed as the top @-@ selling EV for several years . During 2012 , a total of 2 @,@ 254 plug @-@ in electric cars were registered in the UK . Sales in 2012 were led by the Nissan Leaf with 699 units , followed by the Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 470 . Vehicles eligible for the Plug @-@ in Car Grant accounted for 0 @.@ 1 % of total new car sales in 2012 . Plug @-@ in electric car registrations totaled 3 @,@ 584 units in 2013 , up 59 @.@ 0 % from 2012 . Plug @-@ in car sales represented a 0 @.@ 16 % market share of new cars sold in the UK in 2013 . The top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2013 was the Nissan Leaf , with over 1 @,@ 650 units sold , and the Prius PHV ended 2013 as the top selling plug @-@ in hybrid with 509 units .
The British market experienced a rapid growth of plug @-@ in car sales during 2014 , driven by the introduction of new models such as the BMW i3 , Tesla Model S , Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV , Renault Zoe , and Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! . Plug @-@ in electric car registrations in the UK quadruple from 3 @,@ 586 in 2013 to 14 @,@ 518 units in 2014 . Registrations consisted of 6 @,@ 697 pure electrics and 7 @,@ 821 plug @-@ in hybrids . Total registrations in 2014 were up 305 % from 2013 , with all @-@ electric cars growing 167 % while plug @-@ in hybrid registrations were up 628 % from a year earlier . The plug @-@ in electric car segment captured a 0 @.@ 59 % market share of new car sales in 2014 , up from 0 @.@ 16 % in 2013 . In November 2014 the passenger plug @-@ in segment 's market share passed 1 % of monthly new car sales for the first time in the UK .
The Mitsubishi plug @-@ in hybrid became the top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in July 2014 and captured 43 % of all applications to the Plug @-@ in Car Grants scheme that month . The Outlander P @-@ HEV ended 2014 as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the UK that year with 5 @,@ 370 units sold . The Nissan Leaf sales also experienced a significant growth in 2014 , with 4 @,@ 051 units sold , up 124 % from the 1 @,@ 812 units sold in 2013 .
The surge in demand for plug @-@ in cars continued during 2015 . Plug @-@ in electric car registrations in the UK totaled 28 @,@ 188 units in 2015 , consisting of 9 @,@ 934 pure electric cars and 18 @,@ 254 plug @-@ in hybrids . Total registrations in 2015 were up 94 @.@ 0 % from 2014 , with all @-@ electric cars growing 48 @.@ 3 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while plug @-@ in hybrid registrations were up 133 @.@ 0 % year @-@ on @-@ year . The plug @-@ in electric car segment raised its market share of new car sales in 2015 to almost 1 @.@ 1 % , up from 0 @.@ 59 % in 2014 . The plug @-@ in segment reached a record market share of 1 @.@ 7 % of new car sales in the UK , the highest ever .
Sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV in the British market reached the 10 @,@ 000 unit milestone in March 2015 , allowing the plug @-@ in hybrid to overtake the Leaf as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in the UK . Sales of the Nissan Leaf sales passed the 10 @,@ 000 unit milestone in June 2015 . The top selling models in 2015 were the Outlander P @-@ HEV with 11 @,@ 681 units registered , up 118 % from 2014 , followed by the Leaf with 5 @,@ 236 units ( up 29 % ) , and the BMW i3 with 2 @,@ 213 units ( up 59 % ) . As of December 2015 , the Outlander P @-@ HEV continued to rank as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the UK ever , with 17 @,@ 045 units registered , and the Nissan Leaf , the top selling all @-@ electric car ever , totaled 12 @,@ 433 units registered . Plug @-@ in car sales in March 2016 achieved the best monthly plug @-@ in sales volume on record ever , with 7 @,@ 144 grant eligible cars registered , exceeding the previous high of 6 @,@ 104 units , recorded in March 2015 .
A total of 19 @,@ 252 plug @-@ in electric cars were registered in the UK during the first half of 2016 , consisting of 5 @,@ 267 pure electrics , up 12 @.@ 5 % from the same period in 2015 , and 13 @,@ 985 plug @-@ in hybrids , up 40 @.@ 8 % from 2015 . During the first half of 2016 the plug @-@ in car segment 's market share reached 1 @.@ 36 % of new car sales . While overall new car registrations year @-@ to @-@ date increased 3 @.@ 2 % from the same period in 2015 , total plug @-@ in car registrations during the quarter increased 31 @.@ 8 % from 2015 .
= = = = = Germany = = = = =
As of April 2016 , there were about 57 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in electric cars registered in Germany . About 73 % of the about 50 @,@ 000 plug @-@ in cars registered in the country by the end of 2015 took place during the last two years , with 13 @,@ 049 units registered in 2014 , and 23 @,@ 464 registered in 2015 . The official German definition of electric vehicles changed at the beginning of 2013 , before that , official statistics only registered all @-@ electric vehicles because plug @-@ in hybrids were accounted together with conventional hybrids . As a result , the registrations figures for 2012 and older do not account for total new plug @-@ in electric car registrations . As of November 2014 , the country had 4 @,@ 800 public charging stations .
Total plug @-@ in electric car registrations increased from 1 @,@ 558 units in 2009 to 2 @,@ 307 in 2010 . The total registered plug @-@ in electric stock in 2011 increased 96 @.@ 8 % from 2010 to 4 @,@ 541 cars , to 7 @,@ 114 in 2012 , and reached 12 @,@ 156 registered cars on 1 January 2014 . Registrations of plug @-@ in electric drive vehicles represented a 0 @.@ 028 % market share of all passenger vehicles registered in Germany at the beginning of 2014 . The plug @-@ in hybrid segment in the German market in 2014 experienced an explosive growth of 226 @.@ 9 % year @-@ over @-@ year , and the overall plug @-@ in segment increased 75 @.@ 5 % from a year earlier . The surge in sales continued in 2015 , the plug @-@ in hybrid segment grew 125 @.@ 1 % year @-@ over @-@ year , while the all @-@ electric segment climbed 91 @.@ 2 % from the previous year .
During 2011 , a total of 2 @,@ 154 pure electric cars were registered in the country , up from 541 units in 2010 . All @-@ electric car sales for 2011 were led by the Mitsubishi i @-@ MiEV family with 683 i @-@ MiEVs , 208 Peugeot iOns and 200 Citroën C @-@ Zeros , representing 50 @.@ 6 % of all electric car registrations in 2011 . Plug @-@ in hybrid registrations totaled 266 units in 2011 , 241 Opel Amperas and 25 Chevrolet Volts , for a total of 2 @,@ 420 plug @-@ in electric vehicles registered in 2011 .
A total of 2 @,@ 956 all @-@ electric vehicles were registered in Germany during 2012 , a 37 @.@ 2 % increase over 2011 . When 901 registered plug @-@ in hybrids are accounted for , 2012 registrations climb to 3 @,@ 857 units , and sales of plug @-@ in electric car represented a 0 @.@ 12 % market share of new passenger vehicles sold in the country in 2012 . Most sales in the country were made by corporate and fleet customers and 1 @,@ 493 all @-@ electric vehicles were registered by the automobile industry , as demonstration or research vehicles . Registrations of plug @-@ in electric @-@ drive vehicles were led by the Opel Ampera extended @-@ range electric car with 828 units , followed by the Smart electric drive with 734 units . In addition , a total of 2 @,@ 413 Renault Twizys were sold during 2012 , making Germany the top selling European market for the electric quadricycle .
A total of 5 @,@ 042 plug @-@ in electric cars were registered in Germany in 2013 . Registrations were led by the Smart electric drive with 2 @,@ 146 units , followed by Renault Zoe with 1 @,@ 019 , the Nissan Leaf with 855 units , and the BMW i3 with 559 . During the first six months of 2014 the BMW i3 was the leader , with 1 @,@ 378 units registered , followed by the Volkswagen e @-@ Up ! with 884 and the Smart ED with 645 . Accounting for registrations of plug @-@ in electric cars between January 2010 and June 2014 , the leading model is the Smart electric drive with 3 @,@ 959 units registered , with a significant number in use by carsharing services , followed by the BMW i3 with 1 @,@ 937 units , the Renault Zoe with 1 @,@ 532 , and the Opel Ampera with 1 @,@ 450 units .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Cumulative sales of plug @-@ in electric cars in Canada passed the 20 @,@ 000 unit mark in May 2016 . The Chevrolet Volt , released in 2011 , is the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicle in the country , with cumulative sales of 6 @,@ 387 units through May 2015 , representing over 30 % of all plug @-@ in cars sold in the country . Ranking second is the Tesla Model S with 4 @,@ 160 units sold through April 2016 , followed by the Nissan Leaf with 3 @,@ 692 units delivered as of May 2016 .
As of December 2015 , there were 18 @,@ 451 highway legal plug @-@ in electric cars registered in Canada , consisting of 10 @,@ 034 ( 54 % ) all @-@ electric cars and 8 @,@ 417 ( 46 % ) plug @-@ in hybrids . Until 2014 Canadian sales were evenly split between all @-@ electric cars ( 50 @.@ 8 ) % and plug @-@ in hybrids ( 49 @.@ 2 % ) . The Model S was the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Canada in 2015 with 2 @,@ 010 units sold .
= = = Top selling PEV models = = =
= = = = All @-@ electric cars and vans = = = =
The world 's top selling highway @-@ capable all @-@ electric car ever is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of almost 220 @,@ 000 units by mid @-@ April 2016 . The top markets for Leaf sales is the United States with 93 @,@ 309 units delivered through April 2016 , followed by Japan with 64 @,@ 635 units sold through March 2016 , and Europe with over 55 @,@ 000 Leafs sold through March 2016 . The European market is led by Norway with 17 @,@ 199 new units registered up until April 2016 .
Ranking second is the all @-@ electric Tesla Model S , with global deliveries of about 120 @,@ 000 units through March 2016 . The United States is the leading market with about 71 @,@ 000 units sold through April 2016 . Norway is the Model S largest overseas market , with 10 @,@ 871 new units registered through April 2016 , followed by China with 5 @,@ 524 units registered through September 2015 . The world 's top selling all @-@ electric light utility vehicle is the Renault Kangoo Z.E. , with global sales of 21 @,@ 220 electric vans delivered through December 2015 .
The following table presents global sales of the top selling highway @-@ capable electric cars and light utility vehicles produced between 2008 and December 2015 . The table includes all @-@ electric passenger cars and utility vans with cumulative sales of about or over 25 @,@ 000 units since the introduction of the first modern production all @-@ electric car in 2008 , the Tesla Roadster .
= = = = Plug @-@ in hybrids = = = =
The Volt / Ampera family is the world 's best selling plug @-@ in hybrid and the third best selling plug @-@ in electric car after the Model S , with combined sales of over 110 @,@ 000 units worldwide through March 2016 , including about 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through the end of 2015 . As of April 2016 , sales are led by the United States with 94 @,@ 720 Volts delivered , followed by Canada with 6 @,@ 117 units sold . The Netherlands is the leading Ampera market with 4 @,@ 947 units registered as of December 2015 .
Ranking next is the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV with almost 102 @,@ 000 units sold worldwide as of March 2016 . Europe is the leading market with 65 @,@ 529 units sold , followed by Japan with 33 @,@ 730 units . European sales are led by the Netherlands with 24 @,@ 572 units registered , followed by the UK with 21 @,@ 053 units registered , both at the end of March 2016 , and Sweden with 4 @,@ 433 units sold through November 2015 .
Ranking third is the first generation Toyota Prius Plug @-@ in Hybrid with 75 @,@ 400 units sold worldwide through April 2016 . The United States is the market leader with 42 @,@ 320 units delivered through April 2016 . Japan ranks next with about 22 @,@ 100 units , followed by Europe with 10 @,@ 500 units , both , through April 2016 . The leading European market is the Netherlands with 4 @,@ 134 units registered as of 30 November 2015 . Production of the first generation Prius Plug @-@ in ended in June 2015 . The second generation Prius plug @-@ in hybrid , the Toyota Prius Prime , is expected to be released in the U.S. by the end of 2016 .
The following table presents cumulative sales through December 2015 of those plug @-@ in hybrid models that have sold about 10 @,@ 000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle in December 2008 , the BYD F3DM .
= = Books = =
David B. Sandalow , ed . ( 2009 ) . Plug @-@ In Electric Vehicles : What Role for Washington ? ( 1st. ed . ) . The Brookings Institution . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8157 @-@ 0305 @-@ 1 .
Mitchell , William J. ; Borroni @-@ Bird , Christopher ; Burns , Lawrence D. ( 2010 ) . Reinventing the Automobile : Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century ( 1st. ed . ) . The MIT Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 01382 @-@ 6 .
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= Wonder World Tour ( Miley Cyrus ) =
The Wonder World Tour is the second concert tour by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . The tour was held to promote her second studio album Breakout ( 2008 ) and first extended play ( EP ) The Time of Our Lives ( 2009 ) . It began in September 2009 and concluded in December 29 , visiting cities in the United States and United Kingdom ; thus , the Wonder World Tour became Cyrus ' first world tour . It also became Cyrus ' first tour not to incorporate performances as Hannah Montana . Alternative band Metro Station served as opening act for all tour venues . It was sponsored by Wal @-@ Mart and promoted by AEG Live . All tickets from the Wonder World Tour were sold using paperless ticketing , in order to prevent ticket scalping similar to what had occurred during Cyrus ' previous tour . One dollar from each ticket sold was donated to the City of Hope National Medical Center , an organization devoted to the fight against cancer .
The Wonder World Tour has been described as part of Cyrus ' transitional period , with more elaborate and edgier characteristics . Each concert was divided into seven segments , each of which bared different themes , the subject of matter for the tour 's title . The show opened with Cyrus performing rock @-@ oriented songs . It also featured her and backup dancers being suspended above the stage with aerial rigging various times . At one point , she mounted a Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycle as it was elevated and made its path across the venue . Cyrus also rendered a tribute to the deceased singer Michael Jackson and performed two Hannah Montana @-@ credited songs as herself .
The tour received positive to mixed reception from critics . Some praised it and deemed it a spectacle , while others believed it lacked profundity and portrayal of Cyrus ' personality . The Wonder World Tour was commercially successful despite the financial recession that was present in 2009 . It was able to sell @-@ out all European dates in ten minutes and marks the largest attendance at The O2 Arena in London . During the first leg of the tour , one bus overturned several times on a highway . The accident resulted in the injury of one person and the death of another . The cause of the accident is yet to be specified , yet multiple theories for it exist . A filtered version of the Wonder World Tour was broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on June 18 , 2010 and received a total of over 2 @.@ 6 million viewers . The full @-@ length concert film was released on the limited , deluxe edition of Cyrus ' third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) .
= = Background = =
Cyrus is a singer @-@ songwriter and actress who starred on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana as Miley Stewart , a girl with a secret double life as the popstar Hannah Montana . Through the television series , Cyrus developed fame as a teen idol and released music credited to Hannah Montana . Cyrus ' debut studio album , titled Meet Miley Cyrus , was released as the second disc of the Hannah Montana 2 / Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) double @-@ disc album . In order to promote the album , Cyrus embarked on her first tour , the Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) , a North American tour where she performed both under character , as Hannah Montana , and as herself . With the release of Cyrus ' second studio album , Breakout ( 2008 ) , her first not be affiliated with the Hannah Montana franchise , and an extended play ( EP ) The Time of Our Lives ( 2009 ) , Cyrus decided to embark on tour again with the Wonder World Tour , however , without incorporating performances as Hannah Montana , a step which the media interpreted as furthering her distance from the Hannah Montana franchise .
The concert tour was announced alongside Cyrus ' joint apparel line with Max Azria on June 3 , 2009 , through various outlets , including Miley ' Twitter account , a press release , and MileyWorld , Cyrus ' official fan club . It was confirmed that the tour would be sponsored by American retailing company Wal @-@ Mart and promoted by AEG Live . It would expand throughout the United States , from September 14 , 2009 in Portland , Oregon to December 2 , 2009 in Miami , Florida , with a total of forty @-@ five dates . Alternative rock band Metro Station , where Cyrus ' older brother , Trace Cyrus , integrates in , was confirmed as the opening act for all dates . Two days later , a European leg , with nine dates in the United Kingdom , was announced , marking Cyrus ' first concerts to visit another continent . On June 16 , 2009 , two more dates were annexed , and one final date was annexed in October 2009 , in order to meet demand .
All tickets for the Wonder World Tour were sold exclusively through paperless ticket delivery , meaning that fans did not receive a physical concert ticket for their entry into the event . Ticket buyers were required to bring the credit card used to make the purchase and photo identification to the concert venue in order to gain entry . All groups were to enter the concert together , and ushers issued seat locator slips . The method of ticket sales was relatively new at the time , although Ticketmaster first experimented it with AC / DC 's Black Ice World Tour ( 2008 – 10 ) . However , it marked the first time for an arena tour to sell all tickets through paperless ticketing . This was done in response to the extensive ticket scalping that occurred during the Best of Both Worlds Tour and in order to give fans the opportunity to purchase good tickets at face value . Cyrus ' manager and president of Morey Management Group , Jason Morey , stated , " The focus was , ' How do we take all the information we gathered last time out and do a better job of it ? ' It was important to us to address the issue of demand . We thought that of every single option that was available out there , this was a really viable option , to go with the paperless ticketing . " As with the Best of Both Worlds Tour , one dollar from each ticket purchased was donated to the City of Hope National Medical Center , a center dedicated to the prevention , treatment and research for the cure of cancer .
= = Development = =
The tour was titled the Wonder World Tour because of its diversity in themes and styles . Cyrus believed the tour was good transition for solidifying a more rock music @-@ based career . She described the tour to be edgy and " more of a mature show " , with the target audience being teenagers relatively her age , which was sixteen at the time . However , performances that would please younger audiences were added to the setlist . It was conceptualized to be a more elaborate than Cyrus ' previous tour and to reflect Cyrus as an individual . The reason for this to occur was because Cyrus felt more confident as a vocalist to perform stunts and use props while singing . Also , more resources were available , for more companies were willing to invest in the tour . Ideas were suggested by different individuals and were tested during filmed rehearsals in order to decide which would make the final cut . " Each person has their own character and their own story . So , we 've added everyone 's kind of specialty into our show [ ... ] This is not just a concert , it is an absolute show " , Cyrus said . After having completed filming for The Last Song ( 2010 ) in Tybee Island , Georgia , Cyrus returned to Los Angeles for tour rehearsals at The Forum in mid @-@ August . Due to filming The Last Song , Cyrus was only able to rehearse for three weeks although the average rehearsal period for musicians is about three months .
Jammal Simms was hired as the tour 's director and main choreographer . Octavious Terry served as an assistant for directing , meanwhile Dondraico Johnson assisted choreography . They , along with twelve other members , composed the tour 's creative team . In total , the Wonder World Tour included 124 traveling workers , 19 truckloads of equipment , and 15 buses . The stage was quite different from that of the Best of Both Worlds Tour . It consisted of a rectangular main stage , which featured staircases that elevated the center of the stage , and a narrow runway , which connected the main stage to a B @-@ stage that ran the length of the main stage . Regarding the stage , Cyrus noted that it was " something not many people get to have . I 'm able to move around to each side so there 's no one person who feels like they don 't have the best seat . Every seat is the best seat . " Six LED multi @-@ screen video units were located throughout the stage ; the three largest were placed as the upstage wall , while the other three were hung by rigs above the stage . The center unit consisted of three screens that faced outward ; two others were hung right and left to the center unit , both were double faced toward the center of the venue at a 45 ° angle , while the backside faced the upper @-@ seat audience . The structure of the video panels was designed by Sims to ensure that all seats within the 270 ° angle at each venue received an equal view of the video screens . Video content and lighting were designed by Seán Burke ; the latter was provided by Production Resource Group ( PRG ) .
The tour used seven individual rigs for performers and props to become airborne . For dancers to be flown to the center of each upstage , a wench , which dropped 18 inches off the face of the panel , was placed in the rig . Cyrus ' flying required two wenches , one for a vertical lift and one for a horizontal move that coursed the audience and back to the stage . Four elevators , or trap doors , were located throughout the stage , some of which had the option of a 4 × 4 or an 8 × 8 foot opening . All of the fly rigs and elevators were built and operated by Show Group Production Services ( SGPS ) / Showrig . The challenge that presented the most difficulty for SGPS was time constraint , as there were only three weeks of rehearsal . Brian White , co @-@ owner of SGPS , explained ,
There wasn ’ t a lot of time , but the good news was that it was at the [ L.A. ] Forum , which gave us a lot of height to fly things around , and there was also a lot of room to lay stuff out on the floor . The other good thing was that our offices are only 10 minutes away . So if I had to send a welder down there to make some changes I could do it pretty fast . The biggest thing we had going for us was a great crew . We had some really good people out there . " [ ... ] I ’ d say that about 90 percent of what we built on Miley Cyrus fit the first time in rehearsal . The only reason we had to retro fit anything was because of last minute design changes that came about once everything was up and they could see it all .
Special effects and pyrotechnics were provided by Pyritz Pyrotechnics Group . Terry Ritz , founder of the organization , and his partner Steve Aleff had created various ideas based on the tour soundtrack that was provided to them by the Wonder World Tour 's personnel . They met with the tour 's choreographer , band manager , and lighting designer , asking them to bring their " hopes , wishes , and dreams . " Out of these meetings , the show was completed and a lighting crew , who monitored the stage with a four @-@ camera monitor system when cues were executed , was selected . The pyrotechnics for the show were described as more elegant and subtle , being composed of pink flames with accentuation of silver and white glitter . Because of the extensive automation executed throughout the concert , two personnel were in charge of running it . Neville Emerton ran the automation from under the stage , and Sean Conner ran all of the flying moves from a position at the front of each venue . Meanwhile , assistant stage manager Seth Posner called cues for each concert . " Normally , in a rock show you don ’ t need someone calling the show . In this one we had to take a more theatrical approach with someone calling cues every step of the way because there was so much going on at once between props and automation " , explained production manager Omar Abderrahman . One of the props that required much attention on the part of Posner was a car made to resemble a tractor , designed and built by effects designer and stage manager Scott " Stryker " Christensen . Because it came along late in the design process , the main elevator was not built to handle the weight of the car , though it was eventually reinforced to support the weight and movement of the car . The car was also modified ; it was made electric , instead of using a combustion engine , for fire @-@ safety and changed to turn around by adjusting its turning radius to automate steering with all four wheels . In order to translate the concert tour overseas to the United Kingdom , the Wonder World Tour paired with Sound Moves , a company that was already providing minor support for the North American leg of the tour .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The main show commenced with Cyrus emerging from the bottom of the stage inside a large , crystal @-@ like glacier . She wore a black leather hot pantsuit , a tank top , and a white fur vest with a silver sequined hood as she escaped the cocoon to perform the concert 's opening number , " Breakout " . Numerous backup dancers accompanied her and , towards the conclusion , she performed atop movable scaffolding . After removing the fur vest , Cyrus performed " Start All Over " atop the scaffolding and continued the remainder of the first segment of the show with " 7 Things " and " Kicking and Screaming " . Cyrus then executed the show 's second segment with a performance of " Bottom of the Ocean " , which featured an aquatic theme for the stage and Cyrus donning a silver , flowing evening gown that bared a bejeweled bodysuit underneath . The performance ended with Cyrus diving into the stage , succeeded by a simulation of her underwater on the video screens . Cyrus returned to the stage for the show 's third segment atop a tractor @-@ resembling car to perform " Fly on the Wall " . During the performance , Cyrus wore an extravagant white dress with a feathered skirt . Backup dancers were flown up into contact with panels in order to resemble a fly on a window ; meanwhile , Cyrus was flown across the arena . Once back in the stage , Cyrus and backup dancers performed a brief dance interlude of Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " ( 1984 ) . Replacing the feathered bottom with a tutu , Cyrus performed the Hannah Montana @-@ credited song " Let 's Get Crazy " and " Hoedown Throwdown " . The latter was followed by a video in which will.i.am of The Black Eyed Peas spoke about Cyrus , as she left the stage . When the video was completed , the dancers performed a remix of the Black Eyed Peas ' " Boom Boom Pow " ( 2009 ) .
The show 's fourth segment opened with " These Four Walls " , in which Cyrus wore a black high @-@ low dress . The song was performed in B @-@ stage with various acoustic musicians . The show proceeded with " When I Look at You " , a performance that featured the trailer for Cyrus ' film The Last Song ( 2010 ) and her performing with a grand piano . It concluded with " Obsessed " , which the singer performed atop a simple suspension bridge . She re @-@ entered the stage , clothed by a black tee , red cheetah @-@ patterned hot pants , and black boots , to perform the second Hannah Montana @-@ credited song " Spotlight " and , later , " G.N.O. ( Girl 's Night Out ) " , replacing the prior hot pants with black ones and adding a denim vest . She followed with a cover of Arrows ' " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " , where Cyrus mounted a red Harley @-@ Davidson Dyna Fat Bob FXDF 2010 that was suspended above the stage and traveled in a semi @-@ oval path across the venue . Performances of " Party in the U.S.A. " , which made use of a luggage cart , and " Hovering " , which featured Cyrus ' older brother Trace Cyrus , rounded off the segment . The sixth segment of the show featured Cyrus performing " Simple Song " , in which she dressed in a long , white shirt and a black tuxedo , in order to simulate a music conductor . Midway through the performance , Cyrus stepped onto an elevator that rose eight feet from the stage . She exited the stage and returned for the final section . During the encore , Cyrus dressed in a white tank top and shorts , boots , and a metallic vest to perform " See You Again " , later removing the vest to conclude the concert with " The Climb " . Immediately after finishing , she exited through a passageway in the stage as fireworks were fired above .
= = Critical reception = =
Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times , in reference to Hannah Montana , commented , " Once again , make @-@ believe Miley was more compelling than the real thing . " Wood believed Cyrus possessed charisma , commenting that she portrayed superstar authority , but failed because she was unable or unwilling to " give her fans a deeper idea of who she is and what her music means . For all its eye @-@ popping detail , the concert offered nothing that viewers of her TV show or buyers of her records don 't already know about her . " Dave Paulson of The Tennessean stated , " Cyrus ' spectacle sets her apart from nearly every other A @-@ list act touring today . She 's not a renowned vocalist by any stretch , but her show 's choreography barely provides a moment for her to catch her breath , and she 's still able to deliver . " Michael Hann of the United Kingdom @-@ based Guardian was impressed by the concert , praising the setlist and deeming it enjoyable for both children and adults . He continued , " Good as the best songs are , though , they take a backseat to the staging [ ... ] The one misstep is when a trailer for her next movie is shown during a costume change . It 's a tacky moment and doesn 't reflect the attention to detail that makes the rest of it a laugh @-@ out @-@ loud delight . " Lael Loewenstein of Variety magazine said , " Cyrus knows how to deliver the goods without losing her core audience . " Loewenstein deemed the concert a mission accomplished because of inevitable hits and Cyrus ' charisma , drive , spunk , and a merely @-@ limited vocal range . Erik Ensrst of The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel praised the show , stating that it was " a pure visual spectacle " , but commented that producers forgot a place for Cyrus ' personality .
Jim Harrington of The Oakland Tribune described the show as a human embodiment of Britney Spears ' " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " ( 2002 ) . He presumed that the tour was a conscious transition for fans who did not want Cyrus to separate herself from the Hannah Montana franchise . Kirsty Cameron of The Daily Telegraph wrote , " Despite her relatively young age , Cyrus showed her unfailing capability as performer . With the help of her back @-@ up dancers , Cyrus provided her audience with choreographed set pieces and a different spectacle for each song . " James Reed of The Boston Globe noted that the Wonder World Tour presented Cyrus as both a " PG @-@ rated tween pop star and an edgy rocker eager " . He stated that although she played both roles well , it was apparent that she was more at ease with the latter . Reed also felt the concert did little to display Cyrus ' personality and ability to engage with the audience . " We know she 's got impressive vocal chops , but now we need to feel what she 's trying to put across in her songs , something beyond the standard ' You guys are awesome ! ' banter . " Scott Iwasaki of Deseret News reviewed a concert in which Cyrus was ill . He mentioned that because of her illness , her voice went flat . Iwasaki also expressed his viewpoint that " if there [ were ] any worries that Miley Cyrus would become another Britney Spears train wreck , those worries were quelled during Tuesday night 's show . She kept the show family @-@ friendly and , although obviously sick , looked like she had a good time . " Marlin Levison of The Star Tribune believed the concert lacked much profundity until the last performance .
= = Commercial performance = =
The Wonder World Tour was commercially successful and represented stability in the touring industry , despite the financial recession . In North America , the tour sold out twenty @-@ nine out of forty @-@ five concert dates and grossed over US $ 45 @.@ 2 million . The tour was able to remain as one of the hottest tours in the United States during its expansion . The Wonder World Tour 's entire , ten @-@ date European leg sold out in only ten minutes . In order to meet demand , an eleventh date was added and scheduled for December 29 , 2009 . In December 2009 , the tour ranked atop Billboard 's Hot Tours , based on the tour 's European performances . For the month , box office grossed US $ 21 @.@ 9 million for eleven shows in four markets . The five concerts held at The O2 Arena in London produced ticket sales that topped $ 11 million ( £ 6 @.@ 8 million ) . On December 19 , 2009 , with an audience of 16 @,@ 196 , Cyrus broke the record for the largest attendance at The O2 Arena ; a record that surpassed the previously tied records by Beyoncé Knowles ' I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) , Bon Jovi 's Lost Highway Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) , and Coldplay 's Viva la Vida Tour ( 2008 – 10 ) . In total , the tour grossed over $ 67 @.@ 1 million , $ 15 million which were earned by Cyrus .
= = Bus accident = =
On November 20 , 2009 , in its attempt to arrive at the destination of Greensboro , North Carolina , one of the buses for the Wonder World Tour overturned on a Virginian highway . The accident occurred around 8 : 15 A.M. in Dinwiddie County , about 40 miles south of Richmond , Virginia . The bus ran off the left side of Interstate 85 , struck an embankment , rolled onto its right side . An eye witness of the accident explained that the bus appeared to have drifted off the road for a fairly long stretch before tipping over . The bus had nine passengers aboard , including members of the lighting crew , though Cyrus was not on board during the incident . Most of the passengers on the bus suffered only minor injuries and escaped the crashed bus through the broken front windshield . One person , Assistant Stage Manager Martin Zilio , required medical attention and was hospitalized overnight . Zilio recovered from his injuries and was later able to return to work on the tour . One person , bus driver Bill " Uncle Bill " Douglas , a 53 @-@ year @-@ old of Austin , Texas , died at the scene of the accident .
In response to the accident , the Cyrus family released a statement via Cyrus ' official website ; it stated , " We are deeply saddened by the loss of Bill ' Uncle Bill ' Douglas . Members of our tour are like members of our family . Our thoughts and prayers go out to his family in the midst of this tragedy . He will truly be missed . " Omar Abderrahman , the tour 's production manager , said , " That was real tough . It 's always a tragedy to lose anyone . Uncle Bill was a great driver and a good friend . He ’ d done a lot of tours with me , and we ’ re all going to miss him . " Although the cause for the accident remains undefined , authorities confirmed the roads were wet from overnight rain . However , CBS News reported that speed and weather were not attributed as factors for the accident 's occurrence . Despite the incident , the tour 's following concert on November 22 , 2009 at the Greensboro Coliseum in Greensboro , North Carolina proceeded as scheduled . During the concert , Cyrus dedicated the performance of " The Climb " to Douglas as overhead screens displayed a video commemorating him .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
The concerts held on December 13 , 14 , 19 , 20 , and 29 , 2009 at The O2 Arena in London were filmed . On May 26 , 2010 , it was announced that the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) would broadcast an hour @-@ long television special entitled Miley Cyrus : Live from London on June 18 , 2010 , as part of promotion for Cyrus ' third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . The special was executively produced by Leticia " Tish " Cyrus , Cyrus ' mother , and Jason Morey , Cyrus ' manager . It was directed by Russell Thomas and produced by Jim Parsons . Miley Cyrus : Live from London was described by Cyrus ' official website with the following statement : " The program captures how Miley , who has grown up in the public eye , has grown as an artist and reveals her natural progression and sophistication . " The concert special was watched by over 2 @.@ 6 million viewers in the United States . Miley Cyrus : Live from London 's airing on ABC was a filtered version of the full @-@ length concert , which became available on the limited , deluxe edition of Can 't Be Tamed , released on June 21 , 2010 . The deluxe edition featured the audio CD , containing the album 's music , and a DVD , which contains nineteen live performances and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage with Cyrus . " We anticipate an overindexing , if you will , of those who buy the CD / DVD over just the music because it 's never been seen before " , stated Abbey Konowitch , general manager of Hollywood Records . The performances of " Fly on the Wall " and " Start All Over " were included in Cyrus ' second video album Can 't Be Tamed : Mini DVD ( 2010 ) , released only in the United Kingdom and Japan .
= = Set list = =
" Breakout "
" Start All Over "
" 7 Things "
" Kicking and Screaming "
" Bottom of the Ocean "
" Fly on the Wall "
" Thriller ( Dance interlude )
" Let 's Get Crazy "
" Hoedown Throwdown "
" Boom Boom Pow ( Dance interlude )
" These Four Walls "
" When I Look at You "
" Obsessed "
" Spotlight "
" G.N.O. ( Girl 's Night Out ) "
" I Love Rock ' n ' Roll "
" Party in the U.S.A. "
" Hovering " ¹
" Simple Song "
" See You Again "
" The Climb "
= = = Set list information = = =
¹ " Wake Up America " as performed at some shows .
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
Source :
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= Jon Huntsman presidential campaign , 2012 =
The Jon Huntsman presidential campaign of 2012 began in mid @-@ 2011 when Ambassador and former Governor of Utah Jon Huntsman , Jr. announced his candidacy for the Republican Party ( GOP ) nomination for President of the United States in the 2012 election . On May 3 , 2011 , Huntsman announced his intentions to file a political action committee with the Federal Election Commission ( named " H @-@ PAC " ) . Subsequently , Huntsman announced on June 14 , 2011 , he was running for president and made an official announcement in Liberty State Park one week later on June 21 .
Huntsman sought to establish himself as an anti @-@ negative candidate and take the " high road " . In his announcement , he also stated " I don 't think you need to run down someone 's reputation in order to run for the office of president . " Huntsman aggressively touted himself as a fiscal conservative , pledging considerable business and personal tax cuts as well as a foreign policy moderate , calling for a decrease in defense spending and withdrawal from Afghanistan , while increasing pressure on Iran and support for Israel .
Huntsman announced his withdrawal from the race on January 16 , 2012 , prior to the South Carolina primary and endorsed eventual nominee Mitt Romney .
= = Background = =
= = = Experience = = =
Huntsman served as Governor of Utah from January 2005 until August 2009 , but resigned during the first year of his second term to serve as United States Ambassador to China , a position to which he was appointed by Democratic President Barack Obama . Speculation of a Huntsman candidacy for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination began circulating in the media as early as 2008 and 2009 , while Huntsman was still unsure about his political future . In August 2010 , a group of political strategists with ties to Huntsman formed a political action committee now called " Horizon PAC " that had the resources to provide a framework for launching Huntsman 's campaign in the event he chose to run . The PAC was formed in part as an effort to draft Huntsman into seeking the GOP nomination .
On January 31 , 2011 , Huntsman submitted his formal resignation from his post as U.S. Ambassador to China . The resignation was to take effect April 30 , 2011 , and Huntsman indicated his plans to return to the United States by May 2011 . This move spurred further widespread speculation of Huntsman making a 2012 Republican presidential bid .
On May 3 , after having left his post as Ambassador and returned to the United States , Huntsman formed an official fundraising political action committee , building on the efforts of the previously established Horizon PAC . On May 18 , Huntsman opened his 2012 national campaign headquarters in Orlando , Florida .
= = = Political positions = = =
Huntsman has been described as " a conservative technocrat @-@ optimist with moderate positions who was willing to work substantively with President Barack Obama " by Huffington Post political reporter , Jason Linkins . As Governor , Huntsman listed economic development , health @-@ care reform , education , and energy security as his top priorities . Huntsman oversaw large tax cuts and advocated reorganizing the way that services were distributed so that the government would not become overwhelmed by the state 's fast growing population . Huntsman also proposed a plan to reform health @-@ care , mainly through the private sector , by using tax breaks and negotiation to keep prices down .
In a 2008 evaluation of state Governors ' fiscal policies , the libertarian Cato Institute praised Huntsman 's conservative tax policies , ranking him in a tie for fifth place on overall fiscal policy . He was particularly lauded for his efforts to cut taxes , where he received the highest score on tax policy of all 50 governors . The report specifically highlighted his reductions of the sales tax and simplification of the tax code .
Huntsman strongly supported civil unions for years but not same @-@ sex marriage ; and supported legislation as Governor that would have allowed civil unions for same @-@ sex couples in the state . In 2007 , in response to the problem of global warming , Huntsman signed the Western Climate Initiative , by which Utah joined with other governments in agreeing to pursue targets for reduced production of greenhouse gases . He also appeared in an advertisement sponsored by Environmental Defense , in which he said , " Now it 's time for Congress to act by capping greenhouse @-@ gas pollution . "
On foreign policy , Huntsman has repeatedly stated : " We need to continue working closely with China to convince North Korea to abandon its nuclear weapons program . " He has also named Taiwan , human rights , and Tibet among the " areas where we have differences with China " and vowed " robust engagement " on human rights .
On August 31 , Huntsman made a major policy announcement , calling for , amongst other things such as more aggressive action on completing free trade agreements , a tax policy modeled on the Simpson @-@ Bowles plan , specifically : elimination of the Alternative Minimum Tax , elimination of taxes on capital gains and dividends , elimination of all deductions and credits , in favor of significantly lower general rates , with brackets of 8 , 14 and 23 percent , and lowering the general corporate rate from 35 to 25 % .
= = Campaign details = =
In January 2011 , Newsweek published an article entitled " The Manchurian Candidate " which featured an interview with Huntsman . When asked whether he intended to run for president in 2012 , Huntsman declined to comment . The article generated significant speculation about a likely Huntsman 2012 presidential bid .
= = = Announcement = = =
Huntsman announced his campaign on June 21 , 2011 in Liberty State Park , with the Statue of Liberty visible behind him while delivering his speech . The location was chosen in homage to President Ronald Reagan , who launched his own presidential campaign from the same location . Referring to Reagan 's announcement , Huntsman remarked in his own speech , " He assured us we could ' make America great again , ' and under his leadership we did . I stand in his shadow as well as the shadow of this magnificent monument to our liberty . "
In the lead @-@ up to his official announcement , Huntsman gained attention for his campaign 's unconventional TV ads , produced by veteran GOP strategist Fred Davis III , featuring a lone motocross rider traveling through rugged terrain as music plays in the background , while facts about Huntsman appear on the screen . The ads were widely parodied , including by the Utah Democratic Party and Rick Santorum 's campaign .
A notable gaffe made by the Huntsman campaign in the moments before the announcement speech were misspelled press passes distributed to reporters on hand to cover the announcement which read " John Huntsman for President " , erroneously adding an extra " H " to Huntsman 's name . Aides reportedly scrambled in an effort to cease the distribution of the misspelled passes .
= = = Staff = = =
Susie Wiles , who ran Rick Scott 's successful 2010 gubernatorial campaign in Florida , worked first as executive director of H @-@ PAC and then as Huntsman 's campaign manager . Her appointment dovetailed with Huntsman 's strategic emphasis on winning the early Florida primary . She resigned on July 21 , 2011 , stating , " I signed up to get it started . It ’ s like a phase . This morning I said it ’ s time to move on . " She went on to explain that she had never intended to stay on with the campaign indefinitely , but instead had plans " to resume [ her ] life and get home . " Wiles stated her intention to continue to be a " friend and confidante of Huntsman . " Matt David , previously the campaign 's communications director , replaced Wiles as campaign manager .
The campaign hired Neil Ashdown , chief of staff to Huntsman when he was Governor of Utah and Ambassador to China , as deputy campaign manager . Conyers Davis , who worked with former California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and David Cameron 's Conservative Party was hired as campaign operations director . Matt David served as the campaign 's first communications director , before replacing Wiles as campaign manager , with Jake Suski as deputy communications director and Tim Miller serving as Huntsman 's spokesperson . Kris Anderson is leading research for the campaign , with Shawn Reinschmiedt and Dan Comstock 's M Street Insight doing research consulting work .
In June 2011 , C. Boyden Gray joined the Huntsman team as policy chair . Gray served as White House Counsel to President George H. W. Bush and EU Ambassador under George W. Bush . In early July 2011 , Mark McIntosh was appointed as the Huntsman campaign 's policy director . McIntosh had been working as counsel on energy and natural resource issues at Boyden Gray & Associates , and he previously served as Deputy General Counsel for the White House Council on Environmental Quality under President George W. Bush . Randy Schriver and Steve Bogden served as Huntsman 's respective chief foreign policy and economic advisors .
John Weaver served as Huntsman 's chief political strategist , with Fred Davis as a key media strategist in charge of developing Huntsman 's online web videos and branding efforts . James Richardson served as the campaign 's director of online communications .
= = = Fundraising = = =
A day after announcing his campaign for president , Huntsman raised $ 1 @.@ 2 million , and approximately $ 4 @.@ 1 million in the first weeks of his candidacy . Huntsman , who has a speculated net @-@ worth between $ 11 and $ 74 million , was reported to have contributed " less than half " of his campaign 's $ 4 @.@ 1 million haul . Before his entry into the race , Huntsman was adamant about avoiding self @-@ financing a campaign , stating " Unless you can raise it legitimately , you 're not going to win " . However , Huntsman stated he would contribute in order to " prime the pump " during a campaign visit in South Carolina . In September , Huntsman reportedly contributed $ 500 @,@ 000 to his campaign in order to make payroll . One of Huntsman 's greatest contributors was his father Jon Huntsman , Sr. , who donated around $ 2 million to his campaign .
With no obligation to do so due to his late entry into the race , the Huntsman Campaign agreed not to file FEC paperwork for the Second Quarter of 2011 ending on June 30 , 2011 as reported by the ABC .
= = 2011 developments = =
= = = Twitter remark and political positioning = = =
Huntsman gained media attention when he responded to Texas Governor Rick Perry 's entrance into the GOP primary by attacking Perry 's views on climate change and evolution through Twitter . Huntsman 's tweet was reportedly " re @-@ tweeted " over 3 @,@ 600 times – the most of any GOP presidential candidate . Although the tweet fed the impression that Huntsman was a moderate and provoked some backlash among strong conservatives , a few populist conservative commentators such as Erick Erickson declined to oppose Huntsman 's candidacy overall , with Erickson writing on December 27 that he " continue [ d ] to hope Perry surprises in Iowa and Huntsman surprises in New Hampshire " and stating on January 10 , 2012 , that he would rather have Huntsman " than Romney or Santorum " .
Huntsman was scheduled to speak at the Republican Leadership Conference held in New Orleans in June 2011 , but canceled . He received 25 % of the vote in the annual presidential straw @-@ poll , finishing second behind Ron Paul ( 41 % ) and ahead of Michele Bachmann ( 13 % ) .
In interviews following his apparent centrist attacks on Perry and Bachmann , Huntsman reiterated a " center right " position . On a This Week interview in August , Huntsman labeled himself a " center right candidate " for a " center right country " and criticized President Obama and his GOP opponents for representing " fringes " on the political spectrum . Huntsman was frequently described as " the media 's favorite Republican " , with a Florida Today columnist calling him " our man Huntsman " .
= = = August debate = = =
Huntsman participated in his first presidential debate on August 11 , 2011 , in Iowa . The debate was co @-@ sponsored by the Republican Party of Iowa , Fox News , and the Washington Examiner . Huntsman 's first question , directed by moderator Chris Wallace was :
You supported a stimulus package in 2009 . In fact , you said the Obama stimulus package was not big enough . As governor , you signed onto a regional cap @-@ and @-@ trade market . You endorsed civil unions for same @-@ sex couples . And you served as President Obama 's ambassador to China . Some people have suggested that maybe you 're running for president in the wrong party .
Huntsman responded by deflecting Wallace 's criticism and argued that his compromise was necessary and that his record as Governor of Utah represented a fiscally conservative position :
I 'm proud of my service to this country . If you love your country , you serve her . During a time of war , during a time of economic hardship , when asked to serve your country in a sensitive position where you can actually bring a background to help your nation , I 'm the kind of person who 's going to stand up and do it , and I 'll take that philosophy to my grave ... In terms of the stimulus you talked about , it was failed . And let me tell you what I talked about with respect to the stimulus . I talked about the need for more tax cuts in the stimulus ... We had done historic tax cuts . We created a flat tax in the state of Utah , exactly what needs to happen in this country . We got the economy moving . We became the number @-@ one job creator in this nation and the best managed state . That 's exactly what needs to happen in this nation . I am running on my record , and I am proud to run on my record .
= = = September to January = = =
In early September , Huntsman began shifting campaign resources from Florida to New Hampshire ; by moving staffers , Huntsman had the largest operational staff there at the time . The development came as the campaign reorganized New Hampshire operations , firing its campaign manager in charge of the state , Ethan Elion . Elion was replaced by Sarah Crawford Stewart , who had served as state @-@ director of Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty 's New Hampshire campaign before he suspended his bid after the Ames Straw Poll .
Huntsman received a major endorsement in late @-@ September 2011 from Tom Ridge , former Governor of Pennsylvania and Secretary of Homeland Security under George W. Bush . Ridge appeared with Huntsman at an event at Saint Anselm College in New Hampshire who called Huntsman " the only candidate with demonstrated success at the state , national and international levels . " After the endorsement and a series of campaign events in New Hampshire , a Suffolk University poll showed Huntsman in third place in New Hampshire with 10 % of likely voters , behind Mitt Romney ( 41 % ) and Ron Paul ( 14 % ) and ahead of Rick Perry , Michele Bachmann , Sarah Palin ( who had not yet declared an intention of running ) and Newt Gingrich among others . Huntsman made New Hampshire the focus of his campaign , and held over 100 campaign events there .
When the state of Nevada threatened to move up its nominating contest which would have interfered with the New Hampshire primary , Huntsman elected to " boycott " Nevada and skip a presidential debate held in Las Vegas on October 18 , 2011 , in protest .
In late 2011 , Huntsman was endorsed by several New Hampshire @-@ based newspapers . The Keene Sentinel and the Valley News , both endorsed Huntsman on December 18 over neighboring Governor and front @-@ runner in the state Mitt Romney . In addition , the Concord Monitor endorsed Huntsman on December 22 . Huntsman increased his presence in the state as the year closed , as the pro @-@ Huntsman " Our Destiny " PAC began to increase ad buys in the state A Boston Globe poll released in late December had Huntsman polling in double digits , drawing 11 % versus 17 % for Gingrich and Paul . All three nonetheless remained well back of Romney at 39 % support , however .
Although Huntsman emphasized his opposition to negative campaigning , he did run an ad attacking Ron Paul with Twilight Zone theme as background music , and implying that Paul 's views were outside the mainstream .
During the January 7 debate , Huntsman was attacked by Romney for serving as President Barack Obama 's Ambassador to China . In response , at the debate the following day , Huntsman responded : " I was criticized last night by Governor Romney for putting my country first , I just want to remind the people here in New Hampshire and throughout the United States that he criticized me while he was out raising money for serving my country in China , yes under a Democrat , like my two sons who are in the United States Navy . They ’ re not asking what the affiliation of the President is . I want to be clear ... I will always put my country first . I think that ’ s important " .
= = 2012 Caucuses and primaries = =
= = = Iowa = = =
Huntsman , who held no events in Iowa , finished seventh in the January 3 Iowa caucuses with 739 votes , or 0 @.@ 6 percent ; ahead of only withdrawn candidate Herman Cain and minor candidate Buddy Roemer . Huntsman reiterated a focus on the January 10 New Hampshire primary .
= = = New Hampshire = = =
Ahead of the New Hampshire primary , Huntsman received newspaper endorsements from The Citizen as well as the Boston Globe , the largest newspaper in neighboring Massachusetts , rival Romney 's home @-@ state . According to Politico reporter Jonathan Martin , Huntsman campaigned in a dual manner , with a style and manner suggesting moderation while his SuperPAC aired TV ads which depicted him as conservative .
It was in New Hampshire where Huntsman adopted his new " Country First " campaign slogan . The slogan was borrowed from John McCain 's 2008 campaign , though the context of the slogan was different . Huntsman , who , as Governor of Utah at the time , endorsed McCain over Mitt Romney in the 2008 Republican presidential primary , had hoped McCain would return the favor ; however , McCain endorsed Romney in a rally at Manchester 's Manchester Central High School on January 4 . Huntsman later characterized McCain 's endorsement of his main rival as a " petty betrayal " . He told McCain " I don 't care if you support Romney , that 's great – but just to have given me the dignity of waiting until after the New Hampshire primary . " McCain replied , " I didn 't mean to offend . I hope your family is well . "
By the weekend before the January 10 primary , polls showed Huntsman in strong competition with Ron Paul for a second place showing in New Hampshire , behind front @-@ runner Romney . A Pulse Opinion Research poll on January 4 showed Huntsman narrowly behind Paul 19 – 16 % , while an American Research Group poll on January 7 showed Huntsman edging Paul 17 – 16 % , though both remained well behind Romney .
Huntsman ultimately received 17 % of the vote in New Hampshire for a third @-@ place finish , although exit polls suggested he won just 10 % of Republicans in a primary that was not restricted to registered Republicans .
= = = South Carolina = = =
Huntsman stayed in the race after his 3rd @-@ place finish in New Hampshire , campaigning in South Carolina ahead of the January 21 primary , though he expressed that his expectations in the state were " very low " , and stated that his primary goal was to " stay relevant " in the race . Nonetheless , Huntsman received the endorsement of South Carolina 's largest newspaper , The State on January 15 .
= = Withdrawal = =
On January 15 , 2012 , it was announced that Huntsman would be withdrawing from the race the next day and endorsing Mitt Romney .
After dropping out , Huntsman still received votes due to him having ballot access to every state besides Arizona and Virginia , due to failure to collect enough signatures . At the end of the GOP primaries , Huntsman placed fifth out of the ten candidates , with a total of 83 @,@ 173 popular votes and 1 delegate at the Republican National Convention .
= = Endorsements = =
|
= Robin Olds =
Robin Olds ( July 14 , 1922 – June 14 , 2007 ) was an American fighter pilot and general officer in the U.S. Air Force . He was a " triple ace " , with a combined total of 16 victories in World War II and the Vietnam War . He retired in 1973 as a brigadier general .
The son of Army Air Forces Major General Robert Olds , educated at West Point , and the product of an upbringing in the early years of the U.S. Army Air Corps , Olds epitomized the youthful World War II fighter pilot . He remained in the service as it became the United States Air Force , despite often being at odds with its leadership , and was one of its pioneer jet pilots . Rising to the command of two fighter wings , Olds is regarded among aviation historians , and his peers , as the best wing commander of the Vietnam War , for both his air @-@ fighting skills , and his reputation as a combat leader .
Olds was promoted to brigadier general after returning from Vietnam but did not hold another major command . The remainder of his career was spent in non @-@ operational positions , as Commandant of Cadets at the United States Air Force Academy and as an official in the Air Force Inspector General 's Office . His inability to rise higher as a general officer is attributed to both his maverick views and his penchant for drinking .
Olds had a highly publicized career and life , including marriage to Hollywood actress Ella Raines . As a young man he was also recognized for his athletic prowess in both high school and college , being named an All @-@ American as a lineman in college football . Olds expressed his philosophy regarding fighter pilots in the quote : " There are pilots and there are pilots ; with the good ones , it is inborn . You can 't teach it . If you are a fighter pilot , you have to be willing to take risks . "
= = Early life = =
Olds was born " Robert Oldys , Jr . " in Honolulu into an Army family and spent much of his boyhood in Hampton , Virginia , where he attended elementary and high school . His father was Captain ( later Major General ) Robert Oldys ( later Olds ) , an instructor pilot in France during World War I , former aide to Brigadier General Billy Mitchell from 1922 to 1925 , and a leading advocate of strategic bombing in the Air Corps . His mother , Eloise Wichman Nott Olds , died when Robin was four and he was raised by his father . Olds was the eldest of four brothers , followed by Stevan ( 1924 ) , Sterling ( 1935 ) , and Frederick ( 1936 ) .
Growing up primarily at Langley Field , Virginia , Olds virtually made daily contact with the small group of officers who would lead the US Army Air Forces in World War II ( one neighbor was Major Carl Spaatz , destined to become the first Chief of Staff of the USAF ) , and as a result was imbued with an unusually strong dedication to the air service , and conversely , with a low tolerance for officers who did not exhibit the same . On November 10 , 1925 , his father appeared as a witness on behalf of Billy Mitchell during Mitchell 's court @-@ martial in Washington , D.C .. He brought three @-@ year @-@ old Robin with him to court , dressed in an Air Service uniform , and posed with him for newspaper photographers before testifying .
Olds first flew at the age of eight , in an open cockpit biplane operated by his father . At the age of 12 , Olds made attending the U.S. Military Academy at West Point an objective to accomplish his goals of becoming an officer , a military aviator , and playing football .
His father was made commander of the pioneer B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field on March 1 , 1937 , and promoted to lieutenant colonel on March 7 . Olds attended Hampton High School where he was elected president of his class three successive years , and played varsity high school football on a team that won the state championship of Virginia in 1937 . Olds was aggressive , even mean , as a player , and received offers to attend Virginia Military Institute and Dartmouth College on football scholarships .
Instead of entering college after graduating in 1939 , Olds enrolled at Millard Preparatory School in Washington , D.C. , a school established to prepare men for the entrance examinations to the military academies . When Germany invaded Poland , Olds attempted to join the Royal Canadian Air Force but was thwarted by his father 's refusal to approve his enlistment papers . Olds completed Millard Prep and applied for admission to the United States Military Academy at West Point . After he received a conditional commitment for nomination from Pennsylvania Congressman J. Buell Snyder , Olds moved to Uniontown , Pennsylvania , where he lived in the YMCA and supported himself working odd jobs . He passed the West Point entrance examination and was accepted into the Class of 1944 on June 1 , 1940 . He entered the academy a month later but after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Olds was sent to the Spartan School of Aeronautics in Tulsa , Oklahoma , for flight training . This training ended a year later by Christmas 1942 . Olds returned to West Point , hoping to graduate early and see action in the war .
= = = West Point and football = = =
As a plebe , Olds played football on a freshman squad that began the season with three losses but finished 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 1 while the varsity won only one game in its second consecutive losing season . As a result , the new academy superintendent , Maj. Gen. Robert L. Eichelberger , replaced the head coach ( an Army officer ) with Earl " Red " Blaik , a 1920 graduate and head coach at Dartmouth , who had recruited Olds in 1939 .
Olds played on the varsity college football team in both 1941 and 1942 . At 6 foot 2 inches in height ( 1.88m ) and weighing 205 pounds ( 92 kg ) , he played tackle on both offense and defense , lettering both seasons . Army 's record in 1941 was 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 1 , with wins over The Citadel , VMI , Yale , Columbia , and West Virginia , a scoreless tie with Notre Dame , and losses to Harvard , Penn and Navy . The loss to the midshipmen was followed eight days later by the attack on Pearl Harbor .
In 1942 he was named by Collier 's Weekly as its " Lineman of the Year " and by Grantland Rice as " Player of the Year . " Olds was also selected as an All @-@ American as the cadets compiled a 6 @-@ 3 record , beating Lafayette College , Cornell , Columbia , Harvard , VMI , and Princeton , and falling to Notre Dame , Penn , and Navy . In the Army – Navy Game of 1942 , which was played at Annapolis instead of Philadelphia , Olds had both upper front teeth knocked out when he received a forearm blow to the mouth while making a tackle . Olds returned to the game and reportedly was cheered by the Navy Third and Fourth Classes , which were assigned as the Army cheering section when wartime travel restrictions prevented the Corps of Cadets from attending . In 1985 Olds was enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame .
Olds developed ambivalent feelings about West Point , admiring its dedication to " Duty , Honor , Country " , but disturbed by the tendency of many tactical officers to distort the purpose of its Honor Code . In March 1943 , Olds was braced by an officer upon returning from leave in New York City , and compelled on penalty of an honor violation to admit he had consumed alcohol . The infraction reduced him in rank from cadet captain to cadet private , characterized by Olds in his memoirs as " only the second cadet in the history of West Point to earn that dubious honor . "
He walked punishment tours until the day of his graduation in June . The incident left its mark on Olds such that when he became Commandant of Cadets at the Air Force Academy , use of the Honor Code as an instrument for integrity rather than as a tool for petty enforcement of discipline became a point of emphasis in his administration . During his Academy years Olds also acquired a strong contempt for alumni networking , commonly called " ring knocking " , to the degree that he went out of his way to conceal his West Point background .
By an act of Congress on October 1 , 1942 , during Olds ' Second Class year , the academy began a three @-@ year curriculum for the duration of the war for cadets entering after July 1939 . Cadets applying to the Air Corps were classified as Air Cadets , with a modified curriculum that provided flying training but eliminated Military Topography and Graphics required for Ground Cadets . Olds ' class was given an abridged second class course of study until January 19 , 1943 , when it began an abridged first class course .
Olds completed primary training in the summer of 1942 at the Spartan School of Aviation in Tulsa , Oklahoma , and basic and advanced training at Stewart Field , New York . 208 cadets including Olds completed the course , while five classmates died in accidents . Olds received his pilot 's wings personally from Gen. Henry H. Arnold on May 30 , 1943 , and graduated on June 1 as a member of the Class of June 1943 , 194th in general merit of 514 graduates .
= = World War II fighter pilot = =
= = = P @-@ 38 Lightning missions = = =
Lieutenant Olds completed fighter pilot training with the 329th Fighter Group , an operational training unit based at Grand Central Air Terminal in Glendale , California . His initial twin @-@ engine training at Williams Field , Arizona , was in the Curtiss AT @-@ 9 , followed by transition fighter training to the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning in its P @-@ 322 variant . After gunnery training at Matagorda , Texas in the first half of August 1943 , he was assigned to P @-@ 38 phase training at Muroc Army Air Field , California .
In early 1944 he became part of the cadre assigned to build up the newly activated 434th Fighter Squadron and its parent 479th Fighter Group , based at Lomita , California . Olds logged 650 hours of flying time during training , including 250 hours in the P @-@ 38 Lightning , as the 479th built its proficiency as a combat group . It departed the Los Angeles area on April 15 for Camp Kilmer , New Jersey , and shipped aboard the USS Argentina for Europe on May 3 . The 479th arrived in Scotland on May 14 , 1944 , and entrained for RAF Wattisham , England , where it arrived the next day .
The 479th began combat on May 26 , flying bomber escort missions and attacking transportation targets in occupied France in advance of the invasion of Normandy . Olds flew a new P @-@ 38J Lightning that he nicknamed Scat II . Olds ' crew chief , T / Sgt. Glen A. Wold , said that he showed an immediate interest in aircraft maintenance and learned emergency servicing under Wold . He also insisted his aircraft be waxed to reduce air resistance and helped his maintenance crew carry out their tasks . On July 24 Olds was promoted to captain and became a flight and later squadron leader . Following a low @-@ level bridge @-@ bombing mission to Montmirail , France , on August 14 , Olds shot down his first German aircraft , a pair of Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190s .
On an escort mission to Wismar on August 25 , his flight was on the far left of the group 's line abreast formation and encountered 40 @-@ 50 Messerschmitt Bf 109s near Wittenberge , flying north at the same 28 @,@ 000 ft ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) altitude in a loose formation of three large vees . Olds turned his flight left and began a ten @-@ minute pursuit in which they climbed to altitude above and behind the Germans . Over Bützow , undetected by the Germans , Olds and his wingman jettisoned their fuel drop tanks and attacked , although the second element of the flight had been unable to keep up during the climb .
Just as Olds began firing , both engines of his P @-@ 38 quit from fuel exhaustion ; in the excitement of the attack he had neglected to switch to his internal fuel tanks . He continued attacking in " dead @-@ stick mode " , hitting his target in the fuselage and shooting off part of its engine cowling . After fatally damaging the Bf 109 he dived away and restarted his engines . Despite battle damage to his own plane , including loss of a side window of its canopy , Olds shot down two during the dogfight and another on the way home to become the first ace of the 479th FG . His combat report for that date concluded :
Still in a shallow dive , I observed another P @-@ 38 and an Me 109 going round and round . It seemed that the 38 needed help so I started down . At about 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , the Jerry , still way out of my range , turned under me and slightly to the right . I rolled over on my back , following him and gave him an ineffective burst at long range . By this time I was traveling in excess of 500 mph ( 800 km / h ) . My left window blew out , scaring the hell out of me . I thought I had been hit by some of the ground fire I had observed in the vicinity . I regained control of the aircraft and pulled out above a wheat field . I tried to contact the flight to get myself recognized , but observed an Me 109 making a pass at me from about seven o 'clock high . I broke left as well as my plane could and the Jerry overshot . I straightened out and gave him a burst . He chandelled steeply to the left and I shot some more . He passed right over me and I slipped over in an Immelmann . As I straightened out at the top , I saw the pilot bail out .
He made eight claims while flying the P @-@ 38 ( five of which are sustained by the Air Force Historical Research Agency ) and was originally credited as the top @-@ scoring P @-@ 38 pilot of the European Theater of Operations .
= = = P @-@ 51 Mustang pilot = = =
The 479th FG converted to the P @-@ 51 Mustang in mid @-@ September . On his second transition flight , at the point of touchdown during landing , Olds learned a lesson in " false confidence " when the powerful torque of the single @-@ engined fighter forced him to ground loop after the Mustang veered off the runway . Olds shot down an Fw 190 in his new Scat IV on October 6 during a savage battle near Berlin in which he was nearly shot down by his own wingman . He completed his first combat tour on November 9 , 1944 , accruing 270 hours of combat time and six kills .
After returning to the United States for a two @-@ month leave , Olds began a full second tour at Wattisham on January 15 , 1945 . He was assigned duties as operations officer of the 434th Fighter squadron . Promoted to major on February 9 , 1945 , Olds claimed his seventh victory southeast of Magdeburg , Germany the same day , downing another Bf 109 . On February 14 , he claimed three victories , two Bf 109s and an Fw 190 , but one of the former was credited only as a " probable " .
His final World War II aerial kill occurred on April 7 , 1945 , when Olds in Scat VI led the 479th Fighter Group on a mission escorting B @-@ 24s bombing an ammunition dump in Lüneburg , Germany . The engagement marked the only combat appearance of Sonderkommando Elbe , a German Air Force Squadron formed to ram Allied bombers . South of Bremen , Olds noticed contrails popping up above a bank of cirrus clouds , of aircraft flying above and to the left of the bombers . For five minutes these bogeys paralleled the bomber stream while the 479th held station . Turning to investigate , Olds saw pairs of Me 262s turn towards and dive on the Liberators . After damaging one of the jets in a chase meant to lure the fighter escort away from the bombers , the Mustangs returned to the bomber stream . Olds observed a Bf 109 of Sonderkommando Elbe attack the bombers and shoot down a B @-@ 24 . Olds pursued the Bf 109 through the formation , and shot it down .
Olds achieved the bulk of his strafing credits the following week in attacks on Lübeck Blankensee and Tarnewitz airdromes on April 13 , and Reichersburg airfield in Austria on April 16 , when he destroyed six German planes on the ground . He later reflected on the hazards of such missions :
I was hit by flak as I was pulling out of a dive @-@ strafing pass on an airfield called Tarnewitz , up on the Baltic . Five P @-@ 51s made a pass on the airdrome that April day . I was the only one to return home ... When I tested the stall characteristics of my wounded bird over our home airfield , I found it quit flying at a little over 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) indicated and rolled violently into the dead wing ( note : the right flap had been blown away and two large holes knocked in the same wing ) . What to do ? Bailout seemed the logical response , but here 's where sentiment got in the way of reason . That airplane ( note : " Scat VI " ) had taken me through a lot and I was damned if I was going to give up on her ... why the bird and I survived the careening , bouncing and juttering ride down the length of the field , I guess I 'll never know .
Olds had not only risen in rank to field grade but was given command of his squadron on March 25 , less than two years out of West Point and at only 22 years of age . By the end of his combat service he was officially credited with 12 German planes shot down and 11 @.@ 5 others destroyed on the ground . Olds became an ace on both of his combat tours and was twice awarded the Silver Star , for the mission of August 25 and for the achievements of himself and his squadron during his combined tours .
= = Career highlights and assignments = =
Returning to the United States after the war , Olds was assigned at West Point as an assistant football coach for Red Blaik . Apparently resented by many on the staff for his rapid rise in rank and plethora of combat decorations , Olds transferred in February 1946 to the 412th Fighter Group at March Field , California , to fly the P @-@ 80 Shooting Star , which began a career @-@ long professional struggle with superiors he viewed as more promotion- than warrior @-@ minded .
In April 1946 , he and Lieutenant Colonel John C. " Pappy " Herbst formed what he believed was the Air Force 's first jet aerobatic demonstration team . In late May , the 412th was ordered to undertake PROJECT COMET , a nine @-@ city transcontinental mass formation flight . Olds and Herbst performed a two @-@ ship acro routine that thrilled the crowds at every stop , the highlight being a three @-@ day layover in Washington , D.C. In June , Olds was one of four pilots who participated in the first one @-@ day , dawn @-@ to @-@ dusk , transcontinental round trip jet flight from March Field to Washington , D.C.
The jet demonstration performances with Herbst ended tragically on July 4 , 1946 , when Herbst crashed at the Del Mar Racetrack after his aircraft stalled during an encore of their routine finale in which the P @-@ 80s did a loop while configured to land . Later that same year Olds took second place in the Thompson Trophy Race ( Jet Division ) of the Cleveland National Air Races at Brook Park , Ohio over the Labor Day weekend . In this first " closed course " jet race , six P @-@ 80s competed against each other on a three pylon course 30 miles in length .
Olds went to England under the U.S. Air Force / Royal Air Force Exchange Program in 1948 . Flying the Gloster Meteor jet fighter , he commanded No. 1 Squadron at Royal Air Force Station Tangmere between October 20 , 1948 and September 25 , 1949 , the first foreigner to command an RAF unit in peacetime . Following his exchange assignment , Olds returned to March AFB to become operations officer of the 94th Fighter Squadron of the 1st Fighter Group , flying F @-@ 86A Sabres , on November 15 , 1949 .
Olds was assigned to command the 71st Fighter Squadron , which was soon detached from the 1st FG to the Air Defense Command and based at the Greater Pittsburgh Airport in Pennsylvania . As a result , he missed service in the Korean War despite repeated applications for a combat assignment . Discouraged and at odds with the Air Force , in which he was seen as an iconoclast , Olds reportedly was in the process of resigning when he was talked out of it by a mentor , Maj Gen Frederic H. Smith , Jr . , who brought him to work at Eastern Air Defense Command headquarters at Stewart AFB .
Promoted to Lieutenant Colonel on February 20 , 1951 , and Colonel April 15 , 1953 , while just thirty years of age , Olds served unenthusiastically in several staff assignments until returning to flying in 1955 . At first on the command staff of the 86th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing at Landstuhl Air Base , Germany , Olds then commanded its Sabre @-@ equipped 86th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Group from October 8 , 1955 , to August 10 , 1956 . He then was made chief of the Weapons Proficiency Center at Wheelus Air Base , Libya , in charge of all fighter weapons training for the United States Air Forces Europe until July 1958 .
Olds had administrative and staff duty assignments at the Pentagon between 1958 and 1962 as the Deputy Chief , Air Defense Division , Headquarters USAF . In this assignment he prepared a number of papers , iconoclastic at the time , which soon became prophetic , including identifying the need for upgraded conventional munitions ( foretelling the " bomb shortage " of the Vietnam War ) , and the dearth of any serious tactical air training in conventional warfare . From November 1959 to March 1960 , his section worked intensely to develop a program reducing the entire structure of the ADC with the purpose of generating $ 6 @.@ 5 billion for classified funding to develop the SR @-@ 71 Blackbird . Following his Pentagon assignment , Olds attended the National War College , graduating in 1963 .
Olds next became commander of the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing at RAF Bentwaters , England , an F @-@ 101 Voodoo fighter @-@ bomber wing , on September 8 , 1963 . The 81st TFW was a major combat unit in United States Air Forces Europe , having both a tactical nuclear and conventional bombing role supporting NATO . Olds commanded the wing until July 26 , 1965 . As his Deputy Commander of Operations Olds brought with him Colonel Daniel " Chappie " James , Jr . , whom he had met during his Pentagon assignment and who would go on to become the first African @-@ American 4 @-@ star Air Force general . James and Olds worked closely together for a year as a command team and developed both a professional and social relationship which was later renewed in combat .
Olds formed a demonstration team for the F @-@ 101 using pilots of his wing , without command authorization , and performed at an Air Force open house at Bentwaters . He asserted that his superior at Third Air Force attempted to have him court @-@ martialed , but the commander of USAFE , General Gabriel P. Disosway , instead authorized his removal from command of the 81st TFW , cancellation of a recommended Legion of Merit award , and transfer to the headquarters of the Ninth Air Force at Shaw Air Force Base , South Carolina .
In September 1966 , Olds was tapped to command an F @-@ 4C Phantom wing in Southeast Asia . En route he arranged with the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing , Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base , Arizona , ( where Col. James was now Deputy Commander of Operations ) to be checked out in the Phantom , completing the 14 @-@ step syllabus in just five days . His instructor was Major William L. Kirk , the 4453rd CCTW 's Standardization and Evaluation officer , who had been one of Olds ' pilots at RAF Bentwaters , and who later commanded the United States Air Forces Europe as a full general . Kirk accompanied Olds for practice firing of AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow and AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder missiles on the Point Mugu missile range while Olds was en route to Travis Air Force Base for his charter flight overseas . Olds rewarded Kirk by granting him a transfer to his command in Thailand in March 1967 .
= = Vietnam = =
On September 30 , 1966 , Olds took command of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing , based at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base . A lack of aggressiveness and sense of purpose in the wing had led to the change in command ( Olds ' predecessor had flown only 12 missions during the 10 months the wing had been in combat ) . The 44 @-@ year @-@ old colonel also set the tone for his command stint by immediately placing himself on the flight schedule as a rookie pilot under officers junior to himself , then challenging them to train him properly because he would soon be leading them .
Olds ' vice commander was Col. Vermont Garrison , an ace in both World War II and Korea , and in December Olds brought in James to replace an ineffective deputy commander for operations , creating arguably the strongest and most effective tactical command triumvirate of the Vietnam War . The Olds @-@ James combination became popularly nicknamed " Blackman and Robin " . Olds took to the air war over North Vietnam in an F @-@ 4C Phantom he nicknamed " Scat XXVII " , in keeping with his previous combat aircraft that all carried the " Scat " name .
= = = MiG Killer = = =
After suggesting the idea to Seventh Air Force commander Major General William Momyer , himself a former commander of the 8th TFW , Olds was directed to plan a mission designed to draw the North Vietnamese Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21s into an aerial trap , and " Operation Bolo " resulted .
In October 1966 , strike force F @-@ 105 Thunderchiefs were equipped with QRC @-@ 160 radar jamming pods whose effectiveness virtually ended their losses to surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . As a result , SAM attacks shifted to the Phantoms , unprotected because of a shortage of pods . To protect the F @-@ 4s , rules of engagement that allowed the MiGCAP to escort the strike force in and out of the target area were revised in December to restrict MiGCAP penetration to the edge of SAM coverage . MiG interceptions increased as a result , primarily by MiG @-@ 21s using high speed hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics against bomb @-@ laden F @-@ 105 formations , and although only two bombers had been lost , the threat to the force was perceived as serious .
The Bolo plan reasoned that by equipping F @-@ 4s with jamming pods , using the call signs and communications codewords of the F @-@ 105 wings , and flying their flight profiles through northwest Vietnam , the F @-@ 4s could effectively simulate an F @-@ 105 bombing mission and entice the MiG @-@ 21s into intercepting not bomb @-@ laden Thunderchiefs , but Phantoms configured for air @-@ to @-@ air combat .
After an intensive planning , maintenance , and briefing period , the mission was scheduled for January 1 , 1967 . Poor weather caused a 24 @-@ hour delay , but even then , a solid overcast covered the North Vietnamese airbases at Phúc Yên , Gia Lam , Kép , and Cat Bai when the bogus strike force began arriving over the target area , five @-@ minute intervals separating the flights of F @-@ 4s . Leading the first flight , Olds overflew the primary MiG @-@ 21 base at Phúc Yên and was on a second pass when MiGs finally began popping up through the cloud base . Although at first seemingly random in nature , it quickly became apparent that the MiGs were ground @-@ controlled intercepts designed to place the supposed F @-@ 105s in a vise between enemies to their front and rear .
The F @-@ 4s and their crews , however , proved equal to the situation and claimed seven MiG @-@ 21s destroyed , almost half of the 16 then in service with the VPAF without loss to USAF aircraft . Olds himself shot down one of the seven , for which he and the other aircrew were awarded Silver Stars . Follow @-@ up interceptions over the next two days by MiGs against RF @-@ 4C reconnaissance aircraft led to a similar mission on a smaller scale on January 6 , with another two MiG @-@ 21s shot down . VPAF fighter activity diminished to almost nothing for 10 weeks afterwards , thereby accomplishing the main goal of Operation Bolo : to eliminate or diminish the threat of MiGs to the strike formations .
On May 4 , Olds destroyed another MiG @-@ 21 over Phúc Yên . Two weeks later , on May 20 , he destroyed two MiG @-@ 17s in what one of his pilots described as a " vengeful chase " after they shot down his wingman during a large dogfight , bringing his total to 16 confirmed kills ( 12 in World War II and four in Vietnam ) , making him a triple ace . Olds states that following the shoot down of his fourth MiG , he intentionally avoided shooting down a fifth , even though he had at least ten opportunities to do so , because he had learned in the middle of June that Seventh Air Force , at the direction of Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown , would immediately relieve him of command to return to the United States as a publicity asset .
He was awarded a fourth Silver Star for leading a three @-@ aircraft low @-@ level bombing strike on March 30 , 1967 , and the Air Force Cross for an attack on the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi on August 11 , one of five awarded to Air Force pilots for that mission . He flew his final combat mission over North Vietnam on September 23 , 1967 .
His 259 total combat missions included 107 in World War II and 152 in Southeast Asia , 105 of those over North Vietnam . Scat XXVII ( F @-@ 4C @-@ 24 @-@ MC 64 @-@ 0829 ) was retired from operational service and placed on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force , Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , Ohio .
= = = Olds 's mustache = = =
Olds was known for the extravagantly waxed ( and decidedly non @-@ regulation ) handlebar moustache he sported in Vietnam . It was a common superstition among airmen to grow a " bulletproof mustache " , but Olds also used his as " a gesture of defiance . The kids on base loved it . Most everybody grew a mustache . " Olds started the mustache in the wake of the success of Operation Bolo and let it grow beyond regulation length because " It became the middle finger I couldn 't raise in the PR photographs . The mustache became my silent last word in the verbal battles ... with higher headquarters on rules , targets , and fighting the war . " Returning home , however , marked the end of this flamboyance . When he reported to his first interview with Air Force Chief of Staff General John P. McConnell , McConnell walked up to him , stuck a finger under his nose and said , " Take it off . " Olds replied , " Yes , sir . "
For his part , Olds was not upset with the order , recalling :
To tell the truth , I wasn 't all that fond of the damned thing by then , but it had become a symbol for the men of the 8th Wing . I knew McConnell understood . During his visits to Ubon over the past year he had never referred to my breach of military standards , just seemed rather amused at the variety of ' staches sported by many of the troops . ( It ) was the most direct order I had received in twenty @-@ four years of service .
The incident with the mustache is given credit as the impetus for a new Air Force tradition , " Mustache March " , in which aircrew , aircraft maintainers , and other airmen worldwide show solidarity by a symbolic , albeit good @-@ natured " protest " for one month against Air Force facial hair regulations .
= = = Dogfighting advocate = = =
" We weren 't allowed to dogfight . Very little attention was paid to strafing , dive @-@ bombing , rocketry , stuff like that . It was thought to be unnecessary . Yet every confrontation America faced in the Cold War years was a ' bombs and bullets ' situation , raging under an uneasy nuclear standoff . " The Vietnam War " proved the need to teach tactical warfare and have fighter pilots . It caught us unprepared because we weren 't allowed to learn it or practice it in training . "
Olds often lamented the lack of an internal gun in the F @-@ 4C he flew during his tour in Vietnam , but would not allow his fighters to be equipped with the gun pods then available . While he knew that he would be capable of effectively using them , he was also aware that none of his pilots were trained in the use of a gun or dogfighting . He also reasoned that the drag of the pod would both degrade the performance characteristics of the F @-@ 4 while not gaining it any advantage against the more maneuverable MiG @-@ 17s and MiG @-@ 21s , result in unnecessary losses strafing worthless targets , and reduce the number of bombs carried by the Phantoms , the delivery of which was the 8th 's primary mission .
The History Channel , in its series Dogfights , recreated Operation Bolo using a computer animation for an episode entitled " Air Ambush " , first telecast on November 10 , 2006 . Olds , then 84 years old , appeared as a commentator , and as background , dogfights he experienced as a P @-@ 38 pilot were also recreated .
= = Post @-@ Southeast Asia career = =
= = = Air Force Academy 1967 – 71 = = =
After relinquishing command of the 8th TFW on September 23 , 1967 , Olds reported for duty to the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs , Colorado , in December 1967 . He served as Commandant of Cadets for three years and sought to restore morale in the wake of a major cheating scandal . Olds was promoted to brigadier general on June 1 , 1968 , with seniority dating from May 28 .
= = = Director of Aerospace Safety = = =
In February 1971 he began his last duty assignment as director of aerospace safety in the Office of the Inspector General , Headquarters USAF , and after December 1971 as part of the Air Force Inspection and Safety Center , a newly activated separate operating agency located at Norton Air Force Base , California . Olds oversaw the creation of policies , standards , and procedures for Air Force accident prevention programs , and dealt with work safety education , workplace accident investigation and analysis , and safety inspections .
= = = 1971 inspector general tour and 1973 retirement = = =
Air Force Inspector General and Olds ' West Point classmate Lt Gen Louis L. Wilson , Jr . , sent Olds to Southeast Asia in the autumn of 1971 to determine the state of readiness of Air Force pilots . Olds toured USAF bases in Thailand ( flying several unauthorized combat missions in the process ) and brought back a blunt assessment . Air Force pilots , he reported to the Air Force Chief of Staff , Gen John D. Ryan ( a former SAC general and bomber pilot often at odds with the tactical fighter community ) , " ... couldn 't fight their way out of a wet paper bag , " because of a systemic lack of interest by the USAF in air @-@ to @-@ air combat training for fighter crews . He warned that losses would be severe in any resumption of aerial combat . Olds recalled that Ryan expressed surprise at this assessment and reflected his disagreement .
When Operation Linebacker began in May 1972 , American fighter jets returned to the offense in the skies over North Vietnam for the first time in nearly four years . Navy and Marine Corps fighters , reaping the benefits of their TOPGUN program , immediately enjoyed considerable success . In contrast by June , as Olds had predicted , the Air Force 's fighter community was struggling with a nearly 1 : 1 kill @-@ loss ratio . To the new Inspector General , Lt Gen Ernest C. Hardin , Jr . , Olds offered to take a voluntary reduction in rank to colonel so he could return to operational command and straighten out the situation . Olds decided to leave the Air Force when the offer was refused ( he was offered another inspection tour instead ) and he retired on June 1 , 1973 .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Robin Olds ' ribbons as they appeared at retirement .
From top , and from left to right : Command pilot .
Row 1 : Air Force Cross ; Air Force Distinguished Service Medal , one oak leaf cluster .
Row 2 : Silver Star , three oak leaf clusters ; Legion of Merit ; Distinguished Flying Cross , five oak leaf clusters .
Row 3 : Air Medal , with 39 oak leaf clusters .
Row 4 : Air Force Commendation Medal ; Presidential Unit Citation , with oak leaf cluster ; Outstanding Unit Award , with two oak leaf clusters ; American Defense Service Medal .
Row 5 : American Campaign Medal ; European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with six campaign stars ; World War II Victory Medal ; National Defense Service Medal , with second service star .
Row 6 : Vietnam Service Medal ; Air Force Longevity Service Award , with six oak leaf clusters ; Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Medal ; Légion d 'honneur .
Row 7 : Distinguished Flying Cross ( United Kingdom ) ; Croix de Guerre ( France ) , with star ; Vietnam Air Gallantry Cross with Gold Wings ; Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal .
Not shown :
Vietnam Air Force Distinguished Service Order , 2nd Class
Vietnam Air Force Meritorious Service Medal
= = = Air Force Cross citation = = =
Colonel Robin Olds
U.S. Air Force
Date Of Action : August 11 , 1967
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Title 10 , Section 8742 , United States Code , takes pleasure in presenting the Air Force Cross to Colonel Robin Olds ( AFSN : 0 @-@ 26046 ) , United States Air Force , for extraordinary heroism in military operations against an opposing armed force while serving as Strike Mission Commander in the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing , Ubon Royal Thai Air Base , Thailand , against the Paul Doumer Bridge , a major north @-@ south transportation link on Hanoi 's Red River in North Vietnam , on 11 August 1967 . On that date , Colonel Olds led his strike force of eight F @-@ 4C aircraft against a key railroad and highway bridge in North Vietnam . Despite intense , accurately directed fire , multiple surface @-@ to @-@ air missile attacks on his force , and continuous harassment by MiG fighters defending the target , Colonel Olds , with undaunted determination , indomitable courage , and professional skill , led his force through to help destroy this significant bridge . As a result the flow of war materials into this area was appreciably reduced . Through his extraordinary heroism , superb airmanship , and aggressiveness in the face of hostile forces , Colonel Olds reflected the highest credit upon himself and the United States Air Force .
= = Personal = =
Olds was briefly a stepbrother of author Gore Vidal after Olds ' father married for the fourth time in June 1942 , to Nina Gore Auchinloss . His father died of pneumonia on April 28 , 1943 , after hospitalization for constrictive pericarditis and Libman @-@ Sacks endocarditis , at the age of 46 , just prior to Olds ' graduation from West Point .
In 1946 , while based at March Field , Olds met Hollywood actress ( and " pin @-@ up girl " ) Ella Raines on a blind date in Palm Springs . They married in Beverly Hills on February 6 , 1947 , and had two daughters , Christina and Susan , and a son , Robert Ernest , who was stillborn in 1958 . Most of their 29 @-@ year marriage , marked by frequent extended separations and difficult homecomings , was turbulent because of a clash of lifestyles , particularly her refusal to ever live in government housing on base . Robin Olds and Ella Raines separated in 1975 and divorced in 1976 . Robin married Abigail Morgan Sellers Barnett in January 1978 , and they divorced after fifteen years of marriage .
In his retirement at Steamboat Springs , Colorado , Olds pursued his love of skiing and served on the city 's planning commission . He was active in public speaking , making 21 events as late in his life as 2005 and 13 in 2006 .
Olds ' fondness for alcohol was well known . John Darrell Sherwood , in his book Fast Movers : Jet Pilots and the Vietnam Experience , posits that Olds ' heavy drinking hurt his post @-@ Vietnam career . On July 12 , 2001 , Olds was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol and resisting arrest near his home in Steamboat Springs . Olds , briefly hospitalized during the incident for facial cuts , pleaded guilty in return for charges of weaving and felony vehicular eluding being dropped . Olds was placed on one year probation , and ordered to pay almost $ 900 in fines and costs , attend an alcohol education course , and perform 72 hours of community service .
Days later , on July 21 , 2001 , Olds was enshrined at Dayton , Ohio , in the National Aviation Hall of Fame class of 2001 , along with test pilot Joseph H. Engle , Marine Corps ace Marion E. Carl , and Albert Lee Ueltschi . He became the only person enshrined in both the National Aviation Hall of Fame and the College Football Hall of Fame .
In March 2007 Olds was hospitalized in Colorado for complications of Stage 4 prostate cancer . On the evening of June 14 , 2007 , General Olds died from congestive heart failure in Steamboat Springs , Colorado . Olds was honored with a flyover and services at the United States Air Force Academy on June 30 , where his ashes are kept . General Olds is remembered as the Class Exemplar of the Academy Class of 2011 , which had begun Basic Cadet Training , the first step towards becoming Air Force officers , two days before Olds ' funeral .
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= Indio Comahue Monument =
The Monumento al Indio Comahue ( Monument to the Comahue Indian ) is a monument located in Villa Regina , in the Argentine province of Río Negro . It was constructed to honor the native inhabitants of the Comahue Region . The monument was completed in time for the inaugural Comahue National Fair in 1964 .
Commissioned by the organizers of the fair , Bartolo Pasin and Rogelio Chimenti , it was designed by Miguel De Lisi and constructed in two months by local bricklayer Aldo Cardozo . Presently it is used as an overlook for its panoramic view . The monument is considered to be a symbol of the town , and as such it is depicted in the coat of arms .
= = History = =
The monument was erected to commemorate the native inhabitants of Comahue . It was constructed for the first Comahue National Fair , in 1964 . This was a 45 @-@ day event that aimed to highlight the economic potential of the Comahue Region , and at the same time commemorate the 40th anniversary of the founding of Villa Regina . Bartolo Pasin and Rogelio Chimenti , who organized the fair , proposed the construction to designer Miguel De Lisi , after seeing his work at the City Hotel in Mar del Plata .
= = = Construction = = =
De Lisi sent the drawings to the local construction team , led by Aldo Humberto Cardozo and Alberto Sartor . The monument had been originally planned to be 10 metres ( 33 ft ) tall , but Cardozo re @-@ scaled it to be nearly 11 metres ( 36 ft ) , and later also added a high base of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) . The completed monument , now standing at almost 13 metres ( 42 @.@ 4 ft ) , depicts a native who is holding a long spear while watching the horizon .
Work started in July 1964 , with the structure being built of reinforced concrete . It had an iron skeleton made up of 4 inch pipes ( 100mm ) , which was reinforced with radial sections that were soldered every 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) . Later , the figure was filled from the feet to the hips with ceramic brick and concrete , with the top half finished using a layer of reinforced concrete . The monument was completed in two months with an estimated weight of 80 tons , and a height of 12 @.@ 90 metres ( 42 @.@ 3 ft ) . In its construction , five hundred bags of cement , 2 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 500 lb ) of iron , 60 metres ( 200 ft ) of steel , and 80 square metres ( 860 sq ft ) of sand were used .
It was later painted by a local man , Carlos Basabe Cerdá . The job proved to be very difficult due to strong winds that blew the wooden planks off the scaffolding and into a nearby ditch . A construction team later tied on the planks , solving the problem . The painters first applied a primer coat , then linseed oil , varnish , and finally a coat of copper glitter . The monument was inaugurated during the opening of the Comahue National Fair on September 7 , 1964 .
= = The monument and Villa Regina = =
The structure is located on the northern hill of the town , which has an elevation of 70 to 80 metres ( 230 to 260 feet ) . The hill is mostly covered in bushes and can be accessed by two paths . Currently it is used as an overlook for its panoramic view of the town . It also serves to mark the finishing line for the annual trekking trail competition , Desafío al Indio Comahue .
Considered as the symbol of Villa Regina , the Indio Comahue is depicted in the city 's coat of arms . It was also depicted in the previous seal of the Río Negro Province , designed by the government of the Argentine Revolution . The seal was replaced in 2009 by the one that the overthrown government designed in 1966 , months before the coup d 'état . The Comahue National Fair was relaunched in 2004 , and is currently celebrated every two years .
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= 2012 Football League Cup Final =
The 2012 Football League Cup Final was a football match between Cardiff City and Liverpool on 26 February 2012 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 2011 – 12 Football League Cup , the 52nd season of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and the Football League . Cardiff were appearing in their first final , while Liverpool were appearing in the final for the eleventh time ; they had previously won seven and lost three finals .
As Cardiff were in the Football League they played one more round than Liverpool who received a bye in the first round . Therefore , Cardiff progressed through six rounds to reach the final , whereas Liverpool progressed through five . Matches up to the semi @-@ final were contested on a one @-@ off basis with the exception of the semi @-@ finals which were contested over two @-@ legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . Both Liverpool and Cardiff 's matches were close affairs ; their biggest margins of victory was by two goals . Liverpool beat Manchester City to reach the final , whereas Cardiff progressed via a penalty shoot @-@ out against Crystal Palace .
Watched by a crowd of 89 @,@ 041 , Cardiff took the lead in the first half when Joe Mason scored . The score remained the same through half @-@ time until Liverpool equalised in the 60th minute , when Martin Škrtel scored . With the score 1 – 1 at full @-@ time , the match went to extra @-@ time as neither side were able to score a second goal . The first half of extra @-@ time was goalless , but three minutes into the second half Liverpool took the lead when Dirk Kuyt scored . However two minutes before the end of extra @-@ time Cardiff equalised to make the score 2 – 2 , courtesy of a goal from Ben Turner . With the score at 2 – 2 at the end of extra @-@ time the match went to a penalty shoot @-@ out . Despite missing their first two penalties , Liverpool won the shoot @-@ out 3 – 2 to win the League Cup for a record eighth time .
Liverpool 's manager Kenny Dalglish stated in the aftermath , that the victory would lead to more trophies . The club reached the 2012 FA Cup Final , but were beaten 2 – 1 by Chelsea . Their league form faltered after the victory and they finished the season in 8th place . Despite this , victory in the final ensured Liverpool had qualified for the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League . Cardiff manager Malky Mackay was proud of his team despite their defeat . They finished the season in 6th place in the 2011 – 12 Football League Championship , reaching the playoffs where they were beaten by West Ham United over two @-@ legs .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Cardiff City = = =
Cardiff entered the 2011 – 12 Football League Cup in the first round where they faced Oxford United . The match played at the Kassam Stadium saw Cardiff take the lead in the 10th minute when Craig Conway scored . Oxford equalised 20 minutes later courtesy of a Simon Clist goal . Neither side was able to score a winning goal during the remainder of the match , which went into extra @-@ time at 1 – 1 . Two goals from Peter Whittingham and Nathaniel Jarvis secured a 3 – 1 victory for Cardiff . Their opponents in the second round were Huddersfield Town . Two goals in the first 16 minutes courtesy of Gabor Gyepes and Jon Parkin gave Cardiff an early 2 – 0 lead , which they held until the 55th minute when Huddersfield reduced the deficit to 2 – 1 courtesy of a Jordan Rhodes goal . Daniel Ward equalised for Huddersfield in the 69th minute before Rhodes scored his second goal of the match to give Huddersfield a 3 – 2 lead in the 87th minute . Cardiff equalised two minutes into stoppage time when Don Cowie headed the ball in from close range . With the score at 3 – 3 after 90 minutes the match went to extra @-@ time . A goal each from Conway and Cowie gave Cardiff a 5 – 3 victory and progression to the third round .
Leciester City were the opponents in the third round . Cardiff playing at their home ground the Cardiff City Stadium took the lead in the 32nd minute when Cowie scored . Leicester equalised seven minutes later when Steve Howard scored from close range . Leicester then took the lead in the 65th minute courtesy of a Lloyd Dyer goal . Cardiff equalised when Rudy Gestede with nine minutes of the match remaining . The score remained 2 – 2 until full @-@ time and throughout extra @-@ time , which mean the match would be decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out . Cardiff won the shoot @-@ out 7 – 6 to progress to the fourth round .
Cardiff were drawn at home against Burnley in the fourth round . They won the match 1 – 0 courtesy of a Joe Mason goal in the first half . The result was the first time in the competition Cardiff 's match didn 't go into extra @-@ atime and it was the first they had reached the quarter @-@ finals of the League Cup since 1965 . Their opponents in the quarter @-@ finals were Blackburn Rovers . Two goals from Kenny Miller and Anthony Gerrard secured a 2 – 0 victory for Cardiff and their progression to the semi @-@ finals .
Crystal Palace were Cardiff 's opponents in the semi @-@ final which was played over two @-@ legs . The first leg was played at Palace 's home ground Selhurst Park . Cardiff started the match the better of the two sides but were unable to convert their chances . Palace took the lead in the 43rd minute when Anthony Gardner headed in Darren Ambrose 's cross . Neither side scored again and the match ended 1 – 0 . The second leg at the Cardiff City Stadium started well for Cardiff when they went ahead in the seventh minute after an own @-@ goal from Palace defender Gardner , which levelled the aggregate score at 1 – 1 . Palace were reduced to ten men in the second half when Paddy McCarthy was sent @-@ off . Despite their numerical advantage Cardiff were unable to a second goal during the 90 minutes and extra @-@ time and the tie went to a penalty shoot @-@ out . Cardiff goalkeeper Tom Heaton saved two penalties as Cardiff won the shoot @-@ out 3 – 1 to progress to their first League Cup final .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool entered the competition in the second round , as one of the twelve teams from the Premier League who were not involved in European competition during the season . They were drawn against Exeter City in the second round . The match , played at Exeter 's home ground , St James Park was won by Liverpool ; goals from Luis Suárez , Maxi Rodríguez and Andy Carroll helped the team win 3 – 1 .
Liverpool 's opponents in the third round were Brighton & Hove Albion . The match was played at Brighton 's home ground , the Falmer Stadium . Liverpool took the lead in the 7th minute when Craig Bellamy scored . Dirk Kuyt extended the lead in the second half , scoring in the 82nd minute . Brighton pulled a goal back courtesy of an Ashley Barnes penalty kick , but were unable to score an equaliser ; the match finished 2 – 1 to Liverpool .
Stoke City were Liverpool 's opponents in the fourth round . The match , held at Stoke 's home ground the Britannia Stadium saw Stoke take the lead towards the end of the first @-@ half when Kenwyne Jones scored . Liverpool equalised in the 54th minute courtesy of a goal from Suárez , and he scored the winner in the 84th minute to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 victory and a place in the fifth round . Liverpool were drawn against Chelsea in the subsequent round . At Stamford Bridge , Carroll missed a penalty in a goalless first half . Despite this Liverpool scored twice after the interval , courtesy of goals from Maxi and Martin Kelly . They won the match 2 – 0 to reach the semi @-@ finals .
Liverpool were drawn against Manchester City in the semi @-@ finals which were held over two @-@ legs . The first leg was at City 's home ground , the Etihad stadium . Liverpool won the match 1 – 0 , courtesy of a Steven Gerrard penalty . The second leg was held at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield . City took the lead in the first half when Nigel de Jong scored , ten minutes later Gerrard equalised when he scored a penalty . At half @-@ time , the score was 1 – 1 with Liverpool leading 2 – 1 on aggregate . City took the lead in the match when Edin Džeko scored in the 67th minute . The goal meant the aggregate score was 2 – 2 but City would progress to the final if the score remained the same due to the away goals rule . Liverpool needed to find an equaliser , and seven minutes after Džeko 's goal they did , when Bellamy scored . City tried to score an equaliser but to no avail , and the match finished 2 – 2 , with Liverpool progressing to the final courtesy of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Cardiff were appearing in their first League Cup final ; they had previously reached the semi @-@ final of the competition in the 1965 – 66 season , when they were beaten by West Ham United 5 – 1 on aggregate . They were also the first team from outside the Premier League to reach the final since 2001 , when Birmingham City lost to Liverpool . Liverpool were appearing in their eleventh final ; they had won seven ( 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1995 , 2001 , 2003 ) and lost three ( 1978 , 1987 , 2005 ) . The last meeting between the two teams was in the 2007 – 08 Football League Cup on 31 October 2007 , Liverpool won 2 – 1 to progress to the fifth round .
This was the fourth time in as many years that Cardiff City had played at Wembley Stadium . They played at the stadium twice during the 2007 – 08 FA Cup ; they beat Barnsley 1 – 0 in the semi @-@ final before losing 1 – 0 to Portsmouth in the final . Their last match at the stadium was the 2010 Championship play @-@ off Final against Blackpool , which they lost 3 – 2 . The final represented the first time Liverpool had visited the new Wembley Stadium ; their previous appearances in the final in 2001 , 2003 and 2005 had been played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff while Wembley was being rebuilt . Their last visit to Wembley was in 1996 when they reached the final of the FA Cup , match they lost 1 – 0 to Manchester United at the old Wembley Stadium .
A week before the final Cardiff played Ipswich Town in the 2011 – 12 Football League Championship – it was their last match before the final , which they lost 3 – 0 . Cardiff had a few injury concerns ahead of the final . Captain Mark Hudson had a calf problem , while midfielder Stephen McPhail had missed Cardiff 's last four matches as he was suffering from Sjögren 's syndrome , an immune system disorder . Goalkeeper Heaton was also a doubt with a knock on his ankle , but he was considered likely to start the match . Cardiff manager Malky Mackay acknowledged that Liverpool went into the match as favourites , but he was confident his team could provide a shock : " Obviously we are underdogs but we have a chance in the final , Maybe only a one in 10 chance but that 's still a chance if you turn up motivated , fit and organised and I think I can promise that . "
Liverpool 's last match before the final was against Brighton & Hove Albion in the FA Cup , which they won 6 – 1 . Despite the margin of victory , Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish was adamant that the result meant nothing in regards to the final : " Defeating Brighton has got us to the next round , but it doesn 't really help us in the Carling Cup , we 've got a cup final but we won 't get carried away . " Despite missing the match against Brighton , Dalglish was confident that Daniel Agger and Craig Bellamy would be fit for the final . Going into the match Liverpool had not won a trophy since they beat West Ham United in the 2006 FA Cup Final . Dalglish stated that victory : " means a lot to me , more importantly it means a lot to a lot of people who have had to endure a few years when we 've not been [ to Wembley ] . "
Both clubs received an allocation of approximately 31 @,@ 000 tickets . Cardiff fans would be housed in the East End of the stadium , while Liverpool fans were allocated the West End of the stadium . Ticket prices were increased from last year 's final , with the most expensive tickets costing £ 90 up £ 4 from the previous year . The least expensive tickets cost £ 40 , which was £ 2 more than last year . It was decided that before the match started national anthems would not be played . This decision was made to avoid spectators jeering the anthems , as happened during the 2008 FA Cup Final between Portsmouth and Cardiff .
= = = First @-@ half = = =
Cardiff set up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation with Rudy Gestede in the striker position supported by Kenny Miller . Liverpool lined up in a 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 formation , with Andy Carroll starting as the lone striker , with Luis Suárez playing behind him and Jordan Henderson and Stewart Downing either side . Cardiff kicked @-@ off , but Liverpool had the first chance of the match . Steven Gerrard passed the ball to Stewart Downing on the left hand side of the pitch , he passed to Glen Johnson whose shot hit the crossbar , the ball rebounded to Gerrard , but he sent his shot over the Cardiff goal . Liverpool had the best of the opening minutes of the match , with Cardiff unable to keep possession of the ball . Liverpool had another chance in the sixth minute , Downing went past Cardiff defender Kevin McNaughton down the left of the pitch and crossed the ball into the penalty area , which was cleared for a corner kick . The resulting corner found Andy Carroll , but his header was deflected out for another corner which was caught by Cardiff goalkeeper Tom Heaton .
Cardiff began to exert themselves in the match and had their first chance in the 10th minute . Peter Whittingham and Aron Gunnarsson exchanged the ball before it was passed to Rudy Gestede who found Kenny Miller in the Liverpool penalty area , however his resulting shot went over the Liverpool goal . Carroll had a chance to score in the 19th minute but his header was saved by Heaton . Cardiff immediately went on the attack and scored the first goal of the match . Martin Škrtel 's clearance from McNaughton 's initial cross went back to the Cardiff player who passed to Miller , he passed the ball to Joe Mason who had run onto the pass from the right hand side of the pitch . His subsequent shot went through the legs of Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina and into the Liverpool goal to give Cardiff a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool responded by pushing men forward in an attempt to level the score . The first chance after Cardiff 's goal saw defender Daniel Agger advance from his own half towards the Cardiff goal but his shot from 30 yards ( 27 m ) was blocked and went out for a throw @-@ in . Liverpool had another chance from a similar distance a few minutes later but Carroll sent his shot over the crossbar . Liverpool had a penalty appeal turned down in the 32nd minute when Ben Turner was adjudged not to have handled the ball . Immediately afterwards Johnson 's cross was cleared by Mark Hudson , the ball fell to Charlie Adam who sent his shot just wide of the Cardiff goal . Just before half @-@ time Liverpool had a chance to equalise , but Agger 's header from Gerrard 's free @-@ kick was saved by Heaton .
= = = Second @-@ half = = =
Liverpool had the first attack of the half when they were awarded a free @-@ kick for foul on Jose Enrique . The subsequent free @-@ kick was cleared by Whittingham only as far as Henderson whose shot was wide of the Cardiff goal . Two minutes later Cardiff had a chance to extend their lead ; Whittingham went past Agger and passed to Don Cowie , who back heeled the ball to Miller , his subsequent shot went wide of the Liverpool goal . Henderson received the first yellow card of the match after his tackle on Mason was deemed to be too high . Cardiff had another chance in the 56th minute ; a Gunnarsson long throw was punched away by Reina , but the clearance fell to Hudson , who headed the ball into the Liverpool penalty area to Gestede , his subsequent header was blocked by the Liverpool goalkeeper . Liverpool made the first substitution of the match a minute later when Henderson was replaced by Craig Bellamy . Two minutes after the substitution Liverpool equalised . Downing took a corner kick , which was headed on by Carroll to Suarez whose header hit the post , it rebounded to Škrtel , his shot went into the Cardiff goal to level the match at 1 – 1 . Cardiff had the first chance after Liverpool 's goal , but Mason 's shot was saved by Reina .
The minutes after Škrtel 's goal saw Liverpool dominate but they were unable to score a second goal , despite a number of chances . Liverpool conceded a free @-@ kick 22 yards ( 20 m ) from their goal after Miller was fouled . Whittingham 's subsequent shot hit Liverpool players and went out for a Cardiff throw @-@ in . The resulting throw from Gunnarsson was flicked on by Gestede , but it was headed away by Liverpool . Minutes later Cardif had a chance to score , but Turner 's header from Cowie 's pass went wide of the Liverpool goal . Two minutes later Liverpool had another chance to score , but Charlie Adam 's shot was saved by Heaton . Liverpool made their second substitution of the match in the 87th minute when Jamie Carragher replaced Agger . Two minutes before the end of the match Cardiff had a chance to score . Liverpool conceded a free @-@ kick , which was passed to Miller , who was in space , but his went over the Liverpool goal . With the scores level at 1 – 1 , the match went into extra time after the referee brought an end to the 90 minutes of play .
= = = Extra time = = =
Before the start of extra time Cardiff made their first substitution of the match , goalscorer Mason was replaced by Filip Kiss . Liverpool had the first chance to score in extra time , but Suarez 's header was cleared off the line by Andrew Taylor . Cardiff appeared to be playing for a penalty shoot @-@ out , as they were positioning the majority of their team behind the ball and in front of their goal . Cardiff captain Hudson was replaced in the 98th minute by Anthony Gerrard after suffering from cramp . Liverpool had another chance in the 101st minute , when a pass by Gerrard was cleared for a corner kick by Taylor . The resulting corner was met by Carroll , but his header was wide of the Cardiff goal . Immediately after the attack Carroll was replaced by Dirk Kuyt . Just before the end of the first half of extra time Liverpool had another chance . Bellamy went past two men down the left hand side of the pitch before exchanging passes with Kuyt , however his subsequent shot went wide .
Just after the start of the second half of extra time Cardiff made their final substitution , replacing McNaughton with Darcy Blake . Two minutes later Kuyt made a run from deep in the Liverpool half , his initial shot was blocked , but the ball rebounded towards him . As the ball came back to him he shot again and the ball went past Heaton and into the Cardiff goal to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead . Cardiff were struggling after the goal with a number of their players suffering from cramp . Nevertheless , they had a chance in the 111th minute , when a Gunnarsson long throw was only half @-@ cleared by Liverpool , but they were unable to convert the chance . Towards the end of the half Cardiff began to exert more pressure on Liverpool . Turner , who had been moved into the striker position won a corner for Cardiff , which was punched away by Reina for a throw @-@ in . Cardiff won another from the throw , which found Kiss , whose shot was cleared off the line of the Liverpool goal by Kuyt for another corner . The subsequent corner was headed on by Gunnarsson to Turner , who beat Kuyt to the ball and put his shot past Reina into the Liverpool goal to level the score at 2 – 2 . Turner was shown a yellow card for removing his shirt during the celebration of the goal . Liverpool won a corner with a minute remaining but they were unable to score and the referee brought extra time to an end with the scores level , resulting in a penalty shoot @-@ out .
= = = Penalty shoot @-@ out = = =
Liverpool were the first team to take a penalty , but Gerrard 's effort was saved by Heaton . Cardiff 's first penalty was taken by Miller , but he also missed with his shot hitting the post . Adam took the next penalty for Liverpool , he also missed , placing his shot over the Cardiff goal . Cowie took the next penalty for Cardiff and scored to give them a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool also scored with their next penalty courtesy of Kuyt to level the shoot @-@ outat 1 – 1 . Gestede was next for Cardiff , but his penalty hit the post . Liverpool took the lead in the shoot @-@ out when Downing converted his penalty . Whittingham was next for Cardiff and he scored to level the shoot @-@ out at 2 – 2 . Johnson took the next penalty for Liverpool and scored , to give Liverpool a 3 – 2 lead and leave Cardiff needing to score or Liverpool would win . The Cardiff was taken by Anthony Gerrard , but he missed his penalty , which meant Liverpool won the shoot @-@ out 3 – 2 and won their eighth League Cup .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post match = =
Liverpool 's victory meant they won the trophy for the eighth time , extending their record number of victories in the competition . Midfielder Stewart Downing was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as the man of the match . Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish was delighted to have won the League Cup and was adamant that the club would continue to win trophies : " Although we have won something today , that is not us finished , we don 't want to stop here . We want to keep going . We 've won it and we are going to really enjoy it . I know how much the players have enjoyed it and it gives you a wee flavour to come back and do it again . " The victory meant that Dalglish became the seventh manager to win all three major domestic trophies in English football . Goalscorer Dirk Kuyt was equally delighted to have won the competition : " We wanted this so desperately , this is why I came to Anfield . To get my first medal is great . " Meanwhile , captain Steven Gerrard had mixed emotions , due to his cousin Anthony Gerrard missing the deciding penalty : " One of Anthony or I was going to be sad , one was going to be celebrating . It happens . I 've got mixed emotions at the moment because I feel for Anthony and Cardiff . "
Cardiff manager Malky Mackay was proud of his players despite their defeat : " We wanted to come here and win today but the players have done the club proud , I think today we were playing against a top team and I think we have got a lot to be proud of . " Anthony Gerrard , who missed the decisive penalty took to Twitter to apologise to Cardiff fans stating that the miss would " ... haunt me for the rest of my days ! " Despite Gerrard 's apology , Cardiff goalkeeper Tom Heaton was adamant that none of the players should take the blame for the defeat : " There is definitely no blame attached to any of the lads who missed . They all had the strength of character to stand up and take a penalty in front of 90 @,@ 000 people and the world watching in a pressure situation . They should be credited and congratulated for taking them . Sadly , it wasn ’ t our day . ”
Liverpool 's first match after the final was against Arsenal , a match the club needed to win to stay in touch with the top four . Two goals from Robin van Persie , after Liverpool had scored in the first half meant that Liverpool lost 2 – 1 and were 10 points behind the team in 4th place , which would ensure qualification for the UEFA Champions League the following season . Liverpool 's league form continued to falter after the final ; they won four of their last thirteen matches and ended the season in eighth place . Despite their poor league form , Liverpool reached the final of the FA Cup against Chelsea . But they were unable to win a second trophy and lost 2 – 1 . Cardiff played West Ham United in their first match after the final , which they lost 2 – 0 . Despite the loss , they only needed to win one more in their remaining thirteen matches to finish in 6th place and qualify for the Championship playoffs . They faced third placed West Ham United , in the playoffs , which were contested over two @-@ legs , with one at each team 's home ground . Cardiff were unable to secure a second Wembley final , as West Ham United won 5 – 0 on aggregate .
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= Wide Awake in Europe =
Wide Awake in Europe is a live extended play ( EP ) by rock band U2 . The release was created by the organizers of Record Store Day to bring customers into independent record shops for holiday shopping . A limited number of 5 @,@ 000 EPs were produced , and were released on Black Friday in 2010 , mostly to record shops in North America . The EP features three live tracks on a 12 @-@ inch vinyl record , taken from three different concerts during the U2 360 ° Tour in 2009 and 2010 . The EP comprises the songs " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " , " Moment of Surrender " , and " Mercy " , the latter a previously unreleased track that was debuted on tour .
= = Background and release = =
The potential release of an EP was first announced by U2 bassist Adam Clayton in an August 2010 U2.com video , after stating that the band was not yet ready to release another album . In mid @-@ October , listings for the EP appeared on Amazon.com , with a release date of 22 November . Details of the release were officially announced by website SlicingUpEyeballs.com on 26 October with the track listing and release date information , along with details about its exclusive release to independent record stores , despite its listing on Amazon.com. U2.com officially announced the release on 16 November , and " Moment of Surrender " from the release was streamed on the website exclusively for the site 's subscribers , beginning the following the day . On the day of the EP 's release , U2.com streamed all three tracks for the site 's subscribers for a 48 @-@ hour period .
The EP was created by the creators of Record Store Day for an exclusive release as part of the " Back to Black Friday " program , along over 30 releases from other artists . The program 's objective was to draw customers to independent record shops on Black Friday and throughout the 2010 holiday shopping season , as opposed to big @-@ box stores and shopping malls . The EP was released by Interscope Records on 26 November 2010 , exclusively for independent record shops in the North America , with a select number of copies available in Europe . U2.com stated copies would be available in the United Kingdom and Ireland , although the London newspaper Daily Mail reported that it was only available at Tower Records in Dublin .
The release was limited to 5 @,@ 000 copies , all of which were individually numbered , although some pressings had higher numbers , as jackets damaged during the manufacturing process were destroyed and reprinted with newer numbers . An owner of a Milwaukee , Wisconsin store compared ordering the EP to a roulette , and said he " ordered 15 [ copies ] hoping to get 6 " . Twenty of the copies were given away in a December 2010 sweepstakes for U2.com site subscribers .
Pre @-@ orders for the EP were available from online retailer The Ideal Copy , but had sold out by the end of October , almost a month prior to the release . New Jersey @-@ based retailer Vintage Vinyl Records described the EP as an " Indie @-@ Exclusive Black Friday item " , and also sold pre @-@ orders online , but had ended pre @-@ orders early to ensure copies were available for Black Friday . On the day of its release , several record shops in the US reported Wide Awake in Europe as one of their best @-@ sellers . The EP was sold for around US $ 10 – 20 , but copies were selling on eBay the following day for $ 75 .
= = Content = =
The title and cover of the EP are references to U2 's 1985 EP Wide Awake in America . All the tracks were recorded by Alastair McMillan , and mixed by the EP 's producer , Declan Gaffney .
Side A of the record features " Mercy " , which was debuted during the U2 360 ° Tour in September 2010 . Previously , " Mercy " had leaked online as a track from the sessions for U2 's 2004 album How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb , but Wide Awake in Europe was the first official release of the song . The performance included on the EP is taken from band 's concert in Brussels during the month of its debut , and was the fourth @-@ ever live performance of the song .
Side B features performances of " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " ( from Dublin in July 2009 ) and " Moment of Surrender " ( from Paris in September 2010 ) , both of which are from U2 's 2009 studio album , No Line on the Horizon . The EP 's live version of the " I 'll Go Crazy " live remix from Dublin was previously released on the 2009 U2.com member @-@ exclusive remix album , Artificial Horizon , and was remixed by Redanka and Dirty South . The track also features a clip of " Beshno Az Ney / Windfall " by Sussan Deyhim .
In a review published by Sputnikmusic two weeks after Wide Awake in Europe 's release , critic Irving Tan praised the EP , stating how " Mercy " was " the biggest treat to fans " , while the " I 'll Go Crazy " remix gives the EP a " party vibe " , and that " Moment of Surrender " " manages to be hopeful , glorious , and resplendent all at once " . Tan concluded by saying that the EP sends a message of the band 's " youthful defiance " and stated that he looks forward to U2 's fourth decade .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Bono , all music composed by U2 .
= = Personnel = =
Production – Declan Gaffney
Recording – Alastair McMillan
Mixing – Declan Gaffney , Russell Fawcus ( assistance on " I 'll Go Crazy If I Don 't Go Crazy Tonight " )
Mastering – Scott Sedillo at Bernie Grundman Mastering
Audio post production – Cheryl Engles at Partial Productions
Photography – Aaron Harris
Sleeve design – Shaughn McGrath at Amp Visual
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= The Quest Begins =
The Quest Begins is the first novel in the Seekers series . It was written by Erin Hunter , which is a pseudonym used by authors Cherith Baldry , Kate Cary , Tui Sutherland and editor Victoria Holmes . The novel follows the adventures of four bears , Toklo , Kallik , Lusa and Ujurak . Each bear is stranded by themselves in the wild and must learn to survive . The declining environment of the bears is the main theme conveyed throughout the novel . Like the Warriors series also written by Erin Hunter , Seekers began as a request from HarperCollins who requested another animal story . The company and Victoria Holmes agreed to write about bears after discarding dogs , horses and dolphins . The novel was released in the US on 27 May 2008 and has also been released in the UK , Canada and translated into Russian . Critical reception was positive with reviewers praising the realistic behaviour of the bears .
= = Development and publication = =
= = = Conception = = =
The Quest Begins began as a request from HarperCollins who wanted Victoria Holmes , editor and creator of the Warriors series which followed the adventures of feral cats , to write another series about animals . The company suggested dogs to Holmes , but the idea was rejected since dogs behave very similarly to the cats in the Warriors series . Both horses and dolphins were suggested , but rejected due to their tendency to run away rather than fight and the slowness of battles underwater . Out of ideas , HarperCollins consulted with Holmes on what she wanted to write about . After a bit of thinking Holmes replied , " BEARS ! They live much more solitary lifestyles than cats , they are wild through and through with no history of domestication whatsoever ( performing bears don ’ t count ) , and they are much bigger animals , with a whole lot more potential for fighting " .
= = = Publication history = = =
The Quest Begins was first featured on the HarperCollin 's FirstLook Program in November 2007 . Readers who signed up for the program had a chance to read an early edition of this book , an Advanced Reader 's Copy , before it was published in stores . The Quest Begins was released in the US on 27 May 2008 . The book was also released as a paperback on 10 February 2009 and an e @-@ book on 6 October 2009 .
The books have also been released in the UK and Canada . Canada received the first book on 25 May 2008 . The first three books have also been translated into Russian .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel follows the adventure of four bears , Kallik ( a polar bear ) , Lusa ( a black bear ) , Toklo ( a brown bear ) and Ujurak ( a brown bear ) .
The novel first follows Kallik who lives with her mother and brother . However , they are separated on ice when a group of killer whales attacks them and Kallik must survive by herself . On her own , Kallik decides to go to a gathering place for polar bears that her mom told her about . At the gathering , Kallik asks other polar bears if they have seen her brother , but no one has . Alone , Kallik meets a female bear Nanuk who helps Kallik around the area . However , Nanuk is killed by a helicopter crash shipping her and Kallik back to the wild . Before she dies , Nanuk tells Kallik about a place where the ice never melts . Hearing this , Kallik sets off to this place .
Somewhere is the Rocky Mountains in southern Canada , Toklo 's mom is bringing Toklo and his sickly brother to a river to teach them how to catch salmon . However , in insanity , Toklo 's mom abandons Toklo after a mental break because his brother died . Now Toklo must survive on his own , just like Kallik . Wandering randomly , Toklo gets chased by human hunters and then meets a bear who is also getting chased by hunters . The bear gets injured , but they make it to safety and requests that Toklo to retrieve certain herbs , which he does . The bear turns into a human and later introduces himself as Ujurak . It is revealed that Ujurak is a Shapeshifter , to Toklo 's disbelief , before turning back into a bear . The two end up traveling together .
Lusa is a pampered black bear living in the Bear Bowl , a zoo in Canada . Despite knowing that the wilderness is harsh , Lusa has dreams about one day escaping and living outside . Her father , King , once lived in the wild and is strongly against Lusa 's idea . One day , Toklo 's mom is brought into the Bear Bowl . She talks with Lusa about how much she regretted abandoning her cubs , but that it was too late and that she couldn 't find them . Hearing this , Lusa decides to bring a message to Toklo about how sorry his mother is . Although Lusa succeeds in escaping , she realizes the dangers of the wild . At the end of the story , Ujurak and Toklo meet up with Lusa .
= = Style and themes = =
The novel is written in a similar style to the Warriors series . Holly Koelling from Booklist notes that " Despite the change in species , much will be familiar to readers . Alternating narratives tell the tales of three young bear cubs , who will be brought together in future installments " . Nancy Gilson from the Columbus Dispatch praised how easily the separate stories are handled and noticed how many chapters end on a cliffhanger .
The main theme addressed throughout the novel is decline of the environment and habitats of the bears . In the novel , Kallik watches her mother die by a pod of killer whales while Toklo is abandoned by his mother . Koelling realised how " Each tale touches on environmental issues " . Publishers Weekly noted how the " bears ' struggle to survive , along with Hunter 's environmental theme " . At the same time , older bears are " comforted by their belief in mythical bear spirits as they navigate the harsh realities of life in the wild " . Jennifer @-@ Lynn Draper from School Library Journal recognised that " The bears ' declining habitat is evident , and often throughout their journey the animals have to dodge cars and humans with guns " . Gilson noticed that every adventure " involves hunger , hardship and the loss of family that turns the young bears into solitary travelers " . Gilson also noted the environmental theme writing " This one offers prominent themes about the dangers of global warming and diminished wild places " .
= = Critical reception = =
The Quest Begins reached number 6 on Publishers Weekly 's Children 's Fiction Bestsellers during the week of 9 June 2008 . The novel was also chosen as number 9 on Al Roker 's Al 's Book Club on The Today Show .
Reception to the novel was positive and many reviewers praised the realistic setting and behaviours of the main characters . Koelling noted how the novel has a balance of cute anthropomorphic characterisation and also gives a realistic view of how hard it is for the bears to survive on their own . Koelling also recommended the novel to Warriors fans . Kirkus Reviews praised how " Hunter creates a richly sensuous world filled with cruelty , beauty , tenderness , savagery and just enough underlying legendary background to add mystery " , but felt that there is little advancement of the plot due to the time introducing and developing the characters . Still , the reviewer felt that the novel would appeal the animal fantasy lovers for the its extreme detail . Publishers Weekly found the novel written more loosely than the Warriors series , but still appealing to readers as they follow the bears survival . Draper praised the fast pace and how Erin Hunter " is apt at creating and sustaining the adrenaline @-@ charged mood of these youngsters on their own " . Matt Berman , writing for Half Moon Bay Review , praised the cliffhanger ending which would invite in more readers for the second novel , but felt that Warriors fans would be disappointed while " animal lovers will find this story ’ s mix of anthropomorphism and realism appealing , and Hunter may find an entirely new audience " .
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= Ancient Egyptian literature =
Ancient Egyptian literature was written in the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt 's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination . It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature . Along with Sumerian literature , it is considered the world 's earliest literature .
Writing in ancient Egypt — both hieroglyphic and hieratic — first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of predynastic Egypt . By the Old Kingdom ( 26th century BC to 22nd century BC ) , literary works included funerary texts , epistles and letters , hymns and poems , and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials . It was not until the early Middle Kingdom ( 21st century BC to 17th century BC ) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created . This was a " media revolution " which , according to Richard B. Parkinson , was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of scribes , new cultural sensibilities about individuality , unprecedented levels of literacy , and mainstream access to written materials . However , it is possible that the overall literacy rate was less than one percent of the entire population . The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise , monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling pharaoh . However , there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ancient Egyptian literature on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts .
Middle Egyptian , the spoken language of the Middle Kingdom , became a classical language during the New Kingdom ( 16th century BC to 11th century BC ) , when the vernacular language known as Late Egyptian first appeared in writing . Scribes of the New Kingdom canonized and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian , which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts . Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature , such as " teachings " and fictional tales , remained popular in the New Kingdom , although the genre of prophetic texts was not revived until the Ptolemaic period ( 4th century BC to 1st century BC ) . Popular tales included the Story of Sinuhe and The Eloquent Peasant , while important teaching texts include the Instructions of Amenemhat and The Loyalist Teaching . By the New Kingdom period , the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature , yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres . The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres , while texts of the " teaching " genre were pseudonymous and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures .
Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media . This includes papyrus scrolls and packets , limestone or ceramic ostraca , wooden writing boards , monumental stone edifices and coffins . Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material . The area of the floodplain of the Nile is under @-@ represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions . On the other hand , hidden caches of literature , buried for thousands of years , have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization .
= = Scripts , media , and languages = =
= = = Hieroglyphs , hieratic , and Demotic = = =
By the Early Dynastic Period in the late 4th millennium BC , Egyptian hieroglyphs and their cursive form hieratic were well @-@ established written scripts . Egyptian hieroglyphs are small artistic pictures of natural objects . For example , the hieroglyph for door @-@ bolt , pronounced se , produced the s sound ; when this hieroglyph was combined with another or multiple hieroglyphs , it produced a combination of sounds that could represent abstract concepts like sorrow , happiness , beauty , and evil . The Narmer Palette , dated c . 3100 BC during the last phase of Predynastic Egypt , combines the hieroglyphs for catfish and chisel to produce the name of King Narmer .
The Egyptians called their hieroglyphs " words of god " and reserved their use for exalted purposes , such as communicating with divinities and spirits of the dead through funerary texts . Each hieroglyphic word both represented a specific object and embodied the essence of that object , recognizing it as divinely made and belonging within the greater cosmos . Through acts of priestly ritual , like burning incense , the priest allowed spirits and deities to read the hieroglyphs decorating the surfaces of temples . In funerary texts beginning in and following the Twelfth dynasty , the Egyptians believed that disfiguring , and even omitting certain hieroglyphs , brought consequences , either good or bad , for a deceased tomb occupant whose spirit relied on the texts as a source of nourishment in the afterlife . Mutilating the hieroglyph of a venomous snake , or other dangerous animal , removed a potential threat . However , removing every instance of the hieroglyphs representing a deceased person 's name would deprive his or her soul of the ability to read the funerary texts and condemn that soul to an inanimate existence .
Hieratic is a simplified , cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs . Like hieroglyphs , hieratic was used in sacred and religious texts . By the 1st millennium BC , calligraphic hieratic became the script predominantly used in funerary papyri and temple rolls . Whereas the writing of hieroglyphs required the utmost precision and care , cursive hieratic could be written much more quickly and was therefore more practical for scribal record @-@ keeping . Its primary purpose was to serve as a shorthand script for non @-@ royal , non @-@ monumental , and less formal writings such as private letters , legal documents , poems , tax records , medical texts , mathematical treatises , and instructional guides . Hieratic could be written in two different styles ; one was more calligraphic and usually reserved for government records and literary manuscripts , the other was used for informal accounts and letters .
By the mid @-@ 1st millennium BC , hieroglyphs and hieratic were still used for royal , monumental , religious , and funerary writings , while a new , even more cursive script was used for informal , day @-@ to @-@ day writing : Demotic . The final script adopted by the ancient Egyptians was the Coptic alphabet , a revised version of the Greek alphabet . Coptic became the standard in the 4th century AD when Christianity became the state religion throughout the Roman Empire ; hieroglyphs were discarded as idolatrous images of a pagan tradition , unfit for writing the Biblical canon .
= = = Writing implements and materials = = =
Egyptian literature was produced on a variety of media . Along with the chisel , necessary for making inscriptions on stone , the chief writing tool of ancient Egypt was the reed pen , a reed fashioned into a stem with a bruised , brush @-@ like end . With pigments of carbon black and red ochre , the reed pen was used to write on scrolls of papyrus — a thin material made from beating together strips of pith from the Cyperus papyrus plant — as well as on small ceramic or limestone ostraca known as potsherds . It is thought that papyrus rolls were moderately expensive commercial items , since many are palimpsests , manuscripts that have their original contents erased to make room for new written works . This , alongside tearing off pieces of papyrus documents to make smaller letters , suggests that there were seasonal shortages caused by the limited growing season of Cyperus papyrus . It also explains the frequent use of ostraca and limestone flakes as writing media for shorter written works . In addition to stone , ceramic ostraca , and papyrus , writing media also included wood , ivory , and plaster .
By the Roman Period of Egypt , the traditional Egyptian reed pen had been replaced by the chief writing tool of the Greco @-@ Roman world : a shorter , thicker reed pen with a cut nib . Likewise , the original Egyptian pigments were discarded in favor of Greek lead @-@ based inks . The adoption of Greco @-@ Roman writing tools influenced Egyptian handwriting , as hieratic signs became more spaced , had rounder flourishes , and greater angular precision .
= = = Preservation of written material = = =
Underground Egyptian tombs built in the desert provide possibly the most protective environment for the preservation of papyrus documents . For example , there are many well @-@ preserved Book of the Dead funerary papyri placed in tombs to act as afterlife guides for the souls of the deceased tomb occupants . However , it was only customary during the late Middle Kingdom and first half of the New Kingdom to place non @-@ religious papyri in burial chambers . Thus , the majority of well @-@ preserved literary papyri are dated to this period .
Most settlements in ancient Egypt were situated on the alluvium of the Nile floodplain . This moist environment was unfavorable for long @-@ term preservation of papyrus documents . Archaeologists have discovered a larger quantity of papyrus documents in desert settlements on land elevated above the floodplain , and in settlements that lacked irrigation works , such as Elephantine , El @-@ Lahun , and El @-@ Hiba .
Writings on more permanent media have also been lost in several ways . Stones with inscriptions were frequently re @-@ used as building materials , and ceramic ostraca require a dry environment to ensure the preservation of the ink on their surfaces . Whereas papyrus rolls and packets were usually stored in boxes for safekeeping , ostraca were routinely discarded in waste pits ; one such pit was discovered by chance at the Ramesside @-@ era village of Deir el @-@ Medina , and has yielded the majority of known private letters on ostraca . Documents found at this site include letters , hymns , fictional narratives , recipes , business receipts , and wills and testaments . Penelope Wilson describes this archaeological find as the equivalent of sifting through a modern landfill or waste container . She notes that the inhabitants of Deir el @-@ Medina were incredibly literate by ancient Egyptian standards , and cautions that such finds only come " ... in rarefied circumstances and in particular conditions . "
John W. Tait stresses , " Egyptian material survives in a very uneven fashion ... the unevenness of survival comprises both time and space . " For instance , there is a dearth of written material from all periods from the Nile Delta but an abundance at western Thebes , dating from its heyday . He notes that while some texts were copied numerous times , others survive from a single copy ; for example , there is only one complete surviving copy of the Tale of the shipwrecked sailor from the Middle Kingdom . However , Tale of the shipwrecked sailor also appears in fragments of texts on ostraca from the New Kingdom . Many other literary works survive only in fragments or through incomplete copies of lost originals .
= = = Classical , Middle , Late , and Demotic Egyptian language = = =
Although writing first appeared during the very late 4th millennium BC , it was only used to convey short names and labels ; connected strings of text did not appear until about 2600 BC , at the beginning of the Old Kingdom . This development marked the beginning of the first known phase of the Egyptian language : Old Egyptian . Old Egyptian remained a spoken language until about 2100 BC , when , during the beginning of the Middle Kingdom , it evolved into Middle Egyptian . While Middle Egyptian was closely related to Old Egyptian , Late Egyptian was significantly different in grammatical structure . Late Egyptian possibly appeared as a vernacular language as early as 1600 BC , but was not used as a written language until c . 1300 BC during the Amarna Period of the New Kingdom . Late Egyptian evolved into Demotic by the 7th century BC , and although Demotic remained a spoken language until the 5th century AD , it was gradually replaced by Coptic beginning in the 1st century AD .
Hieratic was used alongside hieroglyphs for writing in Old and Middle Egyptian , becoming the dominant form of writing in Late Egyptian . By the New Kingdom and throughout the rest of ancient Egyptian history , Middle Egyptian became a classical language that was usually reserved for reading and writing in hieroglyphs . For the rest of ancient Egyptian history , Middle Egyptian remained the spoken language for more exalted forms of literature , such as historical records , commemorative autobiographies , hymns , and funerary spells . However , Middle Kingdom literature written in Middle Egyptian was also rewritten in hieratic during later periods .
= = Literary functions : social , religious and educational = =
Throughout ancient Egyptian history , reading and writing were the main requirements for serving in public office , although government officials were assisted in their day @-@ to @-@ day work by an elite , literate social group known as scribes . As evidenced by Papyrus Anastasi I of the Ramesside Period , scribes could even be expected , according to Wilson , " ... to organize the excavation of a lake and the building of a brick ramp , to establish the number of men needed to transport an obelisk and to arrange the provisioning of a military mission " . Besides government employment , scribal services in drafting letters , sales documents , and legal documents would have been frequently sought by illiterate people . Literate people are thought to have comprised only 1 % of the population , the remainder being illiterate farmers , herdsmen , artisans , and other laborers , as well as merchants who required the assistance of scribal secretaries . The privileged status of the scribe over illiterate manual laborers was the subject of a popular Ramesside Period instructional text , The Satire of the Trades , where lowly , undesirable occupations , for example , potter , fisherman , laundry man , and soldier , were mocked and the scribal profession praised . A similar demeaning attitude towards the illiterate is expressed in the Middle Kingdom Teaching of Khety , which is used to reinforce the scribes ' elevated position within the social hierarchy .
The scribal class was the social group responsible for maintaining , transmitting , and canonizing literary classics , and writing new compositions . Classic works , such as the Story of Sinuhe and Instructions of Amenemhat , were copied by schoolboys as pedagogical exercises in writing and to instill the required ethical and moral values that distinguished the scribal social class . Wisdom texts of the " teaching " genre represent the majority of pedagogical texts written on ostraca during the Middle Kingdom ; narrative tales , such as Sinuhe and King Neferkare and General Sasenet , were rarely copied for school exercises until the New Kingdom . William Kelly Simpson describes narrative tales such as Sinuhe and The shipwrecked sailor as " ... instructions or teachings in the guise of narratives " , since the main protagonists of such stories embodied the accepted virtues of the day , such as love of home or self @-@ reliance .
There are some known instances where those outside the scribal profession were literate and had access to classical literature . Menena , a draughtsman working at Deir el @-@ Medina during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt , quoted passages from the Middle Kingdom narratives Eloquent Peasant and Tale of the shipwrecked sailor in an instructional letter reprimanding his disobedient son . Menena 's Ramesside contemporary Hori , the scribal author of the satirical letter in Papyrus Anastasi I , admonished his addressee for quoting the Instruction of Hardjedef in the unbecoming manner of a non @-@ scribal , semi @-@ educated person . Hans @-@ Werner Fischer @-@ Elfert further explains this perceived amateur affront to orthodox literature :
What may be revealed by Hori 's attack on the way in which some Ramesside scribes felt obliged to demonstrate their greater or lesser acquaintance with ancient literature is the conception that these venerable works were meant to be known in full and not to be misused as quarries for popular sayings mined deliberately from the past . The classics of the time were to be memorized completely and comprehended thoroughly before being cited .
There is scant but solid evidence in Egyptian literature and art for the practice of oral reading of texts to audiences . The oral performance word " to recite " ( šdj ) was usually associated with biographies , letters , and spells . Singing ( ḥsj ) was meant for praise songs , love songs , funerary laments , and certain spells . Discourses such as the Prophecy of Neferti suggest that compositions were meant for oral reading among elite gatherings . In the 1st millennium BC Demotic short story cycle centered on the deeds of Petiese , the stories begin with the phrase " The voice which is before Pharaoh " , which indicates that an oral speaker and audience was involved in the reading of the text . A fictional audience of high government officials and members of the royal court are mentioned in some texts , but a wider , non @-@ literate audience may have been involved . For example , a funerary stela of Senusret I ( r . 1971 – 1926 BC ) explicitly mentions people who will gather and listen to a scribe who " recites " the stela inscriptions out loud .
Literature also served religious purposes . Beginning with the Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom , works of funerary literature written on tomb walls , and later on coffins , and papyri placed within tombs , were designed to protect and nurture souls in their afterlife . This included the use of magical spells , incantations , and lyrical hymns . Copies of non @-@ funerary literary texts found in non @-@ royal tombs suggest that the dead could entertain themselves in the afterlife by reading these teaching texts and narrative tales . See also Egyptian influences in the Hebrew Bible .
Although the creation of literature was predominantly a male scribal pursuit , some works are thought to have been written by women . For example , several references to women writing letters and surviving private letters sent and received by women have been found . However , Edward F. Wente asserts that , even with explicit references to women reading letters , it is possible that women employed others to write documents .
= = Dating , setting , and authorship = =
Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature — narrowly defined as belles @-@ lettres ( " beautiful writing " ) — was not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom . Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults , preserve souls in the afterlife , and document accounts for practical uses in daily life . It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity . Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom . It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing ; for example , litter @-@ bearers ' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom .
Dating texts by methods of palaeography , the study of handwriting , is problematic because of differing styles of hieratic script . The use of orthography , the study of writing systems and symbol usage , is also problematic , since some texts ' authors may have copied the characteristic style of an older archetype . Fictional accounts were often set in remote historical settings , the use of contemporary settings in fiction being a relatively recent phenomenon . The style of a text provides little help in determining an exact date for its composition , as genre and authorial choice might be more concerned with the mood of a text than the era in which it was written . For example , authors of the Middle Kingdom could set fictional wisdom texts in the golden age of the Old Kingdom ( e.g. Kagemni , Ptahhotep , and the prologue of Neferti ) , or they could write fictional accounts placed in a chaotic age resembling more the problematic life of the First Intermediate Period ( e.g. Merykare and The Eloquent Peasant ) . Other fictional texts are set in illo tempore ( in an indeterminable era ) and usually contain timeless themes .
Parkinson writes that nearly all literary texts were pseudonymous , and frequently falsely attributed to well @-@ known male protagonists of earlier history , such as kings and viziers . Only the literary genres of " teaching " and " laments / discourses " contain works attributed to historical authors ; texts in genres such as " narrative tales " were never attributed to a well @-@ known historical person . Tait asserts that during the Classical Period of Egypt , " Egyptian scribes constructed their own view of the history of the role of scribes and of the ' authorship ' of texts " , but during the Late Period , this role was instead maintained by the religious elite attached to the temples .
There are a few exceptions to the rule of pseudonymity . The real authors of some Ramesside Period teaching texts were acknowledged , but these cases are rare , localized , and do not typify mainstream works . Those who wrote private and sometimes model letters were acknowledged as the original authors . Private letters could be used in courts of law as testimony , since a person 's unique handwriting could be identified as authentic . Private letters received or written by the pharaoh were sometimes inscribed in hieroglyphics on stone monuments to celebrate kingship , while kings ' decrees inscribed on stone stelas were often made public .
= = Literary genres and subjects = =
Modern Egyptologists categorize Egyptian texts into genres , for example " laments / discourses " and narrative tales . The only genre of literature named as such by the ancient Egyptians was the " teaching " or sebayt genre . Parkinson states that the titles of a work , its opening statement , or key words found in the body of text should be used as indicators of its particular genre . Only the genre of " narrative tales " employed prose , yet many of the works of that genre , as well as those of other genres , were written in verse . Most ancient Egyptian verses were written in couplet form , but sometimes triplets and quatrains were used .
= = = Instructions and teachings = = =
The " instructions " or " teaching " genre , as well as the genre of " reflective discourses " , can be grouped in the larger corpus of wisdom literature found in the ancient Near East . The genre is didactic in nature and is thought to have formed part of the Middle Kingdom scribal education syllabus . However , teaching texts often incorporate narrative elements that can instruct as well as entertain . Parkinson asserts that there is evidence that teaching texts were not created primarily for use in scribal education , but for ideological purposes . For example , Adolf Erman ( 1854 – 1937 ) writes that the fictional instruction given by Amenemhat I ( r . 1991 – 1962 BC ) to his sons " ... far exceeds the bounds of school philosophy , and there is nothing whatever to do with school in a great warning his children to be loyal to the king " . While narrative literature , embodied in works such as The Eloquent Peasant , emphasize the individual hero who challenges society and its accepted ideologies , the teaching texts instead stress the need to comply with society 's accepted dogmas .
Key words found in teaching texts include " to know " ( rh ) and " teach " ( sba.yt ) . These texts usually adopt the formulaic title structure of " the instruction of X made for Y " , where " X " can be represented by an authoritative figure ( such as a vizier or king ) providing moral guidance to his son ( s ) . It is sometimes difficult to determine how many fictional addressees are involved in these teachings , since some texts switch between singular and plural when referring to their audiences .
Examples of the " teaching " genre include the Maxims of Ptahhotep , Instructions of Kagemni , Teaching for King Merykare , Instructions of Amenemhat , Instruction of Hardjedef , Loyalist Teaching , and Instructions of Amenemope . Teaching texts that have survived from the Middle Kingdom were written on papyrus manuscripts . No educational ostraca from the Middle Kingdom have survived . The earliest schoolboy 's wooden writing board , with a copy of a teaching text ( i.e. Ptahhotep ) , dates to the Eighteenth dynasty . Ptahhotep and Kagemni are both found on the Prisse Papyrus , which was written during the Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom . The entire Loyalist Teaching survives only in manuscripts from the New Kingdom , although the entire first half is preserved on a Middle Kingdom biographical stone stela commemorating the Twelfth dynasty official Sehetepibre . Merykare , Amenemhat , and Hardjedef are genuine Middle Kingdom works , but only survive in later New Kingdom copies . Amenemope is a New Kingdom compilation .
= = = Narrative tales and stories = = =
The genre of " tales and stories " is probably the least represented genre from surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and Middle Egyptian . In Late Egyptian literature , " tales and stories " comprise the majority of surviving literary works dated from the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom into the Late Period . Major narrative works from the Middle Kingdom include the Tale of the Court of King Cheops , King Neferkare and General Sasenet , The Eloquent Peasant , Story of Sinuhe , and Tale of the shipwrecked sailor . The New Kingdom corpus of tales includes the Quarrel of Apepi and Seqenenre , Taking of Joppa , Tale of the doomed prince , Tale of Two Brothers , and the Report of Wenamun . Stories from the 1st millennium BC written in Demotic include the story of the Famine Stela ( set in the Old Kingdom , although written during the Ptolemaic dynasty ) and short story cycles of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods that transform well @-@ known historical figures such as Khaemweset ( Nineteenth Dynasty ) and Inaros ( First Persian Period ) into fictional , legendary heroes . This is contrasted with many stories written in Late Egyptian , whose authors frequently chose divinities as protagonists and mythological places as settings .
Parkinson defines tales as " ... non @-@ commemorative , non @-@ functional , fictional narratives " that usually employ the key word " narrate " ( sdd ) . He describes it as the most open @-@ ended genre , since the tales often incorporate elements of other literary genres . For example , Morenz describes the opening section of the foreign adventure tale Sinuhe as a " ... funerary self @-@ presentation " that parodies the typical autobiography found on commemorative funerary stelas . The autobiography is for a courier whose service began under Amenemhat I. Simpson states that the death of Amenemhat I in the report given by his son , coregent , and successor Senusret I ( r . 1971 – 1926 BC ) to the army in the beginning of Sinuhe is " ... excellent propaganda " . Morenz describes The shipwrecked sailor as an expeditionary report and a travel @-@ narrative myth . Simpson notes the literary device of the story within a story in The shipwrecked sailor may provide " ... the earliest examples of a narrative quarrying report " . With the setting of a magical desert island , and a character who is a talking snake , The shipwrecked sailor may also be classified as a fairy tale . While stories like Sinuhe , Taking of Joppa , and the Doomed prince contain fictional portrayals of Egyptians abroad , the Report of Wenamun is most likely based on a true account of an Egyptian who traveled to Byblos in Phoenicia to obtain cedar for shipbuilding during the reign of Ramesses XI .
Narrative tales and stories are most often found on papyri , but partial and sometimes complete texts are found on ostraca . For example , Sinuhe is found on five papyri composed during the Twelfth and Thirteenth dynasties . This text was later copied numerous times on ostraca during the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties , with one ostraca containing the complete text on both sides .
= = = Laments , discourses , dialogues , and prophecies = = =
The Middle Kingdom genre of " prophetic texts " , also known as " laments " , " discourses " , " dialogues " , and " apocalyptic literature " , include such works as the Admonitions of Ipuwer , Prophecy of Neferti , and Dispute between a man and his Ba . This genre had no known precedent in the Old Kingdom and no known original compositions were produced in the New Kingdom . However , works like Prophecy of Neferti were frequently copied during the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom , when this Middle Kingdom genre was canonized but discontinued . Egyptian prophetic literature underwent a revival during the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty and Roman period of Egypt with works such as the Demotic Chronicle , Oracle of the Lamb , Oracle of the Potter , and two prophetic texts that focus on Nectanebo II ( r . 360 – 343 BC ) as a protagonist . Along with " teaching " texts , these reflective discourses ( key word mdt ) are grouped with the wisdom literature category of the ancient Near East .
In Middle Kingdom texts , connecting themes include a pessimistic outlook , descriptions of social and religious change , and great disorder throughout the land , taking the form of a syntactic " then @-@ now " verse formula . Although these texts are usually described as laments , Neferti digresses from this model , providing a positive solution to a problematic world . Although it survives only in later copies from the Eighteenth dynasty onward , Parkinson asserts that , due to obvious political content , Neferti was originally written during or shortly after the reign of Amenemhat I. Simpson calls it " ... a blatant political pamphlet designed to support the new regime " of the Twelfth dynasty founded by Amenemhat , who usurped the throne from the Mentuhotep line of the Eleventh dynasty . In the narrative discourse , Sneferu ( r . 2613 – 2589 BC ) of the Fourth dynasty summons to court the sage and lector priest Neferti . Neferti entertains the king with prophecies that the land will enter into a chaotic age , alluding to the First Intermediate Period , only to be restored to its former glory by a righteous king — Ameny — whom the ancient Egyptian would readily recognize as Amenemhat I. A similar model of a tumultuous world transformed into a golden age by a savior king was adopted for the Lamb and Potter , although for their audiences living under Roman domination , the savior was yet to come .
Although written during the Twelfth dynasty , Ipuwer only survives from a Nineteenth dynasty papyrus . However , A man and his Ba is found on an original Twelfth dynasty papyrus , Papyrus Berlin 3024 . These two texts resemble other discourses in style , tone , and subject matter , although they are unique in that the fictional audiences are given very active roles in the exchange of dialogue . In Ipuwer , a sage addresses an unnamed king and his attendants , describing the miserable state of the land , which he blames on the king 's inability to uphold royal virtues . This can be seen either as a warning to kings or as a legitimization of the current dynasty , contrasting it with the supposedly turbulent period that preceded it . In A man and his Ba , a man recounts for an audience a conversation with his ba ( a component of the Egyptian soul ) on whether to continue living in despair or to seek death as an escape from misery .
= = = Poems , songs , hymns , and afterlife texts = = =
The funerary stone slab stela was first produced during the early Old Kingdom . Usually found in mastaba tombs , they combined raised @-@ relief artwork with inscriptions bearing the name of the deceased , their official titles ( if any ) , and invocations .
Funerary poems were thought to preserve a monarch 's soul in death . The Pyramid Texts are the earliest surviving religious literature incorporating poetic verse . These texts do not appear in tombs or pyramids originating before the reign of Unas ( r . 2375 – 2345 BC ) , who had the Pyramid of Unas built at Saqqara . The Pyramid Texts are chiefly concerned with the function of preserving and nurturing the soul of the sovereign in the afterlife . This aim eventually included safeguarding both the sovereign and his subjects in the afterlife . A variety of textual traditions evolved from the original Pyramid Texts : the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom , the so @-@ called Book of the Dead , Litany of Ra , and Amduat written on papyri from the New Kingdom until the end of ancient Egyptian civilization .
Poems were also written to celebrate kingship . For example , at the Precinct of Amun @-@ Re at Karnak , Thutmose III ( r . 1479 – 1425 BC ) of the Eighteenth dynasty erected a stela commemorating his military victories in which the gods bless Thutmose in poetic verse and ensure for him victories over his enemies . In addition to stone stelas , poems have been found on wooden writing boards used by schoolboys . Besides the glorification of kings , poems were written to honor various deities , and even the Nile .
Surviving hymns and songs from the Old Kingdom include the morning greeting hymns to the gods in their respective temples . A cycle of Middle @-@ Kingdom songs dedicated to Senusret III ( r . 1878 – 1839 BC ) have been discovered at El @-@ Lahun . Erman considers these to be secular songs used to greet the pharaoh at Memphis , while Simpson considers them to be religious in nature but affirms that the division between religious and secular songs is not very sharp . The Harper 's Song , the lyrics found on a tombstone of the Middle Kingdom and on Papyrus Harris 500 from the New Kingdom , was to be performed for dinner guests at formal banquets .
During the reign of Akhenaten ( r . 1353 – 1336 BC ) , the Great Hymn to the Aten — preserved in tombs of Amarna , including the tomb of Ay — was written to the Aten , the sun @-@ disk deity given exclusive patronage during his reign . Simpson compares this composition 's wording and sequence of ideas to those of Psalm 104 .
Only a single poetic hymn in the Demotic script has been preserved . However , there are many surviving examples of Late @-@ Period Egyptian hymns written in hieroglyphs on temple walls .
No Egyptian love song has been dated from before the New Kingdom , these being written in Late Egyptian , although it is speculated that they existed in previous times . Erman compares the love songs to the Song of Songs , citing the labels " sister " and " brother " that lovers used to address each other .
= = = Private letters , model letters , and epistles = = =
The ancient Egyptian model letters and epistles are grouped into a single literary genre . Papyrus rolls sealed with mud stamps were used for long @-@ distance letters , while ostraca were frequently used to write shorter , non @-@ confidential letters sent to recipients located nearby . Letters of royal or official correspondence , originally written in hieratic , were sometimes given the exalted status of being inscribed on stone in hieroglyphs . The various texts written by schoolboys on wooden writing boards include model letters . Private letters could be used as epistolary model letters for schoolboys to copy , including letters written by their teachers or their families . However , these models were rarely featured in educational manuscripts ; instead fictional letters found in numerous manuscripts were used . The common epistolary formula used in these model letters was " The official A. saith to the scribe B " .
The oldest @-@ known private letters on papyrus were found in a funerary temple dating to the reign of Djedkare @-@ Izezi ( r . 2414 – 2375 BC ) of the Fifth dynasty . More letters are dated to the Sixth dynasty , when the epistle subgenre began . The educational text Book of Kemit , dated to the Eleventh dynasty , contains a list of epistolary greetings and a narrative with an ending in letter form and suitable terminology for use in commemorative biographies . Other letters of the early Middle Kingdom have also been found to use epistolary formulas similar to the Book of Kemit . The Heqanakht papyri , written by a gentleman farmer , date to the Eleventh dynasty and represent some of the lengthiest private letters known to have been written in ancient Egypt .
During the late Middle Kingdom , greater standardization of the epistolary formula can be seen , for example in a series of model letters taken from dispatches sent to the Semna fortress of Nubia during the reign of Amenemhat III ( r . 1860 – 1814 BC ) . Epistles were also written during all three dynasties of the New Kingdom . While letters to the dead had been written since the Old Kingdom , the writing of petition letters in epistolary form to deities began in the Ramesside Period , becoming very popular during the Persian and Ptolemaic periods .
The epistolary Satirical Letter of Papyrus Anastasi I written during the Nineteenth dynasty was a pedagogical and didactic text copied on numerous ostraca by schoolboys . Wente describes the versatility of this epistle , which contained " ... proper greetings with wishes for this life and the next , the rhetoric composition , interpretation of aphorisms in wisdom literature , application of mathematics to engineering problems and the calculation of supplies for an army , and the geography of western Asia " . Moreover , Wente calls this a " ... polemical tractate " that counsels against the rote , mechanical learning of terms for places , professions , and things ; for example , it is not acceptable to know just the place names of western Asia , but also important details about its topography and routes . To enhance the teaching , the text employs sarcasm and irony .
= = = Biographical and autobiographical texts = = =
Catherine Parke , Professor Emerita of English and Women 's Studies at the University of Missouri in Columbia , Missouri , writes that the earliest " commemorative inscriptions " belong to ancient Egypt and date to the 3rd millennium BC . She writes : " In ancient Egypt the formulaic accounts of Pharaoh 's lives praised the continuity of dynastic power . Although typically written in the first person , these pronouncements are public , general testimonials , not personal utterances . " She adds that as in these ancient inscriptions , the human urge to " ... celebrate , commemorate , and immortalize , the impulse of life against death " , is the aim of biographies written today .
Olivier Perdu , a professor of Egyptology at the Collège de France , states that biographies did not exist in ancient Egypt , and that commemorative writing should be considered autobiographical . Edward L. Greenstein , Professor of Bible at the Tel Aviv University and Bar @-@ Ilan University , disagrees with Perdu 's terminology , stating that the ancient world produced no " autobiographies " in the modern sense , and these should be distinguished from ' autobiographical ' texts of the ancient world . However , both Perdu and Greenstein assert that autobiographies of the ancient Near East should not be equated with the modern concept of autobiography .
In her discussion of the Ecclesiastes of the Hebrew Bible , Jennifer Koosed , associate professor of Religion at Albright College , explains that there is no solid consensus among scholars as to whether true biographies or autobiographies existed in the ancient world . One of the major scholarly arguments against this theory is that the concept of individuality did not exist until the European Renaissance , prompting Koosed to write " ... thus autobiography is made a product of European civilization : Augustine begat Rosseau begat Henry Adams , and so on " . Koosed asserts that the use of first @-@ person " I " in ancient Egyptian commemorative funerary texts should not be taken literally since the supposed author is already dead . Funerary texts should be considered biographical instead of autobiographical . Koosed cautions that the term " biography " applied to such texts is problematic , since they also usually describe the deceased person 's experiences of journeying through the afterlife .
Beginning with the funerary stelas for officials of the late Third dynasty , small amounts of biographical detail were added next to the deceased men 's titles . However , it was not until the Sixth dynasty that narratives of the lives and careers of government officials were inscribed . Tomb biographies became more detailed during the Middle Kingdom , and included information about the deceased person 's family . The vast majority of autobiographical texts are dedicated to scribal bureaucrats , but during the New Kingdom some were dedicated to military officers and soldiers . Autobiographical texts of the Late Period place a greater stress upon seeking help from deities than acting righteously to succeed in life . Whereas earlier autobiographical texts exclusively dealt with celebrating successful lives , Late Period autobiographical texts include laments for premature death , similar to the epitaphs of ancient Greece .
= = = Decrees , chronicles , king lists , and histories = = =
Modern historians consider that some biographical — or autobiographical — texts are important historical documents . For example , the biographical stelas of military generals in tomb chapels built under Thutmose III provide much of the information known about the wars in Syria and Palestine . However , the annals of Thutmose III , carved into the walls of several monuments built during his reign , such as those at Karnak , also preserve information about these campaigns . The annals of Ramesses II ( r . 1279 – 1213 BC ) , recounting the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites include , for the first time in Egyptian literature , a narrative epic poem , distinguished from all earlier poetry , which served to celebrate and instruct .
Other documents useful for investigating Egyptian history are ancient lists of kings found in terse chronicles , such as the Fifth dynasty Palermo stone . These documents legitimated the contemporary pharaoh 's claim to sovereignty . Throughout ancient Egyptian history , royal decrees recounted the deeds of ruling pharaohs . For example , the Nubian pharaoh Piye ( r . 752 – 721 BC ) , founder of the Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty , had a stela erected and written in classical Middle Egyptian that describes with unusual nuances and vivid imagery his successful military campaigns .
An Egyptian historian , known by his Greek name as Manetho ( c . 3rd century BC ) , was the first to compile a comprehensive history of Egypt . Manetho was active during the reign of Ptolemy II ( r . 283 – 246 BC ) and used The Histories by the Greek Herodotus ( c . 484 BC – c . 425 BC ) as his main source of inspiration for a history of Egypt written in Greek . However , the primary sources for Manetho 's work were the king list chronicles of previous Egyptian dynasties .
= = = Tomb and temple graffiti = = =
Fischer @-@ Elfert distinguishes ancient Egyptian graffiti writing as a literary genre . During the New Kingdom , scribes who traveled to ancient sites often left graffiti messages on the walls of sacred mortuary temples and pyramids , usually in commemoration of these structures . Modern scholars do not consider these scribes to have been mere tourists , but pilgrims visiting sacred sites where the extinct cult centers could be used for communicating with the gods . There is evidence from an educational ostracon found in the tomb of Senenmut ( TT71 ) that formulaic graffiti writing was practiced in scribal schools . In one graffiti message , left at the mortuary temple of Thutmose III at Deir el @-@ Bahri , a modified saying from The Maxims of Ptahhotep is incorporated into a prayer written on the temple wall . Scribes usually wrote their graffiti in separate clusters to distinguish their graffiti from others ' . This led to competition among scribes , who would sometimes denigrate the quality of graffiti inscribed by others , even ancestors from the scribal profession .
= = Legacy , translation and interpretation = =
After the Copts converted to Christianity in the first centuries AD , their Coptic Christian literature became separated from the pharaonic and Hellenistic literary traditions . Nevertheless , scholars speculate that ancient Egyptian literature , perhaps in oral form , influenced Greek and Arabic literature . Parallels are drawn between the Egyptian soldiers sneaking into Jaffa hidden in baskets to capture the city in the story Taking of Joppa and the Mycenaean Greeks sneaking into Troy inside the Trojan Horse . The Taking of Joppa has also been compared to the Arabic story of Ali Baba in One Thousand and One Nights . It has been conjectured that Sinbad the Sailor may have been inspired by the pharaonic Tale of the shipwrecked sailor . Some Egyptian literature was commented on by scholars of the ancient world . For example , the Jewish Roman historian Josephus ( 37 – c . 100 AD ) quoted and provided commentary on Manetho 's historical texts .
The most recently carved hieroglyphic inscription of ancient Egypt known today is found in a temple of Philae , dated precisely to 394 AD during the reign of Theodosius I ( r . 379 – 395 AD ) . In the 4th century AD , the Hellenized Egyptian Horapollo compiled a survey of almost two hundred Egyptian hieroglyphs and provided his interpretation of their meanings , although his understanding was limited and he was unaware of the phonetic uses of each hieroglyph . This survey was apparently lost until 1415 , when the Italian Cristoforo Buondelmonti acquired it at the island of Andros . Athanasius Kircher ( 1601 – 1680 ) was the first in Europe to realize that Coptic was a direct linguistic descendant of ancient Egyptian . In his Oedipus Aegyptiacus , he made the first concerted European effort to interpret the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs , albeit based on symbolic inferences .
It was not until 1799 , with the Napoleonic discovery of a trilingual ( i.e. hieroglyphic , Demotic , Greek ) stela inscription on the Rosetta Stone , that modern scholars were able to decipher ancient Egyptian literature . The first major effort to translate the hieroglyphs of the Rosetta Stone was made by Jean @-@ François Champollion ( 1790 – 1832 ) in 1822 . The earliest translation efforts of Egyptian literature during the 19th century were attempts to confirm Biblical events .
Before the 1970s , scholarly consensus was that ancient Egyptian literature — although sharing similarities with modern literary categories — was not an independent discourse , uninfluenced by the ancient sociopolitical order . However , from the 1970s onwards , a growing number of historians and literary scholars have questioned this theory . While scholars before the 1970s treated ancient Egyptian literary works as viable historical sources that accurately reflected the conditions of this ancient society , scholars now caution against this approach . Scholars are increasingly using a multifaceted hermeneutic approach to the study of individual literary works , in which not only the style and content , but also the cultural , social and historical context of the work are taken into account . Individual works can then be used as case studies for reconstructing the main features of ancient Egyptian literary discourse .
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= Music of Barbados =
The music of Barbados includes distinctive national styles of folk and popular music , including elements of Western classical and religious music . The culture of Barbados is a syncretic mix of African and British elements , and the island 's music reflects this mix through song types and styles , instrumentation , dances , and aesthetic principles .
Barbadian folk traditions include the Landship movement , which is a satirical , informal organization based on the British navy , tea meetings , tuk bands and numerous traditional songs and dances . In modern Barbados , popular styles include calypso , spouge , contemporary folk and world music . Barbados is , along with Guadeloupe , Martinique , Trinidad , Cuba , Puerto Rico , and the Virgin Islands , one of the few centers for Caribbean jazz .
= = Characteristics and musical identity = =
Bajan culture is syncretic , and the island 's musical culture is perceived as a mixture of African and British musics , with certain unique elements that may derive from indigenous sources . Tension between African and British culture has long been a major element of Bajan history , and has included the banning of certain African @-@ derived practices and black Barbadian parodies of British traditions . Simple entertainment is the basis for most Barbadians ' participation in music and dance activities , though religious and other functional musics also occur . Barbadian folk culture declined in importance in the 20th century , but then rekindled in the 1970s , when many Barbadians became interested in their national culture and history . This change was heralded by the arrival of spouge , a popular national genre that reflects Barbadian heritage and African origins ; spouge helped kindle a resurgence in national pride , and became viewed as Barbados ' answer to the popular Caribbean genres reggae and calypso from Jamaica and Trinidad , respectively .
The religious music of the Barbadian Christian churches plays an important role in Barbadian musical identity , especially in urban areas . Many distinctive Barbadian musical and other cultural traditions derive from parodies of Anglican church hymns and British military drills . The British military performed drills to both provide security for the island 's population , as well as intimidate slaves . Modern Barbadian tea meetings , tuk bands , the Landship tradition and many folk songs come from slaves parodying the practices of white authorities . British @-@ Barbadians used music for cultural and intellectual enrichment and to feel a sense of kinship and connection with the British Isles through the maintenance of British musical forms . Plantation houses featured music as entertainment at balls , dances and other gatherings . For Afro @-@ Barbadians , drum , vocal and dance music was an integral part of everyday life , and songs and performance practices were created for normal , everyday events , as well as special celebrations like Whitsuntide , Christmas , Easter , Landship and Crop Over . These songs remain a part of Barbadian culture and form a rich folk repertoire .
Western classical music is the most socially accepted form of musical expression for Barbadians in Bridgetown , including a variety of vocal music , chamber and orchestral music , and piano and violin . Along with hymns , oratorios , cantatas and other religious music , chamber music of the Western tradition remains an important part of Barbadian music through an integral role in the services of the Anglican church .
= = History = =
Though inhabited prior to the 16th century , little is known about Barbadian music before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1536 and then the English in 1627 . The Portuguese left little influence , but English culture and music helped shape the island 's heritage . Irish and Scottish settlers emigrated in the 17th century , working in the tobacco industry , bringing still more new music to the island . The middle of the 17th century saw the decline of the tobacco industry and the rise of sugarcane , as well as the introduction of large numbers of African slaves . Brazilian exiles however , along with sugarcane introduced Samba to the island which featured a mixture of Latin music with African influences which soon developed into Soca @-@ Samba which is indigenous to Barbados . Modern Barbadian music is thus largely a combination of English and African elements , with Irish , Scottish , and modern American and Caribbean ( especially Jamaican ) influences as well .
By the 19th century , the Barbadian colonialists grew to fear slave revolts , and specifically , the use of music as a tool of communication and planning for revolution . As a result , the government passed laws to restrict musical activities among slaves . At the same time , American and other forms of imported music were brought to Barbados , while many important elements of modern Barbadian music , like tuk bands , also emerged . In the 20th century , many new styles were imported to Barbados , most influentially including jazz , ska , reggae , calypso and soca . Barbados became home to many performers of these new genres , especially soca and calypso , while the island also produced an indigenous style called spouge , which became an important symbol of Barbadian identity .
= = Folk music = =
Barbadian culture and music are mixtures of European and African elements , with minimal influence from the indigenous peoples of the island , about whom little is known . Significant numbers of Asian , specifically Chinese and Japanese , people have moved to Barbados , but their music is unstudied and has had little impact on Barbadian music .
The earliest reference to Afro @-@ Barbadian music may come from a description of a slave rebellion , in which the rebels were inspired to fight by music played on skin drums , conch trumpets and animal horns . Slavery continued , however , and the colonial and slaveowning authorities eventually outlawed musical instruments among slaves . By the end of the 17th century , a distinctly Barbadian folk culture developed , based around influences and instruments from Africa , Britain and other Caribbean islands .
Early Barbadian folk music , despite legal restrictions , was a major part of life among the island 's slave population . For the slaves , music was " essential for recreation and dancing and as a part of the life cycle for communication and religious meaning " . African musicians also provided the music for the white landowners ' private parties , while the slaves developed their own party music , culminating in the crop over festival , which began in 1688 . The earliest crop over festivals featured dancing and call @-@ and @-@ response singing accompanied by shak @-@ shak , banjo , bones and bottles containing varying amounts of water .
= = = Folk song = = =
Barbadian traditional folk songs are heavily influenced by the music of England . Many traditional songs concern events current at the time of their composition , such as the emancipation of the slaves of Barbados , and the coronations of Victoria , George V , and Elizabeth II ; this song tradition dates back to 1650 . The most influential Barbadian folk songs are associated with the island 's lower @-@ class laborers , who have held on to their folk heritage .
Some Barbadian songs and stories made their way back to England , most famously " Inckle the English Sailor " and " Yarico the Indian Maid " , which became English plays and an opera by George Coleman with music by Samuel Arnold , and first performed in London in 1787 .
Contemporary Barbadian folk songs , especially through the pioneering albums of author and singer @-@ songwriter Anthony Kellman , show a bold fusion of indigenous rhythms such as tuk and calypso with African , Latin , jazz , pop , and East Indian influences . Kellman 's songs such as " Mountain " ( from 2000 album " Wings of A Stranger " ) ; " King Jaja " and " My Dog , Your Dog " ( from 2005 album " Limestone " ) ; and " If You See My Girl " and " Tuk , Tabla , and Fedounoum " ( from 2009 album Blood Mates ) , exemplify his eclectic style . More than any of his contemporaries , Kellman , through his songs , poems , and novels , demonstrates what it means to be Barbadian through a hybrid mix of African and European cultural elements . ≤ [ 25 ]
= = = Dance = = =
Barbadian folk dances include a wide variety of styles , performed at Landship , holidays and other occasions . Dancers and other performers at the crop over festivals , for example , are popular and an iconic part of Barbadian culture , known for dancing in the costumes of sugarcane @-@ cutters . The Landship movement features song and dance meant to imitate the passage of a British navy ship through rough seas ; Landship and other occasions also feature African @-@ derived improvised and complexly @-@ rhythmic dances , and British hornpipes , jigs , maypole dances and Marches .
The Jean and Johnnie dance was an important part of Barbadian culture until it was banned in the 19th century . This was a popular fertility dance performed outdoors at plantation fairs and other festivals , and was functional in that it allowed women to show off to men , and more rarely , vice versa . The dance was eventually banned because the dance was associated with non @-@ Christian African traditions .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
The Barbadian folk tradition is home to a great variety of musical instruments , imported from Africa , Great Britain or other Caribbean islands . The most central instrument group in Barbadian culture is the percussion instruments . These include numerous drums , among them the pump and the tum tum , made from a hollowed @-@ out tree trunk , the side snare drum and a double @-@ headed bass drum of tuk bands . Folk musicians also use gongs made from tree trunks , bones , rook jaw , triangle , cymbals , bottles filled with water , and xylophones . Rattles are also widespread , and include the pan @-@ Antillean shak @-@ shak and the calabash , de shot and rattle . More recently imported folk percussion instruments include the conga and bongo from Puerto Rico , Dominican Republic and Cuba , and the tambourine .
String and wind instruments play an important role in Barbadian folk culture , especially the bow @-@ fiddle , banjo and acoustic guitar ; more modern groups also use an electric and bass guitar . The shukster is a distinctive instrument , made by stretching a guitar string between two sides of a house . Traditional Barbadian wind instruments are largely metal , but in their folk origins , were made out of locally found materials . Barbadian villagers burned fingerholes , for example , on bamboo tubes , made trumpets out of conch shells and pipes from pumpkin vines . Many modern groups use harmonica , accordion , alto and tenor saxophone , trumpet and trombone .
= = = Religious music = = =
Though Western classical and other musics play an important role in Anglican church services on Barbados , religion and folk music are closely intertwined in the everyday lives of most Barbadians . The basis for religious folk music is the Anglican hymn , a kind of praise song mostly sung on Sundays , a day when Christian Barbadians come together with family members to sing and praise God to ask for strength for the next week 's work .
Pentecostal music has become a part of Barbadian religious and musical traditions since the 1920s . Music plays a role in Pentecostal ceremonies , and is provided by emotional and improvised performances accompanied tambourines . In addition to the Anglican and Pentecostal traditions , Rastafarian music has spread to the island in more recent years , along with African American musical forms , especially gospel , and the Spiritual Baptist religion , which derives from the Trinidadian Shango cult that spread to Barbados in the 1960s . One of the more Internationally known religious music groups from Barbados are The Silvertones of Barbados .
= = = Holidays , festivals and other celebrations = = =
A number of holidays , festivals and other celebrations play an integral role in Barbadian folk , and popular , music . Whitsuntide , Christmas , and Easter are important , each associated with their own musical traditions , as are distinctly Barbadian festivities like the crop over festival and the Landship movement .
The original crop over festival celebrated the end of the sugarcane harvest . These festivals were held in the great house of the plantations , and included both slaves and plantation managers . Celebrations included drinking competitions , feasting , song and dance , and climbing a greased pole . Musical accompaniment was provided by triangle , fiddle , drums and a guitar , played by slave entertainers . Crop over festivals continue to play a part of Barbadian culture , and always feature music by performers in sugarcane @-@ cutting costumes , even though many modern performers are not themselves sugarcane @-@ cutters .
The Barbadian Landship movement is an informal entertainment organization which mocks , through mimicry and satire , the British navy . Landship began in 1837 , founded by an individual known variously as Moses Ward and Moses Wood , in Britton 's Hall in Seamen 's Village . The structure of the Landship organization mirrors the structure of the British navy , with a " ship " which is connected to a " dock " ( a wooden house similar to a chattel house ) , and leaders known as Lord High Admiral , Captain , Boatswain and other navy ranks . Each unit is named like a typical navy ship and may include actual names of British ships or places . Landship performances symbolize and reflect the passage of ships through rough seas . Parades , jigs , hornpipes , maypole dances and other music and dance types are a part of the Landship Society 's celebrations . The Council of the Barbados Landship Association regulates the movement .
Barbadian Christmas music is mostly based on church and concert hall performances , where typical North American Christmas carols are performed , such as " White Christmas " and " Silver Bells " , alongside works by English composers like William Byrd , Henry Walford Davies and Thomas Tallis . In more recent years , calypso , reggae and other new elements have become a part of local Christmas traditions . As recently as the 1960s , Barbados was home to a distinctive practice , in which scrubbers traveled from house to house singing hymns and receiving rewards from households .
= = = Tuk bands and tea meetings = = =
Tuk bands are Barbadian musical ensembles , consisting of a bow @-@ fiddle or pennywhistle flute , kittle triangle and a snare and double @-@ headed bass drum . The kittle and bass drum provide the rhythm , while the flute gives the melody . The drums are light @-@ weight so they can be carried easily , and are made by both rural villagers and drummers using cured sheepskin and goatskin . Tuk bands are based on the British military 's regimental bands , which played for many years for special occasions , like visiting royalty and coronations . The tuk sound has evolved over the years , as has the instrumentation , with the bow @-@ fiddle used before being most commonly replaced by the pennywhistle flute . Tuk bands are now most common in Landship events , but are still sometimes independent . On their own , tuk bands are generally accompanied by a range of iconic Barbadian characters , including " shaggy bears " , " mother sally " , " the steel donkey " and " green monkeys " . The upbeat modern sound of tuk ensembles are a distinctly Barbadian blend of African and British musics .
Tea meetings are celebrations held in society lodges or school halls , and feature both solo and group performance , theatrical rhetoric and oratory , and other activities . After declining following World War I , tea meetings have recently been revived and have regained their widespread popularity . They are held at nighttime , beginning at 9 : 00 pm and continuing until midnight , when there is a two @-@ hour break for food and drink before the tea meeting is resumed .
= = Popular music = =
Barbados has produced few internationally popular musicians , with worldwide pop superstar Rihanna being the most famous . It has however created a well @-@ developed local scene playing imported styles like American jazz and calypso , as well as the indigenous spouge style . Calypso was the first popular music in Barbados , and dates back to the 1930s . Barbadian calypso is a comedic song form , accompanied by guitar and banjo . More recent styles of calypso have also kept a local scene alive , and produced a number of famous calypsonians . Spouge is a mixture of calypso and other styles , especially ska , and became very popular in the 1960s , around the same time as the Barbadian jazz scene grew in stature and became home to a number of famous performers . Modern Barbadian popular music is largely based around reggae , ragga and soca , and includes some elements of indigenous styles . Artists like Terencia Coward have used modern popular music with instrumentation borrowed from folk tuk bands . Two of the more popular bands of Barbadian popular music are Krosfyah and Square One [ now defunct ] ; the new wave of singers , largely soca , include Rupee , Lil ' Rick and Jabae with lead vocalist Bruce and Barry Chandler , all recent winners at crop over . A more experimental artist such as poet and fiction writer Anthony Kellman writes thoughtful poetic lyrics delivered in a musical style deeply rooted in Barbadian indigenous folk music with strong elements of African and Latin influences . His albums Wings of a Stranger , Limestone , and Blood Mates have been described as groundbreaking due to his highly original style .
= = Calypso = =
Prior to the 1930s , Barbadian calypso was called banja , and was performed by laborers in village @-@ tenantry areas . Itinerant minstrels like Mighty Jerry , Shilling Agard and Slammer were well @-@ known forerunners of modern Barbadian calypso . Their song tradition embraced sentimentality , humor , and opinionated lyrics that continued to the 1960s , often by then accompanied by guitar or banjo .
The mid @-@ 20th century brought new forms of music from Trinidad , Brazil , the United States , Cuba and the Dominican Republic to Barbados , and the Barbadian calypso style came to be viewed as lowbrow or inferior . Promoters like Lord Silvers and Mighty Dragon , however , kept the popular tradition alive through shows at the Globe Theatre , featuring pioneers Mighty Romeo , Sir Don Marshall , Lord Radio and the Bimshire Boys and Mike Wilkinson . These performers set the stage for the development of popular Barbadian calypso in the 1960s .
In the early 1960s , Barbadian calypso grew in popularity and stature , led by Viper , Mighty Gabby and The Merrymen . The first calypso competitions were held in 1960 , and they quickly grew larger and more prominent . The Merrymen became the island 's most prominent contribution to calypso by the 1970s and into the 80s . Their style , known as blue beat , incorporated Barbadian folk songs and ballads , as well as American blues , country music , and a distinctive sound created by harmonica , guitar and banjo .
By the beginning of the 1980s , kaiso , a form of stage @-@ presented calypso pioneered in Trinidad , was widespread at crop over and other celebrations . The foundation of the National Cultural Foundation in 1984 helped to promote and administer calypso festivals , which attracted tourists , stimulating the calypso industry . As a result , calypso has become a very visible and iconic part of Barbadian culture , and some calypsonians have become internationally renowned , including Mighty Gabby and Red Plastic Bag .
= = = Spouge = = =
Spouge is a style of Barbadian popular music created by Jackie Opel in the 1960s . It is primarily a fusion of Jamaican ska with Trinidadian calypso , but is also influenced by a wide variety of musics from the British Isles and United States , include sea shanties , hymns and spirituals . Spouge instrumentation originally consisted of cowbell , bass guitar , trap set and various other electronic and percussion instruments , later augmented by saxophone , trombone and trumpets . Of these , the cowbell and the guitar are widely seen as the most integral part of the instrumentation , and are said to reflect the African origin of much of Barbadian music .
Two different kinds of spouge were popular in the 1960s , raw spouge ( Draytons Two style ) and dragon spouge ( Cassius Clay style ) . The spouge industry grew immensely by the end of the 1970s , and produced popular stars like Blue Rhythm Combo , the Draytons Two and The Troubadours . Recent years has seen a resurgence of interest in spouge among some quarters , with people like Desmond Weekes of the Draytons Two indicating that spouge should be encouraged because it is a national form that can reach international audiences and inspire the nation 's pride in their cultural heritage .
= = = Jazz = = =
Jazz is a genre of music from the United States which reached Barbados by the end of the 1920s . The first major performer from the island was Lionel Gittens , who was followed by Percy Green , Maggie Goodridge and Clevie Gittens . These bandleaders played a variety of music , including swing , a kind of pop @-@ jazz , Barbadian calypso and waltzes . With little recorded music on the island , radio broadcasts such as Willis Conover 's Voice of America had a major influence . In 1937 , riots over poverty and disenfranchisement occurred , and people like Clement Payne had risen to fame advocating reform . In that year , Payne was deported and riots broke out in Bridgetown , spreading throughout the island . The following year , the Barbados Labour Party was formed by C. A. Braithwaite and Grantley Adams .
As political awareness among the black majority on the island spread , so did bebop , a kind of jazz which was associated , in the United States , with social activism and Afrocentrism . The first Barbadian bebop musician from the island was Keith Campbell , a pianist who had learned to play many styles while living in Trinidad during a time when American soldiers were stationed there , providing a ready market for bands that could play American music . Other musicians of this period included Ernie Small , a trumpeter and pianist , and bandleader St. Clare Jackman .
In the 1950s , R & B and rock and roll became popular on the island , and many jazz bands found themselves pushed aside . A wave of Guyanese musicians also appeared on the island , including Colin Dyall , a saxophonist who later joined the Police Band , and the Ebe Gilkes Quartet . Though mainstream audiences were still listening to R & B and rock , modern jazz retained a small core of followers into the 1960s . The foundation of the Belair Jazz Club in Bridgetown in 1961 helped to keep this scene alive . With independence in 1966 came a focus on black Barbadian culture , and music like calypso , reggae and spouge , rather than the preoccupation with British standards of musical development . Calypso jazz arose during this period , pioneered by groups like the Schofield Pilgrim . The genre had developed by 1965 , when original works like " Jouvert Morning " and " Calypso Lament " were composed . Artists like the pianist Adrian Clarke became popular during the 60s as well .
In the early 1970s , jazz fan and critic Carl Moore launched a project to keep jazz alive on the island , while Zanda Alexander 's performance in Bridgetown in 1972 is said to be the first Caribbean jazz festival . Oscar Peterson 's 1976 performance in Trinidad also inspired Barbadian musicians , as did the radio program Jazz Jam , which was broadcast starting in the mid @-@ 70s on the Caribbean Broadcast Corporation . In 1983 , however , the Belair Jazz Club closed , and was not replaced by any long @-@ term clubs . Later in the 1980s , jazz declined greatly in popularity , though The National Cultural foundation organized the International Barbados / Caribbean Jazz Festival , which after a brief hiatus due to lack of sponsorship was resurrected by Gilbert Rowe of GMR international tours . Other performances were organized by a group called the Friends of Jazz . More jazz calypso fusion musicians appeared on the scene during this period , including Arturo Tappin , Nicholas Brancker , Andre Woodvine and Raf Robertson .
= = = Rock = = =
Rock music is alive and well in Barbados , there have been several bands through the years that perform alternative , rock and even metal music . Most recently the Alt / Rock / Metal band Standing Penance formed in 2009 . The band continues to operate in present @-@ day and is the only act of this genre to be signed to an American record label .
= = Education and musicology = =
Academic study of Barbadian music remains limited . Some song collections and other activities have been conducted , but there remain significant holes in scholarship , such as the musics of recent immigrants from China and India , who presumably have brought with them styles of Indian and Chinese musics . Due to a lack of archaeological and historical records , the island 's indigenous music is unknown . Since the 1970s , an increase in general interest in Barbadian culture has spurred greater study of music , and given an incentive to radio and television stations to create and maintain archives of cultural practices .
On modern Barbados , oral transmission remains the primary mode of music education , and there are few opportunities for most people to become formally educated in music of any kind . The elders of the island , who are the most educated in oral traditions , are held in high esteem due to their knowledge of folk culture . Modern Barbados is home to several institutions of musical education . There are dedicated schools for ballet : Dance Place and the Liz Mahon Dancers . A number of schools sponsor orchestras , steelbands and tuk bands , including the St. Lucy Secondary School Steel Orchestra . Music is a part of the curriculum for early childhood as well as primary and secondary education . The Barbados Community College has an associate degree programme in music . However , the University of the West Indies , though it has a campus on Barbados , does not offer degree programs in music . As a matter of fact , only recently has the University started offering students the opportunity to pursue a minor in music .
= = Music institutions and festivals = =
The main music festival in Barbados is crop over , which is celebrated with song , dance , calypso tent competitions and parades , especially leading up to the first Monday in August , Kadooment Day . The crop over festival celebrates the end of the sugarcane harvest , and is inaugurated by the ritual delivery of the last of the harvest on a cart pulled by mules . The champion sugarcane workers are crowned King and Queen for the event . In addition to crop over , music plays an important role in many other Barbadian holidays and festivals . The Easter Oistins Fish Festival , for example features a street party with music to celebrate the signing of the Charter of Barbados and the fishing industry of the island , and the Holetown Festival , which commemorates the arrival of the first settlers in 1627 .
The annual December Classical / Pops Festival comprises an all @-@ star orchestra accompanied by pop and rock stars , Broadway performers , opera singers , and film composers as featured guests . Opera , cabaret and sports are a major part of the Easter Holders Season . On 30 November , the Barbadian Independence Day , military bands in parades play marches , calypsos and other popular songs . This is preceded for several weeks by the National Independence Festival of Creative Arts . The National Independence Festival of Creative Arts and Crop Over are two of the festivals sponsored by the National Cultural Foundation ( NCF ) ; the other is Congaline , a recently organized street party that begins in April and ends on May Day . NCF also assists with the Holers Opera Season , Oistins Fish Festival , Holetown Festival and the B 'dos Jazz Festival .
Other major musical institutions in Barbados include the Barbados Chamber Orchestra and the Cavite Choral . There are also dance and ballet groups known as Dance National Afrique , Barbados Dance Theatre Company , Dance Strides , The Dance Place and Dancing Africa . The island 's music industry is home to several recording studios , the largest being Blue Wave , a 48 @-@ track system , and Paradise Alley , a 24 @-@ track system . Others include Chambers ' Studio , Gray Lizard Productions and Ocean Lab Studios .
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= Brazilian Dreams =
Brazilian Dreams is a live album by Cuban jazz performer Paquito D 'Rivera . It was recorded at the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , between April 26 and 29 , 2001 , and released by MCG Jazz on August 27 , 2002 . The album features guest performances by the American vocal group New York Voices and trumpeter Claudio Roditi . In the United States , it peaked at number 22 on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
Produced by Jay Ashby , the album features seven songs written by Brazilian performers including Antônio Carlos Jobim , Luiz Bonfá , João Donato and Caetano Veloso , and three original songs , and was conceived as a tribute to the music of Brazil of which D 'Rivera has always been an admirer . Brazilian Dreams received mixed reviews by critics , some praising the performers and the musical selection , and others being critical about the lack of improvement on the arrangements on the classic songs of the genre included . The album earned D 'Rivera the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album .
= = Background and release = =
Cuban saxophonist and clarinet player Paquito D 'Rivera decided to record an album paying tribute to Brazilian music after being invited by several Brazilian performers to play their native music . D 'Rivera also featured in Americanos : Latino Life in the United States , a 2000 documentary produced by American actor Edward James Olmos , representing Brazil . " I feel a great passion for the culture and music of Brazil , and it gives me pleasure to declare publicly that my heart is half Brazilian , " D 'Rivera declared on his autobiography My Sax Life ( 2005 ) . The album features the American group New York Voices since D 'Rivera has always been an admirer of vocal quartets and wanted to " kill two birds with one stone " . He further explained that in Cuba " musicians listened to radio stations from Miami mostly for the jingles sung by gringo vocal groups . " Brazilian Dreams was released by MCG Jazz on August 27 , 2002 and was the tenth album recorded by the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild , following A Nancy Wilson Christmas by Nancy Wilson , Joe Williams Presents : Nicole Yarling Live at The Manchester Craftsman Guild and the Dizzy Gillespie All @-@ Stars 's Things to Come , among others .
= = Content = =
Brazilian Dreams was recorded live at the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania between April 26 and 29 , 2001 . The album includes ten songs and features Kim Nazarian , Lauren Kinhan , Darmon Meader and Peter Eldridge of the New York Voices as backing vocalists . Performer Claudio Roditi is also featured playing trumpet , while D 'Rivera plays clarinet . Most of the songs included are written by Brazilian songwriters paying homage to the music of the country ; the setlist includes eight songs written by Antônio Carlos Jobim , Gene Lees , Luiz Bonfá , Matt Dubey , João Donato , Caetano Veloso and three original songs by Roditi and D 'Rivera . The first track , " Corcovado " , includes a " vocal texture " inspired by Brazilian vocal groups Quarteto em Cy , MPB4 and The Swingle Singers . " One for Tom " is based on " Se todos fossem iguas a voce " by Jobim and features a tenor sax solo by Darmon Meader . " Meu Amigo " is supported by D 'Rivera 's clarinet and backing vocals in " an exquisite interplay of harmonies and solo sax with the slightest bass . " " Retrato Em Branco E Prêto " features Nazarian performing vocals in Portuguese language .
= = Reception and accolades = =
Brazilian Dreams received mixed reviews from critics . Paula Edelstein of AllMusic gave the album four stars out of five , praising the performer skills " leading his own ensembles or playing with renowned jazz masters , Paquito D 'Rivera continues to make a decidedly fresh imprint on Latin and Brazilian jazz . " William Grim of All About Jazz wrote that Brazilian Dreams was " a very satisfying album " hoping that D 'Rivera , Roditi and the New York Voices record another album based on Brazilian music due to the large extension of the musical catalog of the country . C. Michael Bailey , also of All About Jazz , stated that the album " is superb and fantastic in every way . " Morrice Blackwell of Jazz Review named the album a " musical match made in heaven " , praising the performers and the sound quality , considering that it is a live performance . Blackwell also commented on the Manchester Craftsmen 's Guild which " continually offer a complete jazz experience . " On a second review by Jazz Review , Lee Prosser referred to the album as a " classic Brazilian music collection ... something all jazz listeners can appreciate , enjoy , and want to have in their CD library collections " , to finally declare that it was " one of the very finest collections of music released in the year 2002 . " Maurice Bottomley of PopMatters wrote that the record is " gentle , cultured , and perhaps overly refined , but it is very accomplished and does actually swing , " further commenting that " it is also truer to the spirit of bossa nova in its first North American flowering than some will care to admit . "
However , Leila Cobo of Billboard magazine was critical about the fact that some tracks do not add much to the originals , but the album " stays merely pleasant , notably in ' Desafinado ' and ' Manhã de Carnaval / Gentle Rain ' . " On a negative review by Mike Quinn of JazzTimes stated that the album should be renamed " Brazilian Nightmares " a it is " impossible to escape the insipid vocal stylings of the ' New York Voices ' or the cliched horn arrangements that can be heard on bossa nova records going back as far as the ' 50s . " Quinn was also critical of the repertoire since " Brazil has produced more music than the usual 20 or 30 tunes that keep getting led to the butcher 's block . "
Brazilian Dreams reached number 35 at the CMJ Jazz Albums chart and peaked at number 22 on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart . D 'Rivera was awarded the Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album at the 4th Latin Grammy Awards , and with this recognition became the only performer to receive accolades in the Jazz and Classical music fields , after his album Historia del Soldado ( Histoire du soldat by Igor Stravinsky ) earned the Best Classical Album at the same ceremony .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from AllMusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
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= Hurricane Allen =
Hurricane Allen was a rare and extremely powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane which struck the Caribbean , eastern and northern Mexico then southern Texas . It was the first and strongest hurricane of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season . The first named storm and first tropical cyclone of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , it was one of the strongest hurricanes in recorded history and one of the few hurricanes to reach Category 5 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale on three separate occasions , and spent more time as a Category 5 than any other Atlantic hurricane . Allen is the only hurricane in the recorded history of the Atlantic basin to achieve sustained winds of 190 mph ( 305 km / h ) , thus making it the strongest Atlantic hurricane by wind speed . Until Hurricane Patricia in 2015 , this was also the highest sustained winds in the entire Western Hemisphere .
Throughout its life , Allen moved through the deep tropics on a west @-@ northwesterly course through the tropical Atlantic Ocean , Caribbean Sea , and Gulf of Mexico before making its final landfall near the United States – Mexico border . At peak strength , it passed near Haiti , causing hundreds of deaths and heavy damage . After crossing the Gulf of Mexico , Allen weakened as it struck the lower Texas coast , causing high winds , a significant storm surge , and heavy rainfall , which caused damage to southern Texas . Overall , Allen killed 290 people and left just over 1 @.@ 24 billion in damage ( 1980 USD ) , mostly within the United States and Haiti . Due to its impact , the name Allen was retired from the six @-@ year revolving list of Atlantic tropical cyclone names in 1981 and the name was replaced by Andrew . The name Andrew was subsequently retired after the 1992 season 's Hurricane Andrew . The dissipating storm precipitated the end of the Heat Wave of 1980 in places like Dallas / Fort Worth , Texas , which had recorded 69 days of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) heat .
= = Meteorological history = =
Allen was an early Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane which originated from a tropical wave that previously moved off the African coastline on July 30 . The system developed as it moved westward , becoming a tropical depression on August 1 . However , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories on Allen until almost 24 hours later , while centered 1 @,@ 300 mi ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) east of the Windward Islands . Early on August 2 , as the depression moved towards the Caribbean , it had intensified , and became the first named storm of the season . The National Hurricane Center noted that conditions appeared favorable for further intensification . However , it was also noted that a large cold @-@ low north of Puerto Rico was producing strong westerly wind shear , which would cause Allen to possibly encounter unfavorable conditions within 72 hours . Although slower forward movement was anticipated , Allen kept at generally the same westward pace between 17 and 23 mph ( 27 and 37 km / h ) . By August 3 , the National Hurricane Center retracted predictions of less favorable conditions from the cold @-@ low north of Puerto Rico , since that weather system was weakening and moving westward .
At 1600 UTC on August 3 , the National Hurricane Center upgraded Allen to hurricane status , as an Air Force Plane recorded winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . However , in post @-@ analysis , it was discovered that Allen had been a hurricane since 0000 UTC on August 3 . Shortly after the upgrade , Allen began a period of rapid deepening , and intensified into a major hurricane at 0000 UTC August 4 , while roughly 38 mi ( 61 km ) northwest of Bridgetown , Barbados . Six hours later , Allen passed only 8 mi ( 13 km ) south of St. Lucia at 0600 UTC . Although the National Hurricane Center noted that conditions favored slow strengthening , Allen continued to rapidly intensify , and became a Category 4 hurricane only two hours after that advisory . Later on August 4 , the National Hurricane Center noted a barometric pressure of 946 mbar ( 946 hPa ; 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) , and that the it would not drop significantly within 24 hours . Shortly before 0000 UTC on August 5 , the minimum pressure decreased to 924 mbar ( 924 hPa ; 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) , which was noted as equivalent to Hurricane David in the previous season .
By August 5 , Allen intensified into a Category 5 hurricane while south of Puerto Rico . This made Allen the earliest Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic on record , but was later surpassed by Hurricane Emily which reached that intensity on July 16 , 2005 . During this time , Allen attained a central pressure of 911 mbar ( 911 hPa ; 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) , the lowest pressure on record in the eastern Caribbean sea . Hence , the barometric pressure dropped by 35 mbar ( 35 hPa ; 1 @.@ 0 inHg ) less than 10 hours after the National Hurricane Center stated that the pressure would not decrease significantly within 24 hours .
The eye passed between Hispaniola and Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane . After weakening due to friction with the mountains of Haiti and Jamaica , Allen intensified back to a Category 5 hurricane , retaining this intensity for over a day . It then moved past the islands of Cayman Brac and Little Cayman causing moderate damage on Cayman Brac with winds near 135 mph . The storm then moved between Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula , reaching its peak intensity of 190 mph ( 310 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 899 mbar ( 899 hPa ; 26 @.@ 5 inHg ) while crossing the Yucatán Channel . During Allen 's trek through the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico , its center of circulation never crossed over land despite its close passage to various islands in and around the Caribbean sea .
Allen again weakened to a Category 4 storm due to friction with Mexico and Eyewall replacement cycle , but restrengthened into a Category 5 hurricane for a third time as it moved over the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico , keeping this intensity for nearly a full day and with a pressure drop to 909 mbar ( 909 hPa ; 26 @.@ 8 inHg ) , the lowest pressure ever recorded in the western Gulf of Mexico . Shortly before landfall , a dry air mass in the western Gulf of Mexico caused the storm to weaken substantially . Allen made landfall north of Brownsville , Texas as a Category 3 storm with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Allen became extratropical on August 11 .
= = Preparations = =
As Allen approached the Caribbean Sea , gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued for the islands of Barbados , St. Lucia , St. Vincent , Dominica , Grenada , Martinique , and Guadeloupe during the daylight hours of August 3 . Gale warnings were in effect for Antigua from 11 am on August 3 until 11 am on August 4 . Hurricane warnings were raised for Barbados , St. Vincent , St. Lucia , Martinique , and Dominica from the early afternoon of August 3 until the late morning of August 4 . As Allen moved into the Caribbean sea , hurricane watches were issued for southeastern sections of the Dominican Republic and the southwestern peninsula of Haiti from 11 am on August 4 until the morning of August 5 . Gale warnings were then in effect for the southern Dominican Republic from the night of August 4 into the night of August 5 , while southern Haiti maintained the warnings from the night of August 4 into the morning of August 5 . The hurricane watch was issued for Jamaica during the morning hours of August 5 , while hurricane warnings were raised for the southwest peninsula of Haiti from the late morning of August 5 into the morning of August 6 . Hurricane warnings went into effect for Jamaica from around noon on August 5 until late in the afternoon of August 6 . The Cayman Islands saw hurricane watches issued from the afternoon of August 5 into the morning of August 6 before the watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from the morning until late afternoon of August 6 .
As Allen approached the Gulf of Mexico , hurricane warnings were raised for the northeast Yucatán peninsula of Mexico from the afternoon of August 6 into the morning of August 8 . Gale warnings were in effect for the Florida Keys from the evening of August 6 into the early morning of August 8 . As Allen approached its final landfall , the northeast Mexican coast and Texas coast were placed under a hurricane watch from the morning of August 8 until the morning of August 9 for Mexico and the afternoon of August 9 for Texas . Hurricane warnings were posted for the Texas coast during the afternoon of August 8 , and were lowered north of Freeport , Texas during the afternoon of August 9 and south of Freeport during the afternoon of August 10 . Gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued for the Louisiana coast from Vermilion Bay westward from the afternoon of August 8 into the afternoon of August 9 . Hurricane warnings were in effect for northeast Mexico from the early afternoon of August 9 into the late afternoon of August 10 . Hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings between High Island , Texas and Freeport , Texas between the late afternoon of August 9 and the late afternoon of August 10 . Hurricane watches were dropped for the Louisiana coast during the late afternoon of August 9 . Hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings for the lower Texas coast south of Freeport from the late afternoon of August 10 into the early morning of August 11 .
= = Impact = =
Allen caused just under $ 1 billion ( 1980 USD ) in damages and killed at least 269 people throughout its course ( including indirect deaths ) .
= = = Caribbean islands = = =
In Barbados , preliminary damages were estimated to be $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1980 USD ) . About 500 houses were either damaged or destroyed . No deaths were reported . St. Lucia sustained catastrophic damage from the strong category 3 hurricane . Sustained winds of 90 knots ( 170 km / h ) and a sea level pressure as low as 967 millibars ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) were reported at Hewanorra . Eighteen people lost their lives as a result of the storm 's passage . One death in Guadeloupe was attributed to Allen . In Martinique , damage was extensive as the storm passed 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of the island . Waves 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high battered the coast of the island during the storm .
In the central Caribbean , Cayman Brac was hit by winds in excess of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) which caused considerable property damage . A coral reef at Discover Bay , Jamaica was devastated by the wave action from the storm . Offshore Jamaica , greater numbers of smaller @-@ sized Damselfishes was witnessed in the wake of Allen . Eight deaths in Jamaica were attributed to Allen . Damage was very significant along the northeast coast , where the hurricane made its closest approach to the island and created a 12 metres ( 39 ft ) storm surge . Three deaths were attributed to Allen in Cuba .
Extensive damage occurred in Haiti due to high winds and flash flooding . Total costs for that country were estimated to be at more than $ 400 million ( 1980 USD ) . Roughly 60 % of the nation 's coffee crop was destroyed . In all , 220 people were killed and 835 @,@ 000 were left homeless . In Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , 41 deaths were caused by tin roofs flying off and around 1200 were made homeless by flooding . Another 140 people were reported dead from flooding .
= = = Mexico = = =
Areas of northeastern Mexico saw heavy rains with the passage of Allen , with the highest totals exceeding 7 inches ( 180 mm ) . The hurricane earlier brushed the Yucatán Peninsula . As Allen only affected sparsely populated regions of Mexico , there were no reports of significant damage .
= = = United States = = =
In Texas , the storm surge was reported as high as 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) at Port Mansfield , though it may have been higher elsewhere along the Texas coast . A peak wind gust of 129 mph ( 208 km / h ) was also measured at Port Mansfield . Tropical storm @-@ force winds in Corpus Christi , Texas blew roof gravel through the city , which led to substantial glass breakage to the 18 @-@ story Guarantee Bank Building and a 12 @-@ story wing of Spohn hospital . The storm caused seven deaths in Texas and 17 in Louisiana ( most resulting from the crash of a helicopter evacuating workers from an offshore platform ) . Allen spawned several tornadoes in Texas . One tornado caused $ 100 million in damage when it hit Austin , Texas , making it the costliest tropical cyclone @-@ spawned tornado in recorded history . Overall , however , the storm caused limited damage in the United States due to its suddenly diminished power and because its highest tides and winds hit a sparsely @-@ populated portion of the Texas coast .
Allen dumped 10 inches ( 250 mm ) to 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of rain in south Texas , ending a summer @-@ long drought during the Heat Wave of 1980 .
= = Retirement = =
Because of the destruction , extreme death tolls and intensity , the name Allen was retired from the Atlantic tropic storms list by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1981 , and will never be used again for a future Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Andrew in the 1986 season , which was also retired due to widespread damage in Florida following its second usage in 1992 and was replaced with Alex in 1998 .
= = Records = =
When Allen reached Category 5 intensity on August 5 , it became the earliest Category 5 storm ever recorded . This record stood until Hurricane Emily surpassed it on July 16 , 2005 . Allen is one of three Atlantic hurricanes to reach Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on three separate occasions , the others being Hurricane Ivan and Hurricane Isabel . Allen also produced the fifth @-@ lowest minimum pressure ever recorded in the Atlantic basin at 899 mbar ( hPa ) and was the strongest known hurricane in the basin , in terms of pressure , since 1935 . Until then , it was the second strongest hurricane by pressure in the Atlantic Basin , but was since pushed down to fifth , and no hurricane has achieved 190 miles per hour ( 310 km / h ) winds in this basin since then . It remains the most intense storm ever in August . Allen spent nearly 3 days as a Category 5 storm , initially the longest stretch of any previous Atlantic hurricane on record . However , a reanalysis of the 1932 Cuba hurricane showed that it spent 3 hours longer at Category 5 intensity than Allen . Five typhoons have spent longer as Category 5 storms , including most recently Karen and Nancy in the early 1960s .
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= 2000 – 01 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2000 @-@ 01 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet with only five named storms , although there was an additional unnamed tropical storm and two subtropical cyclones with gale @-@ force winds . It started early , with a tropical disturbance forming on August 1 – the first day of the cyclone year . However , the first named storm , Ando , was not named until January 2 , which at the time was the 4th latest on record . Ando would become the most intense cyclone of the year , reaching peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) according to the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion , the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the basin . The agency tracked storms south of the Equator and west of 90 ° E to the east coast of Africa .
In addition to being the strongest storm , Cyclone Ando was one of two deadly storms during the season . It passed about 205 km ( 105 mi ) west of Réunion , producing 1 @,@ 255 mm ( 49 @.@ 4 in ) of rainfall in the mountainous peaks . The rains led to flooding that killed two people . Ando was one of three storms to attain tropical cyclone status – winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) – in the month of January . The others were Bindu , which alternated its trajectory several times over open waters , and Charly , which rapidly weakened after encountering hostile wind shear . The next storm to form was Tropical Cyclone Dera , which intensified near Mozambique in early March and killed two people there due to flooding rains . It later moved southward through the Mozambique Channel , maintaining its intensity unusually far to the south before becoming extratropical . There was a month of inactivity in March , including three weeks in which there were no storms worldwide , the first such instance . Subsequently , two storms formed in early April ; one was a small , unnamed tropical storm , and the other was Severe Tropical Storm Evariste , which brought light rainfall to two islands . The season ended with an unusual subtropical storm forming rapidly in the southern Mozambique Channel on June 19 , the only such storm to form in that body of water in the month . It became the strongest storm on record for so late in the season , although it weakened without affecting land , dissipating on June 24 .
= = Season summary = =
During the season , the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator to 30 ° S. At the time , the cyclone year was from August 1 to July 31 of the subsequent year . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force , also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean in an unofficial capacity .
Aside from a tropical disturbance in August , the season began later than usual , the fourth consecutive season to do so . At the time it had the 4th latest start on record for the first named storm . Only about 20 % of seasons have their first storm form after the middle of December , and the first named storm of this season , Ando , did not become a tropical storm until early January . However , January was active with three tropical cyclones , two of which became intense tropical cyclones , due to the active phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation ( MJO ) . February returned to a period of inactivity , and generally there was minimal convection across the basin due to unusually dry air . This was spread by a powerful and persistent ridge that extended eastward from Madagascar , as well as an inactive phase of the MJO . Drought conditions occurred on Réunion due to the lack of rainfall . After three weeks of no tropical cyclones developing worldwide , an event unseen since 1995 , the tropics became active again in early April .
In contrast with the busy preceding season , this season had much lower activity than usual , with only 36 days in which there was a tropical storm or cyclone active ; this was 17 less than normal . However , the number of days with a tropical cyclone was slightly above normal at 15 . In general , the southern hemisphere as a whole had the least active season since 1954 . There were only five named storms , only the fifth such time since the beginning of the satellite era in 1967 . As most storms formed toward the eastern periphery of the basin , damage was much less than the preceding year .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Ando = = =
The beginnings of Ando can be traced to a circulation within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) about 400 km ( 250 mi ) south @-@ west of Diego Garcia , which became evident on satellite imagery on December 30 . Associated convection , or thunderstorms , gradually organized into a central dense overcast , and the system became Tropical Disturbance 3 at 06 : 00 UTC on December 31 . The upper @-@ level environment generally favored further development , but the system failed to develop more initially due to some easterly wind shear . A large ridge to the south steered the nascent disturbance to the west @-@ southwest . After the shear subsided , the system intensified into a moderate tropical storm on January 2 , given the name " Ando " by the Mauritius Meteorological Service . Also on that day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 04S , and around that time , Ando was passing about 465 km ( 290 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Agalega island .
Ando rapidly intensified after forming and attained tropical cyclone status early on January 4 , developing an eye in the center of the thunderstorms and outflow to the east . A tropical low over the southern Mozambique Channel weakened the ridge , causing Ando to turn more to the southwest . Late on January 4 , the storm intensified further into an intense tropical cyclone , and early the next day passed about 120 km ( 75 mi ) northeast of Tromelin Island . According to the JTWC , however , Ando attained peak 1 minute winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) late on January 5 . In contrast , the MFR assessed Ando as weakening due to the becoming larger and less defined , while still maintaining a small cloud diameter of about 400 km ( 250 mi ) . However , the eye re @-@ organized , and Ando attained peak 10 minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) on January 6 , with a 60 km ( 35 mi ) eye at the time . Continuing around the ridge , the cyclone passed about 205 km ( 125 mi ) west of Réunion that day before starting to weaken due to increased wind shear . On January 8 , Ando weakened below tropical cyclone status , and the convection increasingly separated from the circulation while turning to the southeast . On January 10 , the storm became extratropical , although the remnants turned back to the northwest due to the ridge , dissipating on January 13 .
As a developing storm , Ando produced some heavy rain between December 30 and January 2 over Seychelles . Swaziland also reported that Ando drew moisture from the continent , aggravating a persistent dry spell . While near Agalega island , Ando dropped 108 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) of rainfall , compared to a January average precipitation there of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . On Tromelin Island , gusts peaked at 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) and rainfall reached 141 mm ( 5 @.@ 6 in ) . Passing north of Réunion , Ando produced gusts of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) along the coast , but 133 km / h ( 83 mph ) was recorded at Plaine des Cafres in the mountainous peaks . Most parts of the island did not receive much rain , with the exception of mountainous peaks due to orographic lift , particularly after the center passed to the west . Pas de Bellecombe at an elevation of 2 @,@ 200 m ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) reported 1 @,@ 255 mm ( 49 @.@ 4 in ) over 48 hours . The rains caused flooding and some landslides , which washed away one house and killed two people . Ando also damaged crops and killed several livestock . The highest wave recorded was 5 @.@ 4 m ( 18 ft ) in La Possession . High waves injured several people , several of whom required rescue from lifeguards .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Bindu = = =
On January 2 , an area of convection persisted in the eastern portion of the ITCZ in the Australian basin , located northwest of Cocos Island , or about 1165 km ( 625 mi ) southwest of Sumatra . With a ridge to the south , the system moved generally westward . A nearby ship confirmed that a circulation formed , and on January 3 , it crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean as a tropical disturbance . With easterly wind shear , the system initially remained weak , but convection increased and organized on January 5 . On the next day , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression , although the circulation was still exposed from the thunderstorms at that time . After turning to the southwest , wind shear decreased , and the depression became Moderate Tropical Storm Bindu on January 7 . On the same day , the JTWC also initiated advisories as Tropical Cyclone 05S . Moving around the ridge to the south , Bindu slowly intensified , developing outflow and improved rainbands . Early on January 9 , the MFR upgraded the storm to tropical cyclone status as an eye 19 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter formed . The next day , Bindu weakened due to increased wind shear , causing the circulation to be exposed from the convection and for the cyclone to be downgraded into a severe tropical storm .
The building ridge caused the storm to slow and turn back to the west . After the formerly hostile shear relaxed , Bindu became a tropical cyclone again on January 11 , redeveloping an eye . On the next day , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the JTWC estimated maximum 1 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . By that time , the cyclone had turned back to the south @-@ southwest . Drier air and wind shear resulted in weakening , and Bindu was downgraded to a severe tropical storm on January 14 . At 18 : 00 UTC the next day , the storm passed about 140 km ( 85 mi ) southeast of Rodrigues island , by which time the circulation was exposed north of the dwindling convection . The MFR downgraded Bindu to tropical depression status on January 16 . An approaching trough turned the system to the south on the next day , and Bindu became extratropical late on January 17 . The remnants turned sharply eastward due to a ridge , later looping back to the west on January 20 . Another trough turned the storm southward on January 21 and absorbed the circulation the next day .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Charly = = =
A small circulation formed north of the Cocos Islands on January 8 within the near @-@ equatorial trough . For about a week , it drifted west @-@ southwestward without much development , although an area of convection formed within the system on January 11 about 1240 km ( 770 mi ) southwest of Sumatra . Persistent wind shear prevented much strengthening , and the circulation crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on January 16 . Another increase in convection merited its classification as a tropical disturbance on the next day , which organized into a central dense overcast . Slow development continued , allowing the disturbance to become a tropical depression and later Tropical Storm Charly on January 19 . On the same day , the JTWC also began tracking it as Tropical Cyclone 06S . Taking a track similar to earlier Tropical Cyclone Bindu , the storm moved southwestward around a ridge to the south . Charly gradually developed outflow and increasingly organized convection due to decreasing wind shear . A ragged eye formed on January 20 and became better defined , and early on January 21 , Charly intensified into a tropical cyclone .
By January 22 , Charly developed a 37 km ( 23 mi ) wide eye , surrounded by deep convection . Based on the increased organization , the storm became an intense tropical cyclone , reaching peak 10 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , according to the MFR . In contrast , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Late on January 22 , the wind shear and dry air increased while waters became cooler , all of which became detrimental to the storm 's structure . The eye rapidly dissipated as the convection dwindled , and within 24 hours of peak intensity , Charly was downgraded to tropical storm status . On January 24 , the storm passed about 320 km ( 200 mi ) southeast of Rodrigues . By that time , the circulation was exposed from the thunderstorms , and Charly weakened to tropical depression status on January 25 . Caught in the weak low @-@ level flow , the circulation moved erratically , first to the west , then drifting before turning to the southeast . It continued to produce some convection during this time , which spread rainfall over Mauritius and Réunion . A cold front swept Charly to the southeast , absorbing it on January 31 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Dera = = =
After an extended period of inactivity lasting nearly a month , the ITCZ produced an area of convection on March 1 between Diego Garcia and the Seychelles . There were initially two weak circulations , although the one south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia ultimately became Cyclone Dera . It moved southwestward without much development at first due to hostile wind shear , with the circulation often exposed from the thunderstorms . On March 4 , the system developed into a tropical disturbance off the northeast coast of Madagascar . Two days later , the storm moved ashore Madagascar about 50 km ( 30 mi ) southeast of Antsiranana . It weakened and became indistinct over land , emerging into the Mozambique Channel near Nosy Be as a weak low . Convection gradually increased across the region as the track shifted westward . After moving toward Mozambique , the system rounded the ridge and turned to the south just off the coast , passing only 10 km ( 6 mi ) east of Angoche . Around that time , the thunderstorms began organizing more , allowing the disturbance to intensify into a tropical depression on March 8 . With warm waters and an anticyclone providing outflow , the depression quickly intensified , becoming Tropical Storm Dera on March 9 and soon after developing an eye feature . Also on that day , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 15S .
Late on March 9 , Dera passed about 20 km ( 12 mi ) east of Europa Island , although the large eye passed over the island . On March 10 , Dera attained tropical cyclone status , and after a brief bout of wind shear , the eye became better defined . The cyclone attained peak 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on March 11 , according to the MFR , and 1 minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) according to the JTWC . Despite being located unusually far to the south , Dera maintained its intensity due to warm waters , and it accelerated southeastward due to an approaching cold front . Wind shear increased on March 12 , and only on that day did water temperatures drop off , causing a marked decrease in intensity and for the eye to dissipate . Late on March 12 , Dera became extratropical , which continued southeastward along the cold front .
The precursor of Dera dropped heavy rainfall in Mayotte , reaching 193 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) on Pamanzi . The precipitation came in intense squalls , with hourly peaks of 49 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) recorded , which flooded rivers and some houses . In addition , the system produced gusts of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) , strong enough to damage roofs , cause power outages , and damage fields and trees . Heavy rainfall also spread across Mozambique , producing additional river flooding Zambezi in a region that had been flooded for weeks . The floods wrecked dozens of homes and covered many roads , while killing two people . Later , gusts peaked at 155 kilometres per hour ( 96 mph ) on Europa Island , while rainfall reached 72 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Evariste = = =
The ITCZ became active in late March , spawning several areas of convection across the Indian Ocean and into the adjacent Australian basin . The westernmost system had a circulation as of March 31 about 600 km ( 370 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . Despite favorable conditions , the system failed to organize at first , although it became Tropical Disturbance 9 on April 2 after the structure improved . Drifting to the southwest and later to the south , the associated convection waxed and waned , finally organizing more on April 4 ; on that day , the disturbance quickly intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Evariste . A day prior , the JTWC had initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 18S . A trough to the south weakened the ridge , turning the storm to the southwest . A small eye formed on April 5 , but later dissipated after an increase in thunderstorm activity . On that day , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , just shy of tropical cyclone status , while the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . On April 6 , increased wind shear from the approaching trough began weakening Evariste and turned it to the south . That day , it passed about 135 km ( 85 mph ) east of St. Brandon , and on April 7 , Evariste bypassed Rodrigues about 200 km ( 125 mi ) to the southwest . The convection gradually deteriorated and left the circulation exposed . Late on April 7 , the storm suddenly turned southwestward toward a developing low east of Madagascar , although the southwest motion resumed soon after . On April 8 , Evariste dissipated , dissipating ahead of the nearby trough .
Evariste produced peak gusts of 91 km / h ( 57 mph ) on St. Brandon , with 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) of rainfall recorded . Stronger winds were recorded on Rodrigues while the storm passed , reaching 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) . Rainfall was minimal , reaching only 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , and failing to alleviate drought conditions .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm 10 = = =
A small area of convection not associated from the ITCZ became Tropical Disturbance 10 on April 1 , about 215 km ( 350 mi ) west @-@ northwest of the Cocos Islands in the Australian region . It moved west @-@ southwestward , entering the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on April 2 , and on the same date the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 16S . The thunderstorms organized into a small central dense overcast , and there was evidence of an eye feature , suggesting the system could have been much stronger . Although satellite imagery had difficulty in tracking the low @-@ level circulation , a nearby ship on April 3 confirmed the presence of a circulation . Operationally the system was only classified as a tropical depression . However , data from QuikSCAT helped upgrade the system to moderate tropical storm status in a post @-@ season analysis , with peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) on April 3 ; as a result , it was not named . After previously moving to the west @-@ southwest , the small storm turned back to the west due to a strengthening ridge to the south . Wind shear increased on April 4 , which rapidly dwindled the convection and thereby leaving behind an exposed circulation . It underwent the Fujiwhara effect with a larger disturbance to the east , causing the system to turn back to the north and dissipate on April 5 .
= = = Subtropical Cyclone 11 = = =
Similar to a Subtropical Depression 13 in April 2000 , there was an unusual subtropical cyclone that formed in June to end the season . A trough exited South Africa on June 18 with an associated frontal wave in the southern Mozambique Channel . On the next day , the system separated from the front and became a cut @-@ off low . It moved north @-@ northwestward along the eastern periphery of a ridge in southern Africa , becoming a subtropical depression on June 20 . The associated convection initially diminished , although the thunderstorms redeveloped due to the atmospheric instability in the region . On June 21 , the depression passed about 100 km ( 60 mi ) east of Maputo , Mozambique , while moving into an area of much warmer waters . As such , the structure became more tropical , with a small central dense overcast forming over the circulation only 75 km ( 45 mi ) in diameter . The JTWC initiated advisories on June 21 as Tropical Cyclone 12S . The small size of the storm merited the MFR calling it a " midget cyclone " , with a small eye forming late on June 21 . Based on the feature , the JTWC estimated peak 1 winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) ; in contrast , the MFR estimated 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Despite the structure , the convection was shallow , which brought uncertainty to the true intensity of the storm . Turning to the northeast and east , the subtropical storm rapidly weakened on June 22 to depression status after the environment became hostile , and the convection largely dissipated . The exposed low turned northwestward on June 23 , dissipating the next day .
The storm was the only one on record to form in the Mozambique Channel in June . In addition , it was the strongest storm to form so late in the season .
= = = Other storms = = =
On August 1 , in the middle of the southern hemisphere 's winter , an area of convection persisted in the northeastern portion of the basin about 740 km ( 460 mi ) northeast of Diego Garcia . At that time , an associated circulation was exposed to the east of the thunderstorms . At 06 : 00 UTC that day , the MFR initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance 1 . After the system organized further , the JTWC also began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 01S , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . With a ridge to the south , the system tracked generally westward , briefly becoming a tropical depression on August 1 . An approaching trough weakened the ridge , allowing the depression to turn southwestward . Located in an area of moderate wind shear , the system failed to intensify further , and it dissipated on August 3 .
An area of convection formed on November 9 to the east of Diego Garcia , possibly the result of the MJO . A circulation was evident by November 11 , and the following day it developed into Tropical Disturbance 2 about 830 km ( 515 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia . Also on November 12 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02S . It moved to the southwest , but looped back to the east on November 13 , during which time the MFR upgraded it to tropical depression status . Later that day , the agency ceased issuing advisories , but the system reorganized on November 14 . On November 17 , it turned back to the southwest , but the MFR discontinued advisories on the next day .
An area of convection persisted on January 19 off the east coast of Madagascar , which became Tropical Disturbance 6 two days later . It drifted to the east , strengthening to tropical depression status on January 22 , and passing 330 km ( 205 mi ) west of Réunion . Increased wind shear caused the system to weaken as it turned back to the west , dissipating over Madagascar on January 24 . On Réunion , the system dropped about 100 mm ( 4 in ) of rainfall , including a total of 50 mm ( 2 in ) falling in a 90 minute period in Cape Bernard .
On January 23 , a weak tropical low began affecting Mozambique for two days , causing flooding that killed six people . Although newspaper sources indicated that the system was a tropical storm , it remained unclassified by MFR .
Toward the end of January , a broad low persisted south of the Chagos archipelago , becoming a tropical disturbance on January 30 about 650 km ( 400 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . The convection gradually organized as the system moved to the south @-@ southwest , steered by a break in the ridge to the south caused by the remnants of Cyclone Charly . Initially the circulation was very broad , and due to its involvement with the monsoon , it resembled a monsoon depression . Early on February 1 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression while turning more to the south . Around that time , it passed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) east of Rodrigues . The system became extratropical on February 3 , after increased wind shear weakened the convection . The former depression intensified as an extratropical storm , attaining gale force winds while accelerating its forward motion due to an approaching trough . The system was no longer tracked after February 6 as it approached the polar latitudes .
On April 17 , a weak low exited from the coast of South Africa and moved southeastward over the warm waters of the southern Mozambique Channel . By April 19 , it had organized into a subtropical depression and produced gale force winds . The MFR did not classify the system , however , due to it being located from 33 – 35 ° S , which was outside of the agency 's area of warning responsibility at the time .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
= = Contemporaneous seasons = =
List of Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone seasons
Atlantic hurricane seasons : 2000 , 2001
Pacific hurricane seasons : 2000 , 2001
Pacific typhoon seasons : 2000 , 2001
North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons : 2000 , 2001
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= Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 =
Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 was an international charter flight that , on 29 August 1996 at 10 : 22 : 23 Central European Summer Time , crashed in Operafjellet , Svalbard , Norway . All 141 people aboard the Tupolev Tu @-@ 154M were killed during the approach to Svalbard Airport , Longyear , making it the deadliest aviation accident ever in Norway . The accident was the result of a series of small navigational errors causing the aircraft to be 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) from the approach centerline at the time of impact . The accident was investigated by the Accident Investigation Board Norway with assistance from the Interstate Aviation Committee and became known as the Operafjell Accident ( Norwegian : Operafjell @-@ ulykken ) .
The Vnukovo Airlines aircraft , registration number RA @-@ 85621 , was chartered by Arktikugol , a Russian state owned coal mining company , to fly Russian and Ukrainian workers from Vnukovo International Airport in Moscow , Russia to Svalbard Airport , Longyear in Longyearbyen , Norway . The passengers all belonged to the Russian communities of Barentsburg and Pyramiden . The fatalities included 11 crew members and 130 passengers , of which 3 were children . The accident was a contributing cause for Arktikugol 's closure of Pyramiden two years later . After the accident , there were a series of lawsuits to determine the compensations to the victims ' families .
= = History = =
= = = Flight = = =
Flight 2801 was a chartered flight flown by Vnukovo Airlines on behalf of Arktikugol , which operated mines at the two company towns of Barentsburg and Pyramiden in Svalbard . The aircraft was a Tupolev Tu @-@ 154M , with registration RA @-@ 85621 , serial number 86A 742 and date of manufacture 14 January 1987 . The flight consisted of a crew of eleven , including a cockpit crew of four ( two aircraft pilots , one engineer and one navigator ) , a cabin crew of five and two technicians . The pilot in command ( PiC ) had previously landed at Svalbard Airport ; the first officer had not and was the piloting pilot .
On board were 130 passengers , of whom 3 were children , consisting of Arktikugol employees and their families . Waiting at the airport for the return flight were 120 other employees and their families . The aircraft left Vnukovo Airport at 04 : 44 Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) or 08 : 44 Moscow Summer Time . Estimated flight time was 3 hours and 30 minutes , and alternative airports were Murmansk Airport and Severomorsk @-@ 3 , both in Murmansk Oblast , Russia . The flight proceeded normally until descent , following the routing W 29 from Moscow to Padun ( west of Murmansk ) , before crossing to Bodø Flight Information Region over the Barents Sea cruising at FL 350 at an average airspeed of 500 kilometres per hour ( 310 mph ) . It then proceeded over Bjørnøya non @-@ directional beacon ( NDB ) , Isfjord NDB and Advent NDB .
The weather at the accident area was dominated by a low pressure trough , giving rain showers and wind from 15 to 30 knots ( 28 to 56 km / h ; 17 to 35 mph ) at 240 – 270 ° . Visibility exceeded 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) . Between 08 : 00 and 09 : 00 , a weak trough passed , reducing visibility to 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) and a cloud base at 400 to 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 to 1 @,@ 500 ft ) .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear , is the main airport serving the Svalbard archipelago . It is located on the south shore of Isfjord , with high terrain to the south , southeast and east . It has a single , 10 / 28 runway ( roughly east – west ) which is 2 @,@ 140 metres ( 7 @,@ 020 ft ) long . The airport has an elevation of 28 metres ( 92 ft ) above mean sea level ( MSL ) , and has an aerodrome flight information service ( AFIS ) , which is subordinate Bodø Air Traffic Control Center ( Bodø ATCC ) . The airport is regarded as uncontrolled and does not provide approach service . On that day , all aircraft had used Runway 28 , due to favorable wind conditions , climb @-@ up conditions and short distance from the terminal .
= = = Accident = = =
At 07 : 55 UTC ( 09 : 55 local Central European Summer Time , CEST ) , the crew requested clearance to start descent . Because of lack of communication with Bodø ATCC , this was not obtained . At 07 : 56 , information from Longyear AFIS was given that there was no conflicting traffic , allowing a descent to 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 6 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL . The crew tried to request use of Runway 10 , but this was , due to language problems , not understood as such by AFIS . Instead , Longyear communicated the actual weather and informed that Runway 28 was in use . An additional request for use of Runway 10 was again not understood , because of the misunderstanding of the term " runway in use " . Because of this , the crew decided to instead use Runway 28 .
The crew used Jeppesen charts dated 21 January 1994 . According to procedures , both horizontal situation indicators ( HSI ) were set to 283 ° , but the magnetic localizer course of 300 ° was not set . A global positioning system ( GPS ) was used as a back @-@ up . No requests were made for VHF direction finding . From 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL until impact , the flight was carried out in instrument meteorological conditions ( IMC ) and the flight controlled by automatic stabilization mode , with lateral navigation controlled by the navigator .
At 08 : 10 UTC , the aircraft reached 1 @,@ 524 metres ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL , which is the minimum altitude to Advent and the initial approach altitude . At 08 : 15 : 32 UTC , it reached Advent and entered a base turn , reaching a magnetic heading of 160 ° at 08 : 16 : 28 UTC . While the crew had adjusted for the wind drift , they did not attempt to intercept the magnetic course 155 ° outbound from Advent . During this turn , there was a malfunction in the electric trimming mechanism , which caused the piloting pilot to deactivate the aircraft flight control systems ' servogear in the pitch channel at 08 : 15 : 58 . This was again activated at 08 : 16 : 42 UTC .
At 08 : 17 : 08 UTC , the crew started the turn to bring the aircraft to 300 ° magnetic inbound , however , the lateral deviation from the outbound magnetic course was 155 ° , or 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) to the left . At 08 : 17 : 57 UTC , the navigator said " Ah , abeam eight miles 2801 inbound " , to which AFIS replied two seconds later " Correct " . This was the last radio communication between the crew and Longyear . At 08 : 18 : 30 UTC , the piloting pilot turned off the autopilot pitch channel . For the rest of the flight , the plane continued with autopilot only in roll .
Following the aircraft passing through the localizer centerline and having rolled out on 290 ° , there was a discussion among the crew if the turn had been made at the right time . The initial comment about this was made by the first officer at 08 : 19 : 06 UTC . This resulted in a roll out of the turn to final approach and corrective turn to magnetic heading 306 ° . At this time , the aircraft was 27 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 50 @.@ 7 km ; 31 @.@ 5 mi ) from the airport and 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) right of the centerline at 1 @,@ 520 metres ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) MSL with an airspeed of 330 kilometres per hour ( 210 mph ) . Instead of intercepting the centerline , the crew continued to track on the right side , nearly paralleling the localizer course .
At 08 : 20 : 17 UTC , the pilot in command ordered the aircraft turned to 291 ° , which adjusted for drift resulted in a course close to 300 ° . At this time , the aircraft had a lateral deviation from the approach centerline of 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) . The aircraft started descending at 08 : 20 : 24 UTC . A corrective turn was made at 08 : 21 : 13 UTC and completed 11 seconds later at magnetic heading 300 ° . At the time , the aircraft was descending 5 to 7 metres per second ( 16 to 23 ft / s ) . The aircraft started turning left at 08 : 22 : 05 UTC , and immediately entered an area of turbulence created by the surrounding mountains .
During initial approach , the radio altimeter warning had been activated several times , which indicated less than 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) from the aircraft to the terrain . During final approach , the ground proximity warning system was activated nine seconds before impact , which lasted until impact . Six seconds before impact , the radio altimeter warning was activated . At 08 : 22 : 23 UTC ( 10 : 22 : 23 local CEST ) the aircraft collided with the top of Operafjellet at 907 metres ( 2 @,@ 976 ft ) elevation , located 14 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 8 mi ) from Svalbard Airport and 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) right of the approach centerline . The aircraft was destroyed and all occupants perished instantly . It is the single deadliest plane crash to have occurred on Norwegian soil .
= = = Recovery = = =
The Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway received a message about the crash at 10 : 30 CEST ( 8 : 30 UTC ) and the search and rescue service was immediately deployed . This included seven Norwegian aircraft that were in the area . The area had bad weather with a low cloud height , resulting in difficult searching conditions . The aircraft was found at 12 : 06 CEST at Operafjellet , 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Svalbard Airport . Most of the aircraft was located on the mountain 's plateau , although some debris had slid down a vertical cliff and was scattered along the valley and partially covered by an avalanche . Rescue workers and medics from Longyearbyen Hospital arrived at 12 : 36 , and quickly established that there were no survivors .
The responsibility of the recovery was transferred to the Governor of Svalbard on 30 August , since there were no survivors . In addition , police personnel from the mainland were transferred to Svalbard to work with the investigation and recovery . The work was supplemented by local volunteers . Because of the bad weather , which included fog and snow , it was often impossible to transport workers to the plateau , and work therefore started in the valley .
Governor Ann @-@ Kristin Olsen traveled to Barentsburg on 30 August to inform the communities about the accident , and distributed ample written information in Russian about the then @-@ known details about the crash . Later in the day , a Russian aircraft arrived with Deputy Minister Aleksandr Petrovich of the Ministry of Emergency Situations along with a team of 11 rescue workers , and representatives from the Interstate Aviation Committee ( IAC ) , the Embassy of Ukraine in Moscow , the Federal Air Transport Agency and Vnukovo Airlines . In a meeting that evening , the Governor accepted Russia assistance , while it was confirmed by international agreement that the investigation would be led by the authorities in the country where the accident occurred , Norway . On 31 August , Minister of Justice Grete Faremo visited the Russian settlements as a representative from the Government of Norway .
The accident had a large impact on the community , with only 1 @,@ 600 people living in the two Russian settlements . The population in the communities do not speak Norwegian , and do not have a road connection to Longyearbyen . This made it difficult for the Governor to give accurate and detailed information . Issues were further complicated by erroneous reports in Russian media that there were five survivors . The Governor 's cabin in Barentsburg was manned during the aftermath , and bulletins were distributed with updated information in Russian . The accident was one of the triggers causing Aktikugol to abandon Pyramiden in 1998 .
= = Investigation = =
Agreements between Norwegian and Russian authorities were made on 31 August , where Norway resumed full responsibility for the recovery and investigation , but Russian help was accepted . To allow the Russian workers access from the morning of 1 September , the crew was allowed to fly in and establish a base camp , but no work was to be done until Norwegian supervisors arrived in the morning . However , two people were observed at the wreck at about 20 : 00 CEST , who were brought to the Governor 's offices for questioning . As they were both members of the Russian team , it was decided that the base would be disbanded .
There was still fog on the plateau on 1 September , but by 15 : 00 CEST it was possible to fly a team there by helicopter . Because the fog stayed , the team retained work until 03 : 00 CEST in the night . In the following days , the fog lifted , making work and transport easier . By 5 September , all bodies had been recovered and the work at the plateau could be terminated . The recovery in the valley was completed two days later . The accident resulted in about 40 journalists staying in Svalbard to cover the story . The Norwegian authority 's costs related to the investigation and other activities related to the accident were estimated at 30 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) .
All identification of people was performed in Tromsø , as a cooperation between Troms Police District , National Criminal Investigation Service and the University Hospital of North Norway . By 18 September , all people had been identified , and the bodies were transported to Russia and Ukraine on 20 September after a short memorial in Tromsøhallen . An autopsy was performed on all crew members , without finding any abnormalities .
The official responsibility for investigating the incident lay with the Air Accident Investigation Board / Norway ( AAIB / N ) , although the investigation and report was a close cooperation with the Interstate Aviation Committee and to a lesser extent , the Federal Air Transport Agency . AAIB / N had the primary responsibility for investigations at the crash site , cooperation with the Norwegian police and the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration , and writing the report . IAC was responsible for handling the investigations in Russia , the reading of the cockpit voice recorder , the flight data recorder , the relationship with Vnukovo Airlines and a test flight . Both agencies agreed that English was to be the language of the final report ; English is one of the ICAO languages .
= = = Cause = = =
The official investigation concluded that the flight , regarded as a controlled flight into terrain , was caused by pilot errors and that there was no fault with the aircraft . Contributing factors causing the accident were lack of a procedure for offset localizer approach for setting approach course on the HSIs . Thus , both HSIs were set incorrectly , which along with the course deviation indicator hinted that the plane was being blown to the left and needed to adjust course to the right . Because he was in a stressed situation , the navigator set the GPS in the wrong mode . He also did not have sufficient time to recheck his work , allowing mistakes to happen , and his work was not monitored by the pilots . As the navigator was overworked , it was inappropriate for the first officer to transfer the responsibility of lateral control to him .
The AFIS air controller has a different role in Norway than in Russia , and the crew were not aware that they were being given information and advice , rather than orders . Communication with AFIS was left with the navigator , which is a breach of norms . Communication between air control and the crew was problematic , since the crew lacked sufficient English skills . The pilot in command had insufficient crew resource management . After the crew decided to carry out the approach to Runway 28 , a new approach briefing was not accomplished . The aircraft overshot the approach centerline when turning inbound , because they did not try to intercept the outbound track from Advent . The crew showed a lack of situational awareness following their uncertainty of the aircraft position in relation to LLZ 28 , caused by indications on the HSIs .
Situational awareness was also reduced because the pilots did not have a chart in front of them at all times . The crew was not aware that they could check the aircraft location in relation to the centerline with a VDF . The crew probably put too much emphasis on the indications displayed by the GPS . The aircraft descended into mountainous terrain without control over the lateral navigation . Despite uncertainty and disagreement in the group , the approach was not abandoned , as the aircraft should have climbed to a safe altitude while the problem was solved .
= = Aftermath = =
On 20 September , the surviving relatives of each decedent received 2 million Russian rubles about US $ 40 @,@ 000 for each person who died in the accident . Ukrainian relatives stated to Norwegian media that they had not received information about the cause and other issues surrounding the accident . At the time , Ukraine was experiencing very high unemployment , and Arktikugol offered wages many times what was then offered in mainland Ukraine . Many miners not only had to support their immediate family , but also relatives . Vnukovo Airlines stated on Ukrainian television that the relatives would receive US $ 20 @,@ 000 per deceased person . About a year after the accident , all relatives had been offered US $ 20 @,@ 000 , but about two @-@ thirds of them chose not to accept the amount , and instead started a process to sue the insurance company . Their lawyer , Gunnar Nerdrum , stated that according to both Norwegian and Russian law , they could demand at least US $ 140 @,@ 000 .
In February 1998 , the Norwegian Ministry of Justice stated that the relatives did not have a right to occupational injury compensation from the Norwegian National Insurance . Because of the Svalbard Treaty , the archipelago is an economic free zone and Arktikugol is exempt from paying social insurance , so its employees did not have a right to Norwegian benefits . Had this been the case , widows would have received about NOK 600 @,@ 000 per worker . By 1998 , a few of the relatives had accepted the US $ 20 @,@ 000 compensation , while the rest of them were planning to sue both the airline 's insurance company and Arktikugol . Among the issues in the case , which took place at Nord @-@ Troms District Court , was whether the accident was to be considered a working accident , and thus result in injury compensation from the mining company . In November , it was decided that the Ukrainians needed to make a guarantee for NOK 2 @.@ 5 million to run the case , which they could not afford . They therefore had no alternative than to accept the proposal from the insurance company . In June 1999 , the parties agreed on a settlement , where the compensation was not disclosed to the public . It was later disclosed that the settlement was about three times the initial offer from the insurance company . In 1999 , the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs established a scholarship to help children who lost a parent in the accident to take senior secondary and tertiary education .
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= Alapalooza =
Alapalooza is the eighth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1993 . By the completion of his previous album , Off the Deep End , Yankovic had already written all of the original songs that he planned to use on his next release . This new album , which would eventually be titled Alapalooza in reference to the music festival Lollapalooza , consisted of seven original songs and five parodies . It produced three parody singles : " Jurassic Park " , " Bedrock Anthem " , and " Achy Breaky Song " . " Jurassic Park " was a top five hit on the Canadian magazine The Record 's single chart .
Among the album 's original creations were " Talk Soup " , a tune originally intended to replace the theme song of the television show of the same name , and " Harvey the Wonder Hamster " , a oft @-@ requested jingle from one of Yankovic 's Al TV specials . A music video compilation , entitled Alapalooza : the Videos , was released the following year and contained four videos , only two of which were from its eponymous album . One of the videos , the one for " Jurassic Park " , was animated entirely in the style of claymation and received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards , losing to " Love Is Strong " from The Rolling Stones .
Alapalooza met with average to negative reception upon its release , with some critics commenting that the album seemed hurried and out of touch with contemporary music . The video offering received a similarly lukewarm response . Nonetheless the album was certified " gold " in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America by the end of the year , peaking at number 46 on the Billboard 200 , and went " double platinum " in Canada .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Yankovic 's 1992 album Off the Deep End , his best @-@ selling album since 1984 's " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D , had revived his career and displayed his " credibility as an evolving artist " after the commercial failures of his 1986 work Polka Party ! and his feature film UHF . By the time production for Off the Deep End was nearing completion , Yankovic had already written all of the original songs that would be eventually included on Alapalooza . Fearing that his track " I Was Only Kidding " would be outdated by the time of his next album , he rearranged Off the Deep End to allow for the song to be released with the album , saving " Waffle King " for Alapalooza . Nevertheless , " Waffle King " was released as a B @-@ side to Off the Deep End 's " Smells Like Nirvana " single , " just in case there wasn 't going to be a next album . " He recorded all of the album 's original songs , except " Talk Soup " and " Harvey the Wonder Hamster " , by the end of 1992 and , in July 1993 , recorded all of Alapalooza 's remaining tracks , aside from " Livin ' In The Fridge " . Yankovic eventually decided to title his new album Alapalooza , a reference to the Lollapalooza music festival . The Yankovic dinosaur in the album 's booklet was designed by David Peters , who had worked previously with the singer on the " Dare to Be Stupid " video .
Alapalooza was released on October 5 , 1993 in the United States . Globally , some versions included a notice distinguishing it from the official Jurassic Park film soundtrack , as the two cover designs were similar . The Japanese edition contained a bonus track of Yankovic singing " Jurassic Park " in Japanese . A music video compilation for the album , entitled Alapalooza : the Videos , was released in February 1994 and contained four videos , only two of which ( Jurassic Park and Bedrock Anthem ) were from Alapalooza .
= = = Originals = = =
Alapalooza contains seven original songs among its twelve tracks , although " Young , Dumb & Ugly " and " Frank 's 2000 " TV " were meant to be stylistic parodies of AC / DC and the early work of R.E.M. , respectively . For the former , Yankovic wanted to parody the heavy metal music genre while at the same time avoiding a repetition of what had already been done by Spinal Tap . He ended up disliking the final product because he sang it " in a register that was really too high for [ his ] singing voice " . The latter was a song about consumerism and modern electronics that described the neighborhood 's envy of the eponymous character 's new television .
The song " Talk Soup " , which is about a man who desires to go on television to tell the world about his strange life , was originally commissioned as a new theme for the E ! Entertainment Television show of the same name . Although the producers approved the lyrics and enjoyed the final result , they decided against using it . " Waffle King " , the track that had been intended for Off the Deep End , was written as " a song about a guy who becomes incredibly famous for doing something kinda stupid , and then starts taking himself way too seriously " . Yankovic included " Harvey the Wonder Hamster " , a short tune from one of his Al TV appearances , after receiving numerous requests to include it on an album .
= = = Parodies = = =
Yankovic 's first single from Alapalooza was " Jurassic Park " , a parody of the Jimmy Webb song " MacArthur Park " that was first performed by Richard Harris in 1968 . After hearing " Lola " by The Kinks on the radio and recalling how much he had enjoyed his previous pairing of a contemporary film with a classic song ( 1985 's " Yoda " ) , Yankovic came up with the idea for a tune based around the recently released Jurassic Park film . He received permission from Webb , Jurassic Park author Michael Crichton , and director Steven Spielberg to produce the track . For the music video Yankovic collaborated with animators Mark Osborne and Scott Nordlund to produce a claymation feature that parodied scenes from the movie ; the song itself was a comedic retelling of the film 's plot interspersed with the gripes about his visit to the park . The music video was directed by Osborne and Nordlund , while Yankovic came up with the original concept and ideas for some of the shots ; Osborne said that the directors " came up with about half the ideas in collaboration " with Yankovic .
Having always wanted to write a tribute to The Flintstones , Yankovic next focused his energy on creating a song that he hoped would be current with the impending release of The Flintstones live action film in 1994 . In order to collect sound bites and animation and " re @-@ familiarize " himself with the characters , Yankovic watched over 100 episodes of the original show . A parody of both Red Hot Chili Peppers 's " Under the Bridge " and " Give It Away " , the resulting song was a comedic tribute to the program . It ended up becoming the second single released from Alapalooza . Yankovic directed the video for the single , which featured scenes of band members playing the song in Bedrock dressed as characters from the show . In the third and final single , " Achy Breaky Song " , a parody of Billy Ray Cyrus ' " Achy Breaky Heart " , Yankovic lists things he would rather experience than having to listen to the original track . The parody received radio play on country music stations in the United States . The proceeds from the track were donated to United Cerebral Palsy , as both Cyrus and Yankovic felt that the song was " a little bit [ ... ] mean @-@ spirited " .
" Livin ' in the Fridge " , a parody of Aerosmith 's " Livin ' on the Edge " that discusses leftovers that have grown sentient in the refrigerator , was the last song to be recorded for the album . With a deadline looming , Yankovic sent requests to several artists to do parodies of their songs and went with Aerosmith because they replied first . It was recorded a month after the rest of the tracks had been finalized and less than two months prior to the album 's release . The album includes a polka medley , a staple of Yankovic 's albums , called " Bohemian Polka " . Unlike previous medleys , which had featured portions of multiple songs , " Bohemian Polka " contains only one tune , Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " , and is a rearrangement of the entire song as a polka .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to Alapalooza ranged from average to negative . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide Alapalooza earned 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , which ranked it somewhere between " mediocre " and " good " . Anthony Violanti of The Buffalo News gave the album three stars out of five , claiming that " [ o ] nce again , Weird Al gets the last laugh on rock ' n ' roll " . Barry Weber of Allmusic , on the other hand , criticized the album for failing to engage contemporary musical trends and said it " sounds sloppy and mostly like a compilation of old B @-@ sides " . Christopher Thelen of The Daily Vault agreed , calling the album " rushed " and " an incredible disappointment " , and said it was one of the lows of Yankovic 's career . Thelen 's limited praise is directed at only two songs on the album : " Livin ' In The Fridge " and " Achy Breaky Song " , both of which he claimed " have [ their ] moments " . In reference to the album 's polka tune , Mark Jenkins of The Washington Post wrote that it " doesn 't sound all that different " from the original .
Entertainment Weekly felt that overall Alapalooza : the Videos was " amusing " , but referred to the claymation video for the " Jurassic Park " as " clever but toothless " . The magazine gave the collection an overall grade of " C " and argued that Yankovic 's parodies did not satirize the original material , but instead transposed new elements on top of them . The video for " Jurassic Park " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards , but lost to the video for " Love Is Strong " by The Rolling Stones . Nonetheless , it received attention in animation festivals worldwide for its use of claymation effects .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Released in October 1993 , Alapalooza was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on December 23 , 1993 , representing sales of at least 500 @,@ 000 units . The video compilation , released on February 1 , 1994 , went gold in the United States on August 14 , 1995 , representing sales of at least 50 @,@ 000 units . In Canada the album went gold on November 16 , 1993 , platinum on January 31 , 1994 , and double platinum on February 12 , 1998 , representing sales of 50 @,@ 000 , 100 @,@ 000 , and 200 @,@ 000 units respectively . The album peaked at number 46 on the United States ' Billboard 200 chart on October 30 , 1993 , but produced no charting singles . In Canada , however , " Jurassic Park " was a top five hit on the The Record 's single chart .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= HMS Cochrane ( 1905 ) =
HMS Cochrane was a Warrior @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She served in the 2nd Cruiser Squadron during the First World War under Rear @-@ Admiral Herbert Heath , taking part in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . She was based in Murmansk in mid @-@ 1918 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . She became stranded in the River Mersey on 14 November 1918 and broke in two . The wreck was broken up in place by June 1919 .
= = Description = =
Cochrane displaced 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) as built and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded , with a length of 505 feet 4 inches ( 154 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 23 @,@ 650 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 640 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) . The engines were powered by 19 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mark X guns in single Mk V turrets distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of four BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 191 mm ) Mark II or Mark V guns in single Mk II turrets was carried amidships , between the wing 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . Twenty @-@ six Vickers QF 3 pounders were fitted , ten on turret roofs and eight each on the forward and aft superstructures . The last four ships of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruisers had a secondary armament of turreted 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns rather than the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in open barbettes of the first two ships ; these latter four were sometimes referred to as the Warrior class . Because of the extra topweight of the turrets in comparison to their half @-@ sisters their stability was reduced which made them very good seaboats and steady gun platforms .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
A single Hotchkiss QF 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft gun on a high @-@ angle Mark Ic mounting was mounted on the quarterdeck in 1915 . It had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . The gun fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . It was replaced by a QF 3 inch 20 cwt guns on a high @-@ angle Mark II mount in 1916 . This gun had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . A pair of Vickers QF 3 pounder on HA Mark III mountings were probably installed amidships during 1915 – 16 . They could elevate to + 80 ° and depress to -5 ° . This gun fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 785 m / s ) at a rate of 25 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , but an effective range of only 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
The guns on top of ' A ' and ' Y ' turrets were removed in 1915 – 16 . The aftermost 3 @-@ pounder guns on the superstructure were removed during 1917 as well as the guns on top of the forward 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch wing turrets . This reduced her total to twenty 3 @-@ pounder guns , excluding the AA guns . Some of these guns were landed at Murmansk while she was based there . Seventeen 3 @-@ pounders were on board when she was lost in 1919 , but it is unclear if that total includes the AA guns . Cochrane 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director in 1917 , but the director was not actually fitted until August 1918 .
= = Service = =
Cochrane was laid down on 24 March 1904 and launched on 28 May 1905 at Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering , Govan , Scotland . The ship was commissioned with a nucleus crew on 18 February 1907 and cost £ 1 @,@ 193 @,@ 121 . She " joined the Nore Division of the Home Fleet on 6 March 1907 and shortly afterwards was brought into to full commission for service with the 5th Cruiser Squadron . On 1 April 1909 she recommissioned for service with the 2nd Cruiser Squadron with which she remained until September 1917 . " She escorted the Royal Yacht Medina in 1911 – 12 . Cochrane , accompanied by her sister Achilles and three other armoured cruisers were sent to reinforce the defences of the Shetland Islands on 2 August 1914 , days before the start of the First World War . She , and her squadron , were assigned to the Grand Fleet for most of the First World War . She took part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , along with the cruisers Minotaur , Shannon , and Hampshire under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Heath . However , the ship remained unengaged throughout the battle , and did not fire her 9 @.@ 2 or 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns at all during the battle .
Cochrane was transferred to the North America and West Indies station in November 1917 , but rejoined the 2nd Cruiser Squadron early in 1918 . She was based in Murmansk between March and September 1918 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . She ferried Soviet troops to Pechenga on 3 May to forestall an attempt by White Finns to seize the town . On 14 November 1918 she was stranded in the Mersey Estuary , while under the control of the pilot , and later broke in two , becoming a total loss . The wreck had been broken up in situ by June 1919 .
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= French destroyer Jaguar =
The French destroyer Jaguar was a Chacal @-@ class destroyer ( contre @-@ torpilleur ) built for the French Navy during the 1920s . She spent most of her pre @-@ World War II career as a flagship for various destroyer units . The ship was assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic after the start of the World War II in September 1939 until she was badly damaged during a collision in January 1940 . Five months later , after her repairs were completed , she was committed to the English Channel after the Battle of France began in May 1940 . Jaguar was torpedoed by German E @-@ boats on 23 May and had to beach herself ; her wreck was written off as unrepairable .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 18 May 1926 , Jaguar 's turbines provided 57 @,@ 850 metric horsepower ( 42 @,@ 550 kW ; 57 @,@ 060 shp ) and she reached 35 @.@ 27 knots ( 65 @.@ 32 km / h ; 40 @.@ 59 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime . Jaguar was unique among the Chacals in being fitted to serve as a flagship and equipped to accommodate the admiral and his staff of four officers .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Jaguar , named after the eponymous feline , was ordered on 18 April 1922 from the Arsenal de Lorient . She was laid down on 24 August 1922 on No. 7 slipway , launched on 17 November 1923 , completed on 7 October 1926 and entered service on 19 November . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . Even before she was formally completed , she participated in a Baltic cruise in mid @-@ 1926 and visited Dakar , French West Africa in December . She made another port visit in April 1927 at Seville , Spain . The following month she was one of the ships that escorted Gaston Doumergue , President of France , across the English Channel during his state visit to Britain . Jaguar then accompanied the light cruiser Lamotte @-@ Picquet as she visited Dakar and Buenos Aires , Argentina between June and September . The ship became the flagship of the Group of Torpedo Boat Flotillas ( later redesignated as the 1st Torpedo Boat Flotilla ) of the 1st Squadron ( 1ere Escadre ) , based at Toulon , on 1 May 1928 . Two months later , she hosted Doumerge as he reviewed the fleet off Le Havre on 3 July .
Two years later , the ship participated in the naval review at Algiers on 10 May 1930 commemorating the centenary of the first French landing in Algeria on 13 June 1830 . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 . About two years later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . Jaguar became the flagship of the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla of the 2nd Squadron ( 2e Escadre ) at Brest on 5 July 1935 . After completing their maneuvers , the combined Brest and Toulon squadrons , including Jaguar , were reviewed in the Baie de Douarnenez by the Naval Minister , François Piétri , on 27 June 1936 . The following year , the ship participated in the fleet review by the new Navy Minister , Alphonse Gasnier @-@ Duparc , off Brest on 27 May 1937 . The ship was relieved as flagship on 26 September , but temporarily resumed her former role from 1 March to 22 June 1939 while Bison was under repair after a collision .
When the war started in September 1939 , Jaguar belonged to the 2nd Large Destroyer Division ( 2e division de contre @-@ torpilleur ) ( DCT ) with her sisters Chacal and Léopard . Between October and December , the ship had two depth @-@ charge throwers reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability . She was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to January 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . On the night of 16 / 17 January 1940 , Jaguar was accidentally rammed by the British destroyer Keppel . The collision killed one crewman aboard the French ship and Keppel 's bow penetrated all the way to Jaguar 's midline . The ship was able to reach Brest on 19 January to begin repairs that lasted until early May . She had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed in March and was fitted with degaussing equipment the following month .
After the beginning of the Battle of France on 10 May , the 2nd DCT was transferred to the English Channel to support British forces there . On 23 May , entering Dunkirk harbor with a demolition team aboard , Jaguar was struck by a torpedo fired by either the E @-@ boat S @-@ 21 or S @-@ 23 . The detonation killed 13 men and wounded 23 ; the ship had to be beached at Malo @-@ les @-@ Bains lest she sink , and was written off .
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= The Boat Race 1841 =
The 5th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 14 April 1841 . It was the fourth of the University Boat Races , a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge , to be contested in London . The race was held between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge and was won by Cambridge , whose crew featured two pairs of brothers rowing , who defeated Oxford by a distance of 22 lengths in a time of 32 minutes and 30 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 4 – 1 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and takes place on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ quarters of a length .
There was some disagreement over the day selected for the race , mainly in an attempt to coincide with a suitable tide . The Cambridge cox for the 1839 race , Thomas Selby Egan , along with Oxford 's R. G. Walls were umpires for the race along with referee Edmund Antrobus from St John 's College , Cambridge . Both universities rowed in boats constructed by Searle of Stangate ; the vessels were " justly and generally admired " , the only significant difference between them being that Oxford 's boat was carvel built while Cambridge 's was clinker built . The race took place on a five @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of the Thames between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge . No arrangements had been made for the police to keep the course clear : according to Cambridge 's number seven George Denman " it was often ticklish work for the coxswains to decide whether to go ahead or astern of a train of barges catering across the river " . According to a report in The Morning Chronicle , " both crews ... have agreed that the match will be off if any of the steamers attempt to lead " .
Oxford arrived at the Thames fifteen days prior the race , and rowed the full course ; Cambridge started their practice runs four days later , often racing against a crew from the Cambridge Subscription Room ( who subsequently won the Grand Challenge Cup at the Henley Royal Regatta ) . George Denman suffered an injury during practice , struck " by a tremendous blow on the shoulder " which was all but cured by the application of " just one leech " . Oxford 's crew was not settled until three days before the race , when they competed against a crew from Leander Club .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 71 @.@ 8 kg ) , 0 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their Dark Blue opposition . Cambridge 's crew contained three Blues : John Matthew Ridley , Francis Penrose and Charles Marsh Vialls , all of whom had rowed in the previous year 's race . Similarly , Oxford saw the return of four members with Boat Race experience : Jacob G. Mountain , E. Royds , G. Meynell and J. J. T. Somers @-@ Cocks . For the first time in the history of the race , two pairs of brothers rowed for Cambridge , the Crokers ( Joseph and William ) and the Denmans ( George and Lewis ) .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were considered favourites for the race , mainly as they had won the previous three races on the Thames . The Light Blues won the toss and elected to start at the first arch from the centre of Westminster Bridge on the Surrey side , Oxford from the next arch along . The race commenced at 6 : 10 p.m. , with the Light Blues making the better start , taking an early lead , and getting clear by Lambeth . A lead of at least two lengths by Vauxhall Bridge was extended to around six lengths by Battersea Bridge .
Cambridge won by 22 lengths in a time of 32 minutes 30 seconds . It was their fourth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 4 – 1 in their favour . Despite earlier fears , " the steamers were well managed , and offered no obstruction to the boats " .
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= Polaris expedition =
The Polaris expedition ( 1871 ) was led by the American Charles Francis Hall , who intended it to be the first expedition to reach the North Pole . Sponsored by the United States government , it was one of the first serious attempts at the Pole , after that of British naval officer William Edward Parry , who in 1827 reached latitude 82 ° 45 ′ North . The expedition failed at its main objective , having been troubled throughout by insubordination , incompetence , and poor leadership .
Under Hall 's command , the Polaris departed from New York City in June 1871 . By October , the men were wintering on the shore of northern Greenland , making preparations for the trip to the Pole . Hall returned to the ship from an exploratory sledging journey , and promptly fell ill . Before he died , he accused members of the crew of poisoning him . An exhumation of his body in 1968 revealed that he had ingested a large quantity of arsenic in the last two weeks of his life .
The expedition 's notable achievement was reaching 82 ° 29'N latitude by ship , a record at the time . On the way southward , nineteen members of the expedition became separated from the ship and drifted on an ice floe for six months and 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) before being rescued . The damaged Polaris was run aground and wrecked near Etah , Greenland , in October 1872 . The remaining men were able to survive the winter , and were rescued the following summer . A naval board of inquiry investigated Hall 's death , but no charges were ever laid .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Origins = = =
In 1827 , William Edward Parry led a British Royal Navy expedition with the aim to be the first men to reach the North Pole . In the 50 years following Parry 's attempt , the Americans would mount three such expeditions : Elisha Kent Kane in 1853 – 55 , Isaac Israel Hayes in 1860 – 61 , and Charles Francis Hall with the Polaris in 1871 – 73 .
Hall had no special academic background or sailing experience ( he was a blacksmith , engraver , then owner of a Cincinnati newspaper ) , but he was a voracious reader with an obsession for the Arctic . After John Franklin 's 1845 expedition was lost , Hall 's focus was directed toward the Arctic . He was able to launch two expeditions in search of Franklin and his crew ; one in 1860 – 63 , and a second in 1864 – 69 . These experiences established him as a seasoned Arctic explorer , and gave him valuable contacts among the Inuit people . The renown he gained eventually allowed him to convince the United States government to fund his third expedition , an attempt on the North Pole .
= = = Finance and materiel = = =
In 1870 , a bill was introduced in the Senate called the Arctic Resolution , to fund an expedition to the North Pole . Hall , aided by the Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson , successfully lobbied for , and received , a grant of $ 50 @,@ 000 from the U.S. Congress to command the expedition and began recruiting personnel in late 1870 . He secured the U.S. Navy tugboat Periwinkle , a 387 @-@ ton screw @-@ propelled steamer . At the Washington Navy Yard the ship was fitted as a fore topsail schooner , and renamed Polaris . She was prepared for Arctic service by the addition of solid oak timber all over her hull , and the bow was sheathed in iron . A new engine was added , and one of the boilers was retrofitted to burn seal or whale oil .
The ship was also outfitted with four whaleboats , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , and a flat @-@ bottomed scow . During his previous Arctic expeditions , Hall came to admire the Inuit umiak , and brought a similarly constructed collapsible boat which could hold 20 men . Food packed on board consisted of tinned ham , salted beef , bread and sailor 's biscuit . The men intended to supplement their diet with fresh muskox , seal and polar bear , in order to ward off scurvy .
= = Personnel = =
In the spring of 1871 , U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant had named Hall as overall commander of the expedition , and he was being referred to as Captain . Though Hall had abundant Arctic experience , he had no sailing experience , and so the title was purely honorary . In selecting the officers and seamen , Hall relied heavily on whalers with experience in the Arctic . This was markedly different from the polar expeditions of the British Admiralty , which tended to use naval officers and highly disciplined crews .
For his selection of sailing master , Hall first turned to Sidney O. Budington , then to George Tyson , who both initially declined due to prior whaling commitments . When those commitments fell through , Hall named Budington as sailing master and Tyson assistant navigator . Budington and Tyson had decades of experience between them captaining whaling vessels . In effect , the Polaris now had three captains , a fact which would weigh heavily on the fate of the expedition . Further complicating matters , in 1863 Budington and Hall had quarrelled because Budington had denied permission for Hall to bring his Inuit guides , Joseph Ebierbing and Tookoolito , with him on an expedition at a time when they were ill and in Budington 's care .
The rest of the officers and scientific staff were Americans ( first mate Hubbard Chester , second mate William Morton , and astronomer and chaplain R.W.D. Bryan ) and Germans ( chief scientist and surgeon Emil Bessels and meteorologist Frederick Meyer ) . The seamen were mostly German , as was chief engineer Emil Schumann . In addition to the 25 officers , crew , and scientific staff , Hall brought Inuit interpreter and hunter Ebierbing , his wife Tookoolito , and their child . A Greenlandic aboriginal named Hans Hendrik , his wife Merkut and three children also joined the expedition .
= = Expedition = =
= = = New York to Upernavik = = =
Even before leaving the Brooklyn Navy Yard on June 29 , 1871 , the expedition ran into personnel troubles . The cook , a seaman , a fireman , and assistant engineer Wilson deserted . The steward turned out to be a drunk , and was left in port .
The ship stopped in New London , Connecticut , to pick up a replacement assistant engineer , leaving on July 3 , 1871 . By the time the ship reached St. John 's , there was dissension among the officers and scientific staff . Bessels , backed up by Meyer , had openly rejected Hall 's command over the scientific staff . The dissension spread to the crew , which was divided along nationalist lines . In his diary , Assistant Navigator George Tyson wrote that by the time they reached Disko Island , Greenland , " ... expressions are freely made that Hall shall not get any credit from this expedition . Already some have made up their minds how far they will go and when they will get home again . " Hall asked Captain Davenport of the supply ship Congress to intervene . Davenport threatened to have Meyer shackled for insubordination and sent back to the United States , at which point all of the Germans threatened to quit . Hall and Davenport were forced to back down , however Davenport delivered a strongly worded speech on naval discipline to the crew .
In another open display of dissent , the ship 's boilers had been tampered with by one of the crew . The special blubber @-@ fired boilers had disappeared , apparently thrown overboard .
On Aug 18 , 1871 , the ship reached Upernavik on Greenland 's west coast , where they picked up the Inuit hunter and interpreter Hans Hendrik . The Polaris proceeded north through Smith Sound and Nares Strait , passing previous furthest north records ( by ship ) held by Elisha Kane and Isaac Hayes .
= = = Polar preparations and Hall 's death = = =
By Sept . 2 , 1871 , Polaris had reached her furthest north of 82 ° 29'N . Tension flared again as the three leading officers could not agree on whether to proceed further or not . Hall and Tyson wanted to press north , to cut down the distance they would have to travel to the Pole by dogsled . Budington did not want to further risk the ship , and walked out on the discussion . In the end , they sailed into Thank God Harbor ( now called Hall Bay ) on Sept . 10 , 1871 , and settled in for the winter on the shore of northern Greenland .
Within a few weeks , Hall was making preparations for a sledging trip with the aim of beating Sir William Parry 's furthest north record . Mistrust amongst the men in charge showed again when Hall told Tyson that " I cannot trust that man ( Captain Budington ) . I want you to go with me , but don 't know how to leave him alone with the ship . " There is some evidence that Budington may have been an alcoholic ; on at least three occasions he raided the ship 's stores , including the alcohol kept by the scientists for preservation of specimens . Hall had complained about Budington 's drunken behavior , and it fully came to light from the crew 's testimony at the inquest following the expedition . With Tyson watching over the ship , Hall took two sledges with first mate Chester , and the native guides Ebierbing and Hendrik , leaving on Oct 10 , 1871 . The day after leaving , Hall sent Hendrik back to the ship to retrieve a number of forgotten items . Hall also sent back a note to Bessels , reminding him to wind the chronometers at the right time every day . In his book Trial by Ice , Richard Parry postulated that such a note from the uneducated Hall must have rankled Bessels , who held a number of degrees from Stuttgart , Heidelberg , and Jena . It was another example of Hall 's micromanagement of the expedition . Before he left on the overland trip , Hall gave Budington a detailed list of instructions regarding how to manage the ship in his absence . This likely did not sit well with a sailing master with over 20 years of experience .
Upon their return on Oct 24 , 1871 , Hall suddenly fell ill after drinking a cup of coffee . His symptoms started with an upset stomach , then progressed to vomiting and delirium the following day . Hall accused several of the ship 's company , including Bessels , of having poisoned him . Following these accusations , he refused medical treatment from Bessels , and drank only liquids delivered directly by his Inuit friend Tookoolito . He seemed to improve for a few days , and was even able to go up on deck . Bessels had prevailed upon Bryan , the ship 's chaplain , to convince Hall to allow the doctor to see him . By November 4 , Hall relented , and Bessels resumed treatment . Shortly after , Hall 's condition began to deteriorate , and he suffered vomiting and delirium , and collapsed . Bessels diagnosed apoplexy , and Hall finally died on November 8 . He was taken ashore and given a formal burial .
= = = Attempt at North Pole = = =
According to the protocol provided by Navy Secretary George M. Robeson , command of the expedition was turned over to Budington , under whom discipline further devolved . The precious coal was being burned at a high rate : 6 @,@ 334 pounds ( 2 @,@ 873 kg ) in November , which was 1 @,@ 596 pounds ( 724 kg ) more than the previous month , and close to 8 @,@ 300 pounds ( 3 @,@ 800 kg ) in December . Budington was often seen to be drunk , but he was far from the only one to pilfer the alcohol stores ; according to testimony at the Inquiry , Tyson was also seen " drunk like old mischief " , and Schumann had gone so far as to make a duplicate of Budington 's key so that he could help himself to alcohol as well . Whatever the role of alcohol , it was clear that shipboard routine was breaking down ; as Tyson remarked , " There is so little regularity observed . There is no stated time for putting out lights ; the men are allowed to do as they please ; and , consequently , they often make nights hideous by their carousing , playing cards to all hours . " For purposes unknown , Budington chose to issue the ship 's supply of firearms to the crew .
There is some evidence of a morally questionable plan being formulated among the senior officers that winter . On Jan 1 , 1872 , Tyson wrote in his diary : " Last month such an astonishing proposition was made to me that I have never ceased thinking of it since ... It grew out of a discussion as to the feasibility of attempting to get farther north next summer . " And then on April 19 , 1872 : " Had a talk with Chester about the astounding proposition made to me in the winter . We agreed it was monstrous and must be prevented . Chester said he is determined , when he got home , to expose the matter . " Author Farley Mowat has suggested the officers were contemplating faking a journey to the Pole , or at least to a very high latitude .
Whatever the unmentioned plan was , an expedition to try for the Pole was dispatched on June 6 , 1872 . Chester led the expedition in a whaleboat , but this was crushed by the ice within a few miles of Polaris . Chester and his men hiked back to the ship , and persuaded Budington to give them the collapsible boat . With this , and Tyson piloting another whaleboat , the men set northward again . In the meantime , the Polaris had found open water , and was searching for a route south . Budington , not eager to spend another winter in the ice , sent Ebierbing north with orders for the Tyson and Chester : return to the ship at once . The men were forced to abandon both craft and walk 20 miles ( 32 km ) back to Polaris . Now three of the ship 's precious lifeboats were lost , and a fourth ( the small scow ) would be crushed by ice in July after being carelessly left out overnight . The expedition had failed in its main objective to reach the North Pole .
= = = Fate of Polaris and journeys home = = =
With the expedition 's main goal abandoned , Polaris turned south for home . In Smith Sound , west of the Humboldt Glacier , she ran aground on a shallow iceberg and could not be freed . On the night of October 15 , 1872 , with an iceberg threatening the ship , Schuman reported that water was coming in and the pumps could not keep up . Budington ordered cargo to be thrown onto the ice to buoy the ship . Men began throwing goods overboard , as Tyson put it , " with no care taken as to how or where these things were thrown " . Much of the jettisoned cargo was lost .
A number of the crew were out on the surrounding ice during the night when a break @-@ up of the pack occurred . When morning came , the group , consisting of Tyson , Meyer , six of the seamen , the cook , the steward , and all of the Inuit , found themselves stranded on an ice floe . The castaways could see the Polaris 8 to 10 miles ( 13 to 16 km ) away , but attempts to attract the ship 's attention with a large black cloth were futile . Resigned to the ice , the Inuit soon had igloo shelters built , and Tyson estimated that they had 1 @,@ 900 pounds ( 860 kg ) of food . They also had the ship 's two whaleboats , and two kayaks , although one kayak was soon lost during a breakup of the ice . Meyer reckoned that they were drifting on the Greenland side of the Davis Strait and would soon be within rowing distance of Disko . He was incorrect ; the men were actually on the Canadian side of the strait . The error caused the men to reject Tyson 's plans for conserving . The seamen soon broke up one of the whaleboats for firewood , making a safe escape to land very unlikely . One night in November , the men went on an eating binge , consuming a large quantity of the food stores . The group drifted on the ice floe for the next six months over 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) before being rescued off the coast of Newfoundland by the sealer Tigress on April 30 , 1873 . All probably would have perished had the group not included the skilled Inuit hunters Ebierbing and Hendrik , who were able to kill seal on a number of occasions . Despite this , scarcely a word was written about the Inuit in either the official reports of the expedition , or the press .
On October 16 , with the ship 's coal stores running low , Captain Budington decided to run the Polaris aground near Etah . Having lost much of their bedding , clothing , and food when it was haphazardly jettisoned from the ship on October 12 , the remaining 14 men were in poor condition to face another winter . They built a hut from lumber salvaged from the ship , and on October 24 , extinguished the ship 's boilers to conserve coal . The bilge pumps stopped for good , and the ship heeled over on her side , half out of water . Fortunately , the Etah Inuit helped the men survive the winter . After wintering ashore , the crew built two boats from salvaged wood from the ship , and on June 3 the crew sailed south . They were spotted and rescued in July by the whaler Ravenscraig , and returned home via Scotland .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Inquiry = = =
On June 5 , 1873 , a United States Navy board of inquiry began . At this time , the crew and Inuit families had been rescued from the ice floe , however the fate of Budington , Bessels , and the remainder of the crew was still unknown . The board consisted of Admiral Louis M. Goldsborough , Secretary of the Navy Robeson , Commodore Reynolds , Captain Henry W. Howgate of the Army , and Spencer F. Baird of the Academy of Sciences . Tyson was the first to appear for questioning , and related the friction between Hall , Budington , and Bessels , and Hall 's deathbed accusations of poisoning . The board also inquired about the whereabouts of Hall 's journals and records . Tyson responded that while Hall was delirious , he instructed Budington to burn some of the papers , and the rest had disappeared . Later , journals of other crew members were discovered at the site of the Polaris wreck , but these had the sections regarding Hall 's death cut out . Meyer testified to Budington 's drinking , saying that the sailing master was " drunk most always while we were going southward " . Steward John Herron testified that he had not made the coffee that Hall had suspected of being laced with poison ; he explained that the cook made the coffee , and that he had not kept track of how many people had touched the cup before it was brought to Hall .
After Budington and the remainder of the crew were rescued and returned to the United States , the board of inquiry continued . Budington attacked Tyson 's credibility , disputing Tyson 's claim that he had obstructed Hall 's efforts to sail the ship further north . He also disputed reports of his drinking , saying that he " [ made ] it a practice to drink but very little " . Bessels was questioned about Hall 's cause of death . Bessels stated that " My idea of the cause of the first attack is that he had been exposed to very low temperature during the time that he was on the sledge journey . He came back and entered a warm cabin without taking off his heavy fur clothing , and then took a warm cup of coffee . And anyone knows what the consequences of that might be . " Bessels testified that Hall was " taken by hemiplegia " , and his left arm and side were paralyzed , and that he had injected Hall with quinine to correct his elevated temperature before he died .
Faced with conflicting testimony , lack of official records and journals , and no body for an autopsy , no charges were laid in connection with Hall 's death . In the inquiry 's final report , the surgeons general of the Army and Navy wrote : " From the circumstances and symptoms detailed by him , and comparing them with the medical testimony of all the witnesses , we are conclusively of the opinion that Captain Hall died from natural causes , viz . , apoplexy ; and that the treatment of the case by Dr. Bessel [ sic ] was the best practicable under the circumstances . "
= = = Controversy = = =
There has been speculation as to why Budington and the men aboard the Polaris did not attempt a rescue of those stranded on the ice floe . Tyson was perplexed as to why the ship could not see them 8 miles ( 13 km ) distant , a group of men and supplies waving a dark colored flag in a sea of white . The day after the storm was clear and calm , and the men on the floe could see the ship was under both steam and sail . Aboard the ship , first mate Chester reported that he could see " provisions and stores " on a distant floe , however there were never any orders to retrieve the stores or search for the castaways .
Budington 's decision to beach the Polaris is equally controversial . Budington said that he " believed the propeller was smashed and the rudder broken " . The official report of the expedition states that the vessel should have been abandoned because " there was only coal enough to keep the fires alive for five days " . However , the same report states that the propeller and rudder were in fact discovered to be intact after the ship was run aground , and the ship 's boiler and sails were available . Even if she ran out of coal , the ship was perfectly able to travel under sail alone . In defense of Budington 's decision , when low tide exposed the ship 's hull , the men found that the stem had completely broken away at the six @-@ foot mark , taking iron sheeting and planking with it . Budington wrote in his journal that he " called the officer 's attention to it , who only wondered she had kept afloat so long " .
Regarding Hall 's fate , the official investigation that followed ruled the cause of death was apoplexy ( an early term for stroke ) . Some of Hall 's symptoms — partial paralysis , slurred speech , delirium — certainly fit that diagnosis . Indeed , the pains that Hall complained about down one side of his body , which he attributed to many years ' huddling in an igloo , may have been due to a previous minor stroke . However , in 1968 , Hall 's biographer Chauncey C. Loomis , a professor at Dartmouth College , made an expedition to Greenland to exhume Hall 's body . Because of the permafrost , Hall 's body , flag shroud , clothing and coffin were remarkably well @-@ preserved . Tests on tissue samples of bone , fingernails and hair showed that Hall had received large doses of arsenic in the last two weeks of his life . Arsenic poisoning appears consistent with the symptoms party members reported : stomach pains , vomiting , stupor , and mania . Arsenic can have a sweet taste , and Hall had complained that the coffee had tasted too sweet , and had burned his stomach . It also appears that at least three of the crew , Budington , Meyer , and Bessels , expressed relief at Hall 's death and said that the expedition would be better off without him . In his book The Arctic Grail , Pierre Berton suggests that it is possible that Hall accidentally dosed himself with the poison , as arsenic was common in medical kits of the time . But it is considered more probable that he was murdered by one of the other members of the expedition , possibly Bessels , who was in nearly constant attendance of Hall . No charges were ever filed .
= = Research resources = =
Scrapbooks on the Polaris Expedition held at the American Geographical Society Library , UW Milwaukee
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= Ayumi Hamasaki =
Ayumi Hamasaki ( 浜崎 あゆみ , Hamasaki Ayumi , born October 2 , 1978 ) is a Japanese recording artist , lyricist , model , and actress . Hamasaki has achieved popularity in Japan and Asia by enforcing her position as an artist and not trying to be forced as a " product " , which was a common factor within the Japanese music culture and Avex Trax . Through her entire career , she has written all her lyrical content , produced her own music and has sometimes co @-@ composed her music , which is evident in her albums I Am ... , Rainbow and My Story .
Born and raised in Fukuoka , she moved to Tokyo at fourteen to pursue a career in entertainment . In 1998 , under the tutelage of Avex CEO Max Matsuura , Hamasaki released her debut single " Poker Face " and released her million @-@ selling record A Song for XX . The album debuted at the top of the Oricon charts and remained there for four weeks , establishing her popularity in Japan . Her next five albums accomplished over one million shipments in Japan , with her third effort Duty selling near three million units , becoming her best selling studio album . A Best , her first compilation album , is her best selling album , with more than four million copies sold in Japan . In 2008 , after her album Next Level was released , album and single sales declined due to ongoing competition with new upcoming artists . Throughout her career , Hamasaki has had all her albums within the top five position in Japan and has five million @-@ selling singles , including " Boys & Girls " , " A " , " Seasons " , " M " and " H " .
Also called " Ayu " by her fans , Hamasaki has been dubbed the " Empress of J @-@ pop " because of her popularity and widespread influence in Japan and throughout Asia . Hamasaki 's constantly changing image and tight control over her artistry has helped her popularity extend across Asia ; music and fashion trends she has started have spread regionally to China , Singapore and other countries across Southeast Asia . She has appeared in or lent her songs to many advertisements and television commercials . Though she originally supported the exploitation of her popularity for commercial purposes , she later reconsidered and eventually opposed her status as an Avex " product " .
Hamasaki has sold over 51 million records , making her one of the best @-@ selling artists in Japan . Hamasaki has several domestic record achievements for her singles , such as the most number @-@ one hits by a female artist ( 38 ) ; the most consecutive number @-@ one hits by a solo artist ( twenty @-@ five ) , and the most million @-@ sellers . From 1999 to 2010 , Hamasaki had at least one single each year topping the charts . Hamasaki is the first female recording artist to have eight studio albums since her debut to top the Oricon and the first artist to have a number @-@ one album for 13 consecutive years since her debut . Hamasaki 's second remix album , Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu @-@ ro Mix , is recognized as one of the best selling remix albums of all time and remains her only album to be recognized in a worldwide accreditation .
= = Life and music career = =
= = = Childhood and early endeavors = = =
Born in Fukuoka Prefecture , Hamasaki was raised as an only child by her mother and grandmother . Her father had left the family when she was three and never again came into contact with her . Hamasaki 's mother worked to support the family , so Hamasaki was primarily taken care of by her grandmother . She described herself as a " tomboy " when she was a teenager , and as a “ strange kid ” who “ liked to be alone ” .
At age seven , Hamasaki began modeling for local institutions , such as banks , in order to supplement the family 's income . She continued this career path by leaving her family at fourteen and moving to Tokyo as a model under SOS , a talent agency . Her modeling career did not last long ; SOS eventually deemed her too short for a model and transferred her to Sun Music , a musicians ' agency . Under the name of " Ayumi " , Hamasaki released a rap EP , Nothing from Nothing , on the Nippon Columbia label in 1995 . She was dismissed from the label when the album failed to chart on the Oricon . After this failure , Hamasaki took up acting and starred in B @-@ movies such as Ladys Ladys ! ! Sōcho Saigo no Hi and television dramas such as Miseinen , which were poorly received by the public . From August 1995 to March 1996 , Hamasaki also co @-@ hosted the SoundLink " magazine " Hōkago no Ōsama ( After @-@ school King ) for the Nintendo Satellaview once a week with Shigeru Izumiya . Growing dissatisfied with her job , Hamasaki quit acting and moved in with her mother , who had recently moved to Tokyo .
Hamasaki was initially a good student , earning good grades in junior high school . Eventually , she lost faith in the curriculum , thinking that the subjects taught were of no use to her . Her grades worsened as she refused to put her mind to her studies . While living in Tokyo , she attempted to further her studies at Horikoshi Gakuen , a high school for the arts , but dropped out in the first year . Hamasaki did not attend school or have a job , so she spent much of her time shopping at Shibuya boutiques and dancing at Velfarre , an Avex @-@ owned disco club .
At Velfarre , she was introduced to her future producer , Max Matsuura , through a friend . After hearing Hamasaki sing karaoke , Matsuura offered her a recording deal , but Hamasaki suspected ulterior motives and turned the offer down . He persisted and succeeded in recruiting her for the Avex label in the following year . Hamasaki started vocal training , but skipped most of her classes after finding her instructors to be too rigid and the classes dull . When she confessed this to Matsuura , he sent her to New York to train her vocals under another method . During her foreign sojourn , Hamasaki frequently corresponded with Matsuura and impressed him with her style of writing . On her return to Japan , he suggested that she try writing her own lyrics .
= = = 1998 – 99 : Musical beginnings , A Song for xx and Loveppears = = =
Hamasaki made her debut under Avex at 19 on April 8 , 1998 with the single " Poker Face " . It — and the following four singles — were not major hits , however each release was better than the last , thus gradually increasing her exposure and presence on the market . Hamasaki 's debut album , A Song for × × ( 1999 ) , was likewise " unassuming " : the tracks , composed by Yasuhiko Hoshino , Akio Togashi ( of Da Pump ) , and Mitsuru Igarashi ( of Every Little Thing ) , were " cautious " pop @-@ rock songs . However , Hamasaki 's lyrics , introspective observations about her feelings and experiences that focused on loneliness and individualism , resonated with the Japanese public . The songs gained Hamasaki a growing following , and the release of the album was a success : it topped the Oricon charts for five weeks and sold over a million copies . For her achievements , she earned a Japan Gold Disc Award for " Best New Artist of the Year " .
With Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x ( March 1999 ) , the first of a series of remix albums , Hamasaki began moving beyond the pop @-@ rock of A Song for × × and began to incorporate different styles including trance , dance , and orchestra . Hamasaki began to experiment with different musical styles in her singles as well , releasing dance tunes and ballads as well as remixes on the singles which spanned reggae and house . The singles were milestones : Hamasaki earned her first number @-@ one single ( " Love : Destiny " ) and first million @-@ selling single ( " A " ) . Her second studio album , Loveppears ( November 1999 ) , not only topped the Oricon charts , it sold nearly 3 million copies . The album also showcased a change in Hamasaki 's lyrics . Though the lyrics of Loveppears still dealt with loneliness , many of them were written from a third @-@ person perspective . In support of Loveppears , she held her first tour , Ayumi Hamasaki Concert Tour 2000 A.
A Film for XX is the first video clip collection by Ayumi Hamasaki , it was released on September 15 , 1999 .
= = = 2000 – 02 : Duty , compilation releases , I Am ... and Rainbow = = =
From April to June 2000 , Hamasaki released the " Trilogy " , a series of singles consisting of " Vogue " , " Far Away " , and " Seasons " . The lyrics of these songs focused on hopelessness , a reflection of Hamasaki 's disappointment that she had not expressed herself thoroughly in any of her previous lyrics and a sense of shame of her public image . Likewise , many of the songs she wrote for her subsequent studio album , Duty ( September 2000 ) , involved feelings of loneliness , chaos , confusion , and the burden of her responsibilities . She described her feelings after the writing as " unnatural " and " nervous " . The musical style was darker as well ; in contrast with Loveppears , Duty was a rock @-@ influenced album with only one dance song , " Audience " . Duty resonated with fans : the " Trilogy " were " hit singles " ( " Seasons " was a million @-@ seller ) , and the album became Hamasaki 's best @-@ selling studio album . At the end of 2000 , Hamasaki held her first New Year countdown concert at the Yoyogi National Gymnasium .
In 2001 , Avex forced Hamasaki to release her first compilation album , A Best , on March 28 , putting the album in " competition " with Hikaru Utada 's second studio album , Distance . The " competition " between the two singers ( which both claimed was merely a creation of their record companies and the media ) was supposedly the reason for the success of the albums ; both sold over 5 million copies . In support of Duty and A Best , Hamasaki held a tour of Japan 's domes , making her one of few " top @-@ drawer " Japanese artists to hold a concert at the Tokyo Dome .
I Am ... ( January 2002 ) marked several milestones for Hamasaki . Hamasaki increased her control over her music by composing all of the songs on the album under the pseudonym " Crea " , of which the 2000 single " M " was the first . " Connected " ( November 2002 ) and " A Song Is Born " ( December 2001 ) were the exceptions . I Am ... also showed evolution in Hamasaki 's lyrical style : it was a retreat from the themes of " loneliness and confusion " of some of her earlier songs . Moved by the September 11 attacks , Hamasaki revised her vision of I Am ... , focusing on issues such as faith and world peace . " A Song Is Born " , in particular , was directly influenced by the events . The single , a duet with Keiko Yamada , was released as part of Avex 's non @-@ profit Song Nation project , which raised money for charity . She also dropped the planned cover and opted instead to be portrayed as a " peace muse " , explaining ,
I had a completely different idea for the cover at first . We 'd already reserved the space , decided the hair and makeup and everything . But after the incident , as is typical of me , I suddenly changed my mind . I knew it wasn 't the time for gaudiness , for elaborate sets and costumes . It sounds odd coming from me , but I realize what I say and how I look has a great impact .
The outlook inspired by the September 11 attacks extended beyond I Am .... In 2002 , Hamasaki held her first concert outside Japan , at the MTV Asia music awards ceremony in Singapore , a move interpreted as the beginning of a campaign prompted by a sluggish Japanese market . At the ceremony , she received the award for " Most Influential Japanese Singer in Asia " . In support of I Am ... , Hamasaki held two tours , Ayumi Hamasaki Arena Tour 2002 A and Ayumi Hamasaki Stadium Tour 2002 A. In November 2002 , as " Ayu " , she released her first European single , " Connected " , a trance song from I Am ... composed by DJ Ferry Corsten . It was released in Germany on the Drizzly label . Hamasaki continued to release singles ( all of them remixes of previously released songs ) in Germany on Drizzly until 2005 .
In April 2002 , Hamasaki released the single " Free & Easy " . In collaboration with the magazine Free & Easy , Hamasaki also released Hamasaki Republic , a photobook that was actually a special issue of Free & Easy , in conjunction with the single . " H " , Hamasaki 's next single , became the best @-@ selling single of 2002 . Hamasaki released her last single of 2002 , " Voyage " , on September 26 . In lieu of a regular @-@ length music video , the short film Tsuki ni Shizumu , starring Hamasaki , was created for " Voyage " and was released at a select theater in Shibuya . Hamasaki 's next studio album , Rainbow ( December 2002 ) was her first to use English lyrics . After performing at the 2002 MTV Asia music awards , Hamasaki felt that by writing only Japanese lyrics , she was not able to bring her " message " to other countries . Realizing that English was a " common global language " , she included English lyrics in three songs . The album was stylistically diverse ; Hamasaki included rock- and trip hop @-@ influenced tracks as well as " summery " , " up @-@ tempo " and " grand gothic " songs and experimented with new techniques such as gospel choruses and the yells of an audience . The lyrics were also varied : themes in the album included freedom , the struggles of women , and " a summer that ends in sadness " .
= = = 2003 – 06 : Decline in sales , My Story , ( Miss ) Understood and Secret = = =
In 2003 , Hamasaki released three singles , " & " , " Forgiveness " , and " No Way to Say " . To celebrate the release of her thirtieth single ( " Forgiveness " ) , Hamasaki held the A Museum concert at the Yoyogi National Gymnasium . Her mini @-@ album Memorial Address ( December 2003 ) was her first album to be released in CD + DVD format in addition to the regular CD @-@ only format , a decision that came from her increased interest in the direction of her music videos . Like her previous albums , Memorial Address topped the Oricon chart and sold over a million copies . Sales of Hamasaki 's singles began to wane . Although all three of the album 's singles topped the Oricon charts , " & " was Hamasaki 's last single to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
By the end of her Arena Tour 2003 – 2004 , Hamasaki had grown dissatisfied with her position in Avex : she felt that the company was treating her as a product instead of a person . Along with her dissatisfaction over her last two studio albums ( which she thought had been rushed ) , this led her to begin work on My Story ( December 2004 ) early . In contrast with her previous albums , My Story had no set theme , nor did Hamasaki attempt to write " something good " or even " something that would give people hope " ; rather , she simply wrote freely and honestly . As a result , the album contained mostly autobiographical lyrics about her emotions and reminiscences of her career . She approached the composition of the music with the same freedom as the lyrics , with the album 's notable rock overtones expressing her liking for rock music . She was so pleased with the result that she declared My Story the first album she felt satisfied with . My Story and its singles , " Moments " , " Inspire " , and " Carols " , all topped the weekly Oricon charts ; moreover , with sales of over 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 units , My Story became Hamasaki 's last million @-@ selling studio album according to Oricon . From January to April 2005 , Hamasaki held the nationwide My Story arena tour , her first album @-@ based tour . Also in January , she began working with Lamoureux Orchestra to create My Story Classical , a classical version of My Story ; the album served as an " alter @-@ ego " of the mostly aggressive My Story . The orchestra also created a classical version of " A Song Is Born " , which was included on My Story Classical and which Hamasaki performed at the opening of the Expo 2005 .
( Miss ) understood ( January 2006 ) , Hamasaki 's seventh studio album , showed new musical directions . Wanting to sing a tune like those of the group Sweetbox , Hamasaki obtained the permission of Sweetbox composer Roberto " Geo " Rosan to use demo songs he had intended to use in Sweetbox 's upcoming album . She edited the songs to fit her personal vision , rewriting the lyrics and rearranging some of the songs . The result was more musically diverse than the previous album ; ( Miss ) understood included ballads , funk , dance @-@ pop , R & B , and rock songs . All of ( Miss ) understood 's singles reached the top of the Oricon ; " Bold & Delicious " became Hamasaki 's twenty @-@ fifth number @-@ one single , tying her with Seiko Matsuda for the record of most number @-@ one singles by a solo female artist . Though ( Miss ) understood also reached the top of the charts , Oricon stated that it sold fewer than a million copies — Hamasaki 's first studio album to do so . In support of the album , Hamasaki held the ( Miss ) understood arena tour , which spanned three months with thirty concerts , from Saitama on March 11 , 2006 to Yoyogi on June 11 , 2006 .
Hamasaki 's first single of 2006 , " Startin ' " , became Hamasaki 's twenty @-@ sixth number @-@ one single , setting a new record for most number @-@ one singles held by a solo female artist . The subsequent studio album , Secret , was released in November 2006 . " Secrets " was , appropriately , the theme of the album ; the album also explored strong female figures , love , and sadness ; songs depicted the artist 's struggles and were written to encourage women . Although Secret was originally intended to be a mini @-@ album , Hamasaki " began brimming with things to say " while producing the album and wrote five more songs . The album consisted mostly of rock songs and ballads ; to complement these , Hamasaki experimented with new vocal techniques . The album also topped the Oricon weekly charts , making Hamasaki the only artist to have eight consecutive number @-@ one studio albums . Her sales , however , continued to decline : according to both Oricon and the RIAJ , Secret failed to sell a million copies .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Compilation releases and Guilty = = =
On February 28 , 2007 , Hamasaki released A Best 2 , a pair of compilation albums containing songs from I Am ... to ( Miss ) understood . The two versions , White and Black , debuted at the first and second positions on the Oricon weekly charts , making Hamasaki the first female artist in thirty @-@ six years to hold the top two positions on any Oricon album chart . At the end of 2007 , the pair became Japan 's fifth and seventh best @-@ selling albums of the year respectively . In support of A Best 2 and Secret , Hamasaki held the four @-@ month @-@ long Tour of Secret from March to the end of June . It was her first international tour , and aside from Japan , she performed in Taipei , Shanghai , and Hong Kong . Her foreign fanbase highly anticipated the concerts , and tickets for the Taipei and Hong Kong performances sold out in less than three hours .
In July 2007 , Hamasaki released her first single in over a year , " Glitter / Fated " . A short film , Distance Love , was used as the music video for " Glitter " and " Fated " . The film , shot in Hong Kong , co @-@ starred Hong Kong actor Shawn Yue as Hamasaki 's romantic interest . " Glitter / Fated " and the following single " Talkin ' 2 Myself " reached the top of their respective charts , continuing Hamasaki 's streak of number @-@ one singles . In December , Hamasaki released her first digital @-@ only single , " Together When ... " , which topped the RIAJ 's monthly download chart . Unlike its predecessors , the writing of Hamasaki 's ninth studio album , Guilty ( January 2008 ) , was not an emotional experience for her , nor did it have a set theme . However , she said later that the album 's tracks appeared to tell a story . Most of the songs were dark ; the album had a notable rock tinge . It contained some upbeat dance tracks and ballads , though the latter also had rock overtones . Guilty peaked at the number @-@ two position on the weekly Oricon charts , making it Hamasaki 's first studio album not to reach the top and ended Hamasaki 's streak of 8 consecutive number @-@ one albums . Guilty was later released as a digital album in twenty @-@ six countries outside Japan , nineteen of them Western nations . That , along with Hamasaki 's decision to employ western DJs such as The Young Punx , Coldcut , Para One and Armand Van Helden for her 2008 remix albums Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 6 : Gold and Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 6 : Silver , has been interpreted as her first step into the global market .
In April 2008 , to commemorate her tenth anniversary in Avex , Hamasaki released the single " Mirrorcle World " ; it topped the Oricon , making Hamasaki the only female solo artist to have a number @-@ one single every year for ten consecutive years . Hamasaki also held her second tour of Asia , Asia Tour 2008 : 10th Anniversary , to celebrate her tenth anniversary . From April until June , she toured Japan , holding seventeen concerts . Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Shanghai were again the foreign stops after the domestic performances . On September 10 , 2008 , Hamasaki released A Complete : All Singles , a compilation album that includes the A @-@ sides of all her singles along with previously unreleased footage from her A @-@ nation concerts which is the 8th best selling album of 2008 .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Next Level , Rock n Roll Circus and Five = = =
Hamasaki 's next two singles , " Days / Green " ( December 2008 ) and " Rule / Sparkle " ( February 2009 ) , continued Hamasaki 's streak of number @-@ one singles . " Rule " is used as the international theme song for the film Dragonball Evolution . The subsequent studio album , Next Level , was released on March 25 , 2009 in several formats : CD , CD + DVD , 2CD + DVD and a two @-@ gigabyte USB flash drive . Sonically , Next Level was mainly an electronic dance album . Next Level reached the top of the Oricon charts , making Hamasaki the only artist to have a number @-@ one album every year for eleven years in a row since her debut . However , the album was only certified double platinum , making it Hamasaki 's lowest @-@ selling studio album to that date . On August 12 , 2009 , Hamasaki released her forty @-@ sixth single , " Sunrise / Sunset ( Love Is All ) " . " Sunrise ( Love Is All ) " , one of the A @-@ sides , is being used as the opening theme song for the Japanese television drama Dandy Daddy ? . The single reached the top of the weekly charts , making it her twenty @-@ first consecutive ( thirty @-@ third total ) number @-@ one single . " Sunrise / Sunset " is also her forty @-@ fourth single to enter the Top 10 , making Hamasaki the artist with the most Top 10 singles ever . Hamasaki 's third single of the year , " You Were ... / Ballad " , was released on December 29 , 2009 . Hamasaki 's eleventh studio album Rock ' n ' Roll Circus was released on April 14 , 2010 . Though the album contained a few " powerful and melodramatic gothic rock " tracks , it was mainly " pure and classic J @-@ pop " , with pop @-@ rock songs and ballads . The album topped the charts , making Hamasaki the first female solo artist in twenty years to have ten number @-@ one original studio albums . Hamasaki also began expanding her online presence , setting up accounts on MySpace , Ustream , and Twitter . In July , entertainment company Livespire announced that Hamasaki 's 2009 Next Level tour would be shown in 3D at Toho cinemas nationwide beginning on August 28 .
On July 14 , Hamasaki released her forty @-@ eighth single , " Moon / Blossom " . The single was released as the first of a three @-@ part project to celebrate her yet @-@ unreleased fiftieth single . The two other singles in the project ( her forty @-@ ninth and fiftieth singles respectively ) , " Crossroad " and " L " , were released within a week of each other , " Crossroad " on September 22 and " L " on September 29 . " Crossroad " was composed by Tetsuya Komuro and its coupling was her cover version of Komuro 's band TM Network 's 1988 song " Seven Days War " , which was her first cover of a male song . The three singles all topped the Oricon , becoming Hamasaki 's twenty @-@ third , twenty @-@ fourth and twenty @-@ fifth consecutive number @-@ one singles and setting a new record for the most consecutive number @-@ one singles by any female artist ( solo or group ) as well as by any solo artist . On December 22 , Hamasaki released her twelfth original studio album , Love Songs . On the same day , Naoya Urata of AAA released his debut solo single " Dream On " . The song , which featured Hamasaki , was written and produced by her as well , marking the first record she produced for another singer . Love Songs and " Dream On " both reached the top spots on their respective Oricon charts . Love Songs became Hamasaki 's fourth consecutive and seventeenth total number @-@ one album . The album also marked Hamasaki 's thirteenth consecutive year with a number @-@ one album , breaking her old record .
In February 2011 , it was announced that her arena tour of the year , Hotel Love Songs , would start in April . Shortly after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami hit , it was announced that the tour was rescheduled to start in late May and the tour was renamed to Power of Music . Deeply affected by the Tohoku Earthquake and tsunami devastation , Hamasaki decided to collaborate with fashion magazine , Vivi , with the sale of charity shirts and the profits going to help the victims in the devastation . On April 20 , 2011 , Hamasaki simultaneously released four new remix albums , Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 7 : House , Acoustic Orchestra , Trance 4 , Ayu @-@ ro Mix 4 , and a Limited Complete Box Set , which were also released internationally on iTunes . On that same day , Hamasaki also released 2010 Rock ' n ' Roll Circus Tour and A 50 Singles : Live Selection which topped the weekly chart at No. 1 and No. 2 respectively . The simultaneous releases made Hamasaki the first artist ever to have 4 albums in Oricon 's top 10 and also the first artist to hold 2 top positions in the Oricon DVD chart . Their original release date of March 30 was postponed due to the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami and was pushed back to April 20 instead . On April 21 , 2011 , it was announced that she would perform in a @-@ nation 10th Anniversary for Life Charge & Go ! On May 4 , it was announced that she broke another record – the female artist with the highest DVD sales with 2 @,@ 313 @,@ 000 .
On August 31 , Hamasaki released her second mini album Five , her first since Memorial Address in 2003 . This is her first album to have no singles released . Five topped the Oricon Charts for 2 consecutive weeks , her first to do so since ( Miss ) understood . The lead song , " Progress " , was used as a theme song for the videogame , Tales of Xillia . The album also features collaborations , with singers Juno and Naoya Urata from AAA . This album managed to be certified Gold by RIAJ , making Hamasaki 's first album not to be certified Platinum . Complete Clip Box 1998 – 2011 , consisting all her music videos from her first single , " Poker Face " till her latest mini @-@ album , Five , was released on January 1 , 2012 . " How Beautiful You Are " will be the theme song for a drama Saigo Kara Nibanme no Koi , and also Hamasaki 's second digital single ( 55th single overall ) , which is released fully on February 8 . Hamasaki describe the song as a mid @-@ tempo ballad and a feeling of gratitude towards someone .
= = = 2012 – 13 : 15th anniversary , Love Again and compilation releases = = =
In 2012 , The International 3D Society announced the winners of its 2012 3D Creative Arts Awards with Hamasaki receiving an award for " Electronic Broadcast Media ( Television ) – Live Event " for her A3D ayumi hamasaki Arena Tour 2009 A ( Next Level ) tour . On March 21 , Hamasaki released her thirteenth studio album , Party Queen . The album peaked at number two on the Oricon charts , becoming her second studio album to do so after 2007 's Guilty . On August 6 , 2012 , Hamasaki released her sixth compilation album A Summer Best . It included two new songs which were digitally released for the promotion of the album : the TRF cover , Happening Here , and You & Me .
In September 2012 , it was announced that , to commemorate Hamasaki 's 15th anniversary in the music industry on April 8 , 2013 , she would be releasing new material for five consecutive months starting on the 8th day of November , 2012 , until the 8th of March , 2013 . The first releases were two mini albums , Love and Again , which were put on sale on the 8th of November and December , respectively . The third release for the 8th of January was her compilation album A Classical , which included classical arrangements of previously released songs . The fourth release was Hamasaki 's 14th studio album , Love Again , which compiled the songs included in the two previous mini albums . And finally the fifth was the DVD / Blu @-@ ray of her Arena Tour 2012 : Hotel Love Songs , released in March . In April 2013 Hamasaki began her 15th Anniversary Tour : A Best Live , which lasted for four months until the end of July . Its setlist was chosen by fans through online voting , and was later released as her first live album CD on September 18 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray versions were released on October 30 , 2013 . On December 25 , 2013 , Hamasaki released " Feel the Love / Merry @-@ go @-@ round " , her first physical single in three years . " Feel the Love " was composed by Tetsuya Komuro and produced by Dj Hello Kitty , while " Merry @-@ go @-@ round " was produced by M @-@ Flo 's Taku Takahashi and features rapper Verbal . Both songs are heavily influenced by Western dance @-@ pop music .
= = = 2014 – 2015 : Colours , A One , Sixxxxxx = = =
In January 2014 , it was announced that a new song entitled " Pray " was chosen to be the theme song for the anime film Osamu Tezuka 's Budda 2 — Owarinaki Tabi , which premiered on February 8 , 2014 in Japan . The song was released digitally on January 27 , 2014 . Another new song , entitled " Hello New Me " , was presented as theme song for a new season of Fuji TV drama Zoku — Saigo Kara Nibanme no Koi. which started broadcasting in April , 2014 . The song was released digitally on May 14 , 2014 . From May 30 to July 6 , 2014 , Hamasaki held her Premium Showcase : Feel the love tour , on which she offered 11 concerts at 3 locations : Nagoya , Osaka and Tokyo . On this tour Hamasaki abandoned for the first time the traditional format of her previous concerts and presented a uninterrupted , shorter show , on which she also debuted as an aerial acrobat . Hamasaki 's fifteenth studio album , entitled Colours , was released on July 2 , 2014 . The album featured internationally renowned producers , such as RedOne , Rodney Jerkins , Armin van Buuren and Fedde le Grand , making the first time in Hamasaki 's career in which primarily Western producers were appointed to produce one of her studio albums . Colours peaked at number five on its first week on the Oricon charts , becoming Hamasaki 's first studio album to debut out of the Top 3 . However , it also marked a new record for her , as with this achievement she became the second artist in Japan 's history — after Yumi Matsutoya — to have 47 of her albums within the Top 10 of the charts . In September 2014 , Hamasaki released two recut singles from Colours : " Terminal " and " XOXO " on the PlugAir platform . The single was released under Machine Shop Records for the American release .
On October 18 , 2014 , Hamasaki performed as the closing act in the A @-@ Nation premium concert held at the Marina Bay Sands ’ MasterCard Theatres in Singapore . This was the second time performing in Singapore after her MTV Asia Awards performance 12 years ago . On November 2 , 2014 , Hamasaki announced through her official Facebook page that she had started recording new material composed by Tetsuya Komuro , Kunio Tago and Tetsuya Yukumi for a " winter ballad trilogy " single . On November 6 , 2014 , the title of the single was revealed to be " Zutto ... / Last Minute / Walk " , and its release date was set for December 24 , 2014 . On November 10 , 2014 , it was announced that Hamasaki would be collaborating in a tribute cover album for Hikaru Utada , entitled Utada Hikaru no Uta , to be released on December 9 , 2014 . For the album she contributed with a cover of Utada 's 1998 single " Movin ' on Without You " , which was arranged by the RedOne production team . The winter ballad trilogy single , " Zutto ... / Last Minute / Walk " , was released on December 24 , 2014 and peaked at number five on the Oricon charts . With this achievement , Hamasaki became the first solo artist in Japan 's history to have 50 singles within the Top 10 of the Oricon charts . As for artists in general , Hamasaki became the third artist with more Top ten singles since Oricon 's foundation in 1968 — being surpassed by groups Morning Musume and SMAP , with 57 and 53 Top ten singles respectively In December 2014 Hamasaki announced that she would be not attending the New Year show Kōhaku Uta Gassen for the first time in 15 years . She explained her decision stating that she wanted to lower her responsibilities and things she felt pressured to do , in order to focus on the projects she had for her career , mainly regarding her plans to expand her influence throughout Asia .
On February 15 , 2015 , Hamasaki made a surprise guest appearance during Singaporean singer JJ Lin 's concert in Taipei , Taiwan . They performed a duet version of Hamasaki 's 2000 single " Seasons " , and announced that JJ Lin would be producing a song for Hamasaki 's next studio album , A One . The album was released on April 8 , 2015 , including singles " Zutto ... " , " Last Minute " , " Walk " , Utada 's cover " Movin ' on Without You " , and JJ Lin @-@ produced song " The Gift " , for which a promotional music video was also made . Between April and July 2015 , Hamasaki embarked on her Arena Tour 2015 A Cirque de Minuit tour throughout Japan , which was planned as an expanded version of her previous Countdown Live concerts held in late 2014 . The tour consisted of a 34 @-@ song setlist show with a duration of 3 hours and 45 minutes , her longest concert held to date . At the final show of the aforementioned tour , Hamasaki announced that she would start another tour in September , this time exclusively for members of her official fan club , TeamAyu . The TA Limited Live Tour , Hamasaki 's first fan club exclusive tour in twelve years after 2003 , began on September 29 , 2015 and included a total of 16 concerts at 7 venues .
In April 2015 , a new song entitled " Step by Step " began to be broadcast as the theme song of NHK TV drama Bijo to Danshi , and was subsequently released as a digital single on July 1 . On August 5 , 2015 , Hamasaki released her sixth extended play , entitled Sixxxxxx . The mini album featured six new songs , including drama theme song " Step by Step " , and " Sayonara " , a new song featuring Taiwanese boyband SpeXial . " Sayonara " became # 1 on digital downloads charts in Taiwan , Hong Kong , Singapore and Malaysia , according to KK BOX , Asia ’ s largest digital distribution site . In addition , Hamasaki participated as one of the headliners of the A @-@ Nation Stadium Fes 2015 held on August 30 at the Ajinomoto Stadium , where she also performed a cover of Globe 's hit ballad song " Departures " , joined by Tetsuya Komuro and Naoya Urata onstage . She also recorded a cover of Globe 's " Many Classic Moments " , which was included in the group 's tribute album released on December 16 , 2015 . On December 23 , 2015 , Hamasaki released a winter @-@ themed concept album entitled Winter Diary : A7 Classical , which included songs from her previous two albums -A One and -Sixxxxxx- remixed with Classical arrangements , and also new song " Winter Diary " , which was produced by Tetsuya Komuro . Hamasaki promoted the album by starting an Instagram account that would be active for only a month until the end of January 2016 . She shared pictures of the music video shooting of " Winter Diary " recorded in Taiwan , and also the preparations for her 2015 @-@ 2016 countdown live concerts .
= = = 2016 : Made in Japan = = =
On her last Instagram post , Hamasaki confirmed that she has been working on her seventeenth studio album for 2016 . A 15th anniversary edition of Hamasaki 's 2001 greatest hits album A Best was released on March 28 , 2016 . In May 2016 , Hamasaki started her nationwide tour Arena Tour 2016 A : Made in Japan , which will be an expanded version of her 2015 @-@ 2016 Countdown Live Made in Tokyo . On May 11 , Hamasaki made a surprise release of her 17th studio album , entitled Made in Japan , through music streaming website AWA , where it reached 1 million legal streams after 5 days of release . The album is set to be released on physical formats on June 29 , 2016 .
= = Image and artistry = =
Time magazine has noted that Hamasaki lacked talents such as the dance moves of Namie Amuro , the " supermodel allure " of Hitomi , and the " vocal pyrotechnics " of Hikaru Utada . Her own fans even considered her high @-@ pitched voice screechy . However , her music is sometimes considered one of the major forces in shaping Japan 's current music trends ; this has been attributed to her constantly changing image as well as her self @-@ penned lyrics , though critics credit clever marketing strategies . Hamasaki is also noted for the visual aspects of her artistry : she is considered a fashion trendsetter , with her influence extending beyond Japan . The Guardian says that Hamasaki has " married accessible , mainstream hits with over @-@ the @-@ top costumes and high @-@ concept videos " . The widespread influence of her music and her constantly changing image has meant that Hamasaki has often been compared to Madonna .
Hamasaki 's lyrics and image have gained a following predominantly among the Generation X of Asia , mainly because of the " conflicting or inharmonious beauty " of her fashion and lyrics ; Hamasaki 's fashions combine Eastern and Western elements , and her songs , unlike those of many of her contemporaries , mostly all have English titles but contained no English lyrics ( until Rainbow ) . Music critic Tetsu Misaki believed that the juxtaposition of her fashionable appearance and her personal lyrics was one of her most important selling points . The popularity of her music extends beyond Japan ; she has a " sizable [ following ] across Asia " and is one of the few Japanese singers whose albums have sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies in Singapore . In 2002 , however , Hamasaki 's domestic sales began declining due to a sluggish Japanese market and increasing piracy in Japan . As a result , she began moving toward the Asian market in 2002 , performing at the 2002 MTV Asia awards in Singapore , at South Korea 's " Asia Song Festival " , and at a concert in Beijing to celebrate Sino @-@ Japanese relations . With her popularity declining ( due in part to the rising popularity of other singers ) , she made a foray into the Asian market , starting with her first tour of Asia in 2007 .
= = = Musical style = = =
Hamasaki 's lyrics , all her own , have resonated among her fans , who praise them as being honest and heartfelt and " expressing determination " ; in two surveys conducted by Oricon , respondents voted Hamasaki 's lyrics as their favorite aspect of her artistry . Steve McClure of The Japan Times noted that Hamasaki has " developed a reputation as a thoughtful , introspective lyricist " ; Barry Walters of The Village Voice comments that Hamasaki 's lyrics " pack unlikely insights . " Having " trouble voicing her thoughts " , Hamasaki uses her lyrics as an outlet ; she draws inspiration from her own ( and occasionally her friends ' ) experiences and emotions and tries to put them " honestly into words " . She has stated that honesty is essential to her lyrics , saying , " If I write when I 'm low , it will be a dark song , but I don 't care . I want to be honest with myself at all times . " This meant that she did not use English lyrics until her album Rainbow , as she felt that she could best express herself in Japanese . As with her musical style , the themes of her lyrics have varied . Her debut album A Song for × × dealt mostly with themes of " loneliness and confusion " , as did her second album Loveppears . Duty likewise expressed feelings of disappointment and confusion . Hamasaki began to take on a more global outlook with her following albums I Am ... and Rainbow , branching out to wider themes such as faith and peace . Music critic Tetsu Misaki noted a large change in her lyrics style between her debut album A Song for × × ( 1999 ) , which mostly dealt with personal problems , and her following albums Loveppears and Duty . Misaki believed Hamasaki had begun thinking about her influence on society more , and began writing songs with important messages she wanted to express to her listeners . This was signalled by her not using first person pronouns as much , and instead using the words bokura ( 僕ら , " we " ) and tsutaeru ( 伝える , " convey " ) more often . As Hamasaki matured , her lyrics began to express more confidence ; themes in her later albums included love and the struggles of women . With Guilty , Hamasaki began to compose her lyrics not only as an exposition of her personal feelings but as encouragements for her listeners , an outlook she applied in Next Level as well . In songs such as " Talkin ' 2 Myself " and " Mirrorcle World " , Hamasaki deals with the " awareness and fighting spirit of surviving in a high @-@ risk age " to encourage listeners ; in " Rollin ' " ( from Next Level ) , Hamasaki writes , " The age is rolling around / At the speed of heading toward the end / Beyond the border / Disappointment and hope fight with each other " . In addition to personal experiences and feelings , Hamasaki bases lyrics on sources such as historical events . The life of Joan of Arc was the inspiration for " Free & Easy " , while a story told to her by her friend about a saint named Mary served as the basis for " M " ; the September 11 attacks inspired " A Song Is Born " .
In addition to writing her own lyrics , Hamasaki has also involved herself in other aspects of production such as artistic direction . Though Max Matsuura is officially credited as the producer of her records , he said of Hamasaki , " Ayu is a very meticulous worker behind the scenes . A lot of the work she does by herself is more in the producer 's arena . I think really we should say ' Produced by [ A ] yumi [ H ] amasaki ' . " Until her single " M " , however , Hamasaki left the task of composing to her staff ; as she has explained , " I 'm not a professional ; I lack even basic knowledge about writing music . " However , she started to compose her own melodies after her staff had failed to compose a tune for " M " that appealed to her . Wanting to produce works faithful to her visions , Hamasaki took control of most aspects of her artistry . I Am ... is representative of this stage in Hamasaki 's career ; she directed the production of its songs , videos , and artwork . She began to compose less after I Am ... : whereas nearly all of I Am ... was her work , only nine of Rainbow 's fifteen tracks were composed by her . She was even less involved in the composition of subsequent albums , composing two tracks on Memorial Address , three on My Story , and one on ( Miss ) understood ; since Secret , none of the songs on her studio albums have listed her as a composer . With later albums , Hamasaki also began to delegate to her staff tasks she had once handled herself . Hamasaki cites Madonna , soul musicians Babyface and En Vogue , and rock bands Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple as her influences and states that she admires Michelle Branch , Kid Rock , Joan Osborne , Seiko Matsuda , Rie Miyazawa , and Keiko Yamada ; these diverse influences have led to the variety of her own music . Hamasaki began commissioning remixes of her songs early in her career , and this practice also influenced the diversity of her music . Found on many of her records , these remixes span different genres of electronic dance music including Eurobeat , house , and trance , as well as acoustic genres such as classical and traditional Chinese music . She has employed Western as well as Japanese musicians ; among those she has worked with are Above & Beyond , the Lamoureux Orchestra of France , and traditional Chinese music ensemble Princess China Music Orchestra . Hamasaki has released more than a hundred original songs ; through them , she has covered a wide range of musical styles , such as dance , metal , R & B , progressive rock , pop , and classical . She uses different instruments and techniques including piano , orchestra , gospel choirs , guitars , traditional Japanese strings , music boxes , and effects such as yells , claps , and scratching .
Hamasaki is often involved in the artistic direction of her music videos . They are often artistic productions through which Hamasaki tries to convey the meaning or feeling of their respective songs . The themes of the videos are varied ; she has made " sad and fragile " or " emotional " videos ( " Momentum " , " Endless Sorrow " ) , " refreshing " summer videos ( " Blue Bird " , " Fairyland " ) , surreal or " scary " videos ( " 1 Love " , " Marionette " ) , and humorous videos ( " Evolution " , " Angel 's Song " , " Beautiful Fighters " ) . Additionally , many of the videos contain short storylines , some of which use symbolism to convey their respective messages . The video of " Voyage " depicts Hamasaki as a woman in a mental hospital whose previous incarnation was a woman in feudal Japan who was sacrificed to the moon ; the video of " Endless Sorrow " features a young boy living in a society where speaking is forbidden by law . In the video for " Free & Easy " , Hamasaki portrayed a " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Joan of Arc " to convey her message " freedom cannot be easily obtained ; there is a price to pay for it " and to express her opposition to her marrying at the time ; the video for " Ourselves " featured masked people destroying " effigies of [ Hamasaki 's ] past " such as photographs and album covers to symbolize destruction and rebirth . Additionally , the videos of " Fairyland " , " My Name 's Women " , " Jewel " , " Green " , and " Virgin Road " are among the top twenty or so most expensive music videos , making Hamasaki the only non @-@ American artist to hold such a distinction . Hamasaki is also involved in the production and artistic direction of her live performances ; they , like her videos , are often lavish productions and use a variety of props , extravagant costumes , and choreographed dances . She has used large video screens , fireworks , simulated rain drops , trick stage floors , and suspended devices .
= = = Public image = = =
Hamasaki 's influence goes beyond music ; she is often considered a fashion icon and trend @-@ setter , a status attributed to her tight control over her image . Besides her frequent appearances in fashion magazines , such as Vivi , Popteen , and Cawaii ! , Hamasaki has often been lauded for her trendy choices in apparels and accessories ; Oricon has repeatedly named her the " Most Fashionable Female Artist " . Many aspects of Japan 's fashions — including clothing , hair , nails , and accessories — have in some way been influenced by her . As with her music , trends Hamasaki started have spread to Asian countries as Taiwan , China , and Singapore . Among the trends Hamasaki has started is hime @-@ kei ( a look inspired by the fashions of 18th century French aristocracy ) ; she has also heavily influenced the kogal subculture . Hamasaki 's constantly changing image is apparent not only in her fashion photo shoots and commercial endorsements but also in her record covers , an element she considers essential in conveying her message . She has portrayed herself as a vine @-@ clad " peace muse " or " Greek goddess " ( on her album I Am ... ) , as a " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Joan of Arc " ( for her single " Free & Easy " ) , and as a " funky Lolita " . Though Hamasaki has portrayed herself in earlier releases as a " girl next door " , she has adopted a more sexualized image since the release of Loveppears . The covers for records including Loveppears , I Am ... , Rainbow , and Party Queen feature Hamasaki in states of partial nudity , for which she has generated controversy . Hamasaki also garnered criticism after she modeled bra for lingerie manufacturer Wacoal , though most of the criticism alleged that Hamasaki was only trying to " play catch @-@ up " with Kumi Koda , who gained popularity for her overtly sexual image .
Hamasaki has accepted offers by numerous brands to endorse their products . Throughout her career under Avex , she has promoted products that ranged from electronics ( Tu @-@ Ka cell phones and Panasonic ) to various snack foods . Among the products she has advertised on television are the Honda Crea scooter , Kosé cosmetics , Mister Donut donuts , and Boss coffee . As well as serving as background music for television advertisements , some of Hamasaki 's songs have been used as themes for video games , television shows and motion pictures , such as Onimusha : Dawn of Dreams , InuYasha , Shinobi : Heart Under Blade and Tales of Xillia . Although Hamasaki initially supported the exploitation of her popularity for commercial purposes , saying that it was " necessary that [ she is ] viewed as a product " , she eventually opposed Avex 's decision to market her as a " product rather than a person " .
= = Other activities = =
= = = MTRLG = = =
Hamasaki launched her own fashion brand , MTRLG ( Material Girl ) , in 2001 ; the clothes were sold at MTRLG boutiques and at Mise S * clusive stores .
= = = Ayupan = = =
In 2002 , Hamasaki created Ayupan , a cartoon version of herself that appeared in a line of merchandise ( mainly figurines ) and in a 2003 cartoon . For her 2007 tour Tour of Secret , Hamasaki collaborated with Sanrio to create a line of merchandise , " Ayumi Hamasaki x Hello Kitty , " that features Ayupan and Hello Kitty together . The merchandise included cell phone straps and Lumix cameras decorated with a picture of Hello Kitty behind Hamasaki 's " A " logo ; the former product was a result of a collaboration with Sanrio and Japanese fashion brand Ash & Diamonds , the latter a collaboration with Sanrio and Panasonic .
= = = Ayu ready ? = = =
She briefly hosted her own television show , Ayuready ? ( October 2002 ) , on Fuji Television . The talk show , aired on Saturday nights from 11 : 30 to midnight , often featured her performing songs with guests , among whom were Goto Maki , Puffy , and Akina Nakamori . To promote the program ( and her album Rainbow ) , Hamasaki opened a restaurant , Rainbow House , on Shōnan Beach ; it was occasionally used in episodes of Ayuready ? . After less than two years , the last episode aired in March 2004 .
= = Philanthropy = =
In March 2011 , Hamasaki donated 30 million yen to relief efforts for the Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami . She also collaborated with fashion magazine ViVi to sell charity T @-@ shirts .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
On January 1 , 2011 , Hamasaki announced her upcoming marriage to Austrian actor and model Manuel Schwarz , whom Hamasaki met in August 2010 on the set of her music video for " Virgin Road " . On January 2 , her office announced that she and Schwarz had gotten married in the United States the day before . However , on January 16 , 2012 , Hamasaki announced on her website that she would be divorcing Schwarz . The reason for the divorce was that , initially , Hamasaki wanted to move in with Schwarz in United States but due to the earthquake and tsunami that hit her home country on March , 2011 , she began to have a strong desire not to leave Japan .
On December 13 , 2013 , it was announced on her official TeamAyu site that she had become engaged to an American medical student , Tyson Bodkin , 10 years her junior , whom she had been with since the spring of that year , adding " As my partner is an ordinary student , I would be very happy if you could watch over us quietly . "
On March 3 , 2014 , the singer announced on her fan club site " Team Ayu " that she was officially married to Bodkin . According to her agency , the couple already finished their marriage procedure in the United States near the end of February . On the 3rd , Hamasaki 's mother , as a deputy , submitted the marriage registration to Japan .
= = = Health = = =
In a January 8 , 2008 entry on her TeamAyu blog , Hamasaki announced that an inoperable condition , possibly tinnitus or Ménière 's disease , had caused complete deafness in her left ear . She disclosed that she had been diagnosed with the condition in 2006 and that the problem dated back to 2000 . Despite the setback , Hamasaki stated that she wished to continue singing , and that she would " not give up " on her fans and that " as a professional " , she wanted to " deliver the best performance for everyone " .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
A Song for × × ( 1999 )
Loveppears ( 1999 )
Duty ( 2000 )
I Am ... ( 2002 )
Rainbow ( 2002 )
My Story ( 2004 )
( Miss ) understood ( 2006 )
Secret ( 2006 )
Guilty ( 2008 )
Next Level ( 2009 )
Rock ' n ' Roll Circus ( 2010 )
Love Songs ( 2010 )
Party Queen ( 2012 )
Love Again ( 2013 )
Colours ( 2014 )
A One ( 2015 )
Made in Japan ( 2016 )
= = Concerts = =
= = = Concert tours = = =
= = = New Years countdown concerts = = =
= = Filmography = =
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= HMCS Protecteur ( AOR 509 ) =
Her Majesty 's Canadian Ship ( HMCS ) Protecteur ( AOR 509 ) was the lead ship of the Protecteur @-@ class replenishment oilers in service with the Royal Canadian Navy . She was part of the Maritime Forces Pacific ( MARPAC ) , homeported at CFB Esquimalt , British Columbia . Built by Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Docks in Saint John , New Brunswick , she was commissioned on 30 August 1969 . She was the first Canadian naval unit to carry the name Protecteur ; however , there have been several units , including a base , named HMCS Protector .
Mostly known for her humanitarian efforts , Protecteur had also served in times of war including Operation Friction and Operation Apollo in the Persian Gulf region , multi @-@ national naval exercises and as part of the INTERFET in East Timor . Operation Apollo was the largest deployment of the Royal Canadian Navy since the Korean War . In six months Protecteur logged over 50 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 93 @,@ 000 km ; 58 @,@ 000 mi ) , delivering over 150 @,@ 000 barrels ( ~ 20 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel and 390 pallets of dry goods to deployed coalition ships . Protecteur , as well as her sister ship Preserver , were scheduled to be paid off in 2017 , however damage due to an engine fire aboard the ship in 2014 forced Protecteur to be prematurely paid off . Protecteur was decommissioned at a farewell ceremony on 14 May 2015 .
= = Building Protecteur = =
Protecteur was the first Canadian naval unit to carry the name Protecteur ; however , there have been two Australian and seven British naval units named Protector . The name was also used for a Canadian base , named HMCS Protector .
= = = Construction = = =
First authorized in 1959 , HMCS Protecteur was constructed by Saint John Shipbuilding and Dry Docks in Saint John , New Brunswick starting on 17 October 1967 , was launched on 18 July 1968 , and was officially commissioned by the Royal Canadian Navy on 30 August 1969 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Protecteur was one of two ships in the Protecteur @-@ class of replenishment oilers in service with the Royal Canadian Navy . The ship is 171 @.@ 9 metres ( 564 ft 0 in ) long and 23 @.@ 2 metres ( 76 ft 1 in ) wide , with a displacement between 8 @,@ 380 and 24 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 8 @,@ 248 and 24 @,@ 310 long tons ) depending on her load . Protecteur 's draught is 10 @.@ 1 m ( 33 ft 2 in ) , and she had been given an ice rating of three .
Two Babcock & Wilcox boilers feed a single General Electric steam turbine rated at 21 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 000 kW ) that drives a single propeller , allowing the ship to reach a maximum speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . At 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the range of Protecteur was limited to 4 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 600 kilometres ; 4 @,@ 700 miles ) , but her range could be extended to 7 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 900 km ; 8 @,@ 600 mi ) when only traveling at 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ; 13 @.@ 2 mph ) .
Protecteur 's primary role was to deliver supplies to deployed ships . Fully loaded , Protecteur could store up to 14 @,@ 590 t ( 14 @,@ 360 long tons ) of fuel , 400 t ( 394 long tons ) of aviation fuel , 1 @,@ 048 t ( 1 @,@ 031 long tons ) of dry cargo , and 1 @,@ 250 t ( 1 @,@ 230 long tons ) of ammunition . Fuel could be transferred at a rate of 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 476 long tons ) per hour and 2 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of dry cargo per hour could be transferred all while traveling at her top speed .
= = = Armament = = =
Four BAE Systems Mark 36 SRBOC chaff launchers and an AN / SLQ @-@ 25 Nixie towed decoy were the ship 's primary defenses . When Protecteur was originally launched , she was fitted with a twin 3 " / 50 caliber gun mounted on her bow , however the 3 " guns were replaced with two 20 mm Phalanx CIWS mounts , one at the bow and one astern in August 1990 . The CIWS emplacements were part of the upgrades that Protecteur received before deploying to the Persian Gulf region .
Her former 3 " / 50 guns were temporarily fitted , together with two Bofors 40 mm guns , six 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns , as well as Blowpipe and Javelin MANPADs during the Gulf War . The CIWS mounts were retained after the war , but the Bofors and 76 mm gun were removed from Protecteur after returning from war .
Originally Protecteur was to be fitted with Mark 29 NATO Sea Sparrow . However , due to delays in procurement , the Sea Sparrow system was never installed . The Sikorsky CH @-@ 124 Sea King helicopters on board Protecteur also provided weapons support , carrying Mark 46 torpedoes and a 7 @.@ 62 mm machine gun .
= = = Crew = = =
Three hundred sixty five men and women served on Protecteur . There were 27 officers aboard ship and a total of 45 crew members who were part of the air detachment that flew three CH @-@ 124 Sea King helicopters off the back of the ship . In 1988 the crew of the Protecteur was officially desegregated , allowing both men and women to serve on board her . Protecteur was equipped with a small dental clinic , which provided dental care for the Royal Canadian Navy when deployed .
= = Service = =
The Polish yacht Gedania left Resolute Bay and went missing on 30 August 1975 . Gedania was a sailboat , and was only the second pleasure craft to attempt to traverse the Northwest Passage ; however they were turned back due to regulations regarding the passage . The sailboat was on a journey to circumnavigate the North and South American continents . The crew of Protecteur initiated a $ 400 thousand ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 75 million in 2016 ) search for the lost ship before it completed its journey .
In 1980 , while Protecteur was operating off the coast of Portugal , Commanding Officer Captain Larry Dzioba hoisted an Esso flag on the ship 's mast , joking that they were the " biggest floating gas station in the neighbourhood " . In 1981 , Protecteur served in CARIBOPS 81 off the coast of Puerto Rico , along with at least two Canadian destroyers . Protecteur and her CH @-@ 124 helicopters performed a nighttime rescue of the crew of a disabled Norwegian chemical tanker in June 1982 . The Norwegian crew was forced to abandon their ship after a fire had broken out . For the 75th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Navy , Protecteur hosted a dinner with the captains of 35 ships , including ships from Belgium , Brazil , Denmark , France , Great Britain , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , and the United States , as well as then Governor General Jeanne Sauvé and Prince Andrew .
In 1991 , Protecteur was part of the Canadian contingent sent to the Persian Gulf as part of Operation Desert Shield and later Operation Friction ( the Canadian name for its operations during the Gulf War ) . The ship , part of a three @-@ vessel force , the other two being the Iroquois @-@ class destroyer Athabaskan and the Restigouche @-@ class destroyer Terra Nova , saw extensive service in the Central Gulf . The ship was honoured with the Gulf and Kuwait Medal and the Arabian Sea award for her service in the war . In 1992 , Protecteur was sent to help after Hurricane Andrew in Florida , with tasks including repairing schools , community centres , and hospitals in the region . A small pool was built on the helipad of Protecteur providing some relief to hurricane ravaged Floridians . Homes , churches , and a senior centre were also repaired in the Bahamas . The homeport of Protecteur was changed from CFB Halifax to CFB Esquimalt after the hurricane relief efforts . The frigate Vancouver and Protecteur participated in the multi @-@ national RIMPAC 98 off the coast of Hawaii in June 1998 .
Protecteur was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian @-@ led INTERFET peacekeeping taskforce from 23 October 1999 to 23 January 2000 . Crew from Protecteur helped reconstruct a police academy in Dili during their deployment in support of INTERFET . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police then used the newly reconstructed academy to set up a training school for the National Police of East Timor . Protecteur participated in Operation Apollo for six months , logging over 50 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 93 @,@ 000 km ; 58 @,@ 000 mi ) and delivering over 150 @,@ 000 barrels ( ~ 20 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel and 390 pallets of dry goods , returning to CFB Esquimalt in November 2002 . Operation Apollo was the largest Canadian deployment since the Korean War . Protecteur participated in RIMPAC again in 2004 , along with the Algonquin and Regina .
On 19 September 2011 , Protecteur departed from CFB Esquimalt for a two month deployment off southern California as part of the USS Abraham Lincoln carrier strike group . Protecteur joined the destroyer Algonquin and the frigate Ottawa in Fleet Week activities in San Diego , California , between 26 and 30 September 2011 . On 30 August 2013 , the ship was involved in a collision with Algonquin during towing exercises . There were no injuries to personnel , although Protecteur sustained damage to her bow . The damage was repaired in time for Protecteur to participate in a Task Group Exercise with the United States Navy in mid @-@ October 2013 .
On 20 February 2014 , Protecteur suffered an engine room fire and breakdown 340 nautical miles ( 630 km ; 390 mi ) northeast of Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . She was moving at limited speeds and the United States Navy Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer Michael Murphy , Ticonderoga @-@ class cruiser Chosin , and the Military Sealift Command @-@ operated Powhatan @-@ class fleet ocean tug Sioux were dispatched to assist . Chosin attempted to tow Protecteur , but the towing line broke . About 20 members of the ship 's crew were injured as a result of the fire , and her engines were badly damaged . After a preliminary assessment , it was decided that the vessel could not be repaired in Pearl Harbor . On 16 May Protecteur left Pearl Harbor under tow from the United States Military Sealift Command @-@ operated Safeguard @-@ class rescue and salvage ship Salvor for an expected three week journey to her home port of CFB Esquimalt . Protecteur was delivered to Esquimalt on 31 May 2014 .
= = Retirement and replacement = =
Protecteur was decommissioned at a farewell ceremony on 14 May 2015 . Plans for replacing Protecteur and her sister ship , Preserver , were first brought up in 2004 . Lack of spare parts for the ship 's boiler and the fact that she is a single @-@ skinned tanker were the main driving points to replacing Protecteur and Preserver .
It had been planned that the ship would have continued to operate until 2015 ; however , the Joint Support Ship Project would not have been completed until two years later , leaving a gap in the ability of the RCN to refuel and resupply her own ships while deployed . Following extensive damage as a result of a fire in February 2014 , Protecteur 's decommissioning was brought forward as repairs would have been " ... too expensive for the navy to consider " given that she was due to be retired in 2017 .
On 19 September 2014 , Vice @-@ Admiral Mark Norman of the Royal Canadian Navy announced the retirement of Protecteur , along with her sister ship HMCS Preserver and the Iroquois @-@ class destroyers HMCS Iroquois and HMCS Algonquin . The Royal Canadian Navy is looking at other options to fill the supply gap until the arrival of the two Queenston @-@ class auxiliary vessels in 2019 at the earliest . Protecteur , along with Algonquin , was sold for scrapping on 27 November 2015 to R.J. MacIsaac Ltd. of Antigonish , Nova Scotia . They will be towed to Nova Scotia where the work will be done at Liverpool .
In October 2015 , MS Asterix , a container ship , was acquired by Davie Shipyards to be converted into an auxiliary vessel , to be leased to the RCN as a temporary bridge between the Protecteur class until the Queenston class becomes available . However , no contract has yet been signed .
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= Ipswich serial murders =
The Ipswich serial murders took place between 30 October and 10 December 2006 , during which time the bodies of five murdered women were discovered at different locations near Ipswich , Suffolk , England . All of the victims were women who had worked as prostitutes in the Ipswich area . Their bodies were discovered naked , but there were no signs of sexual assault . Two of the victims , Anneli Alderton and Paula Clennell , were confirmed to have been killed by asphyxiation . A cause of death for the other victims , Gemma Adams , Tania Nicol and Annette Nicholls , was not established .
Suffolk Police linked the killings and launched a murder investigation codenamed Operation Sumac . Due to the size of the investigation police officers were drafted from several other police forces . Two arrests were made in connection with the murders . The first suspect , who was never officially named by police , was released without charge . Forklift truck driver Steven Gerald James Wright , then aged 48 , was arrested on suspicion of murder on 19 December 2006 and charged with the murders of all five women on 21 December .
Wright was remanded in custody and his trial began on 14 January 2008 at Ipswich Crown Court . Wright pleaded not guilty to the charges , although he admitted having sex with all five victims and that he had been patronising prostitutes since the 1980s . DNA and fibre evidence was presented to the court that linked Wright to the victims . He was found guilty of all five murders on 21 February 2008 and was sentenced the following day to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released from prison .
The murders received a large amount of media attention , both nationally and internationally . The press often compared the murders to those committed by the Yorkshire Ripper , Peter Sutcliffe , who murdered 13 women and attacked seven others ( mostly prostitutes ) between 1975 and 1981 . There was some concern that the level of media coverage at the time could jeopardise a trial . The murders also sparked debates in the media over the laws surrounding prostitution .
= = Police investigation = =
The body of a young woman was discovered in the water of Belstead Brook at Thorpe 's Hill , near Hintlesham , by a member of the public on 2 December 2006 . The body , later identified as 25 @-@ year @-@ old Gemma Adams , had not been sexually assaulted . Six days later , on 8 December , the body of 19 @-@ year @-@ old Tania Nicol , a friend of Adams who had been missing since 30 October , was discovered in water at Copdock Mill just outside Ipswich . There was no evidence of sexual assault . On 10 December , a third victim , found by a member of the public in an area of woodland by the A14 road near Nacton , was later identified as 24 @-@ year @-@ old Anneli Alderton . According to a police statement , she had been asphyxiated and was about three months pregnant when she died .
In a press conference police warned all women to stay away from the red light district of Ipswich . On 12 December , Suffolk police announced that the bodies of two more women had been found . On 14 December , the police confirmed one of the bodies as 24 @-@ year @-@ old Paula Clennell . Clennell had disappeared on 10 December and was last seen in Ipswich . According to Suffolk Police , Clennell died from " compression of the throat " . On 15 December , the police confirmed that the other body was that of 29 @-@ year @-@ old Annette Nicholls , who disappeared on 5 December . The bodies of Clennell and Nicholls were found in Nacton near the Levington turn @-@ off of the A1156 , close to where Alderton was found . A member of the public had seen Clennell 's body twenty feet ( six metres ) from the main road and a police helicopter dispatched to the scene discovered the second body of Nicholls nearby .
Suffolk police linked the killings and launched a murder investigation , codenamed Operation Sumac . Chief Constable Alastair McWhirter acknowledged that Suffolk Constabulary would be reliant on external assistance due to the magnitude of the investigation . A senior investigator with the Metropolitan Police , Commander Dave Johnston , was reported to have been drafted into the murder inquiry team from Scotland Yard in London in an advisory capacity . The day @-@ to @-@ day investigation was conducted by Detective Chief Superintendent Stewart Gull .
During press conferences on 13 and 14 December , DCS Gull revealed that police believed the locations where the five bodies were found to have been ' deposition sites ' , not murder scenes , indicating that the victims were all killed elsewhere and transported to the locations where they were later found ; no comment was made on where the women may have been murdered . DCS Gull also revealed that some items of women 's clothing and accessories , including a handbag and jacket , had been recovered and were being forensically tested to establish whether they belonged to any of the murdered women .
During the course of the press briefings , DCS Gull stated that over 300 police officers were involved in the investigation , and some 400 – 450 calls were being received daily by detectives .
On 15 December , Suffolk Constabulary 's website revealed that a total of 7 @,@ 300 telephone calls had been made to police regarding the investigation , and that over 300 police staff and specialists were working on the cases , with support from at least 25 other police forces . As of 18 December , the number of officers involved in the investigation had increased to 650 including 350 officers from 40 other police forces who had assisted in the inquiry . The number of calls received regarding the case had also increased to around 10 @,@ 000 .
= = Victims = =
= = = Tania Nicol = = =
Tania Nicol , aged 19 , from Ipswich , the first of the victims to be reported missing , disappeared on 30 October and was reported missing by her mother 48 hours later . Her body was discovered on 8 December near Copdock Mill in a river by police divers ; there was no evidence of sexual assault and a post mortem could not establish a definite cause of death . Nicol attended Chantry High School but had left home at 16 to live in a hostel , where she began to use heroin . Nicol , the youngest of the five victims , worked as a prostitute to fund her addiction to heroin and cocaine . She had originally worked in massage parlours , using the alias of Chantelle in one , but was asked to leave on suspicion that she was using drugs . Her mother was unaware she was a prostitute , and thought she had been working in a bar or a hairdressers .
= = = Gemma Adams = = =
Gemma Rose Adams aged 25 , born in Kesgrave , last seen outside a BMW dealership on West End Road in Ipswich , where she had been living , disappeared on 15 November at about 01 @.@ 15 ( UTC ) . She was reported missing the same day by her partner , with whom she had been for ten years . Her body was found on 2 December , in a river at Hintlesham ; she was the first of the victims to be found . Adams was found naked , in a brook , but had not been sexually assaulted . Adams had been a popular child ; she came from a middle @-@ class family and had a love of animals . As a teenager she started taking hard drugs , becoming addicted to heroin . She had been working as a prostitute to cover the cost of her drug addiction , which had already led to her being dismissed from her job with an insurance firm . Her partner was at the time also a heroin user , and was aware she was working as a prostitute , although her family were not .
= = = Anneli Alderton = = =
Anneli Sarah Alderton , aged 24 , a mother of one who was also in the early stages of pregnancy , had been living in Colchester , Essex . Alderton disappeared on 3 December and was last seen on the 17 @.@ 53 train from Harwich to Manningtree . Alderton got off the train at Manningtree at 18 @.@ 15 before going on to Ipswich on another train , arriving at 18 @.@ 43 . Alderton 's body was found on 10 December near Nacton , in woodland in front of Amberfield School . Alderton had been asphyxiated and was found naked , and was posed in the cruciform position . Her pregnancy was also revealed by the autopsy and her family were first informed of it by police officers . Anneli moved to Cyprus with her mother in 1992 after her parents separated , and they returned to Ipswich in 1997 . Alderton attended Copleston High School and gained good grades in her exams . Alderton had been addicted to drugs since age 16 , shortly after her father 's death from lung cancer in 1998 .
= = = Annette Nicholls = = =
Annette Nicholls , aged 29 , a mother of one from Ipswich , was initially thought to have gone missing on 4 December , but at the trial it was revealed she was last seen in Ipswich town centre on 8 December . Her family reported her missing after they grew concerned at the news of the other murders . Nicholls ' body was found on 12 December near Levington , naked but not sexually assaulted , and also posed in the cruciform position ; a definite cause of death could not be established , but her breathing had been hampered . Nicholls , the oldest victim , had been a drug addict since the early 2000s , shortly after completing a beautician 's course at Suffolk College . Soon afterwards , she had started working as a prostitute to fund her addiction . After moving to a housing association home from her council house , Nicholls asked her mother to look after her son . She was thought to be staying with a man in Ipswich at the time of her death .
= = = Paula Clenell = = =
Paula Lucille Clennell , aged 24 , born in Northumberland and living in Ipswich , disappeared on 10 December in Ipswich at approximately 00 @.@ 20 . Clennell 's body was found on 12 December near Levington on the same day as Nicholls ' . Clennell was found naked but not sexually assaulted and a post mortem reported that she had been killed by a compression of her throat . Prior to her death , Clennell commented on the then recent murders in an interview with Anglia News , stating that despite them making her " a bit wary about getting into cars " she continued to work because " I need the money . " Clennell moved to East Anglia ten years before her death , following the break @-@ up of her parents ' marriage . Clennell had three children with her partner ; all had been taken into care and adopted due to her drug addiction . Clennell herself had spent some of her childhood in a referral unit , and it was shortly after being placed there that she started taking drugs .
= = Arrest of suspects = =
On 18 December 2006 , Suffolk Constabulary reported that they had arrested a 37 @-@ year @-@ old man on suspicion of murdering all five women . The man was arrested at 07 @.@ 20 at a house in Trimley St. Martin near Felixstowe , Suffolk . The detention of the suspect was extended by magistrates by a further period of 24 hours , to the maximum of 96 hours allowed under English law . On 19 December , at 05 @.@ 00 , police arrested a second suspect , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old , at a residence in Ipswich , on suspicion of committing murder . The following day , 20 December , police were granted a 36 @-@ hour extension to question the second suspect in detention . On 21 December , a joint statement was issued by DCS Gull and Michael Crimp , senior prosecutor for the Crown Prosecution Service in Suffolk , announcing that the second suspect identified as Steve Wright had been charged with the murder of all five women . Police said that the first suspect , who was not officially named , was released on police bail . Bail conditions were cancelled on 6 June 2007 for the first suspect , as no more inquiries concerning the case were planned involving this person .
= = Court appearances = =
Wright appeared before magistrates in Ipswich on 22 December 2006 and was remanded in custody . On 2 January 2007 , Wright appeared before Ipswich Crown Court and was remanded in custody to appear before a court on 1 May . At the 1 May appearance , Wright formally entered a plea of not guilty . In July 2007 , Wright appeared at a pre @-@ trial hearing in London where it was announced the trial would begin 14 January 2008 .
On 14 January 2008 , Wright appeared at Ipswich Crown Court ahead of his trial , which began on 16 January , with the prosecution opening their case . The court heard how the bodies of two of the victims , Anneli Alderton and Annette Nicholls , were deliberately posed in the cruciform position , with DNA evidence linking Steve Wright to three of the victims and fibre evidence also connecting him to the victims . The defence argued that Wright was a frequenter of prostitutes , and he had " full sex " with all of the victims , barring Tania Nichols , whom he " picked up " with the intention of sexual relations , but apparently changed his mind and dropped her off back in the red light district of Ipswich . This contradicted Wright 's earlier statement when stopped by police in the district in the early hours of the morning , when he gave the police the impression he was unaware he was in the red light district and that he was driving around because he could not sleep . Wright 's rented flat is located in the red light area .
On 21 January , jurors were taken to sites involved in the case . These included Wright 's rented house , which they viewed only from the outside , and the areas where the victims were found .
During the trial , the prosecutor , Peter Wright QC , suggested that Steve Wright may not have acted alone , as the remains of Anneli Alderton were found some distance from the road but with no evidence that her body had been dragged by one person .
= = = Jury = = =
The jury in the trial was the second group chosen for the task , as a member of the original jury had a health issue which would have been prohibitive for the trial . The jury consisted of nine men and three women . All potential jurors had to complete a questionnaire , which asked if the candidates knew any of the victims , witnesses , or the suspect . The judge told jurors that they should not do their own research or obtain information from the media on the case . When it came time to sum up the evidence in the case , Mr. Justice Gross asked the jury to put aside their emotions stating :
= = = Verdict = = =
On 21 February 2008 , after eight hours of deliberation , the jury returned a unanimous guilty verdict against Steve Wright on all five counts of murder . A murder conviction carries an automatic term of life imprisonment but the judge could decide if Wright would be awarded parole at any point . The prosecution QC argued that Wright should receive a whole life tariff and thus never be released from prison . Subsequently , on 22 February 2008 , Wright was sentenced to life imprisonment and Mr Justice Gross recommended that life should mean life , on the basis that the murders resulted from a " substantial degree of pre @-@ meditation and planning " .
After the verdict , relatives of the victims thanked the police for their efforts to solve the crime , while some expressed their feelings that life imprisonment was not enough ( even if Wright were to ultimately end his life behind bars ) , and that he should face the death penalty . Craig Bradshaw , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Paula Clenell , stated :
However , other family members seemed satisfied with the verdict . The father of Gemma Adams said :
Prime minister Gordon Brown praised the " professionalism and dedication " of the police and prosecutors involved in the case , whilst using it as an example of what he believed to be the importance of the national DNA database .
= = Steve Wright biography = =
Steve Gerald James Wright was born in the Norfolk village of Erpingham in April 1958 . Wright joined the Merchant Navy after leaving school . In 1978 , he married and had a son soon afterwards ; the couple later divorced . In 1987 he married another woman ; they separated in 1988 , and later divorced . He worked as a dock worker , a steward on the QE2 , a lorry driver , a barman , and , just prior to his arrest , a fork @-@ lift truck driver . He became a father again with another lover in 1992 . Wright built up large debts largely through gambling , and had recently been declared bankrupt . Wright had twice tried to commit suicide , firstly by carbon monoxide poisoning and then , in 2000 , by an overdose of pills . Wright met his last girlfriend , Pamela Wright ( the shared surname is a coincidence ) , in 2001 in Felixstowe , and they moved to the house in Ipswich together in 2004 . Wright had always admitted that he had used prostitutes , firstly whilst in the Merchant Navy , and continuously throughout his life .
Investigations into other crimes Wright might have committed continue , including the possibility of an involvement in the Suzy Lamplugh disappearance . However Metropolitan Police have stated that this is not a strong line of enquiry .
= = Media coverage = =
The murders have been likened to those by Peter Sutcliffe , the " Yorkshire Ripper " who was convicted of murdering 13 women ( and wounding seven others ) , mainly those who worked as prostitutes , over a period of five years from 1975 to 1980 in northern England ; and to " Jack the Ripper " , the infamous Victorian serial murderer who also targeted prostitutes .
As with previous serial killers dating back to Jack the Ripper , many sections of the media have attempted to coin a name for the presumed murderer , using the " Suffolk Strangler " , and other terms to refer to the case .
A reward was offered , first by local business Call Connection , who initially offered £ 25 @,@ 000 and later raised it to £ 50 @,@ 000 . Shortly after , the News of the World offered a £ 250 @,@ 000 reward for leads to a direct arrest and conviction of the murderer / murderers , bringing the total reward on offer to £ 300 @,@ 000 .
= = = Concerns about the media coverage = = =
On 21 December 2006 , the then Attorney General Lord Goldsmith issued guidance to the media after concerns were raised by Suffolk Constabulary about the coverage and potential prejudice of a future trial . Lord Goldsmith urged the media to show restraint in what they reported about the two suspects being held , for fear of prejudicing any possible trial . A senior prosecutor on the case , Michael Crimp , also expressed his concerns that media coverage could jeopardise the trial , stating :
= = = Coverage of related issues = = =
The murders refocused press attention on a number of controversial issues in British politics .
The first is that of prostitution in the United Kingdom . The murders have highlighted the vulnerability of prostitutes and the lack of action taken by the government , whether to be more punitive in the hope of reducing the numbers of prostitutes on the streets , to move towards legalised brothels and other measures to improve the safety of the women , or to target the demand for prostitution through prosecution of the clients , as is done in Sweden . The government has moved in the direction of tough " anti @-@ prostitution " laws which target the clients . The government had at one point considered allowing " mini brothels " , but abandoned this plan after fears that such establishments would bring pimps and drug dealers into residential areas . Instead , the laws became tougher : the Policing and Crime Act 2009 made it illegal to pay for sex with a prostitute who has been " subjected to force " and this is a strict liability offense ( clients can be prosecuted even if they did not know the prostitute was forced ) .
The second is that of drug use and whether it should be legalised or decriminalised , provided on prescription to registered addicts , or penalised more harshly . High numbers ( 95 % according to the Home Office ) of street prostitutes in the United Kingdom have a history of substance abuse , and prostitution is one means of funding addiction , known to have been used by all five of the victims .
= = Appeals = =
On 19 March 2008 , it was announced that Wright would be lodging an appeal against his five convictions for murder , as well as the trial judge 's recommendation that his life sentence should mean life . Amongst other things , Wright has claimed that the trial should not have been held in Ipswich , and that the evidence against him was not sufficient proof of his guilt , thus giving him grounds for an appeal . Wright was reported to have written to the court of appeal " All five women were stripped naked of clothing / jewellery / phones / bags and no evidence was found in my house or car . " Wright has also applied to receive a new solicitor .
The news of his planned appeal sparked outrage among those affected by his crimes , including Brian Adams , father of victim Gemma Adams , who remains convinced of Wright 's guilt and urged him to instead " come clean and stop wasting everyone 's time " . This first appeal was rejected in July 2008 .
On 15 July 2008 , it was announced that Steve Wright had renewed his appeal against convictions , and it would be considered by three judges in an open court hearing , the Royal Courts of Justice said . In February 2009 , it was reported that Wright had dropped this bid to appeal against the convictions , though some of his family hoped to convince the Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) to take the case on .
On 3 December 2012 , Wright announced that he would be launching a third appeal against his conviction .
= = Dramatisations = =
The BBC Drama department commissioned a dramatisation of the murders and the investigation from screenwriter Stephen Butchard . The three @-@ part production , entitled Five Daughters , began filming in November 2009 , and was broadcast on BBC One from 25 – 27 April 2010 . Only a few days after the BBC 's announcement of the drama , Brian Clennell , the father of Paula Clennell , complained that it would portray the victims in " a bad light " . Wright 's brother David also complained that it would jeopardise any future retrial . Sarah Lancashire and Ian Hart led the cast .
A musical play , London Road , commissioned by the Royal National Theatre and written by Alecky Blythe and Adam Cork , is based on interviews with residents of the street in Ipswich where Steve Wright lived . A film adaptation of the play was released in the UK in 2015 .
The case was featured in an episode of the documentary series Real Crime .
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= Arlen F. Gregorio =
Arlen F. Gregorio ( born September 11 , 1931 ) is an American attorney , politician and commercial mediator . He was a member of the California State Senate from 1970 to 1978 . As a Senator he chaired the Senate Health and Welfare Committee from 1979 to 1984 and was an elected member of the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors from 1979 to 1984 . After leaving politics in 1985 he began a career in mediation .
= = Early life and education = =
Gregorio was born in San Francisco on September 11 , 1931 to a family who has lived in California for four generations . He grew up in the Bernal Heights district until his family moved to Burlingame , California , where he attended Hoover School , Burlingame High School and the College of San Mateo . Gregorio served as a U.S. Naval Air Officer for three years in the 1950s receiving the China Service Medal for combat duty . He received his bachelor 's and law degrees from Stanford University in 1955 . He was an adjunct faculty member at Stanford University , Notre Dame University in Belmont , and College of San Mateo .
= = Career = =
Gregorio became a member of the California State Bar in 1955 . He was a partner in general law practice from 1958 to 1970 and held the position of Assistant City Attorney for San Bruno from 1962 to 1970 . He also chaired the San Mateo County Democratic Central Committee from 1964 to 1970 .
= = = Politics = = =
In 1970 , he was elected to represent San Mateo County in the California State Senate . According to fellow Senator Alan Robbins , Gregorio " refused special @-@ interest money " and " contributions over $ 100 " . During his two terms in the Senate ( 1970 - 1978 ) , Gregorio authored laws dealing with legislation and campaign finance reform , alcohol and drug abuse , the arts , environment , education and health . He was chairman of the Senate Health and Welfare Committee from 1973 to 1978 . Gregorio had a particular interest in reforming campaign financing and the political process in general . His political reforms included allowing the public to attend state budget conference committee meetings and to access legislator committee voting results .
In 1975 , Gregorio challenged then Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. to a debate after the Governor vetoed his " alcohol tax bill . " In 1976 he created legislation that would give members of the public the " voting majority on most regulatory boards . " Gregorio lost his November 1978 Senate bid by a margin of only 90 votes after a vote recount . In 1979 , he won a special election to the San Mateo County Board of Supervisors and was re @-@ elected in 1980 , serving through 1984 . Gregorio 's last political race was in 1984 , when he left the Board of Supervisors to run again for the state Senate . In that political contest , Gregorio and his opponent , Becky Morgan , set a " new Senate campaign spending record " of $ 1 @.@ 6 million .
= = = Mediation = = =
After leaving politics , Gregorio began an attorney mediation practice in San Francisco in 1985 . He founded the non @-@ profit , Peninsula Conflict Resolution Center in San Mateo , California in 1986 . In 1989 , he created the first law partnership that focused exclusively on the mediation of civil trial matters . The firm is known as Gregorio , Haldeman & Rotman and is located in San Francisco .
= = Personal life = =
Gregorio learned the Transcendental Meditation technique after reading a Wall Street Journal article about it in 1971 . He appeared with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , Clint Eastwood and others on an episode of the Merv Griffin show in 1975 .
He has three sons by his first marriage and began his second marriage in 1980 .
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= German destroyer Z11 Bernd von Arnim =
Z11 Bernd von Arnim was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . In late 1939 the ship made one successful minelaying sortie off the English coast that claimed one British warship and seven merchant ships . During the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , Bernd von Arnim fought the British destroyer Glowworm while transporting troops to the Narvik area in early April 1940 , but neither ship was damaged during the action . The ship fought in both naval Battles of Narvik several days later and had to be scuttled after she exhausted her ammunition .
= = Design and description = =
Bernd von Arnim had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 long tons ( 2 @,@ 206 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 190 long tons ( 3 @,@ 240 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Bernd von Arnim carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Bernd von Arnim carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines .
= = Career = =
The ship was ordered on 4 August 1934 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 26 March 1935 as yard number G537 . She was launched on 8 July 1936 and completed on 6 July 1938 . When World War II began in September 1939 , Bernd von Arnim was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . The ship also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods . Bernd von Arnim joined the other destroyers in laying minefields off the British coast in November , when Bernd von Arnim , Hermann Künne and Wilhelm Heidkamp laid about 180 magnetic mines in the middle of the Thames Estuary on the night of 17 / 18 November . The destroyer HMS Gipsy , one trawler , and seven other ships totalling 27 @,@ 565 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) were sunk by this minefield . Four days later , she was one of the destroyers escorting the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst through the North Sea to break out into the North Atlantic . Together with her sisters Hans Lody and Erich Giese , Bernd von Arnim was to lay a minefield off Cromer during the night of 6 / 7 December , but she had trouble with two of her boilers and had to shut them down . The ship was ordered to return to port while the other two destroyers continued their mission .
= = = Norwegian campaign = = =
Bernd von Arnim was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung in April 1940 . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . Bernd von Arnim was spotted by the British destroyer Glowworm in a storm on the morning of 8 April and the ship turned away to the north @-@ west at full speed after laying a smoke screen . The German ship was suffering damage from the heavy seas at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) and was forced to reduce speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) after she had lost two men overboard . The British destroyer was better suited for the conditions and began to close on Bernd von Arnim . Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Curt Rechel , captain of von Arnim , turned his ship to the north @-@ east , closer to the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . The ships exchanged fire without effect for an hour until Hipper came within range and sank Glowworm shortly afterward .
The German destroyers reached the Ofotfjord on the morning of 9 April and Commodore Friedrich Bonte took his flagship Wilhelm Heidkamp , Bernd von Arnim and Georg Thiele down the fjord to Narvik . A heavy snowstorm allowed von Arnim and Thiele to enter the harbor without challenge and tie up at a pier . The mountain troops immediately began disembarking , but the ship was spotted by the coast defense ship Norge a few minutes later . The latter ship immediately opened fire and was able to fire approximately 13 shells at 600 – 800 meters ( 660 – 870 yd ) range before von Arnim was able to fire seven torpedoes . Only two struck the Norwegian ship , but they detonated one or more of the ship 's magazines and she immediately capsized and sank . None of the Norwegian shells hit either of the two German destroyers due to the darkness and falling snow , despite the short range . Von Arnim lowered boats to rescue the surviving Norwegian sailors and was able to pick up 96 men together with boats from the merchantmen in harbor .
Von Arnim and Thiele were the first to refuel from the single tanker that had made it safely to Narvik and later moved to the Ballangenfjord , a southern arm of the Ofotfjord , closer to the entrance . Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the five German destroyers in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the 4th Flotilla which had been alerted in the Herjansfjord when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik , but von Arnim and Thiele had also been alerted and were coming up to engage the British .
The two German destroyers crossed the T of the British flotilla and were able to fire full broadsides at a range of only 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . They first engaged the British flagship , HMS Hardy , and badly damaged her . Both of her forward guns were knocked out and the forward superstructure was set afire . Hardy was forced to beach herself lest she sink , and the German ships switched their fire to HMS Havock , the next ship in line . Their fire was relatively ineffective and both sides fired torpedoes without scoring any hits . Havock pulled out and dropped to the rear to fight off any pursuit by the ships of the 4th Flotilla . This placed HMS Hunter in the lead and she was quickly set on fire by the German ships . Thiele probably also hit her with a torpedo and she was rammed from behind by HMS Hotspur when the latter ship lost steering control . Hotspur was able to disengage , but Hunter capsized shortly afterward . The three remaining British ships were able to escape from the Germans under the cover of a smoke screen . Von Arnim had been hit by five British shells , which had knocked out one boiler . This was repaired by the morning of 13 April and she received six torpedoes from the badly damaged destroyers .
On the night of 12 April , Commander Erich Bey , the senior surviving German officer , received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . The battleship Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , including Bernd von Arnim , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . Although no hits were scored , they did inflict splinter damage on several of the destroyers . The ship was able to make a torpedo attack on the British destroyers before being driven off , but her torpedoes all missed . Lack of ammunition forced the German ships to retreat to the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where they might attempt to ambush pursuing British destroyers . Von Arnim had exhausted her ammunition and she was beached at the head of the fjord . Her crew placed demolition charges and abandoned the ship . By the time the British reached the ship she had rolled over onto her side . The ship 's crew joined the German troops ashore and participated in the campaign until the British evacuated the area in June .
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= Joe Darling =
Joseph " Joe " Darling CBE ( 21 November 1870 – 2 January 1946 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 34 Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1894 and 1905 . As captain , he led Australia in a total of 21 Tests , winning seven and losing four . In Test cricket , he scored 1657 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 56 per innings , including three centuries . Darling toured England four times with the Australian team — in 1896 , 1899 , 1902 and 1905 ; the last three tours as captain . He was captain of the Australian cricket team in England in 1902 , widely recognised as one of the best teams in Australian cricket history .
He was a stocky , compact man and a strong driver of the ball , playing most of his cricket as an opening batsman . He was a patient batsman and was known for his solid defence , but he was able to score quickly when required . In Sydney in 1897 – 98 , he scored 160 in 165 minutes , including 30 boundaries to assist his team in defeating the English . He was the first man to score 500 runs in a Test series and was also the first to score three centuries in a series . His captaincy was disciplinarian in nature but his teammates respected his broad cricket knowledge . Even tempered with a strong personality , he was a stickler for fair play on the field . His teammates gave him the nickname " Paddy " due to a supposed resemblance to the Australian boxer , Frank " Paddy " Slavin .
His cricket career was interrupted several times due to his obligations as a farmer , first growing wheat in South Australia , and later as a wool @-@ grower in Tasmania . He was a member of several bodies dedicated to agriculture in Tasmania , including the responsible authority for the Royal Hobart Show . He was a pioneer in activities such as rabbit eradication and pasture improvement . He entered politics in 1921 , standing as an independent in the Tasmanian Legislative Council , where he was a forceful speaker . He retained his seat in the Tasmanian Parliament until his death following a gall bladder operation in 1946 .
= = Early life and career = =
Darling was born on 21 November 1870 in Glen Osmond , South Australia , the sixth son of John Darling , a grain merchant and his wife Isabella , née Ferguson . He was educated at Prince Alfred College , where he took an interest in cricket . At the age of 15 , he scored a record 252 runs in the " inter @-@ collegiate " match , the annual fixture against fierce rival St Peter 's College . His future Test team mate , Clem Hill , would later beat this record , scoring 360 . Not long after , he was included in a combined South Australian / Victoria XV that played the Australian XI in 1886 . He made only 16 runs , but the manner in which he made them saw senior players hail him as a future champion .
His father , disapproving of Darling 's fondness for sport , sent him away from his cricket and Australian rules football teams to spend twelve months at Roseworthy Agricultural School . Later , Darling worked in a bank for a time and before his father appointed him manager of one of a wheat farm . Working on the farm added size and strength to an already stocky and athletic frame . He was selected for the South Australian team at age 19 , but his father would not allow him time off the farm to play .
After two years in the bush , Darling returned to Adelaide and cricket . He opened a sports store on Rundle Street , Adelaide and was soon selected to represent South Australia in inter @-@ colonial cricket . He made his first @-@ class cricket debut against New South Wales at the Adelaide Oval ; scoring 5 and 32 as South Australia won the match by 237 runs . The next season , against the touring England team captained by Andrew Stoddart , Darling made 115 , his maiden first @-@ class century .
= = Test career = =
= = = Consolidation = = =
The First Test of 1894 – 95 against England , at the Sydney Cricket Ground , saw Darling make his Test debut . In an innings where Australia make 586 runs , including centuries for George Giffen and Syd Gregory , Darling was dismissed for a golden duck , bowled first ball by Tom Richardson . He played in all five Tests in the series , scoring 258 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 66 per innings . He was included in the Australian team to tour England in 1896 , where he topped the scoring aggregates for the tour with 1555 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 90 , including three centuries . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack stated that Darling " proved himself perhaps the best of present @-@ day left @-@ handed batsmen " during the tour . England won the series two Tests to one .
Andrew Stoddart brought another team to Australia to contest The Ashes in 1897 – 98 . Australia won the series comfortably , four Tests to one . Darling started the season poorly , scoring a duck and one against the tourists for South Australia in a match in which team mate Clem Hill scored a double century . Darling went on , however , to dominate the series with the bat . His maiden Test century , 101 in the First Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground after Australia was made to follow @-@ on , was the first made by a left @-@ hander in Tests . It was not enough to prevent England winning by nine wickets .
In the Third Test in his home town of Adelaide , Darling scored 178 runs and Australia won the match by an innings and 13 runs . He reached his century by hitting Johnny Briggs over the eastern gate and into the nearby park . This is the only time in Ashes Tests where a player has reached 100 with a hit out of the ground . During this innings , he also became the first player to hit a six in a Test in Australia ( prior to 1910 , a six was awarded only if the ball was hit out of the ground ) . He later also hit the first six in a Test in England . Returning to Sydney for the Fifth and final Test , Darling scored 160 runs from 253 scored in total . He batted for 165 minutes , hitting 30 boundaries as Australia successfully chased 273 in the fourth innings . His first 100 came in 91 minutes ; at the time , the fastest Test century scored . By the end of the season , Darling became the first player to score 500 runs in a series and the first player to score three centuries in a series .
= = = Captaincy = = =
Darling was chosen by his team mates as captain for the 1899 Australian team touring England . The team was one of the strongest seen in England to that time , with the cricket reference book Wisden stating , " By common consent the [ 1899 Australians ] formed the strongest combination that had come from the Colonies since the great side captained by Mr. W. L. Murdoch in 1882 . " and that " Darling proved himself one of the very best captains that ever took a team into the field . " The Australians lost only three of the 35 matches they played on the tour , winning 16 and another 16 finishing in draws . The only Test to reach a decisive result was the Second Test at Lord 's , where Australia won by ten wickets due in part to centuries by Hill and Victor Trumper and a ten wicket haul by fast bowler Ernie Jones . Aside from Hill , Darling was seen by Wisden as the best batsman among the Australians . Wisden claimed , " Up to a certain point the responsibilities of captaincy seemed to tell against Darling , but during the last weeks of the tour he played marvellous cricket . " Over the tour , he scored 1941 runs at an average of 41 @.@ 29 , topping both the averages and the aggregate for his team , and was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year .
Darling 's deeds as a cricketer had reconciled his father to his sporting endeavours , but not to his sports store operation . In 1900 , his father purchased " Stonehenge " , a sheep station covering 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) in central Tasmania and ordered Darling to run the property on pain of exclusion from his will . Darling complied with his father 's wishes and moved his family to the remote station , 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) along a dirt track from the nearest town , tiny Oatlands . Darling stood out of first @-@ class cricket for nearly two years .
It was not until December 1901 that Darling was convinced to return by the Melbourne Cricket Club to captain the Australians against the touring English for the first three Tests only . The English , captained by Archie MacLaren , won the First Test in Sydney convincingly by an innings and 124 runs . The Second Test in Melbourne was played on a rain @-@ affected pitch . MacLaren won the toss and sent Australia in to bat on the " sticky wicket " . Within three hours , both teams had been dismissed ; Australia holding a lead on the first innings of 51 runs . Realising the danger the pitch held to his leading batsmen , Darling re @-@ ordered the batting line @-@ up and opened the batting himself alongside Hugh Trumble . The pair held out the English for 90 minutes ; Darling considered his 32 runs one of his best innings . Nevertheless , Barnes managed to grab five wickets in the final half @-@ hour to leave the Australians 5 / 48 when stumps was called . Twenty five wickets fell in the day 's play . Importantly , Australia had a 99 @-@ run lead and batsmen of the calibre of Hill , Trumper , Reggie Duff and Warwick Armstrong still to bat . The next day , on a perfect pitch , the Australian batsmen established a match @-@ winning lead , eventually winning the Test by 229 runs . In the Third Test in Adelaide , Australia became the first team to score over 300 runs to win the fourth innings of a Test match . Darling , along with Hill and Trumble , led the record making run chase ; Darling scored 62 runs . Hugh Trumble captained the final two Tests as Darling returned to his farm . Australia won both Tests and the series to retain The Ashes .
= = = Return to cricket = = =
Darling agreed to once again lead the Australian cricket team in England in 1902 . In what was a very cold and wet summer , the Australian team won a close fought series against the strong English team two Tests to one . Given the strength of the opposition , this Australian team is often referred to as one of the best Australian teams ever assembled . The team included players of the calibre of Trumper , Hill , Armstrong , Trumble and Monty Noble ; all of whom would be later included in the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame . The team lost only two matches during the tour , with Wisden saying , " No travelling team ever strove harder for victory or more completely subordinated all personal considerations to the prime object of winning matches . They formed a splendid all @-@ round combination " .
The First Test at Edgbaston finished in a draw . Rain saved the Australians after they were dismissed for only 36 in their first innings ; Wilfred Rhodes took seven wickets for only 17 runs . Rain again ruined the Second Test at Lord 's when the final two days were washed out . The Third Test , the only Test match played at Bramall Lane , saw Australia win by 143 runs due in part to a century by Hill and Noble taking 5 / 51 . Darling was dismissed twice by Barnes without scoring , the first Test captain to make a " pair " . Australia won the Fourth Test at Old Trafford by three runs ; Trumble took ten wickets for the match . The last batsman , Fred Tate , came in with England needing eight runs to secure victory . Darling brought the field in and Trumble prevented Rhodes scoring from the last three balls of his over . This left Tate to face Jack Saunders , who dismissed him with the fourth ball of his over to win the match for Australia . England won the Fifth and final Test at the Oval by one wicket . Chasing 263 , England were 5 / 48 when Gilbert Jessop scored a century in 75 minutes to help England to victory .
The star for the Australians was Trumper who scored 2 @,@ 570 runs , easily beating Darling 's own record for a colonial batsman in an English season set in 1899 . So important was Trumper to the Australian team that Darling , who had previously checked that all the Australians were on board the carriage to the ground , was later simply to ask " Is Vic aboard ? " before giving the driver the go @-@ ahead . Darling himself had a mixed tour with the bat .
Darling started the tour in a way that promised great things , but he did not keep up his form and fell a good deal below his standard of 1896 and 1899 . His tremendous hitting power , however , was several times of the utmost value , and very likely in a season of hard wickets he would have had as good a record as ever .
On the return trip to Australia , the touring team stopped to play three Tests against South Africa , the first between the two nations . Australia won the series two Tests to nil , but Darling 's own form was poor . In successive innings , Darling made 0 , 14 , 6 , 4 and 1 . After the tour , he returned to Stonehenge and took a two @-@ year break from first @-@ class cricket . In his absence , Monty Noble captained the Australian team against the touring English in 1903 – 04 .
= = = Final tour and retirement = = =
Before the Australian team to tour England in 1905 was selected , Darling returned to first @-@ class cricket for South Australia . He won selection in the touring squad and was named as captain . A weaker Australian bowling attack saw Darling resort to defensive measures throughout the tour . These measures included directing Armstrong to bowl his leg breaks down the leg side , where Darling had placed up to seven fielders . These measures , unpopular with the English public , saw 19 matches on the tour finish in draws , three more than the 16 matches won by Australia . Wisden said , " Leaving aside Duff 's long score at the Oval , Darling was the finest batsman on the side in the Test games , playing superb cricket under very trying conditions . " At Old Trafford in the Fourth Test , he made 73 out of 105 in less than ninety minutes . His innings included thirteen boundaries , all but one of them being drives . Despite his efforts , England still won the Test by an innings and 80 runs .
After losing six tosses against his English opposite number Stanley Jackson during the summer , Darling decided on a different approach before the Scarborough Festival match late in the tour . At the toss , he approached Jackson stripped to the waist and suggested , in fun , a wrestle for choice of innings .
The 1905 tour was Darling 's last Test cricket foray , as he claimed that continuing to tour was unfair to his wife . He retired from first @-@ class cricket during the 1907 – 08 season . In his first @-@ class career , Darling made 10635 runs , including 19 centuries at an average of 34 @.@ 52 . In club cricket in Adelaide , Joe scored heavily . He averaged 144 for East Torrens Cricket Club in 1899 – 1900 , 98 @.@ 66 for Adelaide Cricket Club in 1896 – 97 and 86 @.@ 20 for Sturt Cricket Club in 1904 – 05 . He continued to make runs in Tasmanian club cricket right through middle age . In 1921 , he made 100 runs in an hour , including 29 in one eight @-@ ball over playing for Claremont Cricket Club . At age 52 , he made 133 not out during a successful run chase where his team , Break @-@ o ' -Day , made 6 / 219 in 90 minutes .
He was contemptuous of the newly formed Australian Board of Control for International Cricket Matches ( now known as Cricket Australia ) , who he saw as attempting to remove control of international cricket tours from the players . He would often refer to cricket administrators as " Dead Heads " . He later represented the Tasmanian Cricket Association as a delegate to the Board of Control .
= = Outside cricket = =
Following his retirement from big cricket , Darling returned to his Tasmanian sheep station , where he was involved in a range of agricultural activities . He pioneered measures to eradicate rabbits , an introduced pest then in plague proportions throughout Australia . He was an active member of organisations such as the Tasmanian Stock Holders and Orchardists ' Association and the Royal Agricultural Society of Tasmania , the organising body of the Royal Hobart Show . Darling imported South Australian merino rams to improve his flock , and his wool topped the Hobart sales on several occasions . He also introduced subterranean clover to Tasmania .
In 1919 , Darling moved from Stonehenge to Claremont House , around which the Hobart suburb of Claremont later formed . He was elected to the Cambridge electorate in the Tasmanian Legislative Council in 1921 as an independent . He retained his position in the Parliament until his death in 1946 . In Parliament , one of his colleagues was Charles Eady , his teammate from the 1896 tour of England . Darling was recognised by his colleagues as a forceful , no @-@ nonsense speaker . In the 1930s , he won an exemption from land tax for small farmers , and toward the end of his parliamentary career , a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate charges Darling had made regarding maladministration . The findings of the commission , released after his death , saw a government Minister and two others found guilty of accepting bribes . Darling was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1938 New Year Honours in recognition of his work as a member of the Legislative Assembly .
Darling married Alice Minna Blanche Francis , a wheat farmer 's daughter from Mundoora , South Australia in 1893 . Together they raised 15 children : ten sons and five daughters . After surgery for a ruptured gall bladder , Darling died in Hobart on 2 January 1946 . He was buried at Cornelian Bay cemetery after a Congregationalist ceremony and was survived by his wife and twelve of his children .
= = Style and personality = =
Darling had a stocky , compact build , standing 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 metres ) and weighing 12 stone 12 pounds ( 82 kg ) . His teammates thought his dark hair , blue eyes and moustache were similar to the boxer , Frank " Paddy " Slavin , and he answered to the nickname " Paddy " during his time in cricket . His time working on his father 's farm had developed his strength . During his first game for South Australia , he was challenged to a naked wrestle by the fast bowler and ex @-@ miner Ernie Jones , an informal initiation into the team . To his team mates ' surprise , Darling managed to defeat the much larger Jones .
The left @-@ handed Darling was a strong driver of the ball who showed the batsman the full face of the bat . When necessary , he was a dour defender of his wicket . His fellow players thought that was sometimes unnecessarily defensive in his approach to batting and that he was at his best when driving hard . His South Australian and Australian team mate George Giffen thought that no Australian 's cut shots travelled faster past point .
Darling is a remarkable combination of stolidity and power . His driving , whenever he choose to let himself loose , is tremendous , and no left @-@ handed batsman , at any rate in our time , has possessed quite such a defence . He always gives one the idea of being a great natural hitter , who has rigorously schooled himself to play the steady game .
Darling holds the record for the most innings in a complete Test Match career ( 60 ) , without being dismissed lbw .
Darling had a strong personality and an independent outlook . Those who knew him well thought him destined to be a leader in whatever he undertook . He shunned strong drink and tobacco and found it difficult to tolerate overindulgence in alcohol . Normally even @-@ tempered , he did show displeasure at the heckling from the crowd at Lord 's at his obstinate defensive effort in the face of an Australian batting collapse . He was a stickler for fair play , but his actions against the English batsman KS Ranjitsinhji would today be seen as gamesmanship . During the bowler 's approach and after the bowler had looked at the field , the Australian fielders moved behind Ranjitsinhji 's back . This worried the Indian prince when playing his leg glance and eventually saw him left out of the English team .
The journalist Ray Robinson wrote that " of all Australian captains he came closest to being a disciplinarian " . Regardless , his team mates continued to select him as captain , trusting in his knowledge and understanding of the game . On a wet day during the 1899 tour , a delay in play saw some of the Australians accept an invitation to the Player 's tobacco factory in Nottingam . While away , the weather cleared and play began with Darling leading a team of five Australians and five substitutes onto the field . Darling later called a team meeting that saw the culprits fined ₤ 5 for breaching team rules . His approach to the hard @-@ drinking Ernie Jones was similarly tough . To ensure that the fast bowler would not drink to excess , he selected Jones as twelfth man in a match against an English county team . When Jones refused to play , a team meeting saw him facing expulsion from the team . Darling spoke to him privately and made it clear that without an apology to his team mates and a promise to curb his drinking , he would be on the next boat bound for Australia . The firm and prompt action had a lasting effect on team discipline during his time as Australian captain . Wisden noted that " as a captain he inspired his men to reveal their best form . " As a captain he was a reformer , suggesting rule changes that included making six runs the reward for clearing the boundary rather than the entire ground , and using of sawdust to fill holes in bowler 's run @-@ ups .
= = Test match performance = =
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= 2012 Gatorade Duels =
The 2012 Gatorade Duels were a pair of stock car races held on February 23 , 2012 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach , Florida . The 60 @-@ lap races , held before a crowd of 80 @,@ 000 , were the qualifying races for the 2012 Daytona 500 , the premier event of the 2012 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . The first race was won by Tony Stewart for the Stewart @-@ Haas Racing team . Dale Earnhardt Jr. finished second and Marcos Ambrose came in third . The second race was won by Matt Kenseth driving for the Roush Fenway Racing team ; their first win in the history of the Gatorade Duels . Regan Smith followed in the second position and Jimmie Johnson was third .
Carl Edwards led the first race from the start . One lap later , he was overtaken by Stewart . Afterward , Earnhardt moved into the first position , holding it until a caution period on lap nine . Denny Hamlin assumed the lead at the lap 14 and maintained the position until his pit stop 30 laps later . Stewart reclaimed the lead and held it throughout the remaining 16 laps and two further caution periods to win the first Gatorade Duel . There were three cautions and eight lead changes among five different drivers during the course of the first race .
During the second race , Greg Biffle was the leader at the start . On the fourth lap , Kenseth passed Biffle to take over the lead . He lost the position when Joey Logano and Kyle Busch moved into the top two places . Biffle passed Kyle Busch by the 29th lap and held it during his pit stop 14 laps later . With three laps remaining in the race , Kenseth attempted a race @-@ winning slingshot and passed Biffle when the final lap started and held it to win the second Gatorade Duel . There were five lead changes among five different drivers and no cautions were shown during the course of the second race .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Daytona International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Michigan International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . Its standard track is a four @-@ turn , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) superspeedway . Daytona 's turns are banked at 31 degrees and the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) is banked at 18 degrees . The defending winners of the races were Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton .
In early years , qualifying had varying formats : from one timed lap , to the average of two laps , to the better of two laps . The idea of having two individual races to establish the starting lineup of the Daytona 500 dates back to the first race in 1959 . The first of the 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) qualifying races consisted of Convertible division cars and the second of Grand National cars . Between 1960 and 1967 , the races were 100 miles ( 160 km ) and were increased to 125 miles ( 201 km ) in 1969 . Prior to 1971 , the races yielded points to the Drivers ' Championship . Large well @-@ established teams approach the races as practice sessions for the Daytona 500 while a successful qualification into the Daytona 500 for smaller less @-@ established teams would allow them to enter future NASCAR events during the season . An unsuccessful qualification meant the team would risk closing down until sponsorship was found . Corporate sponsors purchased naming rights to qualifying races ; between 1981 and 1984 , Uno cards was the title sponsor for the " Uno Twin 125 ’ s " qualifying events . In 1985 they became known as " 7 @-@ Eleven Twin 125 's " ; no sponsors funded the 1988 , 1989 and 1990 qualifying events and the races were called " Daytona Twin Qualifiers " . Gatorade became the sponsor of the dual qualifying events in 1991 and the races were increased to 150 miles ( 240 km ) as it became known as the " Gatorade Duels " in 2005 . The races were rebranded as the " Budweiser Duels " in 2013 and became known as the " Can @-@ Am Duels " in 2016 .
The top 35 drivers were assigned to Gatorade Duel races based upon their qualifying positions in the Daytona 500 . Drivers who qualifed in odd @-@ number positions competed in the first Duel along with the winner of the 2012 Daytona 500 pole . Competitors who qualifed in even @-@ numbered places took part in the second Duel . The drivers ' finishing positions in both Duels determined their starting positions in the Daytona 500 . Positions 40 to 42 were filled with the quickest drivers who did not qualify in the top 35 , apart from 43rd which was occupied by an eligible past champion . In the event a past champion was not available , the 43rd position would be filled by the next @-@ fastest driver . Two drivers outside the top 35 were eligible for two transfer spots in each Duel .
After some of the cars ' engines overheated while driving in packs during the 2012 Budweiser Shootout , NASCAR increased the engines ' pressure release values from 25 psi ( 1 @.@ 7 bar ) to 28 psi ( 1 @.@ 9 bar ) to help reduce overheating and alleviate the effects of driving at high temperatures .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Two 90 @-@ minute practice sessions were held on February 22 . Matt Kenseth was quickest in the first practice session , with a time of 44 @.@ 809 seconds . Trevor Bayne was second @-@ quickest with a lap @-@ time 0 @.@ 009 seconds slower . Ricky Stenhouse Jr , with a time of 44 @.@ 849 seconds , was third @-@ fastest , ahead of Marcos Ambrose and Mark Martin . Clint Bowyer , Michael McDowell and Kevin Harvick . Paul Menard and Kasey Kahne completed the top ten . During the session , Brad Keselowski slowed to avoid Ryan Newman , causing Clint Bowyer to turn into Keselowski , whose car went spinning into the grass on the backstretch . Keselowski 's car sustained minor damage ; his team could repair it , meaning he was not required to use a back @-@ up car . Aric Almirola led the second practice , in which 25 drivers competed , with a lap of 45 @.@ 065 seconds — nearly one @-@ tenth of a second faster than David Stremme . David Ragan was third , ahead of Robert Richardson , Jr. and Greg Biffle . Bobby Labonte , Joe Nemechek , Bill Elliott , Michael Waltrip and Kahne completed the top ten ahead of the races .
During the session , in where drivers ran in packs and drafted off each other , Juan Pablo Montoya made contact with Kahne and sent his car spinning into the grass on the frontstretch , tearing off some of its nose . Kahne was required to use a back @-@ up car for the rest of Speedweeks . Becauase the qualifying grids were chosen by the order in which drivers qualified in Daytona 500 pole position qualifying , the pole was given to Carl Edwards in the first race and to Biffle in the second . Edwards was joined on the front row of the grid by Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , with Ambrose in third . Stenhouse and Bayne started in fourth and fifth positions respectively . Biffle was joined by Mears on the front row for the second race , with Jeff Gordon in third . Martin Truex , Jr. started fourth , and was followed by Martin in fifth .
= = = Races = = =
The qualifying races for the 2012 Daytona 500 began at 2 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States by Speed . The conditions on the grid before the race were dry , the air temperature was 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) and a ten percent chance of rain was forecast . Dr. L. Ronald Durham of Greater Friendship Missionary Baptist Church in Daytona Beach , Florida began the pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . Vocalist Catrina Mack from Orlando , Florida performed the national anthem .
= = = = Race 1 = = = =
Following the invocation and the performance of the National Anthem , three @-@ time Olympic gold medalist swimmer Ryan Lochte gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . Edwards maintained his pole position lead going into the first corner with Earnhardt , Jr. in second . On lap two , Tony Stewart passed Edwards around the outside to take the lead . Edwards , with assistance from Bayne , moved in front of Stewart going into turn three to reclaim the first position two laps later . On the fifth lap , Earnhardt moved into the lead and Ambrose moved into second place . Edwards temporairly moved back into first before Earnhardt reclaimed the position . Bayne , who also battled for the lead , had moved down the field by lap seven . On lap nine , Michael McDowell made contact with David Gilliland 's left @-@ rear quarter panel between turns one and two ; Gilliland went up the track towards the outside wall , and collected Menard and Montoya , triggering the first caution of the race and the appearance of the pace car . Keselowski was also caught up in the wreckage and his car sustained minor damage . Most of the drivers , including Earnhardt , made pit stops for fuel . Earnhardt was required to make an additional pit stop after one of his pit crew went over the wall too soon , dropping him down the field .
The race was restarted on lap 14 , with Ambrose leading Denny Hamlin ( both of whom opted not to pit ) Almirola , Stewart and Jamie McMurray . Hamlin passed Ambrose to take the lead one lap later . Stewart , with aid from Burton , took over the lead from Hamlin one lap later . Hamlin reclaimed the lead on lap 17 and McDowell moved into second place . Hamlin continued to maintain his lead over the next four laps while McMurray battled with Stewart for second . McDowell had fallen to eighth by lap 21 , while Stewart continued in second by lap 25 . On the 28th lap , McMurray tried an overtake around the outside of Hamlin for the lead at turn three but could not complete the manoveure , causing him to drop to eighth two laps later . On lap 32 , the top five were Hamlin , Stewart , Harvick , Stenhouse and Ambrose . As the cars ran in single file , Edwards had dropped to 15th place one lap later . McDowell was told by his team to save fuel on lap 43 . Green flag pit stops began on lap 44 when Hamlin and Ambrose stopped for tyres and fuel , allowing Stewart to assume the lead with Kevin Harvick in second and Stenhouse in third . Eight laps later , after making a pit stop , Michael Waltrip lost control of his car on the backstraightaway after driving from the side of the track onto the race track , and crashed into the backstretch wall . The incident caused the second caution to be shown as every driver except Stewart , Harvick and Edwards stopped for fuel .
Stewart , Harvick and Edwards led at the lap 57 restart . Two laps later , Earnhardt and Edwards temporarily moved to the front of the field but Stewart retook the lead on the same lap . On the final lap , McMurray drove down from the top lane after exiting turn two , and went into Almirola in the middle lane , causing Almirola to make contact with Danica Patrick on the backstraightaway , sending her car spinning 180 degrees , and straight into the inside wall which she hit with her right @-@ hand side , sustaining heavy damage to her car . The crash caused the third and final caution of the race to be shown . Patrick was unhurt ; she was able to walk to an ambulance that took her to the in @-@ field medical center . The field was frozen in place , with the order of finish determined by where the drivers were when the caution began . This gave Stewart the victory ; Earnhardt finished second , and Ambrose finished third . Burton and Edwards completed the top five finishers . McDowell and Robby Gordon earned transfers to qualify for the Daytona 500 . The first race had a total of three cautions and eight lead changes among five different drivers .
= = = = Race 2 = = = =
Following the first Gatorade Duel , the Lead Category Manager at Harris Teeter , Steve Kravitz , gave the command for the drivers to start their engines . The weather conditions were similar to those encountered during the first Duel , abeit with a higher air temperature of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . During the pace laps , Kahne had to move to the rear of the field because he had switched to his backup car . He was joined by Clint Bowyer — whose qualifying time was disallowed because his car twice failed the post @-@ race inspection for height sticks , and Bill Elliott — who had switched his car 's engine . Biffle maintained his pole position advantage heading into the first turn , followed by Casey Mears . On lap three , Kenseth moved into the outside line to prepare for a race @-@ lead overtake and was helped by Johnson . Kenseth took over the lead on the following lap with Johnson in second ; Biffle was pushed down to third . By the twelfth lap , the top ten drivers were separated by one second as Joey Logano and Kyle Busch moved to the front two positions by lap 14 . Elliott Sadler nearly lost control of his car between the first and second turns on lap 16 but was able to continue . Kenseth tried to pass Kyle Busch on the outside of turn four on lap 17 , but Busch closed the door on Kenseth .
Kyle Busch moved into the lead on the 18th lap , while Logano moved down the field . After starting from 14th , Dave Blaney had moved up nine positions to fifth by lap 21 ; Logano had moved into third by the same lap . Biffle moved into the lead on lap 23 . Kenseth , who was drafting off teammate Biffle , encountered overheating problems and fell to ninth position . Biffle and Kyle Busch started to contest the lead through the fourth turn on lap 26 , and the pair traded the position over the following two laps . Biffle gained the lead position on the 29th lap . By lap 33 , Regan Smith and Sadler had moved into third and fourth positions respectively . Biffle had reported debris in turn two but officials could not locate it . Green flag pit stops began on lap 40 ; Kenseth , Logano and Kyle Busch made their pit stops on lap 42 while Biffle , Smith and Jimmie Johnson made pit stops on the following lap . After the pit stops had been completed , Biffle reclaimed the first position , while Smith moved into second and Johnson was in third . The top three drivers were followed by Sadler and Kenseth . Kyle Busch was drafting off Logano throughout lap 46 but suffered with engine problems , allowing Logano to pull away . By the 50th lap , the top five were Biffle , Smith , Johnson , Sadler and Kenseth .
Johnson went up the track on lap 52 , but regained control of his car . Six laps later , after the leaders ran single file , Kenseth received help from Johnson while running on the outside line to prepare for a race winning slingshot . Kenseth slid underneath teammate Biffle as they started the final lap , as Biffle attempted to block Kenseth . Kenseth maintained the lead and crossed the finish line on lap 60 to win the race , with Smith in second and Johnson third . Sadler and Biffle rounded out the top five finishers . Blaney and Nemechek earned the second pair of transfer spots to qualify for the Daytona 500 . Bayne , Tony Raines and David Stremme secured qualification for the Daytona 500 based on their lap times in the qualifier , with Terry Labonte using a champion 's provisional to qualify . The following six drivers failed to qualify for the Daytona 500 because they did not finish high enough in their respective Duels or turn a fast @-@ enough qualifying lap : Waltrip , Richardson , Bill Elliott , Mike Wallace , Kenny Wallace and J.J. Yeley . The second race had a total of five lead changes among four different drivers and no cautions were shown .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
After the first race , Stewart drove to the victory lane ; the win earned him $ 55 @,@ 725 . He said , " The fact that we 've won 17 times here and not won on the right day is proof it 's good momentum , but it 's no guarantee obviously . It 's nice to come here , especially for Steve and I , being our first race together , to be able to come out and have two really good strong and solid races back @-@ to @-@ back is an awesome start for us . " Earnhardt felt that the race was " pretty good " and praised Stewart for his victory . He also said that he aimed to start the Daytona 500 without using a back @-@ up car . Ambrose was happy with his third @-@ place finish , " We learned a lot for Sunday , we got a good result . We are smiling right now but it was very close to being the other way around . " He also said he was hoping to carry on his good form into the Daytona 500 .
Waltrip , who failed to qualify for the Daytona 500 after crashing on lap 52 , said he felt he had let everyone down but was thankful his team and his sponsor Aaron 's had given him an opportunity to race in the Duels . Patrick , who was hit by Almirola on the final lap and crashed heavily into the wall , said , " It sucks [ to hit the wall like that ] . You just have to brace yourself . I guess in these situations , I just have to be glad that I 'm a small driver and that I 've got room . Kinda hug it in and let it rip . " She also said the crash was " a blessing in a big disguise " . Patrick , along with Gilliland , Montoya and Menard , were required to drive their backup cars for the Daytona 500 . After the wreck on lap nine , Gilliland cut his thumb on his helmet ; the thumb required one stitch but he was confident about driving his backup car . According to Menard , who was involved in the lap nine wreck , " Somebody turned ( David ) Gilliland ; I saw him get sideways underneath me . I was three lanes up and I tried to clear him and didn ’ t quite make it . ” It took 56 minutes and 34 seconds to complete the first race ; because it ended under caution , no margin of victory was recorded .
After winning the second race , Kenseth drove to the victory lane ; earning $ 56 @,@ 726 for the victory . Kenseth 's victory gave his team Roush Fenway Racing its first win in the Gatorade Duels . Kenseth said , " Jimmie Johnson gave me a huge push there and really worked nice for me the whole race . Without that push it never would 've got there . Greg lost his drafting partner . We were able to separate him and the # 78 [ Regan Smith ] and we had such a big run that Greg was kind of a sitting duck . " Smith , who finished second , stated , " It would have been nice to put the Furniture Row / CSX Play it Safe Chevrolet in Victory Lane , but no complaints . " , and , " It ’ s good to know that we have a car capable of running up front . " Johnson , who finished third , said , " It was an awesome race . We really had a shot to win that one . It was unfortunate there at the end that there were some lapped cars that were kind of mixed in with the leaders . It would have been nice if they would have let us race there ; at least from the white flag on . " It took 46 minutes and 23 seconds to complete the second race , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 209 seconds .
After the races , there was continued discussion about overheating engines in high temperatures . Harvick said the temperatures of around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) had affected the racing , the grills were " too tight " and competitors chose to remain in a single @-@ file formation because of overheating . Smith said he believed there was no efficient method of tackling the problem . McMurray advocated the widening of the grille , saying , " it was a little hard to race because you got too hot " . One day after the second race , NASCAR announced that no further changes would be made .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying 1 and 2 = = =
= = = Race results 1 and 2 = = =
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= Vainglory ( video game ) =
Vainglory is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game by Super Evil Megacorp for iOS and Android . Designed for mobile platforms , it is a simplified version of the PC @-@ based genre wherein two opposing teams of three players fight to destroy the enemy base by controlling the path between the bases , which is lined by turrets and guarded by enemy minions . Off the path , players battle for control points that supply extra resources . The game was released for iOS on November 16 , 2014 , after being soft @-@ launched for over half a year . The Android version was released on July 2 , 2015 . The game 's development began in 2012 when Super Evil Megacorp was formed by a team of game development veterans to design and build a MOBA for tablet devices . The game was unveiled at Apple 's September 2014 iPhone 6 announcement event to demonstrate the platform 's Metal graphics API . The team sought to make a game that would entertain players for thousands of hours and encourage in @-@ person multiplayer experiences similar to that of a LAN party .
Vainglory received generally favorable reviews . Critics praised the game 's graphics , characters , and level design , but criticized its lack of team communication features . Reviewers disagreed on the game 's degree of accessibility to newcomers . The Guardian named Vainglory the " best " iOS game of 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Vainglory is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game in the style of popular MOBAs League of Legends and Dota 2 but designed for smartphones and tablets . As standard for the genre , two opposing teams fight to reach and destroy the enemy 's base while defending their own in a tug of war for control of a path , the " lane " , which connects the bases . In Vainglory , teams have three players who each control an avatar , known as a " hero " , from their own device . Weaker computer @-@ controlled characters , called " minions " , spawn at team bases and follow the lane to the opposite team 's base , fighting enemies and turrets en route . Lining the lane are turret towers that repel the flow of minions and enemy heroes . The player 's objective is to destroy the enemy turrets and the " Vain Crystal " in the enemy team 's base . If a crystal is destroyed , the team who destroyed the crystal wins .
As of June 2016 , there are 25 hero options . The developers of the game continually add new heroes , each with different skills but balanced for fair play . For example , a hero may have high damage but poor mobility , or strong melee abilities but no ranged option . Players choose between three abilities that upgrade via a common technology tree . There is a set number of heroes that are free to play , with the free to play roster being refreshed every week . Players can also choose to permanently unlock any character for a certain amount of Glory . The game uses two in @-@ game currencies for in @-@ app purchases : one that can be earned through play , known as Glory , and one that can be purchased with money , known as Immensely Concentrated Evil ( ICE ) . Vainglory offers two main modes of in @-@ game communication : team emoticons and strategic pings .
= = Development = =
In February 2012 , game developer " veterans " from Rockstar , Riot , Blizzard , and Insomniac founded Super Evil Megacorp in San Mateo , California to make a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game for tablet devices , and thus began development on their first game , Vainglory . Apple chose the game to demonstrate the graphics capabilities of their iPhone 6 and Metal graphics API at the iPhone 6 's announcement event . The game was soft @-@ launched for six months prior to this September 2014 event , and was released on November 16 , 2014 .
Kristian Segerstrale , the founder of Playfish and former head of EA Digital , joined Super Evil Megacorp as its COO . Segerstrale expected Vainglory to popularize the MOBA genre like " Halo did for first @-@ person shooters " . They wanted to make a game that could be played for hours and years , and that players " will organize their lives around " rather than something to pass spare time . The game is designed for tablets , which the company felt was the most fitting platform despite its lack of " core games " ( games that rewarded " teamwork and strategy " over thousands of hours of play ) . They told Polygon that tablets were " inherently social " , " less alienating to new players " , and " possibly the best space for multiplayer play " . Super Evil Megacorp CEO Bo Daly said he saw PC MOBA games as solitary experiences and thought tablets could make the experience better for groups as a reinvention of the LAN party , where players share a common gaming experience in the same shared physical space on separate devices . The company also intended for the game to become an eSport . European eSports tournament organizer Electronic Sports League announced the Vainglory Cup , a set of Vainglory competitions , to take place in June 2015 .
On March 5 , 2015 at the Game Developers Conference 2015 , it was announced by Super Evil Megacorp that Vainglory would be getting an Android port . After undergoing a closed beta , the game was fully released on July 2 , 2015 on the Google Play Store .
One of the most impressive features of Vainglory is its artwork , which is produced by a team directed by Carlo Arellano a.K.a. Chainsaw . Players are also invited to guide the development of Vainglory by interacting with the Developers through Livestreams on Twitch .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised the game 's graphics , characters , and level design , but criticized its lack of team communication features . While IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote the game was accessible to newcomers , Matt Thrower of Pocket Gamer felt otherwise . The Guardian named Vainglory the " best " iOS game of 2014 . The game was one of ten Apple Design Award recipients in 2015 .
Matt Thrower of Pocket Gamer noted how the PC @-@ based MOBA genre has had issues adapting its precise controls to the mobile platform , but that Vainglory trimmed features in the right areas . IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote that the game was its own " scaled down , rather than scaled back " version of the MOBA genre , and not an attempt to " approximate " League of Legends and Dota 2 experiences for mobile devices . Dyer praised the game 's character and map detail , and wrote that all ten of the heroes had " fun " designs and were enjoyable to play . Thrower felt similarly about its graphics . Dyer praised the iPad controls , but felt " cramped " on the iPhone 6 Plus . TouchArcade 's Ford described the controls as " flawless " and felt that the game 's tutorial was among the best he had seen in iOS MOBAs . He added that he considered the game 's in @-@ app purchases " very fair " and not " pay @-@ to @-@ win " .
IGN 's Dyer reported his games to be about 20 minutes in length and noticed that they tended to snowball out of balance by the time the Kraken creature appears at the 15 @-@ minute mark ( Fixed Gold Bounties in 1 @.@ 12 to help balance this . ) Dyer added that the advantages of in @-@ person team communication made games feel " lopsided " . Pocket Gamer 's Thrower wrote that the game 's " depth " was in learning how to use the individual characters , and that beginners were subject to an " impenetrable learning curve " , especially without organized teams . Ford of TouchArcade said his only issue was with players leaving their play session while the game was still in action , but felt this was mitigated by the game 's " Karma " matchmaking system . Ford otherwise reported that Vainglory played well as a whole as " probably the best MOBA on iOS " .
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= Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman =
Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent . Considered one of the " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawaii @-@ born combatants who fought in the American Civil War while the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was still an independent nation .
Born and raised in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , he was the eldest son of Kinoʻoleoliliha , a Hawaiian high chiefess , and Benjamin Pitman , an American pioneer settler from Massachusetts . Through his father 's business success in the whaling and sugar and coffee plantation industries and his mother 's familial connections to the Hawaiian royal family , the Pitmans were quite prosperous and owned lands on the island of Hawaiʻi and in Honolulu . He and his older sister were educated in the mission schools in Hilo alongside other children of mixed Hawaiian descent . After the death of his mother in 1855 , his father remarried to the widow of a missionary , thus connecting the family to the American missionary community in Hawaiʻi . However , following the deaths of his first wife and later his second wife , his father decided to leave the islands and returned to Massachusetts with his family around 1860 . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time .
Leaving school without his family 's knowledge , he made the decision to fight in the Civil War in August 1862 . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian recruits of the time and enlisted in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , a white regiment . He served as a private in the Union Army fighting in the Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign . In his company , Private Robert G. Carter befriended the part @-@ Hawaiian soldier and wrote in later life of their common experience in the 22nd Massachusetts . Compiled decades afterward from old letters , Carter 's account described the details surrounding his final fate in the war . On the march to Fredericksburg , Pitman was separated from his regiment and captured by Confederate guerrilla forces . He was forced to march to Richmond and incarcerated in the Confederate Libby Prison , where he contracted " lung fever " from the harsh conditions of his imprisonment and died on February 27 , 1863 , a few months after his release on parole in a prisoner exchange . Modern historians consider Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman to be the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War .
For a period of time after the end of the war , the legacy and contributions of Pitman and other documented Hawaiian participants in the American Civil War were largely forgotten except in the private circles of descendants and historians . However , there has been a revival of interest in recent years in the Hawaiian community . In 2010 , these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " were commemorated with a bronze plaque erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu .
= = Early life and family = =
Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was born March 18 , 1845 , in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , the first son and second child of Benjamin Pitman and Kinoʻoleoliliha . Originally a native of Salem , Massachusetts , Pitman 's father was an early pioneer , businessman and sugar and coffee plantation owner on the island of Hawaiʻi , who profited greatly from the kingdom 's booming whaling industry in the early 1800s . On his father 's side , he was a great @-@ grandson of Joshua Pitman ( 1755 – 1822 ) , an English @-@ American carpenter on the ship Franklin under Captain Allen Hallett during the American Revolutionary War . On his mother 's side , Pitman was a descendant of Kameʻeiamoku , one of the royal twins ( with Kamanawa ) who advised Kamehameha I in his conquest of the Hawaiian Islands , and also of the early American or English sea captain Harold Cox , who lent his name to George " Cox " Kahekili Keʻeaumoku II , the Governor of Maui . Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman shared his Hawaiian name with his maternal grandfather Hoʻolulu , who , along with his brother Hoapili , helped conceal the bones of King Kamehameha I in a secret hiding place after his death . In the Hawaiian language , the name " Hoʻolulu " means " to be calm " , as a ship in a protected harbor . His siblings were Mary Ann Pitman Ailau ( 1838 – 1905 ) , Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman ( 1852 – 1918 ) and half @-@ sister Maria Kinoʻole Pitman Morey ( 1858 – 1892 ) .
Because of his father 's success in business and his mother 's descent from Hawaiian royalty , the Pitman family was considered quite prosperous and were host to the royal family when they visited Hilo . Besides being one of the leading merchants in town , his father also served the government as district magistrate of Hilo . Henry 's mother , Kinoʻole , had inherited control over much of the lands in Hilo and Ōlaʻa from her own father , and King Kamehameha III had granted her use of the ahupuaʻa of Hilo after her marriage . During Henry 's early childhood , the family lived in the mansion that Benjamin Pitman had built in 1840 , in an area known as Niopola , one of the favored resort spots of ancient Hawaiian royalty . The residence also became known as the Spencer House after Pitman sold it to his business partner Captain Thomas Spencer . The property later became the site of the Hilo Hotel , built in 1888 and torn down in 1956 . In the 1850s the family moved to the capital of Honolulu where Benjamin Pitman took up banking and built a beautiful two @-@ story house that he named Waialeale ( " rippling water " ) at the corner of Alakea and Beretania Streets .
= = Education = =
While in Hawaiʻi , Pitman and his older sister Mary attended Mrs. Wetmore 's children 's school in Hilo . The school was located at the Wetmores ' residence on Church Street . Taught by Lucy Sheldon Taylor Wetmore , the wife of American missionary doctor and government physician Charles Hinckley Wetmore , the two elder Pitman children received their education in English rather than Hawaiian . This was unusual since Hawaiian was the official language of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , and all other schools in Hilo were conducted in the Hawaiian language . Mrs. Wetmore taught the children reading , writing , spelling , arithmetic and singing , while also reinforcing the curriculum with a strong adherence to the principles of the Protestant faith . Like the Pitman siblings , many of their classmates were also of half @-@ Hawaiian ( hapa @-@ kanaka ) descent with a majority of them being Chinese @-@ Hawaiians ( hapa @-@ pake ) .
After the death of his mother Kinoʻole in 1855 , Pitman 's father remarried to Maria Louisa Walsworth Kinney , the widow of American missionary Rev. Henry Kinney . The Kinneys were part of the Twelfth Company of missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to arrive in 1848 . The marriage aligned the Pitman children with the American missionary community . They were called " cousins " by the children of the missionaries and considered part of the extended missionary family of Hawaiʻi . This first stepmother died in 1858 after giving birth to their father 's fourth child , a daughter named Maria Kinoʻole ( 1858 – 1892 ) . The Pitman family returned to Massachusetts in 1860 where his father remarried to his third wife Martha Ball , giving his four children another stepmother . According to an 1887 biography written by Robert G. Carter , a private who would later serve in the same company as Pitman , he was neglected after his mother 's death by his father and stepmother , who " subjected [ him ] to neglect and treatment , that with his sensitive nature he could not bear " . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time . The 1860 United States Census registered Pitman under his teacher Solomon Adams as residing and presumably being educated in Newton , also in the Boston area .
Growing into adolescence , he was said to strongly resemble his Hawaiian mother . Robert G. Carter gave a brief description of his appearance in wartime letters first published in 1897 :
[ A ] tall , slim boy , straight as an arrow . His face was a perfect oval , his hair was as black as a raven 's wing , and his eyes were large and of that peculiar soft , melting blackness , which excites pity when one is in distress . His skin was a clear , dark olive , bordering on the swarthy , and this , with his high cheek bones , would have led us to suppose that his nationality was different from our own , had we not known that his name was plain Henry P. There was an air of good breeding and refinement about him , that , with his small hands and feet , would have set us to thinking , had it not been that in our youth and intensely enthusiastic natures , we gave no thought to our comrades ' personal appearance . We can look back now and see the shy , reserved nature of the boy , the dark , melancholy eyes , the sad smile , the sensitive twitching of the lips .
= = American Civil War = =
After the outbreak of the American Civil War , the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi under King Kamehameha IV declared its neutrality on August 26 , 1861 . But many Native Hawaiians and Hawaiian @-@ born Americans ( mainly descendants of the American missionaries ) both abroad and in the islands volunteered and enlisted in the military regiments of various states in the Union and the Confederacy . Individual Native Hawaiians had been serving in the United States Navy and Army since the War of 1812 , and even more served during the American Civil War . Many Hawaiians sympathized with the Union because of Hawaiʻi 's ties to New England through its missionaries and the whaling industries , and the ideological opposition of many to the institution of slavery .
= = = Enlistment and service = = =
On August 14 , 1862 , Pitman left school without his family 's knowledge and volunteered to serve in the Union Army and fight in the American Civil War . He apparently never informed his family in advance about the choice to join the war because the news of his enlistment was reported back in Hawaiʻi 's American missionary community as " Henry Pitman has run away from home and gone [ to war ] . " Carter described Pitman 's rationale for enlisting : " In the midst of the clamor of war , when the very air vibrated with excitement , the wild enthusiasm of the crowds , and the inspiring sound of the drum , his Indian nature rose within him . His resolve was made . "
Pitman was a hapa @-@ haole , of part Hawaiian and part Caucasian descent . His father was white and his native @-@ born mother was also part Caucasian from her own mother , who was the daughter of Captain Cox and a Hawaiian chiefess . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian volunteers in this period . Most Native Hawaiians who participated in the war were assigned to colored regiments , but Pitman 's fair skin color meant he was able to serve in a white unit , indicating that unit assignment may have been influenced by how dark Hawaiians appeared . Historians Bob Dye , James L. Haley and others claimed Pitman was placed in the colored regiments because of his mixed race , but regiment records indicate otherwise .
Pitman served as a private in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , Company H. This regiment was also named the " Henry Wilson 's Regiment " after Col. Henry Wilson , who commanded the unit in 1861 . Col. William S. Tilton was the commander during Pitman 's brief term of service . The regiment was part of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the command of Major General George B. McClellan . During this period , the regiment fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run and was involved in the Maryland Campaign fighting in the Battle of Antietam , the bloodiest single @-@ day battle in American history , and the Battle of Shepherdstown . His regiment was on the march to the Battle of Fredericksburg when Pitman was captured by Confederate troops .
= = = Imprisonment and death = = =
The most detailed account of Pitman 's final fate in the War came from Robert G. Carter . In November 1862 , Pitman was captured near Warrenton Junction on the march toward Fredericksburg , Virginia , during the weeks prior to the Battle of Fredericksburg . He had fallen behind the group because his feet had blistered and swollen due to the tightness of " a pair of thin , high @-@ heeled and narrow soled boots " he had purchased . One of his comrades temporarily stayed behind to care for him but later decided to move on with the rest of the camp for fear of disciplinary consequences of falling out without authority . He was urged to move on , but without much success . Pitman 's last words to his comrade were , " I will be in camp by night , good by . " His fellow soldiers never saw him again and considered him missing . Shortly after he was left , a band of Confederate guerrillas under Colonel John S. Mosby captured the weary and defenseless soldier without a struggle . The inscription on his tombstone differs slightly from Carter 's account , stating he was captured by J. E. B. Stuart 's cavalry instead .
After Pitman 's capture , he was marched to Richmond in a weak physical state . He was imprisoned in the Confederate Libby Prison and Belle Isle , which were notoriously harsh prisons . Pitman 's letters home described his place of incarceration as the " Pen " where " the filthy meat [ was ] thrown to them as if they were dogs " . The condition of his incarceration including the shortage of food , lack of sanitation , overcrowding and his physical weakness made him susceptible to virulent diseases present in the Confederate prisons . Carter described how the prisons " wore out the brave spirit " . During a prisoner exchange , Pitman was released by the Confederate Army at City Point , Virginia , on December 12 , 1862 , and then sent to Annapolis Parole Camp . Suffering from complications due to the conditions of his imprisonment , he contracted " lung fever " , which was perhaps pneumonia . Carter wrote later how his friend had " linger [ ed ] feebly a few weeks , like the flickering of an expiring flame , then quietly pass [ ed ] away to an eternal life " . Pitman died at Parole Camp on February 27 , 1863 , just weeks short of his eighteenth birthday . According to historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance , Pitman " has the unfortunate distinction of being the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War . "
Considering him missing , Pitman 's regiment did not discover his final fate until news of his funeral at Roxbury was received in the spring of the following year . His remains were returned to his family in Massachusetts after his death in Parole Camp . Benjamin Pitman , his father , had him buried in a family plot in Mount Auburn Cemetery . On one side of the Pitman family grave marker was placed the inscription :
Timothy Henry Pitman
Born at Hilo , Hawaii
Mar. 18 , 1845
Died at Camp Parole
Annapolis , MD , Feb 'y 27 , 1863
Aged 17 years 11 mos . 9 daysA member of Co . H , 22nd Regiment
Mass . Vols . , was with his Regiment in the
battles of South Mountain , Antietam and
Sharpsburg . Was taken prisoner by Stuart 's
cavalry on the march to Fredricksburg ;
Imprisoned in Libby Prison , paroled and
sent to Camp Parole , Annapolis , and died in
camp of pneumonia .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , the memory of Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was honored by friends and family members back in Massachusetts and Hawaiʻi . During a return to Hawaiʻi in 1917 , his younger brother Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman and his wife Almira Hollander Pitman , discovered a grandson of a nephew was named Kealiʻi i Kaua i Pakoma ( meaning " Chief that fought the Potomac " ) in honor of his deceased older brother . Similarly , Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman Beckley , the second son of his Hawaiian first cousin George Charles Moʻoheau Beckley , was also named after him . Shortly after his death , Pitman was eulogized back in Hawaiʻi by Martha Ann Chamberlain , Corresponding Secretary of the Hawaiian Mission Children 's Society :
Our cousin , Henry Pitman , the first of Hawaii 's sons to fall in the war , died at Annapolis Parole Camp , Feb. 27 , of lung fever , serving as a soldier in the Union army . His remains were deposited in Mt . Auburn Cemetery , near Boston , Mass . He died in a just cause . Let his memory be embalmed among our band .
After the war , the military service of Hawaiians , including Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman , were largely forgotten , disappearing from the collective memories of the American Civil War and the history of Hawaiʻi . However , in recent years , Hawaiian residents and historians and descendants of Hawaiian combatants in the conflict have insisted on the need to remember " our boys from Hawaii " . Renewed interest in the stories of these individuals and this particular period of Hawaiian @-@ American history have inspired efforts to preserve the memories of the Hawaiians who served in the war . On August 26 , 2010 , on the anniversary of the signing of the Hawaiian Neutrality Proclamation , a bronze plaque was erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu recognizing these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , the more than one hundred documented Hawaiians who served during the American Civil War for both the Union and the Confederacy . Pitman 's great @-@ grandniece Diane Kinoʻole o Liliha Pitman Spieler attended the ceremony . Pitman Spieler stated , " I 'm very proud of a young man of his age – he was quite young – who served in the Civil War for his family . "
In 2013 , Todd Ocvirk , Nanette Napoleon , Justin Vance , Anita Manning and others began the process of creating a historical documentary about the individual experiences and stories of Hawaii @-@ born soldiers and sailors of the American Civil War , including Pitman , Samuel C. Armstrong , Nathaniel Bright Emerson , James Wood Bush , J. R. Kealoha and many other unnamed combatants of both the Union and the Confederacy . In 2014 , Maui @-@ based author Wayne Moniz wrote a fictionalized story based on the lives and Civil War service of Hawaiian soldiers like Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman in his book Pukoko : A Hawaiian in the American Civil War . In 2015 , the sesquicentennial of the end of the war , the National Park Service released a publication titled Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War about the service of the large number of combatants of Asian and Pacific Islander descent who fought during the war . The history of Hawaiʻi 's involvement and the biographies of Pitman , Bush , Kealoha and others were co @-@ written by historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance .
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= 34 Montagu Square , Marylebone =
34 Montagu Square is the address of a London ground floor and basement flat once leased by Beatles member Ringo Starr during the mid @-@ 1960s . Its location is 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 09 km ) from the Abbey Road Studios , where The Beatles recorded . Many well @-@ known people have lived at the address , including a British Member of Parliament , Richard @-@ Hanbury Gurney , and the daughter of the Marquess of Sligo , Lady Emily Charlotte Browne . The square was named after Elizabeth Montagu , who was highly regarded by London society in the late 18th century .
Paul McCartney recorded demo songs there , such as " I 'm Looking Through You " , and worked on various compositions , including " Eleanor Rigby " . With the help of Ian Sommerville he converted the flat to a studio for Apple Corps ' avant @-@ garde Zapple label , recording William S. Burroughs for spoken @-@ word Zapple albums . Jimi Hendrix and his manager , Chas Chandler , later lived there with their girlfriends . Whilst living there , Hendrix composed " The Wind Cries Mary " .
For three months , John Lennon and Yoko Ono rented the flat , taking a photograph that would become the cover of their Two Virgins album . After the police raided the flat looking for drugs , the landlord of the property sought an injunction against Starr to prevent it from being used for anything untoward or illegal . Starr sold the lease in February 1969 . In 2010 , Ono unveiled a blue marker plaque at the site , making it an English Heritage " building of historical interest " .
= = History and occupants = =
Joseph T. Parkinson designed and built the houses in Montagu Square as part of the Portman Estate , between 1810 and 1815 . It was named after the Yorkshire @-@ born Elizabeth Montagu : a social reformer , patron of the arts , salonist , literary critic , and writer . She had lived nearby , in Montagu House , Portman Square , until her death on 25 August 1800 . The square is an example of Regency terrace residential architecture that was popular in the 19th century , with a communal garden located in the centre ; surrounded by iron railings and padlocked so its use would be limited to residents . No. 34 was built as one of the square 's many tall buildings which were originally intended for use as whole family homes instead of apartments . A Victorian writer was especially caustic when talking about the architecture : " Montagu Square and Bryanston Square are twin deformities , [ which were built by ] economical modern builders ... [ to ] dispose of with profit to those who wish to live near the great " .
Richard @-@ Hanbury Gurney , a banker and M.P. for Norwich , lived at No. 34 in 1830 . He was the father of Hudson Gurney , who became an M.P. for Newtown , Isle of Wight in 1816 . In the book , A local index to the list of proprietors of East India stock , John White was cited as living there in 1848 , and according to the Royal Pharmaceutical Society 's journals , one Thomas Hopkins , a pharmacist , was living in the house in 1849 . Aged 86 , Lady Emily Charlotte Browne died at the address on 14 March 1916 . She was the 5th daughter of Peter Howe , the Marquess of Sligo , and of royal blood . The English model and actress , Chrissie Shrimpton ( Mick Jagger 's girlfriend from 1963 to 1966 ) , lived close to No. 34 in the 1960s .
= = = Starr 's lease = = =
Starr leased Flat 1 in 1965 , shortly before his marriage to Maureen Cox . It consisted of the ground floor and lower @-@ ground floor ( the cellar / basement in the original house ) , and entrance was gained by walking down the steps leading to the lower @-@ ground floor door , or the front door at ground level . The ground floor had an en @-@ suite bathroom ( with a pink bath sunk into the floor ) a bedroom and a sitting room . Downstairs was a kitchen , a bathroom and a bedroom / sitting room , which had its original fireplace . A resident of the square , Lord Mancroft , welcomed Starr , saying to a journalist , " We 're a very distinguished square , and I 'm sure we 'll welcome such a distinguished gentleman and his lady . "
The Swiss Embassy was , and is , located at the back of the house at 16 @-@ 18 Montagu Place , but in August 1965 , an embassy spokesperson complained that Beatles ' fans were defacing their back wall ( in Bryanston Mews ) , with messages meant for Starr : " Our back wall is now very unsightly and we shall have to redecorate . Our chauffeur , who is French and took part in the first World War , says the language some of these young people use is worse than anything he ever heard in the trenches " .
The Starrs lived there until Epstein 's accountant suggested that the group members should move to houses near his , in Esher . On 24 July 1965 , Starr bought Sunny Heights for £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 72 @,@ 000 ) , on South Road , St George 's Hill , but retained the lease on the flat . He rented the flat to The Fool , who were employed by Apple for various endeavours , such as painting the Apple Boutique in Baker Street , London , and designing psychedelic clothes for all four Beatles , as well as The Hollies , Marianne Faithfull , Procol Harum , Donovan , and Cream .
= = McCartney and Hendrix = =
McCartney rented the flat from Starr in 1965 , and asked Sommerville to install recording equipment ( including two Revox reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape machines ) ; planning to use it as a demo studio , and for recordings of spoken @-@ word albums . The house was not far from the Abbey Road studio where The Beatles recorded , and Jane Asher 's parents ' house at 57 Wimpole Street , London , where McCartney was living at the time . He recorded a demo version of " I 'm Looking Through You " at Montagu Square in late March 1965 , and worked on the composition of " Eleanor Rigby " . Sommerville moved into the flat , even though it was supposed to only be used as a studio , but defended the move by stating that he had to be " on call at all times " . Sommerville recorded Burroughs there , for Apple 's Zapple label offshoot , but discouraged other people who were interested , believing he was working for McCartney exclusively . During the time Sommerville was recording Burroughs , a friend of McCartney , Barry Miles , visited the apartment :
Ian [ Sommerville ] was in the strange position of playing host in Ringo 's expensive apartment , fixing everyone drinks , fussing about , cautioning everyone not to lean against the green watermarked silk wallpaper in the sitting room .
McCartney later gave up the flat , and it remained empty until Starr sub @-@ let it to Hendrix with Kathy Etchingham , and Chandler with Lotta Null , in December 1966 , for £ 30 ( $ 63 ) a month ( £ 265 @.@ 12 — $ 459 @.@ 48 today ) . Hendrix and Echingham lived on the lower @-@ ground floor , and Hendrix composed " The Wind Cries Mary " there , after an argument with Echingham about her cooking skills . For three months , between 1966 – 67 , Hendrix shared the apartment with Gordon Haskell , a bassist who played with the psychedelic band Les Fleur de Lys . Unfortunately , when Hendrix was under the effects of LSD , he threw whitewash over the walls , forcing Starr to evict him . Starr also lent the flat to other pop stars and friends over the next few years , when they needed a place to stay in London . Lennon 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Lillian Powell , stayed at Montagu Square rather than at the Lennons ' home , Kenwood , in Weybridge , when she visited her daughter , Cynthia Lennon .
= = = Lennon and Ono = = =
When Lennon started a relationship with Ono in 1968 , his wife and son moved into the flat on 21 June 1968 , living there for three months , before returning to Kenwood , as Lennon and Ono preferred to live at Montagu Square , rather than in isolated Weybridge . The two lived in the Montagu Square flat for several months , as the White Album was being recorded . Visitors remembered that the flat was in a state of squalor , with dirty plates , cups , clothes , newspapers and magazines littering the floor , with the couple living on " a diet of champagne , caviar , and heroin " . Lennon and Ono 's experimental Two Virgins album had been recorded at Kenwood , but its notorious nude cover photos were taken at 34 Montagu Square . An Apple employee , Tony Bramwell , set up the camera so Lennon could take the photograph after Bramwell had left . Ono was pregnant during their stay , and they were also in the throes of heroin addiction .
At 11 : 30 am on 18 October 1968 , the flat was raided by Sgt. Norman Pilcher , of Scotland Yard 's Drugs Squad . In 1974 , Lennon remembered that Ono answered the front door as a female voice had said ( over the intercom ) , that there was a message from the Apple office . Ono opened the door and saw the female with five men , who were all dressed in plain @-@ clothes . She panicked and closed the door , thinking they were Beatles ' fans . Meanwhile , at the back window , another person was banging on the window and holding up a search warrant for Lennon to read . As Lennon was also panicking — not knowing at that point that they were all police officers — the raid consisted of seven police officers and two police dogs — he played for time and refused to open the window . Because of this , Pilcher later accused Lennon of obstruction of justice , which was a crime . Inside the flat , the police searched every room thoroughly , even though Lennon was supposed to accompany them whilst they did so , according to the law . Pilcher then summoned Lennon and pointed to a binocular case on a mantelpiece , asking him , " Is this yours ? " Lennon replied in the affirmative , and was then shown 219 grams of hashish , which was in the case .
Lennon :
Don Shorter [ a Daily Express reporter ] had told us , ' They 're coming to get you ' , three weeks before . So , believe me , I 'd cleaned the house out , because Jimi Hendrix had lived there in the apartment , and I 'm not stupid . I went through the whole damn house .
Both were arrested , with Lennon pleading guilty to hashish possession , absolving Ono , who miscarried not long after . Lennon was fined £ 150 ( $ 360 ) . Note : in November 1973 , Pilcher was arrested for conspiracy to pervert the course of justice after it was alleged he had committed perjury . He was convicted and sentenced to four years imprisonment . After the raid , the landlord sought an injunction against Starr on 19 February 1969 , forbidding anyone but Starr or his family to live there , and allowing no music or instruments to be played . Starr appealed , and a compromise was offered ; only Starr or a family member would live in the flat . To finally settle the case , Starr sold the lease on 28 February 1969 .
= = Legacy = =
A music label owner , Reynold D ’ Silva , bought the flat for £ 550 @,@ 000 in 2002 , beating a rival bid from Noel Gallagher . D ’ Silva considered opening it as a music museum , but decided to rent it instead , for £ 795 per week . Author Miles contended that 34 Montagu Square " clearly qualifies as a candidate for one of the blue marker plaques that the City of Westminster fixes to buildings of historical interest " . On Saturday 23 October 2010 , in front of 100 people , Ono unveiled a Blue Plaque at 34 Montagu Square : " John Lennon , 1940 – 1980 , Musician and songwriter , lived here in 1968 " . Beatles ' biographer , Hunter Davies , started the unveiling ceremony , with Rod Davis , from Lennon 's first group , The Quarrymen , in the gathering . Ono said :
I am very honoured to unveil this blue plaque and thank English Heritage for honouring John in this way . This particular flat has many memories for me and is a very interesting part of our history . In what would have been John 's 70th year , I am grateful to you all for commemorating John and this particular part of his London life , one which spawned so much of his great music and great art .
Davis also commented :
He [ Lennon ] would think it highly amusing that they 've put up a plaque here , considering what happened here . If only they 'd mentioned the drugs bust on the bottom of the plaque . Wherever he is , he would have a great chuckle about this one .
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= Red rail =
The red rail ( Aphanapteryx bonasia ) is an extinct species of flightless rail . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius , east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean . It had a close relative on Rodrigues island , the likewise extinct Rodrigues rail ( Erythromachus leguati ) , with which it is sometimes considered congeneric . Its relationship with other rails is unclear . Rails often evolve flightlessness when adapting to isolated islands , free of mammalian predators .
The red rail was a little larger than a chicken and had reddish , hairlike plumage , with dark legs and a long , curved beak . The wings were small , and its legs were slender for a bird of its size . It was similar to the Rodrigues rail , but was larger , and had proportionally shorter wings . It has been compared to a kiwi or a limpkin in appearance and behaviour . It is believed to have fed on invertebrates , and snail shells have been found with damage matching an attack by its beak . Human hunters took advantage of an attraction red rails had to red objects by using coloured cloth to lure the birds so that they could be beaten with sticks .
Until subfossil remains were discovered in the 1860s , scientists only knew the red rail from 17th century descriptions and illustrations . These were thought to represent several different species , which resulted in a large number of invalid junior synonyms . It has been suggested that all late 17th @-@ century accounts of the dodo actually referred to the red rail , after the former had become extinct . The last mention of a red rail sighting is from 1693 , and it is thought to have gone extinct around 1700 , due to predation by humans and introduced species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The red rail was long known only from a few contemporary descriptions referring to red " hens " and names otherwise used for grouse or partridges in Europe , as well as the sketches of the travellers Pieter van den Broecke and Sir Thomas Herbert from 1617 and 1634 . These were thought to depict separate species of birds by some authors , but were regarded as one by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1848 . Hermann Schlegel thought Broecke 's sketch depicted a smaller dodo species from Mauritius , and that the Herbert sketch showed a dodo from Rodrigues , and named them Didus broecki and Didus herberti in 1854 . Jacob Hoefnagel 's 1610 painting , the 1601 sketch from the Gelderland ship 's journal , and Peter Mundy 's 1638 description and sketch later surfaced , but there was still uncertainty about the identity of the birds depicted .
In the 1860s , subfossil foot bones and a lower jaw were found along with remains of other Mauritian animals in the Mare aux Songes swamp , and were identified as belonging to a rail by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards in 1866 . He also determined they belonged to the birds in the 17th century descriptions and illustrations . In 1869 , Milne @-@ Edwards combined the genus name of Aphanapteryx imperialis , which had been coined the previous year by Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld for the Hoefnagel painting , with the older specific name broecki . Due to nomenclatural priority , the genus name was later combined with the oldest species name bonasia , which was coined by Edmond de Sélys Longchamps in 1848 . Sélys Longchamps had originally named the genus Apterornis , wherein he also included the Réunion solitaire and the Réunion swamphen , but the name was preoccupied by Aptornis , a bird described by Richard Owen in 1844 . Aphanapteryx means " invisible @-@ wing " , but the meaning of bonasia is unclear . Some early accounts refer to red rails by the vernacular names for the hazel grouse , Tetrastes bonasia , so the name evidently originates there . The name itself perhaps refers to bonasus , meaning " bull " in Latin , or bonum and assum , meaning " good roast " . It has also been suggested to be a Latin form of the French word bonasse , meaning simple @-@ minded or good @-@ natured .
More fossils were later found by Theodore Sauzier , who had been commissioned to explore the " historical souvenirs " of Mauritius in 1889 . Around the end of the 19th century , a complete specimen was found by the barber Louis Etienne Thirioux , who also found important dodo remains .
= = = Evolution = = =
Apart from being a close relative of the Rodrigues rail , the relationships of the red rail are uncertain . The two are commonly kept as separate genera , Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus , but have also been united as species of Aphanapteryx at times . They were first generically synonymised by Edward Newton and Albert Günther in 1879 , due to skeletal similarities . Based on geographic location and the morphology of the nasal bones , it has been suggested that they were related to the genera Gallirallus , Dryolimnas , Atlantisia , and Rallus . Rails have reached many oceanic archipelagos , which has frequently led to speciation and evolution of flightlessness . The fact that the red rail lost much of its feather structure indicates it was isolated for a long time . These rails may be of Asian origin , like many other Mascarene birds .
= = Description = =
From the subfossil bones , illustrations and descriptions , it is known that the red rail was a flightless bird , somewhat larger than a chicken . Subfossil specimens range in size , which may indicate sexual dimorphism , as is common among rails . Its exact length is unknown , but the pelvis was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in length , the femur was 69 – 71 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) , the tibia was 98 – 115 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tarsometatarsus was 79 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , and the humerus was 60 – 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) . Its plumage was reddish brown all over , and the feathers were fluffy and hairlike ; the tail was not visible in the living bird and the short wings likewise also nearly disappeared in the plumage . It had a long , slightly curved , brown bill , and some illustrations suggest it had a nape crest . It perhaps resembled a lightly built kiwi , and it has also been likened to a limpkin , both in appearance and behaviour .
The sternum and humerus were small , indicating that it had lost the power of flight . Its legs were long and slender for such a large bird , but the pelvis was compact and stout . It differed from the Rodrigues rail , its closest relative , in having a proportionately shorter humerus , a narrower and longer skull , and having shorter and higher nostrils . They differed considerably in plumage , based on early descriptions . The red rail was also larger , with somewhat smaller wings , but their leg proportions were similar . The pelvis and sacrum was also similar .
= = = Contemporary descriptions = = =
The English traveller Peter Mundy visited Mauritius in 1638 and described the red rail as follows :
A Mauritius henne , a Fowle as bigge as our English hennes , of a yellowish Wheaten Colour , of which we only got one . It hath a long , Crooked sharpe pointed bill . Feathered all over , butte on their wings they are soe Few and smalle that they cannot with them raise themselves From the ground . There is a pretty way of taking them with a red cap , but this of ours was taken with a stick . They bee very good Meat , and are also Cloven footed , soe that they can Neyther Fly nor Swymme .
The yellowish colouration instead of the red mentioned by other accounts has been used as argument for this referring to a distinct species , Kuina mundyi , but it has also been suggested it was due to the observed bird being a juvenile . Another English traveller , John Marshall , described the bird as follows in 1668 :
Here are also great plenty of Dodos or red hens which are larger a little than our English henns , have long beakes and no , or very little Tayles . Their fethers are like down , and their wings so little that it is not able to support their bodies ; but they have long leggs and will runn very fast , and that a man shall not catch them , they will turn so about in the trees . They are good meate when roasted , tasting something like a pig , and their skin like pig skin when roosted , being hard .
= = = Contemporary depictions = = =
Much information about the bird 's appearance comes from a painting attributed to Jacob Hoefnagel , based on a bird in the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II around 1610 . It is the only coloured depiction of the species , showing the plumage as reddish brown , but it is unknown whether it was based on a stuffed or living specimen . The bird had most likely been brought alive to Europe , as it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships , and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens . Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet . It had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals painted for the same series . The painting was discovered in the emperor 's collection and published in 1868 by Georg von Frauenfeld , along with a painting of a dodo from the same collection and artist . This specimen is thought to have been the only red rail that ever reached Europe .
The travel journal of the Dutch East India Company ship Gelderland ( 1601 – 1603 ) , rediscovered in the 1860s , contains good sketches of several now @-@ extinct Mauritian birds attributed to the artist Joris Laerle , including an unlabelled red rail . The bird appears to have been stunned or killed , and the sketch is the earliest record of the species , but was only rediscovered in the 1860s . The image was sketched with pencil and finished in ink , but details such as a deeper beak and the shoulder of the wing are only seen in the underlying sketch . In addition , there are three rather crude black @-@ and @-@ white sketches , but differences in them were enough for some authors to suggest that each image depicted a distinct species , leading to the creation of several scientific names which are now synonymous with Aphanapteryx bonasia .
There are also depictions of what appears to be a red rail in three of Roelant Savery 's paintings . In his famous Edwards ' Dodo painting from 1626 , a rail @-@ like bird is seen swallowing a frog behind the dodo , but this identification has been doubted , and it may instead show a bittern . A bird resembling a red rail is also figured in Jacopo Bassano 's painting Arca di Noè ( " Noah 's Ark " ) from c . 1570 . It has been pointed out that it is doubtful that a Mauritian bird could have reached Italy this early , but the attribution may be inaccurate , as Bassano had four artist sons who used the same name . A similar bird is also seen in Jan Brueghel the Elder 's Noah 's Ark painting .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Contemporary accounts are repetitive and do not shed much light on the bird 's life history . The shape of the beak indicates it could have captured reptiles and invertebrates . There were many endemic land snails on Mauritius , including the extinct Tropidophora carinata , and subfossil shells have been found with damage matching attacks from the beak of the red rail . No contemporary accounts were known to mention the red rail 's diet , until the 1660s report of Johannes Pretorius about his stay on Mauritius was published in 2015 , where he mentioned that the bird " scratches in the earth with its sharp claws like a fowl to find food such as worms under the fallen leaves . "
An anonymous Dutchman gave some description of behavioural traits in 1631 :
The soldiers [ red rails ] were very small in stature and slow of foot , so they could be caught easily by hand , their armour or gun was their mouth , which was sharp and pointed , and which they used instead of a dagger , were very naked and [ unrecognisable word ] , not hewing about like soldiers , run about in great disorder , now here , now there , not being true to each other at all .
While it was swift and could escape when chased , it was easily lured by waving a red cloth , which they approached to attack ; a similar behaviour was noted in its relative , the Rodrigues rail . The birds could then be picked up , and their cries when held would draw more individuals to the scene , as the birds , which had evolved in the absence of mammalian predators , were curious and not afraid of humans .
The English traveller Sir Thomas Herbert described its behaviour towards red cloth in 1634 :
The hens in eating taste like parched pigs , if you see a flocke of twelve or twenties , shew them a red cloth , and with their utmost silly fury they will altogether flie upon it , and if you strike downe one , the rest are as good as caught , not budging an iot till they be all destroyed .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of man heavily damaged the ecosystem , making it hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , Mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains today due to deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The red rail lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the dodo , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink , and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion , but became extinct in both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Though Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . The Dutch Empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company . To the sailors who visited Mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . The dodo was sometimes considered rather unpalatable , but the red rail was a very popular gamebird for the Dutch and French settlers . The reports dwell upon the varying ease with which the bird could be caught according to the hunting method and the fact that when roasted it was considered similar to pork .
Johann Christian Hoffmann , who was on Mauritius in the early 1670s , described a red rail hunt as follows :
... [ there is also ] a particular sort of bird known as toddaerschen which is the size of an ordinary hen . [ To catch them ] you take a small stick in the right hand and wrap the left hand in a red rag , showing this to the birds , which are generally in big flocks ; these stupid animals precipitate themselves almost without hesitation on the rag . I cannot truly say whether it is through hate or love of this colour . Once they are close enough , you can hit them with the stick , and then have only to pick them up . Once you have taken one and are holding it in your hand , all the others come running up as it [ sic ] to its aid and can be offered the same fate .
Hoffman 's account refers to the red rail by the German version of the Dutch name originally applied to the dodo , " dod @-@ aers " , and John Marshall used " red hen " interchangeably with " dodo " in 1668 . The ecologist Anthony Cheke has suggested that the name " dodo " was transferred to the red rail after the former had gone extinct , so that all post 1662 references to " dodos " refer to the rail instead . A 1681 account of a " dodo " , previously thought to have been the last , mentioned that the meat was " hard " , similar to the description of red hen meat . Errol Fuller has also cast the 1662 " dodo " sighting in doubt , as the reaction to distress cries of the birds mentioned matches what was described for the red rail . Milne @-@ Edwards suggested that early travellers may have confused young dodos with red rails .
230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , the appearance of the red rail and the dodo led Peter Mundy to speculate :
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede , For oughtt wee yett know , Not any to bee Found out of this Iland , which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence . A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere , beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme ; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes , or the Nature of the Climate , ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme , or how .
= = = Extinction = = =
In addition to hunting pressure by humans , the fact that the red rail nested on the ground made it vulnerable to pigs and other introduced animals , which ate their eggs and young , probably contributing to its extinction . Feral cats , which are effective predators of ground @-@ inhabiting birds , increased in numbers around the 1680s . When François Leguat , who had become familiar with the Rodrigues rail in the preceding years , arrived on Mauritius in 1693 , he remarked that the red rail had already become rare . He was the last source to mention the bird , so it is assumed that it became extinct around 1700 .
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= Sergeant Reckless =
Staff Sergeant Reckless , a decorated war horse who held official rank in the United States military , was a mare of Mongolian horse breeding . Out of a race horse dam , she was purchased in October 1952 for $ 250 from a Korean stableboy at the Seoul racetrack who needed money to buy an artificial leg for his sister . Reckless was bought by members of the United States Marine Corps and trained to be a pack horse for the Recoilless Rifle Platoon , Anti @-@ Tank Company , 5th Marine Regiment , 1st Marine Division . She quickly became part of the unit and was allowed to roam freely through camp , entering the Marines ' tents , where she would sleep on cold nights , and was known for her willingness to eat nearly anything , including scrambled eggs , beer , Coca @-@ Cola and , once , about $ 30 worth of poker chips .
She served in numerous combat actions during the Korean War , carrying supplies and ammunition , and was also used to evacuate wounded . Learning each supply route after only a couple of trips , she often traveled to deliver supplies to the troops on her own , without benefit of a handler . The highlight of her nine @-@ month military career came in late March 1953 during the Battle for Outpost Vegas when , in a single day , she made 51 solo trips to resupply multiple front line units . She was wounded in combat twice , given the battlefield rank of corporal in 1953 , and then a battlefield promotion to sergeant in 1954 , several months after the war ended . She also became the first horse in the Marine Corps known to have participated in an amphibious landing , and following the war was awarded two Purple Hearts , a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal , was included in her unit 's Presidential Unit Citations from two countries , as well as other military honors .
Her wartime service record was featured in The Saturday Evening Post , and LIFE magazine recognized her as one of America 's 100 all @-@ time heroes . She was retired and brought to the United States after the war , where she made appearances on television and participated in the United States Marine Corps birthday ball . She was officially promoted to staff sergeant in 1959 by the Commandant of the Marine Corps . She gave birth to four foals in America and died in May 1968 . A plaque and photo were dedicated in her honor at the Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton stables and a statue of her was dedicated on July 26 , 2013 at the National Museum of the Marine Corps in Quantico , Virginia .
= = Origins = =
Sergeant Reckless was chestnut colored with a blaze and three white stockings . Her date of birth and parentage are unconfirmed , but she was estimated to be around three or four years old when she was purchased by members of the United States Marine Corps in October 1952 . She was sold to the Marines by her owner , a young Korean stableboy called Kim Huk Moon , though that was not his real name . The horse was originally named Ah Chim Hai in Korean , which translates to " Morning Flame " or " Flame @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Morning " , also reputed to be the name of her dam , a racehorse at the track in Seoul . Moon sold the horse , whom he had nicknamed " Flame , " to Lieutenant Eric Pedersen for $ 250 in order to buy a leg prosthesis for his sister , who had stepped on a land mine . The horse 's breeding was thought to be primarily Mongolian though she did have some features , particularly the shape of her head , that were similar to horses of Thoroughbred lineage . She was small , standing only 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) and weighing 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) .
= = Military service = =
In October 1952 , Pedersen received permission from Colonel Eustace P. Smoak to purchase a horse for his platoon . Based in mountainous terrain , Pederson needed a pack animal capable of carrying up to nine of the heavy 24 @-@ pound shells needed to supply the recoilless rifles used by his unit , the Recoilless Rifle Platoon of the 5th Marine Regiment . The day after he received permission , on October 26 , 1952 , Pedersen , Sergeant Willard Berry , and Corporal Philip Carter drove a jeep with a trailer to the Seoul racetrack . Pedersen paid for the horse with his own money . Moon was reluctant to sell the horse , though he needed to , and cried when " Flame " departed . The Marines renamed her " Reckless " as a contraction of the name of the Recoilless rifle and a nod to the daredevil attitude associated with those who used the gun .
Her primary trainer and the person Reckless was closest to was platoon Gunnery Sergeant Joseph Latham . Private First Class Monroe Coleman was her primary caretaker . In addition to Pedersen , Latham , and Coleman , Lieutenant Bill Riley and Sergeant Elmer Lively were also involved with the training and care of Reckless . Pedersen had his wife ship a pack saddle from their home in California so Reckless could better fulfill her primary role as a pack animal . The recoilless rifle platoon had its own medical corpsman , Navy Hospitalman First Class George " Doc " Mitchell , who provided the majority of medical care for Reckless .
The Marines , especially Latham , taught Reckless battlefield survival skills such as how not to become entangled in barbed wire and to lie down when under fire . She learned to run for a bunker upon hearing the cry , " incoming ! " The platoon called it her " hoof training " and " hoof camp " . The horse was initially kept in a pasture near the encampment . Reckless had a gentle disposition and soon developed such a rapport with the troops that she was allowed to freely roam about the camp and entered tents at will , sometimes sleeping inside with the troops , and even lying down next to Latham 's warm tent stove on cold nights . She was fond of a wide variety of foodstuffs , entertaining the platoon by eating scrambled eggs and drinking Coca @-@ Cola and beer . Food could not be left unattended around her . She was known to eat bacon , buttered toast , chocolate bars , hard candy , shredded wheat , peanut butter sandwiches and mashed potatoes . However , Mitchell advised the platoon that she not be given more than two bottles of Coke a day . Her tastes were not confined to foodstuffs ; she once ate her horse blanket , and on another occasion ate $ 30 worth of Latham 's winning poker chips .
Reckless 's baptism under fire came at a place called Hedy 's Crotch , near the villages of Changdan and Kwakchan . Though loaded down with six recoilless rifle shells , she initially " went straight up " and all four feet left the ground the first time the recoilless rifle was fired . When she landed she started shaking , but Coleman , her handler , calmed her down . The second time the gun fired she merely snorted , and by the end of the mission that day appeared calm and was seen trying to eat a discarded helmet liner . She even appeared to take an interest in the operation of the weapon . When learning a new delivery route , Reckless would only need someone to lead her a few times . Afterwards she would make the trips on her own . There was a standing order not to ride Reckless , but in early December 1952 , someone violated that order and took Reckless on a ride that included a sprint through a minefield . She was not injured during the unauthorized ride .
Her most significant accomplishment came during the Battle of Panmunjom @-@ Vegas ( also known as the Battle of Outpost Vegas / Vegas Hill ) over the period March 26 – 28 , 1953 , when she made 51 solo trips in a single day , carrying a total of 386 recoilless rounds ( over 9 @,@ 000 pounds , carrying 4 to 8 24 @-@ pound shells on each trip ) covering over 35 miles that day . The whole Battle of Vegas lasted 3 days . She was wounded twice during the battle : once when she was hit by shrapnel over the left eye and another time on her left flank . For her accomplishments during the Battle of Vegas Hill , Reckless was promoted to corporal .
When not on the front lines , Reckless packed other items for the platoon , and was particularly useful for stringing telephone wire . Carrying reels of wire on her pack that were played out as she walked , she could string as much wire as twelve men on foot . She became the first horse in the Marine Corps known to have participated in an amphibious landing when the 5th moved from Camp Casey to Inchon , planning to participate in amphibious landings hundreds of miles south of Inchon . The commanding officer of the transport halted loading operations when he saw the platoon on the dock with Reckless . He refused to take her on board his clean ship , which had won an award for being the cleanest ship in the previous two years . However , once the Marines produced the loading plan the ship 's commanding officer had approved which specifically listed Reckless and her equipment , she was allowed on board . Once the ship was underway , she became sick , making a mess on the ship 's decks during the first part of the voyage . She could not be disembarked due to a storm , but soon became accustomed to the motion of the ship at sea and had no more problems . The 1st Marine Division was moved to a rest area soon after the move , and while there some platoon members posed with Reckless and a sign challenging the Thoroughbred Native Dancer to a race . They called their race the " Paddy Derby " and the field " Upsan Downs . " The conditions were : 1 @.@ 5 miles over paddies and hills , carrying 192 pounds of ammunition , and no riders . The Marines never received a reply . Native Dancer came in second in the Kentucky Derby , but went on to win the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes .
Randolph M. Pate , then the commander of the 1st Marine Division , gave Reckless a battlefield promotion from corporal to sergeant in a formal ceremony , complete with reviewing stand , on April 10 , 1954 , several months after the war ended . She was also given a red and gold blanket with insignia . Reckless was promoted again , to staff sergeant , on August 31 , 1959 , at Camp Pendleton , CA . This promotion was also awarded by Pate , who had by then advanced to Commandant of the Marine Corps . Pate personally presided over this promotion ceremony and she was honored with a 19 @-@ gun salute with a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ man parade of Marines from her wartime unit . She was an early example of an animal holding official rank in a branch of the United States military .
= = Retirement = =
For her exemplary service to the Marine Corps , Reckless was awarded two Purple Hearts ( for the wounds received during the Battle of Vegas ) , a Marine Corps Good Conduct Medal , a Presidential Unit Citation with bronze star , the National Defense Service Medal , a Korean Service Medal , the United Nations Korea Medal , a Navy Unit Commendation , and a Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation . She would wear these awards on her horse blanket , plus a French Fourragere that the 5th Marines earned in World War I.
An article in The Saturday Evening Post , published on April 17 , 1954 , while Reckless was still in Korea , resulted in a campaign by American supporters to get the Marines to bring her to the United States . An executive at Pacific Transport Lines , Stan Coppel , read the article and offered to let Reckless ride free on one of his company 's ships from Yokohama to San Francisco . Prior to her departure for America , a ceremony , including a band , for Reckless ' rotation to the United States was held during half time of a football game between the Marine Corps and Army . Reckless left Korea for Japan aboard a 1st Marine Aircraft Wing transport plane . She then sailed from Yokohama on October 22 aboard the SS Pacific Transport , due in San Francisco on November 5 , 1954 . A typhoon delayed the ship 's arrival until the evening of November 9 . Reckless and her caretakers stayed aboard until the next morning . Reckless got sick during the storm and was once knocked out of her stall onto the deck by the storm , which happened near the end of the trip .
Reckless 's entry into the United States was not without its challenges . The Customs Bureau was not much of a problem but the United States Department of Agriculture insisted a medical check and lab tests be completed before she disembarked from the ship once it reached San Francisco , which would make her late for the Marine banquet where she was to be the guest of honor . The Marines contacted Agriculture Department officials in Washington , D.C. who agreed to allow her off the ship after her blood was drawn for lab tests , with the understanding that if she had glanders or dourine , she would be destroyed or sent back to Japan . Many of the Marines who actually knew her were incensed at what they considered an affront to her honor when they learned that dourine was an equine sexually transmitted disease . The night before she arrived , she once again ate her blanket , but a new one with ribbons and insignia was made just in time for her disembarkment . She was led off the ship by Lieutenant Pedersen and set foot on American soil in San Francisco on November 10 , 1954 , coincidentally the birthday of the Marine Corps . For the Marine Corps Birthday Ball held that day , she rode an elevator , and then ate both cake and the flower decorations .
Reckless was kept by Pedersen 's family for a brief time before moving to a more permanent home with the 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton . A second article about Reckless appeared in The Saturday Evening Post on October 22 , 1955 . These two articles and the book Reckless : Pride of the Marines ( 1955 ) were written by the commander of the 2nd Battalion , Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Geer , who kept notes about Reckless during the war . She made several public appearances , including Art Linkletter 's show House Party , but had to cancel an appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show due to the typhoon . Ed Sullivan had wanted her to appear on his November 7 show and was willing to pay the costs to get her there right after the scheduled , and delayed , November 5 arrival . Reckless never did appear on Sullivan 's show .
Reckless was well cared for and treated as a VIP during her time at Camp Pendleton . The Marine Corps was also careful not to allow her to be exploited by commercial interests . She produced four foals there : colts Fearless ( 1957 ) , Dauntless ( 1959 ) , and Chesty ( 1964 ) ; her last foal , a filly born circa 1965 – 1966 , died a month after birth and was unnamed . Her offspring Chesty was named after Chesty Puller , one of the few Marines ever allowed to ride Reckless . Puller was a Marine Corps lieutenant general and the most decorated United States Marine of all time . Reckless retired from active service with full military honors at Camp Pendleton on November 10 , 1960 . She was provided free quarters and feed in lieu of retirement pay , per Marine Corps documents .
Reckless developed arthritis in her back as she aged and injured herself on May 13 , 1968 , by falling into a barbed wire fence . She died under sedation while her wounds were being treated . At the time of her death , she was estimated to be 19 or 20 years old . There is a plaque and photo commemorating her at the Camp Pendleton stables . The first race at Aqueduct racetrack , New York , was designated " The Sgt Reckless " on November 10 , 1989 . In 1997 , Reckless was listed by LIFE magazine as one of America 's 100 all @-@ time heroes .
A statue by sculptor Jocelyn Russell of Reckless carrying ammunition shells and other combat equipment was unveiled on July 26 , 2013 , in Semper Fidelis Memorial Park at the National Museum of the Marine Corps , one day before the 60th anniversary of the Korean War . There is a lock of her tail hair in the base of the statue . The statue 's plaque includes a quote from Sergeant Harold Wadley , who served in battle alongside Sergeant Reckless : " The spirit of her loneliness and her loyalty , in spite of the danger , was something else to behold . Hurting . Determined . And alone . That 's the image I have imprinted in my head and heart forever . "
= = Awards and decorations = =
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= Jaws : The Revenge =
Jaws : The Revenge ( also known as Jaws 4 : The Revenge or simply Jaws 4 ) is a 1987 American thriller film directed by Joseph Sargent . It is the third sequel to Steven Spielberg 's Jaws and the fourth and final installment in the Jaws franchise .
The film focuses on Ellen Brody ( Lorraine Gary ) and her convictions that a shark is seeking revenge on her family , particularly when a great white follows her to the Bahamas . Jaws : The Revenge was shot on location in New England and in the Bahamas , and completed on the Universal lot . Like the first two films , Martha 's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the opening scenes . Although preceded by Jaws 3 @-@ D , Revenge ignores plot elements introduced in that film .
Jaws : The Revenge received extremely negative reviews , with many critics considering it one of the worst films ever made . While the other three films in the series took around two years to produce , Jaws : The Revenge was made in less than nine months . According to associate producer and production manager Frank Baur during the sequel 's filming , " This ( Revenge ) will be the fastest I have ever seen a major film planned and executed in all of my 35 years as a production manager . " Panned on release , the film was nominated for seven Golden Raspberry Awards .
= = Plot = =
On Amity Island , Chief of Police Martin Brody ( Roy Scheider ) , the hero of two previous shark attacks , has died from a heart attack . His wife , Ellen ( Lorraine Gary ) , attributes it to the fear of sharks . She now lives with Brody 's younger son Sean ( Mitchell Anderson ) and his fiancée Tiffany ( Mary Smith ) . Sean works as a police deputy and is dispatched to clear a log from a buoy a few days before Christmas . A massive 28 @-@ foot great white shark attacks and kills him , sinking his boat in the process .
Ellen believes the shark intentionally targeted Sean with a vengeance . Brody 's older son Mike ( Lance Guest ) , his wife Carla ( Karen Young ) , and their 5 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Thea ( Judith Barsi ) come to Amity for the funeral and encourage her to come to the Bahamas with them . At the islands , Ellen meets carefree airplane pilot Hoagie ( Michael Caine ) . Mike , along with partners Jake ( Mario Van Peebles ) , William , and Clarence , works as a marine biologist studying snails .
A few days later , they encounter the same shark that attacked Sean . Jake is eager to do research on the shark , because great white sharks hardly come to the Bahamas as the water there is too warm , and sharks are misunderstood creatures , but Michael asks him not to mention the shark due to Ellen 's attempts to convince him to find a job on land . Ellen becomes so obsessive that she starts having nightmares of being attacked by a shark . Then she starts getting psychic feelings when the shark is near or attacks . She and the shark have a strange connection that is unexplained . Jake decides to attach a device to the shark that can track it through its heartbeat . Using chum to attract it , Jake stabs the device 's tracking pole into the side of the shark . The next day , Mike is chased by the shark and barely manages to escape unharmed .
Thea goes on an inflatable banana boat with her friend Margaret and her mother while Carla presents her new art sculpture . The shark goes for Thea but attacks and kills Margaret 's mother instead . Thea and Carla are traumatized following the attack . Ellen boards Jake 's boat to track down the shark , intending to kill it to save the rest of her family . After hearing about what happened , Mike confesses about the shark , infuriating Carla . Mike and Jake are flown by Hoagie to search for Ellen and find the shark in pursuit of their boat . During the search , Hoagie explains to Mike about Ellen 's belief that the shark that killed Sean is after her family . When they finally find her , Hoagie lands the plane on the water , ordering Mike and Jake to swim to the boat as the shark drags the plane and Hoagie underwater .
Fortunately , Hoagie escapes from the shark . Jake and Mike hastily put together an explosive powered by electrical impulses . They begin blasting the shark with the impulses , which begin to drive it mad ; it repeatedly jumps out of the water , roaring in pain . As Jake moves to the front of the boat , the shark lunges , giving it the chance to pull Jake under and maul him . He manages to get the explosive into the shark 's mouth before he is taken underwater .
Mike continues to blast the shark with the impulses , causing it to leap out of the water again , igniting the bomb as Ellen steers the sailboat towards the shark while thinking back to Sean 's demise , the shark 's attack on Thea , and when her husband killed the first shark . The broken bowsprit impales the shark , causing it to explode . The shark 's corpse then sinks to the bottom of the sea . Mike then hears Jake calling for help , seriously injured but alive and conscious , floating in the water . The four survive the harsh encounter and make it back to land . Hoagie then flies Ellen back to Amity Island .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Joseph Sargent produced and directed the film . He had worked with Lorraine Gary in 1973 's The Marcus @-@ Nelson Murders , for which he won his first Directors Guild of America Award . Indeed , Steven Spielberg cites this television film , that later spawned Kojak , as motivation for casting Gary as Ellen Brody in the original Jaws film , besides the fact she was the wife of the studio 's chief executive Sidney Sheinberg at that time . In regards to Revenge , Gary remarked in an interview : " I made a good deal on this film , but I didn 't make as good a deal as I would have if I weren 't married to Sid . "
In an interview with the Boston Herald , Sargent called Revenge " a ticking bomb waiting to go off . ... Sid Sheinberg ( president of MCA Inc . , parent company of Universal Pictures ) expects a miracle – and we 're going to make it happen . " Sargent got a call from Sheinberg in late September 1986 , asking him to direct the fourth Jaws movie with no script yet written . Said Sargent , " I didn 't have time to laugh because Sid explained he wanted to do a quality picture about human beings . When he told me , ' It 's your baby , you produce and direct , ' I accepted . " According to Sargent , Sheinberg " cut through all the slow lanes and got Jaws : The Revenge off and running . " In a 2006 interview , Sargent stated that the premise was born " out of a little bit of desperation to find something fresh to do with the shark . We thought that maybe if we take a mystical point of view , and go for a little bit of ... magic , we might be able to find something interesting enough to sit through . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Jaws : The Revenge took place on location in New England and in the Bahamas , and completed on the Universal lot . Like the first two films of the series , Martha 's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the film 's opening scenes . Production commenced on February 2 , 1987 , by which time " snowstorms had blanketed " the island for almost a month , " providing a frosty backdrop for the opening scenes . " Because the sequel had to be ready for release by July of the same year and the mechanical shark had to be filmed in warmer temperatures , Martha 's Vineyard only makes a cameo appearance in Revenge .
In addition to the 124 cast and crew members , 250 local extras were also hired . The majority of the extras were used as members of the local high school band , chorus and dramatic society that can be seen as the Brodys walk through the town , and during Sean 's attack . A local gravestone maker produced 51 slabs for the mock graveyard used for Sean 's funeral .
The cast and crew moved to Nassau in the Bahamas on February 9 , beginning principal photography there the next day . Like the production of the first two films , they encountered many problems with varying weather conditions . The location did not offer the " perfect world " that the 38 @-@ day shoot required . Cover shots were filmed on shore and in interior sets . The film was shot in the Super 35 format .
= = = Special effects = = =
The special effects team , headed by Henry Millar , had arrived at South Beach , Nassau on January 12 , 1987 , almost a month before principal photography commenced there . In the official press release , Millar says that when he got involved " we didn 't even have a script ... but as the story developed and they started telling us all what they wanted ... I knew this wasn 't going to be like any other shark anyone had ever seen . "
The shark was to be launched from atop an 88 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) long platform , made from the trussed turret of a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) crane , and floated out into Clifton Bay . Seven sharks , or segments , were produced .
Two models were fully articulated , two were made for jumping , one for ramming , one was a half shark ( the top half ) and one was just a fin . The two fully articulated models each had 22 sectioned ribs and movable jaws covered by a flexible water @-@ based latex skin , measured 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in length and weighed 2500 pounds . Each tooth was half @-@ a @-@ foot long and as sharp as it looked . All models were housed under cover ... in a secret location on the island .
The film company returned to Universal to finish shooting on April 2 . Principal photography was completed in Los Angeles on May 26 . Millar 's special effects team , however , remained in Nassau , completing second unit photography on June 4 .
= = = Underwater sequences = = =
Cinematographer John McPherson also supervised the underwater unit , which was headed by Pete Romano . Whereas underwater photography was normally filmed with an anamorphic lens , requiring overhead lighting , Romano filmed these " sequences with Zeiss , a 35 mm super @-@ speed lens , which allows the natural ambiance to come through on film . " Additional underwater photography was completed in a water tank , measuring 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 100 feet ( 30 m ) across , and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in depth , in Universal Studio 's Stage 27 . Also , a replica of Nassau 's Clifton Bay and its skyline was created on the man @-@ made Falls Lake on the studio backlot .
A television documentary , " Behind the Scenes with Jaws : The Revenge " , was broadcast in the U.S. on July 10 , 1987 . Twenty @-@ two minutes in length , it was written and directed by William Rus for Zaloom Mayfield Productions .
= = = Ending changes = = =
In the ending that was in the original theatrical version , Ellen rammed the shark with Mike 's boat , mortally wounding it . The shark then causes the boat to break apart with its death contortions , forcing the people on the boat to jump off to avoid going down with it . American audiences disapproved of this ending . A new ending was ordered shot for foreign distribution with the shark getting stabbed with the bow sprit and then exploding ; and with Jake being found wounded but alive . This version is what Universal used on home media releases .
According to Orange Coast , the magazine of Orange County , re @-@ shooting the ending prevented Michael Caine from collecting his Academy Award for Hannah and Her Sisters . Other sources claim that the reshot ending began filming only five days after the movie was released and was intended for the version released in Europe . One version can be seen on cable broadcasts , while the other version is featured on the home releases .
The ending left many filmgoers confused . In his scathing review of the film , Roger Ebert says that he cannot believe " that the director , Joseph Sargent , would film this final climactic scene so incompetently that there is not even an establishing shot , so we have to figure out what happened on the basis of empirical evidence . "
= = = Series continuity = = =
No reference is made to the character development or events depicted in Jaws 3 @-@ D. In its predecessor , Mike is an engineer for SeaWorld , whereas in Jaws : The Revenge he is a marine research scientist . Sean is not associated with the police force in Jaws 3 @-@ D , and there is no mention of their respective partners . One of the Universal press releases for Jaws : The Revenge omits Jaws 3 @-@ D by referring to Jaws : The Revenge as the " third film of the remarkable Jaws trilogy . " However , even though Revenge removes Jaws 3 @-@ D from series continuity , the underwater chase scene between Mike and the shark in Revenge was lifted from an early screenplay draft of Jaws 3 @-@ D. While Jaws 2 is presumably still part of series continuity , no specific events from that sequel are mentioned by the characters and none of the footage from Jaws 2 is used for flashbacks in Jaws : The Revenge .
= = = Casting = = =
Lorraine Gary portrayed Ellen Brody in the first two films . In a press release , Gary says Jaws : The Revenge ' is " also about relationships which ... makes it much more like the first Jaws . " This was Gary 's first film since appearing in Spielberg 's 1941 eight years earlier , as well as her final film role .
The press release proposes that the character " had much more depth and texture than either of the other films was able to explore . The promise of further developing this multi @-@ dimensional woman under the extraordinary circumstances ... intrigued Gary enough to lure her back to the screen after a lengthy hiatus . " Although the film was always going to be centered on Gary , Roy Scheider was offered a cameo . If he had accepted it , it was his Martin Brody character , rather than Sean Brody , who would have been killed by the shark at the film 's beginning .
Gary is the only principal cast member from the original film who returned , although Lee Fierro made a brief cameo as Mrs. Kintner ( the mother of a boy killed in Jaws ) , as did Fritzi Jane Courtney , who played Mrs. Taft , one of the Amity town council members in both Jaws and Jaws 2 . Cyprian R. Dube , who played Amity Selectman Mr. Posner in both Jaws and Jaws 2 , is upgraded to mayor following the death of Murray Hamilton , who played Larry Vaughan , the mayor in the first two Jaws films .
Gary states that one of the reasons she was attracted to the film was the idea of an on @-@ screen romance with Oscar winner Michael Caine . Caine had previously starred in another Peter Benchley @-@ adapted flop , The Island .
The first day we were to work together I was nervous as a school girl . We were shooting a Junkanoo Festival with noisy drums and hundreds of extras . But he never faltered in his concentration and he put me completely at ease . It was all so natural . He 's an extraordinary actor – and just a nice human being .
Caine had mixed feelings about both the production and the final version . He thinks that it was a first for him to be involved with someone his own age in a film . He compares the relationship between two middle @-@ aged people to the romance between two teenagers . Although disappointed not to be able to collect an Academy Award because of filming in the Bahamas , he was glad to be involved in the film . In the press release , he explains that " it is part of movie history ... the original was one of the great all @-@ time thrillers . I thought it might be nice to be mixed up with that . I liked the script very much . " However , Caine later claimed : " I have never seen it [ the film ] , but by all accounts it is terrible . However , I have seen the house that it built , and it is terrific ! " In his 1992 autobiography What 's it All About ? , he says that the film " will go down in my memory as the time when I won an Oscar , paid for a house and had a great holiday . Not bad for a flop movie . "
Lance Guest played Ellen 's eldest son Mike . Guest had dropped out of his sophomore year at UCLA ( 1981 ) to appear in another sequel to a horror classic ; Halloween II . Karen Young played his wife Carla . She commended the director 's emphasis upon characterization .
Mario Van Peebles played Jake , Michael 's colleague . His father , Melvin Van Peebles , has a cameo in the film as Nassau 's mayor . Mitchell Anderson appeared as Ellen 's youngest son , Sean . Lynn Whitfield played Louisa , and stunt performer Diane Hetfield was the victim of the banana boat attack .
= = Music and soundtrack = =
The score was composed and conducted by Michael Small , who had previously provided music for Klute , Marathon Man ( both of which featured Jaws star Roy Scheider ) and The Parallax View . John Williams ' original shark motif is integrated into the score , although Small removed the Orca theme . Soundtrack.net says that " Small 's score is generally tense , and he comes up with a few new themes of his own . "
The film also contained the songs " Nail it to the Wall " , performed by Stacy Lattisaw , and the 1986 hit " You Got It All " , performed by The Jets . Unlike the preceding entries in the series , the soundtrack was not released at the same time as the film , although Small appears to have mixed tracks for a release . However , it was given a promotional release in 2000 on Audio CD and Compact Cassette .
Reviews for the soundtrack album were more favorable than for the film . Indeed , writing for Film Score Monthly , AK Benjamin says that " on a CD , Small 's material fares better since it 's not accompanied by the film . " Dismissing the film as " engagingly unwatchable " , he says that " Small certainly gave Revenge a lot more than it deserved – and this a much better score than Deep Blue Sea ... whatever that means . " Benjamin portrays Small as ' knowing ' and his work as being superior to the film .
The hysterical coda tacked onto the end of " Revenge and Finale " is almost worth the price of the disc , as it no doubt sums up Small 's opinion of the film . It 's sad that the great Michael Small was delegated utter crap like Jaws the Revenge in the late ' 80s – and even worse that he never found his way back to the material that he deserves .
Upon Small 's death in 2003 , The Independent wrote that the " composer of some distinction ... had the indignity of working on one of the worst films of all time " . Like most reviews of the soundtrack , the article criticizes the film whilst saying " Small produced a fine score in the circumstances , as if anyone noticed . "
In 2015 , Intrada Records , which previously reissued Jaws 3 @-@ D on compact disc , released the complete score .
= = Novelization = =
The novelization was written by Hank Searls , who also adapted Jaws 2 . While Searls ' Jaws 2 novelization was based on an earlier draft of that film and was significantly different from the finished film , his Jaws : The Revenge novelization sticks fairly close to the final film , although it does contain some extra subplots . The novel contains a subplot in which Hoagie is a government agent and he transports laundered money . The only reference to this in the film is when Michael Brody asks " What do you do when you ’ re not flying people ? " to which Hoagie replies , " I deliver laundry . " In Searls ' novel , the character of Jake is ultimately killed by the shark ; Jake was originally supposed to die in the film , but the script was changed to allow him to survive .
The novelization suggests that the shark may be acting under the influence of a vengeful voodoo witch doctor ( who has a feud with the Brody family ) , and the shark 's apparent revenge has magical implications . Therefore , the witch doctor is the ' revenge ' and the shark is his tool . This also explains the strange psychic connection Ellen and the shark have with each other . The plot was deleted as it strayed too far away from the plot of the killer shark . However , at one point in the theatrical version , Michael Brody says , " Come on , sharks don ’ t commit murder . Tell me you don ’ t believe in that voodoo . "
Searls ' novelization presents a continuity that combines elements from Peter Benchley 's Jaws novel as well as the Jaws film series . The novelization makes a reference to Ellen Brody 's affair with Matt Hooper , a subplot that exists in Benchley 's novel but is entirely absent from the film adaptation .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Jaws : The Revenge received a 0 % score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews with an average rating of 2 / 10 . The critical consensus reads , " Illogical , tension @-@ free and filled with cut @-@ rate special effects , Jaws 4 - The Revenge is a sorry chapter in a once @-@ proud franchise . " The film is one of the few films to have a 0 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes .
Gary did get nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance , but also a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress . It was rated by Entertainment Weekly as one of " The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made " . It was voted number 22 by readers of Empire magazine in their list of The 50 Worst Movies Ever .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film zero stars , writing in his review that it " is not simply a bad movie , but also a stupid and incompetent one . " He lists several elements that he finds unbelievable , including that Ellen is " haunted by flashbacks to events where she was not present . " Ebert joked that Caine could not attend the ceremony to accept his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor earned for Hannah and Her Sisters because of his shooting commitments on this film , because he may not have wanted to return to the shoot if he had left it .
Many scenes are considered implausible , such as the shark swimming from a New York island to the Bahamas ( approx . 1 @,@ 250 miles ) in less than three days , or following Michael through an underwater labyrinth , as well as the implication of a creature seeking revenge . The Independent pointed out that " the film was riddled with inconsistencies [ and ] errors ( sharks cannot float or roar like lions ) " . The special effects were criticized , especially some frames of the shark being speared by the boat 's prow . Also , the mechanisms propelling the shark can be seen in some shots .
Within his otherwise lukewarm review , Derek Winnert ends with " the Bahamas backdrops are pretty and the shark looks as toothsome as ever . " Richard Scheib also praises the " beautiful above and below water photography " and the " realistic mechanical shark , " although he considers " the melodrama back on dry land ... a bore . " Critics commented upon the sepia @-@ toned flashbacks to the first film . A scene with Michael and Thea imitating each other is interspersed with shots from a similar scene in Jaws of Sean ( Jay Mello ) and Martin Brody . Similarly , the shark 's destruction contains footage of Martin Brody aiming at the compressed air tank , saying " Smile , you son of a ... , " The New York Times comments " nothing kills a sequel faster than reverence ... Joseph Sargent , the director , has turned this into a color @-@ by @-@ numbers version of Steven Spielberg 's original Jaws . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = = Legacy = = =
The increasing number of sequels in the Jaws series was spoofed in the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II ( which was produced by Steven Spielberg and featured Jaws 3 star Lea Thompson ) , when Marty McFly travels to the year 2015 and sees a theater showing Jaws 19 , ( fictionally directed by Max Spielberg ) with the tagline " This time it 's REALLY REALLY personal ! " . This alludes to the tagline of Jaws : The Revenge : " This time it 's personal . " After being " attacked " by a promotional volumetric image of the shark outside the theatre , Marty says " the shark still looks fake . " In celebration of " Back to the Future Day " in 2015 , Universal released a parody trailer for Jaws 19 , where the sequels after The Revenge would have included sharks in various environments , prequels , and even a love story titled Jaws 17 : Fifty Scales of Grey .
Comedian Richard Jeni performed a popular stand @-@ up routine based on the film .
The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson 's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made .
= = Home media = =
Jaws The Revenge was the first film of the series to be released on DVD . It was released on Region 1 as a ' vanilla ' disc by Goodtimes , featuring Spanish and French subtitles . The feature is presented in a non @-@ anamorphic 2 @.@ 35 : 1 widescreen transfer . The soundtrack was presented in Dolby Digital 4 @.@ 1 , with one reviewer saying that the " stereo separation is great with ocean waves swirling around you , the bubbles going by during the scuba scenes , and Hoagie 's airplane flying around behind you . " The same reviewer praised the image transfer of Mcpherson 's " extremely well photographed " cinematography . The film was re @-@ released on DVD by Universal on June 3 , 2003 in an anamorphic transfer . In 2015 Jaws : The Revenge was re @-@ released on DVD as part of a three movie multi @-@ pack along with Jaws 2 and Jaws 3 @-@ D.
Universal Studios Home Entertainment released Jaws : The Revenge on Blu @-@ ray on June 14 , 2016 . The bonus features on the disc are the film 's theatrical trailer and the original theatrical ending .
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= Scene7 =
Scene7 is an American on @-@ demand rich media software company that provides document hosting and interactive publishing services such as online catalogs , targeted email , video , and image management . Several companies , mostly retailers , use the company 's services to showcase products on their websites and to allow customers to interact with the products . Scene7 's technology allows users to manipulate product images by zooming in and rotating products , simulating the inspection of merchandise in retail stores .
The company , founded as a division of Autodesk , created a room decoration computer software called Picture This Home in the mid @-@ 1990s . The division was sold to Broderbund in 1998 , then spun off as a company called GoodHome.com in June 1999 , receiving $ 30 million in venture capital . After GoodHome.com failed to become profitable , it was reorganized and renamed Scene7 . It formally launched on January 23 , 2001 and focused on helping companies prepare interactive advertisements for consumers . Scene7 was acquired by Adobe Systems on May 31 , 2007 for an undisclosed sum .
= = Profile = =
A subsidiary of Adobe Systems , Scene7 provides document hosting and interactive publishing services , typically charging clients $ 30 @,@ 000 to $ 50 @,@ 000 a year to convert catalog print files to interactive web pages . The company does most of its business in North America . Its primary competitors for dynamic imaging services and technology are RichFX and LiquidPixels . Scene7 products rely on several Adobe products , including Adobe Photoshop , Adobe InDesign , Adobe Flash , Adobe Illustrator , and Adobe Flex ; this relationship existed before Adobe purchased the company . Scene7 does not maintain any servers to host its services ; instead , it uses a " pay as you grow " program that only requires it to pay for the resources that it uses .
Scene7 's clients include the companies Sears , Lands ' End , Harrods , Macy 's , Office Depot , Levi Strauss & Co . , La @-@ Z @-@ Boy , and QVC . In 2001 , Scene7 agreed to develop home design and landscaping software for Individual Software for $ 50 million . High @-@ end casual clothing retailer Anthropologie has used Scene7 's services to create and deploy online catalogs for its e @-@ commerce website since November 9 , 2004 . The retailer implemented Scene7 's Dynamic Imaging service to let customers zoom in on products , similar to how merchandise is inspected in retail stores . The Harrods department store signed an agreement with Scene7 on June 24 , 2005 to use Scene7 's imaging and catalog system on the store 's website . This required Harrods to convert all its printed material to a digital format for Internet use .
= = History = =
= = = GoodHome.com ( mid @-@ 1990s to 2000 ) = = =
The company began as a development team that created software called Picture This Home in the mid @-@ 1990s for Autodesk in San Rafael , California . The program allowed people to virtually preview room decoration projects before any work began . Users could create virtual rooms , change walls and arrange furniture , and create photo @-@ realistic renderings of completed designs . Picture This Home was awarded the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval . In 1998 , the software and its team of 40 developers were sold to Broderbund , which was owned by The Learning Company , a subsidiary of Mattel Inc . Broderbund eventually spun Picture This Home off as a company called GoodHome.com in June 1999 . The company received $ 30 million in venture capital from Hearst Interactive Media .
In September 1999 , GoodHome.com merged with Alexandria , Virginia @-@ based nHabit.com , a rival company , for an undisclosed sum . After the merger , GoodHome.com was assured that it would grow quickly ; the merger also added the Internet service provider America Online to GoodHome.com 's portfolio as a client . Ten weeks after forming a business plan , GoodHome.com officially launched on September 29 , 1999 with offices in San Rafael and New York City , New York , and Roger Horchow was assigned as its chairman . The company used the slogan " A beautiful home . It was never this easy , " and focused on selling furniture and other home items , spending $ 20 million on advertisements in its first year . Mack decided that the company should target women , since " women make 80 percent of decorating decisions . " The company built a home furnishings portal to compete with the websites Living.com and Furniture.com , which both went bankrupt in 2000 . In April 2000 , GoodHome.com 's monthly sales topped $ 1 million ; the company 's goal was to be profitable within two to three years .
One of the website 's biggest attractions was its virtual decorating service that let customers see how certain features such as the paint , upholstery fabric , rugs , and pillows would look before a purchase . When considering why this service was so popular , Mack noted that consumers usually feel more confident in a purchase when there are few unknowns . At the time , selling products over the Internet was not a popular concept outside the United States , but Mack was confident in expanding GoodHome.com 's portfolio to include foreign companies : " We 're already getting so many requests from companies about expanding our website abroad ... I see this happening quickly within the next few years . "
GoodHome.com encountered difficulties in running its business in 2000 , when several other companies that offered similar services launched . The increasing demand for online catalog services , considered a phenomenon , was dubbed the " hottest thing since sliced bread " by an analyst from technology research firm Forrester Research , which estimated that roughly $ 500 million was invested in home furnishing websites from 1999 to 2000 . It became difficult for consumers to decide which service provided better quality ; a business owner commented , " You can 't tell the difference in quality between something that 's $ 3 @,@ 000 and something that 's $ 10 @,@ 000 . " GoodHome.com , which had offered free shipping , phased out the feature on July 15 , 2000 , in favor of " heavily subsidized rates " . To compete with new companies , GoodHome.com also introduced new features such as a " floor planning " feature to allow website visitors build an electronic version of their rooms , then drag in furnishings to see how they fit .
= = = Reorganization ( 2001 to 2005 ) = = =
After spending several years operating at a loss , GoodHome.com reorganized under the name Scene7 , which formally launched in January 2001 , with $ 15 million raised from investors that included Hearst Interactive Media . The new company focused on helping companies prepare interactive advertisements for consumers . Mack , the Broderbund executive who had decided to spin off the company , reflected on the decision to reorganize and relaunch : " We got a year into [ the initial GoodHome scheme ] and the whole B2C ( business @-@ to @-@ consumer ) market tanked , and we realized we could not build a successful business as a portal [ ... ] But the whole time we kept having people approach us to license the technology [ to create virtual catalogs ] , and finally a light bulb went off when we realized we were sitting on top of a great technology we could sell . " Scene7 raised a round of financing on July 12 , 2001 that totaled $ 11 @.@ 3 million , which helped stabilize the company . The deal was led by venture capitalists from several firms , including Louis Bacon 's Moore Capital Management and Xcelera of the Cayman Islands , with cash investments from Cooley Godward and Perkins Coie . After the latest round of financing , Mack planned for Scene7 to have 15 clients and a burn rate , or negative cash flow , of less than $ 700 @,@ 000 a month , stating , " What we learned was to stick to your strategy , and don 't get nervous when the competition is adopting a strategy to spend their way to victory . " At the time , the company 's revenues were well below its peak of $ 1 million a month , but Mack intended to increase revenues past that point in a few months .
Scene7 moved from San Rafael to Hamilton Landing in Novato , California in September 2002 to accommodate more employees . On July 9 , 2003 , the company acquired all of the assets of workflow provider and advertising software company Engage for $ 1 @.@ 2 million and assumed its $ 650 @,@ 000 debt after Engage filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy . Engage was the parent company of both Cascade and MidSystems , which were two of the first companies that tried to automate prepress production for newspapers and large printers . On August 15 , 2003 , Scene7 acquired its top competitor , TrueSpectra of San Mateo , for an undisclosed amount of cash and stock . On June 15 , 2004 , Scene7 raised $ 7 @.@ 5 million in another round of financing , led by home shopping company QVC with some of Scene7 's existing investors . At the same time , Jeffrey Branman , President of Interactive Technology Partners at QVC , and David Rubenstein , co @-@ founder of the private equity firm The Carlyle Group , joined Scene7 's board of directors , which was composed of James Caccavo of Moore Capital , Andrew Wright of RealNetworks , and Mack .
Since the early 2000s , the company 's growth has been fueled by an increase in broadband Internet access , which loads virtual catalogs faster than dial @-@ up Internet access . When catalogs first appeared online in the late 1990s , the graphics took too long to load . After high @-@ speed Internet access became more popular , virtual catalogs quickly grew to become a popular feature of online stores . In addition to faster Internet connectivity , a study in 2000 noted that an online presence for brick and mortar businesses increased offline sales by an average of 27 % . Mack also pointed out that having more product information disseminated helps play a role in increasing sales : " We have the ability to provide consistent information ... One of the advantages of selling furniture online is the hyperscript ; you always have the original specifications on a product . "
= = = Acquisition ( 2007 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
Scene7 was acquired by Adobe Systems on May 31 , 2007 for an undisclosed sum . At that time , Scene7 had 80 employees , most of whom were transferred from Scene7 's former headquarters in Novato , California to Adobe 's offices in San Francisco , California . Mack joined Adobe as its vice president of Creative Solutions Services . Scene7 was added to Adobe 's product line as a hosted service to help boost Adobe 's overall services strategy , especially its software as a service efforts , and because Scene7 was a great fit due to its heavy usage of Adobe products .
Adobe plans to integrate Scene7 's products into Adobe LiveCycle , the company 's suite of server software products , at an unspecified time . The Scene7 brand will continue to be used , but it will " eventually be replaced with the Adobe brand " . Denmark @-@ based YaWah , a dynamic imaging software company , was acquired by Adobe on September 26 , 2008 to help expand Scene7 globally .
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= Atheism =
Atheism is , in the broadest sense , the absence of belief in the existence of deities . Less broadly , atheism is the rejection of belief that any deities exist . In an even narrower sense , atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities . Atheism is contrasted with theism , which , in its most general form , is the belief that at least one deity exists .
The term atheism originated from the Greek ἄθεος ( atheos ) , meaning " without god ( s ) " , used as a pejorative term applied to those thought to reject the gods worshiped by the larger society . With the spread of freethought , skeptical inquiry , and subsequent increase in criticism of religion , application of the term narrowed in scope . The first individuals to identify themselves using the word atheist lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment . The French Revolution , noted for its " unprecedented atheism , " witnessed the first major political movement in history to advocate for the supremacy of human reason .
Arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to social and historical approaches . Rationales for not believing in deities include arguments that there is a lack of empirical evidence ; the problem of evil ; the argument from inconsistent revelations ; the rejection of concepts that cannot be falsified ; and the argument from nonbelief . Although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies ( eg. humanism and skepticism ) , there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere . Many atheists hold that atheism is a more parsimonious worldview than theism and therefore that the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of God but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism .
Since conceptions of atheism vary , accurate estimations of current numbers of atheists are difficult . Several comprehensive global polls on the subject have been conducted by Gallup International : their 2015 poll featured over 64 @,@ 000 respondents and indicated that 11 % were " convinced atheists " whereas an earlier 2012 poll found that 13 % of respondents were " convinced atheists . " An older survey by the BBC , in 2004 , recorded atheists as comprising 8 % of the world 's population . Other older estimates have indicated that atheists comprise 2 % of the world 's population , while the irreligious add a further 12 % . According to these polls , Europe and East Asia are the regions with the highest rates of atheism . In 2015 , 61 % of people in China reported that they were atheists . The figures for a 2010 Eurobarometer survey in the European Union ( EU ) reported that 20 % of the EU population claimed not to believe in " any sort of spirit , God or life force " .
= = Definitions and distinctions = =
Writers disagree on how best to define and classify atheism , contesting what supernatural entities it applies to , whether it is a philosophic position in its own right or merely the absence of one , and whether it requires a conscious , explicit rejection . Atheism has been regarded as compatible with agnosticism , and has also been contrasted with it . A variety of categories have been used to distinguish the different forms of atheism .
= = = Range = = =
Some of the ambiguity and controversy involved in defining atheism arises from difficulty in reaching a consensus for the definitions of words like deity and god . The plurality of wildly different conceptions of God and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheism 's applicability . The ancient Romans accused Christians of being atheists for not worshiping the pagan deities . Gradually , this view fell into disfavor as theism came to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity .
With respect to the range of phenomena being rejected , atheism may counter anything from the existence of a deity , to the existence of any spiritual , supernatural , or transcendental concepts , such as those of Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism , and Taoism .
= = = Implicit vs. explicit = = =
Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration a person must put to the idea of gods to be considered an atheist . Atheism has sometimes been defined to include the simple absence of belief that any deities exist . This broad definition would include newborns and other people who have not been exposed to theistic ideas . As far back as 1772 , Baron d 'Holbach said that " All children are born Atheists ; they have no idea of God . " Similarly , George H. Smith ( 1979 ) suggested that : " The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god . This category would also include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved , but who is still unaware of those issues . The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist . " Smith coined the term implicit atheism to refer to " the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it " and explicit atheism to refer to the more common definition of conscious disbelief . Ernest Nagel contradicts Smith 's definition of atheism as merely " absence of theism " , acknowledging only explicit atheism as true " atheism " .
= = = Positive vs. negative = = =
Philosophers such as Antony Flew and Michael Martin have contrasted positive ( strong / hard ) atheism with negative ( weak / soft ) atheism . Positive atheism is the explicit affirmation that gods do not exist . Negative atheism includes all other forms of non @-@ theism . According to this categorization , anyone who is not a theist is either a negative or a positive atheist . The terms weak and strong are relatively recent , while the terms negative and positive atheism are of older origin , having been used ( in slightly different ways ) in the philosophical literature and in Catholic apologetics . Under this demarcation of atheism , most agnostics qualify as negative atheists .
While Martin , for example , asserts that agnosticism entails negative atheism , many agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism , which they may consider no more justified than theism or requiring an equal conviction . The assertion of unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of gods is sometimes seen as an indication that atheism requires a leap of faith . Common atheist responses to this argument include that unproven religious propositions deserve as much disbelief as all other unproven propositions , and that the unprovability of a god 's existence does not imply equal probability of either possibility . Scottish philosopher J. J. C. Smart even argues that " sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself , even passionately , as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever , except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic . " Consequently , some atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins prefer distinguishing theist , agnostic and atheist positions along a spectrum of theistic probability — the likelihood that each assigns to the statement " God exists " .
= = = Definition as impossible or impermanent = = =
Before the 18th century , the existence of God was so accepted in the western world that even the possibility of true atheism was questioned . This is called theistic innatism — the notion that all people believe in God from birth ; within this view was the connotation that atheists are simply in denial .
There is also a position claiming that atheists are quick to believe in God in times of crisis , that atheists make deathbed conversions , or that " there are no atheists in foxholes " . There have however been examples to the contrary , among them examples of literal " atheists in foxholes " .
Some atheists have doubted the very need for the term " atheism " . In his book Letter to a Christian Nation , Sam Harris wrote :
In fact , " atheism " is a term that should not even exist . No one ever needs to identify himself as a " non @-@ astrologer " or a " non @-@ alchemist " . We do not have words for people who doubt that Elvis is still alive or that aliens have traversed the galaxy only to molest ranchers and their cattle . Atheism is nothing more than the noises reasonable people make in the presence of unjustified religious beliefs .
= = Concepts = =
The broadest demarcation of atheistic rationale is between practical and theoretical atheism .
= = = Practical atheism = = =
In practical or pragmatic atheism , also known as apatheism , individuals live as if there are no gods and explain natural phenomena without reference to any deities . The existence of gods is not rejected , but may be designated unnecessary or useless ; gods neither provide purpose to life , nor influence everyday life , according to this view . A form of practical atheism with implications for the scientific community is methodological naturalism — the " tacit adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism within scientific method with or without fully accepting or believing it . "
Practical atheism can take various forms :
Absence of religious motivation — belief in gods does not motivate moral action , religious action , or any other form of action ;
Active exclusion of the problem of gods and religion from intellectual pursuit and practical action ;
Indifference — the absence of any interest in the problems of gods and religion ; or
Unawareness of the concept of a deity .
= = = Theoretical atheism = = =
= = = = Ontological arguments = = = =
Theoretical ( or theoric ) atheism explicitly posits arguments against the existence of gods , responding to common theistic arguments such as the argument from design or Pascal 's Wager . Theoretical atheism is mainly an ontology ; more precisely , a physical ontology .
= = = = Epistemological arguments = = = =
Epistemological atheism argues that people cannot know a God or determine the existence of a God . The foundation of epistemological atheism is agnosticism , which takes a variety of forms . In the philosophy of immanence , divinity is inseparable from the world itself , including a person 's mind , and each person 's consciousness is locked in the subject . According to this form of agnosticism , this limitation in perspective prevents any objective inference from belief in a god to assertions of its existence . The rationalistic agnosticism of Kant and the Enlightenment only accepts knowledge deduced with human rationality ; this form of atheism holds that gods are not discernible as a matter of principle , and therefore cannot be known to exist . Skepticism , based on the ideas of Hume , asserts that certainty about anything is impossible , so one can never know for sure whether or not a god exists . Hume , however , held that such unobservable metaphysical concepts should be rejected as " sophistry and illusion " . The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed ; it can also be regarded as an independent , basic worldview .
Other arguments for atheism that can be classified as epistemological or ontological , including logical positivism and ignosticism , assert the meaninglessness or unintelligibility of basic terms such as " God " and statements such as " God is all @-@ powerful . " Theological noncognitivism holds that the statement " God exists " does not express a proposition , but is nonsensical or cognitively meaningless . It has been argued both ways as to whether such individuals can be classified into some form of atheism or agnosticism . Philosophers A. J. Ayer and Theodore M. Drange reject both categories , stating that both camps accept " God exists " as a proposition ; they instead place noncognitivism in its own category .
= = = = Metaphysical arguments = = = =
One author writes :
" Metaphysical atheism ... includes all doctrines that hold to metaphysical monism ( the homogeneity of reality ) . Metaphysical atheism may be either : a ) absolute — an explicit denial of God 's existence associated with materialistic monism ( all materialistic trends , both in ancient and modern times ) ; b ) relative — the implicit denial of God in all philosophies that , while they accept the existence of an absolute , conceive of the absolute as not possessing any of the attributes proper to God : transcendence , a personal character or unity . Relative atheism is associated with idealistic monism ( pantheism , panentheism , deism ) . "
= = = = Logical arguments = = = =
Logical atheism holds that the various conceptions of gods , such as the personal god of Christianity , are ascribed logically inconsistent qualities . Such atheists present deductive arguments against the existence of God , which assert the incompatibility between certain traits , such as perfection , creator @-@ status , immutability , omniscience , omnipresence , omnipotence , omnibenevolence , transcendence , personhood ( a personal being ) , nonphysicality , justice , and mercy .
Theodicean atheists believe that the world as they experience it cannot be reconciled with the qualities commonly ascribed to God and gods by theologians . They argue that an omniscient , omnipotent , and omnibenevolent God is not compatible with a world where there is evil and suffering , and where divine love is hidden from many people . A similar argument is attributed to Siddhartha Gautama , the founder of Buddhism .
= = = Reductionary accounts of religion = = =
Philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud have argued that God and other religious beliefs are human inventions , created to fulfill various psychological and emotional wants or needs . This is also a view of many Buddhists . Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , influenced by the work of Feuerbach , argued that belief in God and religion are social functions , used by those in power to oppress the working class . According to Mikhail Bakunin , " the idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice ; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty , and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind , in theory and practice . " He reversed Voltaire 's famous aphorism that if God did not exist , it would be necessary to invent him , writing instead that " if God really existed , it would be necessary to abolish him . "
= = = Atheism within religions = = =
Atheism is acceptable within some religious and spiritual belief systems , including Hinduism , Jainism , Buddhism , Syntheism , Raëlism , and Neopagan movements such as Wicca . Āstika schools in Hinduism hold atheism to be a valid path to moksha , but extremely difficult , for the atheist can not expect any help from the divine on their journey . Jainism believes the universe is eternal and has no need for a creator deity , however Tirthankaras are revered that can transcend space and time and have more power than the god Indra . Secular Buddhism does not advocate belief in gods . Early Buddhism was atheistic as Gautama Buddha 's path involved no mention of gods . Later conceptions of Buddhism consider Buddha himself a god , suggest adherents can attain godhood , and revere Bodhisattvas and Eternal Buddha .
= = Atheistic philosophies = =
Axiological , or constructive , atheism rejects the existence of gods in favor of a " higher absolute " , such as humanity . This form of atheism favors humanity as the absolute source of ethics and values , and permits individuals to resolve moral problems without resorting to God . Marx and Freud used this argument to convey messages of liberation , full @-@ development , and unfettered happiness . One of the most common criticisms of atheism has been to the contrary — that denying the existence of a god leads to moral relativism , leaving one with no moral or ethical foundation , or renders life meaningless and miserable . Blaise Pascal argued this view in his Pensées .
French philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre identified himself as a representative of an " atheist existentialism " concerned less with denying the existence of God than with establishing that " man needs ... to find himself again and to understand that nothing can save him from himself , not even a valid proof of the existence of God . " Sartre said a corollary of his atheism was that " if God does not exist , there is at least one being in whom existence precedes essence , a being who exists before he can be defined by any concept , and ... this being is man . " The practical consequence of this atheism was described by Sartre as meaning that there are no a priori rules or absolute values that can be invoked to govern human conduct , and that humans are " condemned " to invent these for themselves , making " man " absolutely " responsible for everything he does " .
= = Atheism , religion , and morality = =
= = = Association with world views and social behaviors = = =
Sociologist Phil Zuckerman analyzed previous social science research on secularity and non @-@ belief , and concluded that societal well @-@ being is positively correlated with irreligion . He found that there are much lower concentrations of atheism and secularity in poorer , less developed nations ( particularly in Africa and South America ) than in the richer industrialized democracies . His findings relating specifically to atheism in the US were that compared to religious people in the US , " atheists and secular people " are less nationalistic , prejudiced , antisemitic , racist , dogmatic , ethnocentric , closed @-@ minded , and authoritarian , and in US states with the highest percentages of atheists , the murder rate is lower than average . In the most religious states , the murder rate is higher than average .
= = = Atheism and irreligion = = =
People who self @-@ identify as atheists are often assumed to be irreligious , but some sects within major religions reject the existence of a personal , creator deity . In recent years , certain religious denominations have accumulated a number of openly atheistic followers , such as atheistic or humanistic Judaism and Christian atheists .
The strictest sense of positive atheism does not entail any specific beliefs outside of disbelief in any deity ; as such , atheists can hold any number of spiritual beliefs . For the same reason , atheists can hold a wide variety of ethical beliefs , ranging from the moral universalism of humanism , which holds that a moral code should be applied consistently to all humans , to moral nihilism , which holds that morality is meaningless .
Philosophers such as Slavoj Žižek , Alain de Botton , and Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist , have all argued that atheists should reclaim religion as an act of defiance against theism , precisely not to leave religion as an unwarranted monopoly to theists .
= = = Divine command vs. ethics = = =
According to Plato 's Euthyphro dilemma , the role of the gods in determining right from wrong is either unnecessary or arbitrary . The argument that morality must be derived from God , and cannot exist without a wise creator , has been a persistent feature of political if not so much philosophical debate . Moral precepts such as " murder is wrong " are seen as divine laws , requiring a divine lawmaker and judge . However , many atheists argue that treating morality legalistically involves a false analogy , and that morality does not depend on a lawmaker in the same way that laws do . Friedrich Nietzsche believed in a morality independent of theistic belief , and stated that morality based upon God " has truth only if God is truth — it stands or falls with faith in God . "
There exist normative ethical systems that do not require principles and rules to be given by a deity . Some include virtue ethics , social contract , Kantian ethics , utilitarianism , and Objectivism . Sam Harris has proposed that moral prescription ( ethical rule making ) is not just an issue to be explored by philosophy , but that we can meaningfully practice a science of morality . Any such scientific system must , nevertheless , respond to the criticism embodied in the naturalistic fallacy .
Philosophers Susan Neiman and Julian Baggini ( among others ) assert that behaving ethically only because of divine mandate is not true ethical behavior but merely blind obedience . Baggini argues that atheism is a superior basis for ethics , claiming that a moral basis external to religious imperatives is necessary to evaluate the morality of the imperatives themselves — to be able to discern , for example , that " thou shalt steal " is immoral even if one 's religion instructs it — and that atheists , therefore , have the advantage of being more inclined to make such evaluations . The contemporary British political philosopher Martin Cohen has offered the more historically telling example of Biblical injunctions in favour of torture and slavery as evidence of how religious injunctions follow political and social customs , rather than vice versa , but also noted that the same tendency seems to be true of supposedly dispassionate and objective philosophers . Cohen extends this argument in more detail in Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao , where he argues that the Qur 'an played a role in perpetuating social codes from the early 7th century despite changes in secular society .
= = = Criticism of religion = = =
Some prominent atheists — most recently Christopher Hitchens , Daniel Dennett , Sam Harris , and Richard Dawkins , and following such thinkers as Bertrand Russell , Robert G. Ingersoll , Voltaire , and novelist José Saramago — have criticized religions , citing harmful aspects of religious practices and doctrines .
The 19th @-@ century German political theorist and sociologist Karl Marx called religion " the sigh of the oppressed creature , the heart of a heartless world , and the soul of soulless conditions . It is the opium of the people " . He goes on to say , " The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness . To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions . The criticism of religion is , therefore , in embryo , the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is the halo . " Lenin said that " every religious idea and every idea of God is unutterable vileness ... of the most dangerous kind , ' contagion ' of the most abominable kind . Millions of sins , filthy deeds , acts of violence and physical contagions ... are far less dangerous than the subtle , spiritual idea of God decked out in the smartest ideological constumes ... " .
Sam Harris criticises Western religion 's reliance on divine authority as lending itself to authoritarianism and dogmatism . There is a correlation between religious fundamentalism and extrinsic religion ( when religion is held because it serves ulterior interests ) and authoritarianism , dogmatism , and prejudice . These arguments — combined with historical events that are argued to demonstrate the dangers of religion , such as the Crusades , inquisitions , witch trials , and terrorist attacks — have been used in response to claims of beneficial effects of belief in religion . Believers counter @-@ argue that some regimes that espouse atheism , such as the Soviet Union , have also been guilty of mass murder . In response to those claims , atheists such as Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins have stated that Stalin 's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic Marxism , and that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists , they did not do their deeds in the name of atheism .
= = Etymology = =
In early ancient Greek , the adjective átheos ( ἄθεος , from the privative ἀ- + θεός " god " ) meant " godless " . It was first used as a term of censure roughly meaning " ungodly " or " impious " . In the 5th century BCE , the word began to indicate more deliberate and active godlessness in the sense of " severing relations with the gods " or " denying the gods " . The term ἀσεβής ( asebēs ) then came to be applied against those who impiously denied or disrespected the local gods , even if they believed in other gods . Modern translations of classical texts sometimes render átheos as " atheistic " . As an abstract noun , there was also ἀθεότης ( atheotēs ) , " atheism " . Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin átheos . The term found frequent use in the debate between early Christians and Hellenists , with each side attributing it , in the pejorative sense , to the other .
The term atheist ( from Fr. athée ) , in the sense of " one who ... denies the existence of God or gods " , predates atheism in English , being first found as early as 1566 , and again in 1571 . Atheist as a label of practical godlessness was used at least as early as 1577 . The term atheism was derived from the French athéisme , and appears in English about 1587 . An earlier work , from about 1534 , used the term atheonism . Related words emerged later : deist in 1621 , theist in 1662 , deism in 1675 , and theism in 1678 . At that time " deist " and " deism " already carried their modern meaning . The term theism came to be contrasted with deism .
Karen Armstrong writes that " During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , the word ' atheist ' was still reserved exclusively for polemic ... The term ' atheist ' was an insult . Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist . "
Atheism was first used to describe a self @-@ avowed belief in late 18th @-@ century Europe , specifically denoting disbelief in the monotheistic Abrahamic god . In the 20th century , globalization contributed to the expansion of the term to refer to disbelief in all deities , though it remains common in Western society to describe atheism as simply " disbelief in God " .
= = History = =
While the earliest @-@ found usage of the term atheism is in 16th @-@ century France , ideas that would be recognized today as atheistic are documented from the Vedic period and the classical antiquity .
= = = Early Indic religion = = =
Atheistic schools are found in early Indian thought and have existed from the times of the historical Vedic religion . Among the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy , Samkhya , the oldest philosophical school of thought , does not accept God , and the early Mimamsa also rejected the notion of God . The thoroughly materialistic and anti @-@ theistic philosophical Cārvāka ( or Lokāyata ) school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of philosophy in India , similar to the Greek Cyrenaic school . This branch of Indian philosophy is classified as heterodox due to its rejection of the authority of Vedas and hence is not considered part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism , but it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism . Chatterjee and Datta explain that our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary , based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools , and that it is not a living tradition :
" Though materialism in some form or other has always been present in India , and occasional references are found in the Vedas , the Buddhistic literature , the Epics , as well as in the later philosophical works we do not find any systematic work on materialism , nor any organized school of followers as the other philosophical schools possess . But almost every work of the other schools states , for refutation , the materialistic views . Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these . "
Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa . The rejection of a personal creator God is also seen in Jainism and Buddhism in India .
= = = Classical antiquity = = =
Western atheism has its roots in pre @-@ Socratic Greek philosophy , but did not emerge as a distinct world @-@ view until the late Enlightenment . The 5th @-@ century BCE Greek philosopher Diagoras is known as the " first atheist " , and is cited as such by Cicero in his De Natura Deorum . Atomists such as Democritus attempted to explain the world in a purely materialistic way , without reference to the spiritual or mystical . Critias viewed religion as a human invention used to frighten people into following moral order and Prodicus also appears to have made clear atheistic statements in his work . Philodemus reports that Prodicus believed that " the gods of popular belief do not exist nor do they know , but primitive man , [ out of admiration , deified ] the fruits of the earth and virtually everything that contributed to his existence " . Protagoras has sometimes been taken to be an atheist but rather espoused agnostic views , commenting that " Concerning the gods I am unable to discover whether they exist or not , or what they are like in form ; for there are many hindrances to knowledge , the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life . " In the 3rd @-@ century BCE the Greek philosophers Theodorus Cyrenaicus and Strato of Lampsacus did not believe in the existence of gods .
Socrates ( c . 470 – 399 BCE ) was associated in the Athenian public mind with the trends in pre @-@ Socratic philosophy towards naturalistic inquiry and the rejection of divine explanations for phenomena . Although such an interpretation misrepresents his thought he was portrayed in such a way in Aristophanes ' comic play Clouds and was later to be tried and executed for impiety and corrupting the young . At his trial Socrates is reported as vehemently denying that he was an atheist and contemporary scholarship provides little reason to doubt this claim .
Euhemerus ( c . 300 BCE ) published his view that the gods were only the deified rulers , conquerors and founders of the past , and that their cults and religions were in essence the continuation of vanished kingdoms and earlier political structures . Although not strictly an atheist , Euhemerus was later criticized for having " spread atheism over the whole inhabited earth by obliterating the gods " .
Also important in the history of atheism was Epicurus ( c . 300 BCE ) . Drawing on the ideas of Democritus and the Atomists , he espoused a materialistic philosophy according to which the universe was governed by the laws of chance without the need for divine intervention ( see scientific determinism ) . Although he stated that deities existed , he believed that they were uninterested in human existence . The aim of the Epicureans was to attain peace of mind and one important way of doing this was by exposing fear of divine wrath as irrational . The Epicureans also denied the existence of an afterlife and the need to fear divine punishment after death .
The Roman philosopher Sextus Empiricus held that one should suspend judgment about virtually all beliefs — a form of skepticism known as Pyrrhonism — that nothing was inherently evil , and that ataraxia ( " peace of mind " ) is attainable by withholding one 's judgment . His relatively large volume of surviving works had a lasting influence on later philosophers .
The meaning of " atheist " changed over the course of classical antiquity . The early Christians were labeled atheists by non @-@ Christians because of their disbelief in pagan gods . During the Roman Empire , Christians were executed for their rejection of the Roman gods in general and Emperor @-@ worship in particular . When Christianity became the state religion of Rome under Theodosius I in 381 , heresy became a punishable offense .
= = = Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance = = =
During the Early Middle Ages , the Islamic world underwent a Golden Age . With the associated advances in science and philosophy , Arab and Persian lands produced outspoken rationalists and atheists , including Muhammad al Warraq ( fl . 7th century ) , Ibn al @-@ Rawandi ( 827 – 911 ) , Al @-@ Razi ( 854 – 925 ) , and Al @-@ Maʿarri ( 973 – 1058 ) . Al @-@ Ma 'arri wrote and taught that religion itself was a " fable invented by the ancients " and that humans were " of two sorts : those with brains , but no religion , and those with religion , but no brains . " Despite being relatively prolific writers , nearly none of their writing survives to the modern day , most of what little remains being preserved through quotations and excerpts in later works by Muslim apologists attempting to refute them . Other prominent Golden Age scholars have been associated with rationalist thought and atheism as well , although the current intellectual atmosphere in the Islamic world , and the scant evidence that survives from the era , make this point a contentious one today .
In Europe , the espousal of atheistic views was rare during the Early Middle Ages and Middle Ages ( see Medieval Inquisition ) ; metaphysics and theology were the dominant interests pertaining to religion . There were , however , movements within this period that furthered heterodox conceptions of the Christian god , including differing views of the nature , transcendence , and knowability of God . Individuals and groups such as Johannes Scotus Eriugena , David of Dinant , Amalric of Bena , and the Brethren of the Free Spirit maintained Christian viewpoints with pantheistic tendencies . Nicholas of Cusa held to a form of fideism he called docta ignorantia ( " learned ignorance " ) , asserting that God is beyond human categorization , and thus our knowledge of him is limited to conjecture . William of Ockham inspired anti @-@ metaphysical tendencies with his nominalistic limitation of human knowledge to singular objects , and asserted that the divine essence could not be intuitively or rationally apprehended by human intellect . Followers of Ockham , such as John of Mirecourt and Nicholas of Autrecourt furthered this view . The resulting division between faith and reason influenced later radical and reformist theologians such as John Wycliffe , Jan Hus , and Martin Luther .
The Renaissance did much to expand the scope of free thought and skeptical inquiry . Individuals such as Leonardo da Vinci sought experimentation as a means of explanation , and opposed arguments from religious authority . Other critics of religion and the Church during this time included Niccolò Machiavelli , Bonaventure des Périers , Michel de Montaigne , and François Rabelais .
= = = Early modern period = = =
Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that the Reformation had paved the way for atheists by attacking the authority of the Catholic Church , which in turn " quietly inspired other thinkers to attack the authority of the new Protestant churches " . Deism gained influence in France , Prussia , and England . The philosopher Baruch Spinoza was " probably the first well known ' semi @-@ atheist ' to announce himself in a Christian land in the modern era " , according to Blainey . Spinoza believed that natural laws explained the workings of the universe . In 1661 he published his Short Treatise on God .
Criticism of Christianity became increasingly frequent in the 17th and 18th centuries , especially in France and England , where there appears to have been a religious malaise , according to contemporary sources . Some Protestant thinkers , such as Thomas Hobbes , espoused a materialist philosophy and skepticism toward supernatural occurrences , while Spinoza rejected divine providence in favour of a panentheistic naturalism . By the late 17th century , deism came to be openly espoused by intellectuals such as John Toland who coined the term " pantheist " .
The first known explicit atheist was the German critic of religion Matthias Knutzen in his three writings of 1674 . He was followed by two other explicit atheist writers , the Polish ex @-@ Jesuit philosopher Kazimierz Łyszczyński and in the 1720s by the French priest Jean Meslier . In the course of the 18th century , other openly atheistic thinkers followed , such as Baron d 'Holbach , Jacques @-@ André Naigeon , and other French materialists . John Locke in contrast , though an advocate of tolerance , urged authorities not to tolerate atheism , believing that the denial of God 's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos .
The philosopher David Hume developed a skeptical epistemology grounded in empiricism , and Immanuel Kant 's philosophy has strongly questioned the very possibility of a metaphysical knowledge . Both philosophers undermined the metaphysical basis of natural theology and criticized classical arguments for the existence of God .
Blainey notes that , although Voltaire is widely considered to have strongly contributed to atheistic thinking during the Revolution , he also considered fear of God to have discouraged further disorder , having said " If God did not exist , it would be necessary to invent him . " In Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , the philosopher Edmund Burke denounced atheism , writing of a " literary cabal " who had " some years ago formed something like a regular plan for the destruction of the Christian religion . This object they pursued with a degree of zeal which hitherto had been discovered only in the propagators of some system of piety ... These atheistical fathers have a bigotry of their own ... " . But , Burke asserted , " man is by his constitution a religious animal " and " atheism is against , not only our reason , but our instincts ; and ... it cannot prevail long " .
Baron d 'Holbach was a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment who is best known for his atheism and for his voluminous writings against religion , the most famous of them being The System of Nature ( 1770 ) but also Christianity Unveiled . One goal of the French Revolution was a restructuring and subordination of the clergy with respect to the state through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy . Attempts to enforce it led to anti @-@ clerical violence and the expulsion of many clergy from France , lasting until the Thermidorian Reaction . The radical Jacobins seized power in 1793 , ushering in the Reign of Terror . The Jacobins were deists and introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being as a new French state religion . Some atheists surrounding Jacques Hébert instead sought to establish a Cult of Reason , a form of atheistic pseudo @-@ religion with a goddess personifying reason . The Napoleonic era further institutionalized the secularization of French society .
In the latter half of the 19th century , atheism rose to prominence under the influence of rationalistic and freethinking philosophers . Many prominent German philosophers of this era denied the existence of deities and were critical of religion , including Ludwig Feuerbach , Arthur Schopenhauer , Max Stirner , Karl Marx , and Friedrich Nietzsche .
G.J. Holyoake was the last person ( 1842 ) imprisoned in Great Britain due to atheist beliefs . Stephen Law states that Holyoake " first coined the term ' secularism ' " .
= = = Since 1900 = = =
Atheism in the 20th century , particularly in the form of practical atheism , advanced in many societies . Atheistic thought found recognition in a wide variety of other , broader philosophies , such as existentialism , objectivism , secular humanism , nihilism , anarchism , logical positivism , Marxism , feminism , and the general scientific and rationalist movement .
In addition , state atheism emerged in Eastern Europe and Asia during that period , particularly in the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin , and in Communist China under Mao Zedong . Atheist and anti @-@ religious policies in the Soviet Union included numerous legislative acts , the outlawing of religious instruction in the schools , and the emergence of the League of Militant Atheists . After Mao , the Chinese Communist Party remains an atheist organization , and regulates , but does not completely forbid , the practice of religion in mainland China .
While Geoffrey Blainey has written that " the most ruthless leaders in the Second World War were atheists and secularists who were intensely hostile to both Judaism and Christianity " , Richard Madsen has pointed out that Hitler and Stalin each opened and closed churches as a matter of political expedience , and Stalin softened his opposition to Christianity in order to improve public acceptance of his regime during the war . Blackford and Schüklenk have written that " the Soviet Union was undeniably an atheist state , and the same applies to Maoist China and Pol Pot 's fanatical Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia in the 1970s . That does not , however , show that the atrocities committed by these totalitarian dictatorships were the result of atheist beliefs , carried out in the name of atheism , or caused primarily by the atheistic aspects of the relevant forms of communism . "
Logical positivism and scientism paved the way for neopositivism , analytical philosophy , structuralism , and naturalism . Neopositivism and analytical philosophy discarded classical rationalism and metaphysics in favor of strict empiricism and epistemological nominalism . Proponents such as Bertrand Russell emphatically rejected belief in God . In his early work , Ludwig Wittgenstein attempted to separate metaphysical and supernatural language from rational discourse . A. J. Ayer asserted the unverifiability and meaninglessness of religious statements , citing his adherence to the empirical sciences . Relatedly the applied structuralism of Lévi @-@ Strauss sourced religious language to the human subconscious in denying its transcendental meaning . J. N. Findlay and J. J. C. Smart argued that the existence of God is not logically necessary . Naturalists and materialistic monists such as John Dewey considered the natural world to be the basis of everything , denying the existence of God or immortality .
= = = Other developments = = =
Other leaders like Periyar E. V. Ramasamy , a prominent atheist leader of India , fought against Hinduism and Brahmins for discriminating and dividing people in the name of caste and religion . This was highlighted in 1956 when he arranged for the erection of a statue depicting a Hindu god in a humble representation and made antitheistic statements .
Atheist Vashti McCollum was the plaintiff in a landmark 1948 Supreme Court case that struck down religious education in US public schools . Madalyn Murray O 'Hair was perhaps one of the most influential American atheists ; she brought forth the 1963 Supreme Court case Murray v. Curlett which banned compulsory prayer in public schools . In 1966 , Time magazine asked " Is God Dead ? " in response to the Death of God theological movement , citing the estimation that nearly half of all people in the world lived under an anti @-@ religious power , and millions more in Africa , Asia , and South America seemed to lack knowledge of the Christian view of theology . The Freedom From Religion Foundation was co @-@ founded by Anne Nicol Gaylor and her daughter , Annie Laurie Gaylor , in 1976 in the United States , and incorporated nationally in 1978 . It promotes the separation of church and state .
Since the fall of the Berlin Wall , the number of actively anti @-@ religious regimes has reduced considerably . In 2006 , Timothy Shah of the Pew Forum noted " a worldwide trend across all major religious groups , in which God @-@ based and faith @-@ based movements in general are experiencing increasing confidence and influence vis @-@ à @-@ vis secular movements and ideologies . " However , Gregory S. Paul and Phil Zuckerman consider this a myth and suggest that the actual situation is much more complex and nuanced .
A 2010 survey found that those identifying themselves as atheists or agnostics are on average more knowledgeable about religion than followers of major faiths . Nonbelievers scored better on questions about tenets central to Protestant and Catholic faiths . Only Mormon and Jewish faithful scored as well as atheists and agnostics .
In 2012 , the first " Women in Secularism " conference was held in Arlington , Virginia . Secular Woman was organized in 2012 as a national organization focused on nonreligious women . The atheist feminist movement has also become increasingly focused on fighting sexism and sexual harassment within the atheist movement itself . In August 2012 , Jennifer McCreight ( the organizer of Boobquake ) founded a movement within atheism known as Atheism Plus , or A + , that " applies skepticism to everything , including social issues like sexism , racism , politics , poverty , and crime " .
In 2013 the first atheist monument on American government property was unveiled at the Bradford County Courthouse in Florida : a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ pound granite bench and plinth inscribed with quotes by Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , and Madalyn Murray O 'Hair .
= = = New Atheism = = =
New Atheism is the name given to a movement among some early @-@ 21st @-@ century atheist writers who have advocated the view that " religion should not simply be tolerated but should be countered , criticized , and exposed by rational argument wherever its influence arises . " The movement is commonly associated with Sam Harris , Daniel C. Dennett , Richard Dawkins , Victor J. Stenger , and Christopher Hitchens . Several best @-@ selling books by these authors , published between 2004 and 2007 , form the basis for much of the discussion of New Atheism .
These atheists generally seek to disassociate themselves from the mass political atheism that gained ascendency in various nations in the 20th century . In best selling books , the religiously motivated terrorist events of 9 / 11 and the partially successful attempts of the Discovery Institute to change the American science curriculum to include creationist ideas , together with support for those ideas from George W. Bush in 2005 , have been cited by authors such as Harris , Dennett , Dawkins , Stenger , and Hitchens as evidence of a need to move society towards atheism .
= = Demographics = =
It is difficult to quantify the number of atheists in the world . Respondents to religious @-@ belief polls may define " atheism " differently or draw different distinctions between atheism , non @-@ religious beliefs , and non @-@ theistic religious and spiritual beliefs . A Hindu atheist would declare oneself as a Hindu , although also being an atheist at the same time . A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non @-@ religious made up about 9 @.@ 6 % of the world 's population , and atheists about 2 @.@ 0 % , with a very large majority based in Asia . This figure did not include those who follow atheistic religions , such as some Buddhists . The average annual change for atheism from 2000 to 2010 was − 0 @.@ 17 % . A broad figure estimates the number of atheists and agnostics on Earth at 1 @.@ 1 billion .
According to global studies done by Gallup International , 13 % of respondents were " convinced atheists " in 2012 and 11 % were " convinced atheists " in 2015 . As of 2012 , the top ten countries with people who viewed themselves as " convinced atheists " were China ( 47 % ) , Japan ( 31 % ) , the Czech Republic ( 30 % ) , France ( 29 % ) , South Korea ( 15 % ) , Germany ( 15 % ) , Netherlands ( 14 % ) , Austria ( 10 % ) , Iceland ( 10 % ) , Australia ( 10 % ) , and the Republic of Ireland ( 10 % )
= = = Europe = = =
According to the 2010 Eurobarometer Poll , the percentage of those polled who agreed with the statement " you don 't believe there is any sort of spirit , God or life force " varied from : France ( 40 % ) , Czech Republic ( 37 % ) , Sweden ( 34 % ) , Netherlands ( 30 % ) , and Estonia ( 29 % ) , down to Poland ( 5 % ) , Greece ( 4 % ) , Cyprus ( 3 % ) , Malta ( 2 % ) , and Romania ( 1 % ) , with the European Union as a whole at 20 % . In a 2012 Eurobarometer poll on discrimination in the European Union , 16 % of those polled considered themselves non believers / agnostics and 7 % considered themselves atheists .
According to a Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated ( including agnostics and atheists ) make up about 18 % of Europeans . According to the same survey , the religiously unaffiliated are the majority of the population only in two European countries : Czech Republic ( 75 % ) and Estonia ( 60 % ) . There are another four countries where the unaffiliated make up a majority of the population : North Korea ( 71 % ) , Japan ( 57 % ) , Hong Kong ( 56 % ) , and China ( 52 % ) .
= = = Australia = = =
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics , 22 % of Australians have " no religion " , a category that includes atheists .
= = = United States = = =
In the US , there was a 1 % to 5 % increase in self @-@ reported atheism from 2005 to 2012 , and a larger drop in those who self @-@ identified as " religious " , down by 13 % , from 73 % to 60 % . According to the World Values Survey , 4 @.@ 4 % of Americans self @-@ identified as atheists in 2014 . However , the same survey showed that 11 @.@ 1 % of all respondents stated " no " when asked if they believed in God . In 1984 , these same figures were 1 @.@ 1 % and 2 @.@ 2 % , respectively . According to a 2015 report by the Pew Research Center , 3 @.@ 1 % of the US adult population identify as atheist , up from 1 @.@ 6 % in 2007 , and within the religiously unaffiliated ( or " no religion " ) demographic , atheists made up 13 @.@ 6 % . According to the 2015 General Sociological Survey the number of atheists and agnostics in the US has remained relatively flat in the past 23 years since in 1991 only 2 % identified as atheist and 4 % identified as agnostic and in 2014 only 3 % identified as atheists and 5 % identified as agnostics .
= = = Arab world = = =
In recent years , the profile of atheism has risen substantially in the Arab world . In major cities across the region , such as Cairo , atheists have been organizing in cafés and social media , despite regular crackdowns from authoritarian governments . A 2012 poll by Gallup International revealed that 5 % of Saudis considered themselves to be " convinced atheists . " However , very few young people in the Arab world have atheists in their circle of friends or acquaintances . According to one study , less than 1 % did in Morocco , Egypt , Saudia Arabia , or Jordan ; only 3 % to 7 % in the United Arab Emirates , Bahrain , Kuwait , and Palestine . When asked whether they have " seen or heard traces of atheism in [ their ] locality , community , and society " only about 3 % to 8 % responded yes in all the countries surveyed . The only exception was the UAE , with 51 % .
= = = Atheism , wealth , and education = = =
A study noted positive correlations between levels of education and secularism , including atheism , in America . According to evolutionary psychologist Nigel Barber , atheism blossoms in places where most people feel economically secure , particularly in the social democracies of Europe , as there is less uncertainty about the future with extensive social safety nets and better health care resulting in a greater quality of life and higher life expectancy . By contrast , in underdeveloped countries , there are virtually no atheists . In a 2008 study , researchers found intelligence to be negatively related to religious belief in Europe and the United States . In a sample of 137 countries , the correlation between national IQ and disbelief in God was found to be 0 @.@ 60 .
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= Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest =
Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest is an arcade game developed by Williams Electronics and released in 1986 . It is a sequel to Williams ' 1982 game Joust . Like its predecessor , Joust 2 is a platform game that features two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) graphics . The player uses a button and joystick to control a knight riding a flying ostrich . The object is to progress through levels by defeating groups of enemy knights riding buzzards . Joust 2 features improved audio @-@ visuals and gameplay elements absent from the original .
The game uses more advanced hardware than the original Joust , allowing for the new elements . John Newcomer led development again , which began to create a conversion kit that allowed arcade owners to convert the cabinet into another game . Williams chose a vertically oriented screen for the kit as a result of the design 's popularity at the time . Released during the waning days of the golden age of arcade games , Joust 2 did not achieve the success that Joust reached . The game was later released on home consoles as part of arcade compilations .
= = Gameplay = =
Joust 2 is a platforming game like its predecessor , Joust , in which the player controls a yellow knight riding a flying ostrich from a third @-@ person perspective . The player navigates the protagonist around the game world , which consists of floating platforms , via two @-@ way joystick and a button . The joystick controls the horizontal direction that the knight travels , while pressing the button makes the ostrich flap its wings . The rate at which the player repeatedly presses the button causes the ostrich to fly upward , hover , or slowly descend . The objective is to defeat groups of enemy knights riding buzzards that populate each level , referred to as a wave . Upon completing a wave , a more challenging one will begin .
Players navigate the knight to collide with enemies . The elevation of an enemy in relation to the player 's knight determines the outcome of the collision . If the protagonist is higher than the enemy , the villain is defeated and vice versa . A collision of equal elevations results in the two knights bouncing off each other . Joust 2 introduced a transformation ability that morphs the player 's bird into a pegasus , which provides better offensive capabilities while on ground but poor flight capabilities . A second player can join the game . The two players can either cooperatively complete the waves or attack each other while competitively defeating enemies .
= = Development = =
Joust 2 was developed by Williams Electronics , with John Newcomer as the lead designer . The game features amplified monaural sound and raster graphics on a 19 @-@ inch color CRT monitor . Like other Williams arcade games , Joust 2 was programmed in assembly language . Williams ' video game department had shrunk following a decline in the video game industry . The company wanted to sell an arcade conversion kit for games that use a vertically oriented monitor , which had become popular at the time . Management felt that a sequel would improve the kit 's saleability . The company decided to release a sequel to either Robotron : 2084 or Joust , ultimately choosing the latter . Technology had progressed since the original 's release , providing more flexibility than before . As a result , Newcomer conceived new elements : additional characters , improved audio @-@ visuals , and new mechanics . To portray a progression of villains , the staff added a new enemy , Knight Lord . The developers added backgrounds to the levels , inspired by artwork by M. C. Escher , Newcomer 's favorite artist . Staff added a transform button to provide players with more variety and balance the gameplay .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Williams shipped around 1 @,@ 000 units of Joust 2 , significantly fewer than its predecessor . Brett Alan Weiss of Allgame and Mike Bevan of Retro Gamer attributed the poor numbers to an industry slump in the mid @-@ 1980s . Joust 2 arcade cabinets have since become fairly rare among collectors . Weiss negatively compared the game to its predecessor , calling Joust more popular and enjoyable . However , he commented that Joust 2 's graphics are more detailed and robust . In retrospect , Newcomer expressed dissatisfaction with the game 's design , specifically the monitor 's orientation . He commented that the gameplay works best with a horizontal orientation or with multi @-@ directional scrolling . The vertical orientation proved to be a hindrance for home conversion . The game saw fewer home releases than Joust . In 1997 , it was released as part of Arcade 's Greatest Hits : The Midway Collection 2 . Joust 2 was also included in the 2003 and 2012 multi @-@ platform compilations Midway Arcade Treasures and Midway Arcade Origins , respectively . It also appeared in 2016 's Lego Dimensions .
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= Revolt of the Comuneros ( Paraguay ) =
The Revolt of the Comuneros ( Spanish : Revolución Comunera ) was a series of uprisings by settlers in Paraguay in the Viceroyalty of Peru against the Spanish authorities from 1721 – 1725 and 1730 – 1735 . The underlying cause of the unrest was strong anti @-@ Jesuit feelings among the Paraguayans and dislike for any governor seen as favoring the Jesuits . In the resumption of the revolt in 1730 , economic issues came to fore as well . The rebel organization split in its second phase , as the rural poor and the urban elite each formed their own factions with similar grievances against the Jesuits , but incompatible politics . Paraguay had an unusually strong tradition of self @-@ rule ; the colonists did not have a tradition of strict obedience to everything the Spanish Crown 's governor decreed . This independence helped push the revolt forward .
The beginnings of the revolt were quasi @-@ legal at first . José de Antequera y Castro ( 1690 – 1731 ) , a judge for the Real Audiencia of Charcas , was sent to Asunción in 1721 to examine charges of misconduct against pro @-@ Jesuit Governor Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda . Antequera concluded the charges were valid , forced Reyes into exile and later imprisoned him , and declared himself governor by the power of the Audencia in 1722 . Antequera also accused the Jesuits of various crimes , demanded that the mission Indians under their care be enslaved and distributed to the citizens of Paraguay , and expelled the Jesuits from their college in Asunción . All these actions had the support of the citizens of Asunción , and governors had been deposed and replaced before without the central government complaining . However , Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo , residing in Lima , did not approve of Antequera 's action and ordered Reyes ' restoration as governor . With the backing of the settlers , Antequera refused , citing the authority of the Audencia as superior to that of the Viceroy . The feud between Antequera and the Viceroyalty continued after Viceroy Morcillo was replaced by the Marquis of Castelfuerte as Viceroy of Peru . Antequera 's Paraguayan militia attacked and defeated an allied force of Jesuit mission Indians and Spanish colonial forces during the standoff . The battle tainted the legitimacy of Antequera 's claim of governorship , however , and a second force was sent by Castelfuerte against a movement now seen as clearly treasonous . Antequera resigned in 1725 and fled to Charcas , while order was seemingly restored in the province . Antequera was arrested , imprisoned for five years at Lima , and executed .
Paraguay was quiet for 5 years under interim governor Martín de Barúa , seen as friendly to the settlers and hostile to the Jesuits . When he was replaced by Ignacio de Soroeta , however , Paraguay refused its new governor . Fernando de Mómpo y Zayas had spread ideas among the populace that the power of the people - the común - was superior to that of the governor and even the King . The comuneros held new elections to the town council of Asunción , won the seats , and resumed self @-@ rule . A replacement governor sent in 1732 , Agustín de Ruyloba , was killed by the comuneros . However , the comunero movement split several times . The notables of Asunción , who had been happy to defy the colonial authorities when the town council was run by them , now feared the total breakdown of order , as the poorer Paraguayans started to loot the estates and property of any notable not thought to be sufficiently pro @-@ comunero . The inability of Asunción to trade with the rest of the Spanish Empire led to an economic crisis , as well . When colonial forces finally moved on Asunción , the divided comuneros scattered and fled , with most of the Asunción faction joining the government forces in a bid for clemency .
= = Background = =
= = = A tradition of self @-@ government = = =
Paraguay was one of the most loosely controlled parts of the Spanish Empire by the Crown , with a strong independent streak in its leadership . This partially stemmed from a quirk of history in 1537 . Shortly after the first settlements on the Rio de la Plata were made , Governor Pedro de Mendoza died . The crown subsequently issued a Royal Decree ( Cédula Real ) , which stated that if Mendoza had named a successor , that successor was confirmed as governor . However , if Mendoza had not named a successor - or the successor was dead - a replacement should be " peaceably elected . " An election was a unique privilege in Spain 's American colonies ; historian Adalberto López calls it " strange " as King Charles V was a ruthless centralizer who spent much of his reign curtailing the autonomy of Spain 's various holdings , especially since Paraguay was still thought to hold precious metals at the time . A further oddity is that the decree did not limit the use of election to a one @-@ time exigency . The citizens of Paraguay used the decree to elect a governor , and would use it many more times to not merely elect replacement governors , but also to depose disliked appointed governors . The decree of 1537 was used again in 1544 to justify a coup against Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , who had reigned as governor for only two years . Cabeza de Vaca had attempted to control the settlers ' abuse of the native Indians , earning him the dislike of many of the colonists . He was arrested , a replacement governor was proclaimed , and he was sent back to Spain in chains with a number of likely false crimes accused of him . Some Paraguayan historians would later attempt to tie this 1544 coup to the Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile from 1520 – 1521 and call this the " First Revolt of the Comuneros of Paraguay . " While Cabeza de Vaca had been part of the royalist forces in that earlier struggle and had helped defeat the Castilian comuneros , it is unlikely that contemporary Paraguayans identified themselves with the Castilian comuneros , according to López . As the plotters hoped to attain legitimacy for their choice of governor in the eyes of the king , identifying themselves with despised rebels would have been counterproductive . Rather , the main contemporary references to the Paraguayans calling themselves comuneros come from sources friendly to Cabeza de Vaca seeking to discredit the coup in the eyes of the king .
Governors in office were more constrained than elsewhere in the Spanish Empire . Unpopular governors faced the threat of being removed through the application of the Decree of 1537 ; but even when such drastic measures were not used , the governor 's power was curtailed . The cabildo ( town council ) of Asunción was powerful , and governors often found it difficult for their edicts to be enforced or obeyed if they acted without consulting the cabildo and securing its consent . Spain contributed relatively little in the way of troops , officials , funds , or armaments to Paraguay , and after it was determined that the region was not in fact rich in precious metals or other resources , immigration slowed . However , the interior of South America was dangerous , with Portuguese @-@ aligned slavers and hostile Indian tribes to threaten the Paraguayans . Paraguay fended for itself with an armed militia . This also limited the governor 's influence , as it was the members of the cabildo who rallied the militia .
= = = The Jesuit missions = = =
In 1588 , the first missionaries from the Society of Jesus arrived in Asunción at the invitation of the settlers and the governor . They set to work at converting the Indians in the area . They also built a prominent church and college ; the college was the only educational institution of any importance in the province . The Jesuits gathered a large number of Indians under their care , where they were able to go about Christianizing them and introducing the Indians to elements of Spanish civilization . Most importantly , the Jesuits were able to offer Indians under their care a measure of protection against other whites . Indians on their mission would not be sold into slavery , tricked out of their goods , or have their women taken for extra wives . Over time , an entire " empire within an empire " was built up , and the Jesuits took on responsibilities far beyond religious education . In order to pay royal taxes for the Indians , the Jesuits ran an economy and sold goods at market . In order to defend against Portuguese slavers and hostile Indians , the Jesuits gathered armaments and trained in the arts of war . This arming was highly controversial and was opposed by the Paraguayan settlers , but the constant threat of Portuguese invasion meant the Spanish Crown gave its consent .
As time went on , relations between the settlers and the Jesuits soured . The native population of the Guaraní Indians , initially large compared to the number of Spanish settlers , decreased greatly . In part this was due to the abuse and overwork engendered by the encomienda system , a legal framework similar to slavery , and in part due to the Spanish laws that declared the offspring of Spaniards and their Guaraní wives to be Spaniards themselves and thus entitled to their own native slaves under encomienda . As immigration slowed , the province became heavily populated by Spanish @-@ Guaraní mestizo ( mixed blood ) descendants , who , due to the increasing unavailability of pure @-@ blood Guarani to claim as servants , became a new class of " poor whites . " Meanwhile , the Guaraní on the Jesuit missions were flourishing , and many Guaraní actively chose mission life over remaining independent or risking falling into the encomienda system . The result was a perceived " shortage " of cheap encomienda labor - a shortage that could be fixed if the Jesuit mission Indians were taken and impressed into the encomienda . Additionally , the Jesuit missions were an economic competitor to Paraguay 's settlers , as both 's major export was yerba mate used for the production of the caffeinated drink mate . The variety of yerba produced in the mission lands ( yerba caaminí ) was considered superior to the yerba harvested in the civil province ( yerba de palos ) , pushing down the Paraguayan 's margins even further . Since the mission lands were closed off to almost all Paraguayans , wild rumors about Jesuit activities within them found easy currency among the Paraguayans . Tales of hidden great treasures and secret lucrative mines worked by captive Indians were not uncommon .
By the early 1600s , the average Paraguayan despised the Jesuits . Some agitated for the government to take action against them , and at the very least the idea of extending further " privileges " was out of the question . A series of intrigues took place from 1640 @-@ 1650 with pro @-@ Jesuit governor Gregorio de Hinestrosa vying against the anti @-@ Jesuit Bishop Bernardino de Cárdenas , a Franciscan . Cárdenas was exiled to Corrientes , but upon the end of Hinestrosa 's governorship returned to Asunción . The new governor Diego de Escobar y Osorio attempted to remain neutral in the conflict between the Jesuits and the settlers who were now backed by the returned Cárdenas , and successfully avoided bloodshed for a time , but in 1649 Osorio died . The cabildo , seizing on the Decree of 1537 , promptly elected Cárdenas the new governor , and with his support expelled the Jesuits from their college in Asunción . They wrote in explanation of their actions that the Jesuits were destroying the province , and it was the " natural right " of people to defend themselves against aggression . Governor @-@ Bishop Cárdenas , in similar proto @-@ democratic language , said " the voice of the People is the voice of God . " The authorities were displeased , and the Jesuits , with the government 's permission , sent in an army of mission Indians to depose Cárdenas . Cárdenas and the Paraguayan militia decided to resist , and in a battle on October 5 , 1649 , the Jesuit army of roughly 700 Indians won a complete victory . The Paraguayans were scattered , Cárdenas and his closest supporters were arrested , and the citizens of Asunción were subjected to the humiliation of an occupying army of Indians patrolling their streets and enforcing the new governor 's rule . This wound never healed . By 1721 , hatred of the Jesuits was even more intense than it was in the early 1600s .
= = 1721 @-@ 1725 : Antequera 's contested governorship = =
In 1717 , Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda became governor of Paraguay . He purchased the position from the Spanish authorities , a practice that had spread at the time . Reyes was a merchant who had made his fortune trading exporting yerba mate from Paraguay and importing various cheap and needed manufactures back to Paraguay , so he was seen as qualified for the post by the Spanish Crown . Reyes was an open admirer of the Jesuits . Two of his wife 's uncles were members of the Jesuit order , and several of his most important advisors were Jesuits . His policies were also seen by the settlers as pro @-@ Jesuit . Reyes ' Jesuit advisors instigated him to order an attack on the Payaguá Indians of the Chaco despite a tenuous truce established three years earlier in 1717 ; all of the captured Payaguás were remitted to the Jesuits for conversion to Christianity and mission life . The settlers received none of the captives for the encomienda , although it had been the settler militia that risked their lives fighting the Payaguás and colonial trade and outlying farms would now be threatened by retaliatory Payaguá raids . The Payaguás , who lived in the Gran Chaco , were considerably less likely to threaten the Jesuits , with their missions farther to the east of the civil province of Paraguya . Reyes acquired a reputation for enriching himself using the powers of his office to control trade . Reyes also taxed important members of the Paraguayan elite to fund the construction of defensive fortifications . The end result was that Reyes was a deeply unpopular governor who found the majority of the cabildo of Asunción actively seeking his removal . In a bid to keep his position , Reyes accused his chief antagonists of treason and had them imprisoned . The notables of Asunción complained to the Real Audiencia of Charcas , accusing Reyes both of imprisoning the cabildo members without good cause , as well as general unlawful conduct as governor .
The Audiencia of Charcas took up the investigation of Reyes . The Audencias , the judicial system of colonial Spain , had a wide degree of latitude and independence from the viceroy . Charcas ( now known as Sucre ) was quite distant from the viceregal capital of Lima , amplifying the court 's power even further . In 1721 , the audiencia sent judge José de Antequera y Castro to Asunción to dispense justice as he saw fit . Antequera was a young rising star of the court , and even his fiercest critics wrote that he was likable , handsome , intelligent , and unusually well @-@ educated for the time . The Audiencia gave Antequera a sealed document to open if he found Reyes guilty . The Audiencia and Antequera ordered Reyes to release the council members he had imprisoned and that he not interfere in the investigation in any way . After interviewing the witnesses accusing Reyes of misdeeds , Antequera concluded that the evidence was so strong as to warrant the immediate arrest of Reyes in September 1721 . Antequera presented to the cabildo the sealed document he 'd been given by the Audiencia . The document gave Antequera the position of governor , which he took over the objections of Reyes ' remaining supporters . In April 1722 , Antequera officially found Reyes guilty and dismissed him as governor , although Reyes immediately escaped Asunción on the same day the sentence was handed down . Antequera proceeded to impound much of Reyes ' property and also order the arrest of many of Reyes ' friends and supporters , taking their property to be sold at public auction as well . With all these actions , Antequera earned the support and adulation of the majority of the province , though he was hated by those who had done well under Reyes . Antequera clinched his popularity by taking a stand against the hated Jesuits ; he endorsed settlers ' demands that the mission Indians be distributed to the encomienda , that secular ( paid by the Spanish government ) priests be put in charge of the Jesuit missions , and that a customs house be established to enforce limits on Jesuit exports of yerba mate . To historian James Saeger , Antequera comes across as mostly well @-@ meaning ; he sincerely believed imposing the civil authority upon the independent Jesuit missions would benefit the Empire .
It is quite possible that the matter would have ended with Antequera 's succession to Governor of Paraguay until a new royal governor was appointed for the province . However , friends of Reyes reached Lima , where they pleaded their case to the Viceregal court . With the support of the influential Jesuits , they convinced Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo that Reyes was the victim of a plot by jealous Paraguayans and an ambitious Antequera . Viceroy Morcillo conducted a stormy correspondence with the Audencia of Charcas , accusing them of having overstepped their authority and that giving the chief judge of the case against Reyes the power to succeed him as governor was illegal . On three separate occasions from 1721 @-@ 1723 he demanded the reinstatement of Reyes as governor . The Audencia responded that this was a judicial matter , and the Viceroy was the one overstepping his bounds . The Jesuits held a ceremony proclaiming the escaped Reyes as the legitimate governor . Reyes also went to Corrientes , where the authorities recognized his claim and began impounding carts & goods of traders who refused to support Reyes ' claim . Trade between Paraguay and the rest of the Spanish Empire was interrupted . The situation degenerated further after a group of men loyal to Antequera came to Corrientes and kidnapped Reyes in the night , dragging him back to Asunción - a highly illegal act in the eyes of the citizens of Corrientes and the Viceroy , as the government of Paraguay had no lawful power in Corrientes . Enraged , the Viceroy finally opted for military force , ordering Governor Zavala of Buenos Aires to prepare an army to march on Asunción to depose Antequera .
Antequera rallied the Paraguayan militia in response , while Zavala sent his lieutenant governor Baltasar García Ros to marshall both Jesuit mission Indians , his own troops from Buenos Aires , and reinforcements from Villa Rica . Zavala had hoped a peaceful resolution might still be possible , but García Ros was not well received by the Paraguayans . He had briefly served as interim governor of Paraguay from 1706 @-@ 1707 , and was known to be a great supporter of the Jesuits . He had worked with the Jesuit armies of mission Indians before in fighting the Portuguese , where the Jesuits gained his admiration with their support ; he had also allegedly ignored a royal award of 300 mission Indians to the settlers in the encomienda while interim governor to please the Jesuits . Meanwhile , in Asunción , the Jesuits were run out of their college by a mob of citizens , and given 3 hours to leave by the cabildo . The armies exchanged hostile letters , and it seemed briefly that a show of force might persuade the other side to back down . However , on August 25 , 1724 , the Paraguayans misinterpreted Indians celebrating the feast of St. Luis as preparations for a military attack . The Paraguayans attacked the dancing and parading Indians , and won a complete victory with the element of surprise . Hundreds of Indians were killed , all of the arms , ammunition , and papers were taken , and the royal army was forced into full retreat . A band of citizens of Villa Rica who arrived late as reinforcements surrendered immediately , and saw their leader executed . The victory came unexpectedly cheap , as well ; only five settlers were killed , and 20 wounded . 150 captured mission Indians were distributed to the settlers in encomienda servitude .
The Paraguayan 's victory was fleeting , however . The new Viceroy of Peru , the Marquis of Castelfuerte , was a dedicated supporter of absolutist monarchy who was not about to allow disobedience to the lawful authorities to linger and spread . The Audencia of Charcas was sent a final warning that continuing to meddle in the Paraguayan affair would not be tolerated ; perhaps frightened by both the new Viceroy 's connections in Spain as well as Antequera 's battle against the Spanish forces , the Audencia backed down and ceased to campaign on Antequera 's behalf . A second expedition was organized by Zavala personally , with more forces , while the bishop of Asunción , who had never supported Antequera , implored the cabildo in the strongest of terms to back down and accept Zavala without a fight . The stronger force made it clear that continuing to struggle would be fruitless . Zavala additionally guaranteed that the Jesuit mission Indians would not enter the civil territory this time if the settlers submitted peacefully . Zavala made no mention of retribution or arrests , as well . The cabildo decided to submit to Zavala ; Antequera fled to Charcas , where he was arrested .
= = 1725 @-@ 1730 : A temporary peace = =
Zavala pursued a conciliatory policy with the Paraguayan settlers , not wishing to aggravate the situation . Reprimands were handed down , but few fines , and no arrests , exiles , or executions . Members of the cabildo kept their posts . Ill and emaciated , former governor Reyes was quietly freed from more than a year in conditions that approached solitary confinement , but told that to avoid trouble it would be best if he never showed himself in the province again . Zavala left after only two months in Asunción , placing Martín de Barúa in charge as interim governor . Barúa would serve as governor until 1730 , as the first two replacement governors failed to arrive in Asunción ; one was arrested after he beat his wife , and the other died in transit in the Atlantic Ocean . Barúa proved sympathetic to the settlers and hostile to the Jesuits ; he sent letters to the Jesuits threatening to investigate claimed abuses of the mission Indians , and also wrote the Viceroy with similar concerns about the Jesuit missions . He assured the Viceroy that the Paraguayans were loyal servants of the Crown , and that the burden of defending Paraguay against hostile Indian raids would be lessened if the Jesuits were to share their mission Indians with the encomienda .
The main dispute of Barúa 's tenure was the return of the Jesuits to their college in Asunción . The Viceroy had ordered the Jesuits to be restored , but Zavala had not immediately complied for fear of re @-@ igniting the revolt , and Barúa and the settlers were actively hostile to the Jesuits ' return . Barúa procrastinated on implementing the Viceroy 's orders as letters were exchanged ; it was not until extremely blunt orders demanding the immediate reinstatement of the Jesuits with all the pomp and solemnity required for the occasion came that Barúa complied in 1728 . The antagonism continued , however . In 1730 , Governor Barúa and the Jesuits traded accusations of malfeasance on the Jesuit lands in reports sent to Madrid .
Barúa also invited the travelling orator Fernando de Mompó y Zayas to be one of his advisors in 1730 . Mompó 's origins are cloudy , but he was educated and quite possibly a lawyer . He had acquired a reputation as a troublemaker in Lima . Mompó was imprisoned there , possibly meeting Antequera in prison , but at some point either escaped or was exiled . He eventually made his way to Paraguay , where he spread his ideas about government and the role of the people , which were considered radical at the time . According to Mompó , the Paraguayans had been within their rights when they overthrew Reyes and defied García Ros ; political authority rested on the assent of the común , the community . The power of the people , Mompó said , was greater than even the King or the Pope .
= = 1730 @-@ 1735 : The comuneros = =
In late 1730 , news came to Paraguay that a third replacement governor was on the way , Ignacio de Soroeta . Rumors spread that Soroeta was a friend of the Jesuits and Reyes . Mompó rallied his followers , called the comuneros , and raised a force of 300 outside the city . A delegation of the comuneros sent to the cabildo demanded that the new governor be denied entry . Barúa demanded that the comuneros disband ; when they refused , he resigned his post in frustration . The comuneros demanded new elections of the cabildo , which , unsurprisingly , they won . Only those members who had accepted the rebel line were re @-@ elected , while the other cabildo members were replaced by comuneros . When Soroeta arrived , he was informed he was not wanted , and only allowed to stay in Asunción for four days under virtual house arrest . Convinced there was nothing to be done , Soroeta left ; Barúa and Bishop Palos of Asunción also left . The city was entirely under comunero control . Despite the new comunero influence on the cabildo , Mompó desired an even more radical shift . He apparently felt that he could not abolish the cabildo directly ; instead , he created his own parallel governmental structure , the Junta Gobernativa , whose members were elected by the people .
However , this was a step too far toward treason for some members of the cabildo whom Mompó had assumed would have been compliant . The new mayor of Asunción , José Luis Barreyro ( Bareiro ) , built his own power base in Asunción as the comuneros splintered and factionalized . Mompó 's faction of the comuneros controlled the rural areas , and Barreyro 's faction saw him as a threat . Barreyo arranged the quiet arrest of Mompó while he was alone and sent him to the Jesuits , from whom he eventually found his way to a jail in Buenos Aires . Mompó would soon escape prison again , but rather than return to Paraguay he fled to Brazil . Barreyro 's victory was short @-@ lived ; while Mompó 's faction of the comuneros were thrown into confusion for several months , they eventually rallied , and he found few Asunción militia members willing to fight against them . Barreyro and his supporters were forced to flee to the Jesuit missions , and the more radical comuneros once again ruled both Asunción and the rural areas .
News of the refusal of Governor Soroeta reached Lima , which doomed the defense of the imprisoned Antequera . Convinced that Antequera was behind the new uprising , the trial was accelerated , and Antequera was sentenced to death . The Franciscans , friendly to Antequera , organized a mob shouting for his pardon and blocked the way to the public execution site on July 5 , 1731 , so Antequera was shot instead on the way there . The execution of Antequera disheartened some of the leading citizens of Asunción , because not only was Antequera executed , but also one of his allies who had been considerably less involved , perhaps implying a forthcoming purge of any of Antequera 's supporters . Settler @-@ Jesuit relations now collapsed again . The Jesuits had rallied an Indian army , but not crossed the Tebicuary River to the settler lands , and had assured the settlers it was only for self @-@ defense . While the Jesuit college had been ignored in the earlier stages of the comunero affair , now the comuneros expelled the Jesuits from their Asunción college yet again . Enraged at this interference with the church , the Bishop of Asunción placed the province under the interdict and excommunicated the rebels for the sack of the Jesuits ' church , although this was temporarily lifted when a band of colonists were needed to fight the Payaguá Indians . The comunero army and the Jesuit army of Indians came close to clashing , but after a tense series of communications , both backed off and agreed to a truce .
The position of Governor of Paraguay still sat vacant . While the Viceroy of Peru selected a favored candidate whom he believed could restore order to the province , he was unknowingly pre @-@ empted by the King , who selected Agustín de Ruyloba to be the new Governor of Paraguay . While Ruyloba was given a force of 300 soldiers by Governor Zavala in Buenos Aires , he left it behind , choosing to believe the promises the Paraguayans sent of their loyalty to the King . He arrived in Asunción , was accepted by the cabildo as the new governor , and declared in a speech that the establishment of the Junta Gobernativa had been treason , and anyone attempting to revive it would be publicly executed . Ruyloba waited three weeks assessing the situation , then began to dispense the justice that the Viceroy had ordered . All elections to the cabildo since 1730 were declared invalid , and the cabildo and leadership of the militia was purged . Ruyloba also began preparations for the return of the Jesuits to their college in Asunción . This was acting far too confidently and fast for the citizens of Asunción ; Ruyloba 's thin support as governor collapsed , and the comuneros began to rally in the countryside again , with Ruyloba largely oblivious . When Ruyloba learnt about the comunero army , he rallied the Asunción militia to ride and meet it , but found his own army deserting him en masse , unwilling to fight their countrymen . Ruyloba met with the rebel leaders , and was advised to agree to at least some changes by the priest Arregui , known to be sympathetic to both sides . Ruyloba refused to make any concessions . For honor 's sake , Ruyloba still took the field with his pistol afterward , despite having almost his entire army desert , and was killed in a brief battle with the rebels .
The comuneros promptly rode to Asunción , reinstated the Junta , declared all of Ruyloba 's acts invalid , and looted the properties of Ruyloba 's supporters . They also elected the eighty @-@ year @-@ old Bishop Juan de Arregui of Buenos Aires as a figurehead governor . The government of Asunción split into three : the old official rulership structure headed by Arregui which was largely a rubber stamp , but provided a cloak of legitimacy ; the city leadership , dominated by the rich families which had avoided being looted for being insufficiently pro @-@ comunero ; and the countryside comuneros , who were the most influenced by Mompó 's philosophy of self @-@ governance . As far as the Asunción faction was concerned , the goal of the revolt had been achieved with Ruyloba 's death , and business as usual could resume with a hopefully more pliant governor . However , the poor rural comuneros were not finished with the revolt . The war became a war of the poor against the rich ; the ranches of the wealthy were raided , shipments of yerba mate were impounded , and cattle were stolen . The leaders of the countryside were considered illiterate political nonentities by the notables of Asunción , " rural barbarians " according to one account , who had could not be contained once unleashed . People who dared speak out against them , especially in the countryside , were killed . Commerce came to a standstill as both sides refused to allow trade ; the Junta would not allow anyone to leave without their permission on pain of death , and Zavala had blockaded the province . As the economic crisis deepened , the cabildo of Asunción not only completely broke with the Junta , but became prepared to fight it themselves , seeing them as having sunk to countryside bandits .
The expected colonial armed response was delayed due to a number of factors , most notably a famine and plague that struck the Jesuit missions which made mobilizing their army difficult . By 1735 , however , Zavala was ready to move in once more . While some comuneros rallied an army as a show of force , no battles were actually fought ; without the support of Asunción , and against an experienced campaigner with superior forces , the comunero armies melted and their soldiers tried to escape . Zavala 's army retook Asunción . Unlike his previous occupation of Asunción , this time Zavala sought to suppress any future revolt with sterner reprisals . Many of the ringleaders of the Asunción faction were arrested regardless despite their late support for the royal army ; there was a series of exiles and executions . All of the actions of the cabildo since the death of Ruyloba were declared null and void , as were any actions of the Junta . Zavala declared that since the Royal Decree of 1537 was not mentioned in the 1680 publishing of " Laws of the Kingdoms of the Indies " ( Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias ) , it was no longer valid and any attempt to elect a governor again would be treason . In October , the Jesuits were once again returned to their college in Asunción .
= = Later influence = =
While some of the ideologies of self @-@ government espoused by the comuneros seem to prefigure later democratic uprisings against Spanish colonial rule , especially among the rural branch of the revolt , historians Adalberto López and James Schofield Saeger caution that giving this apparent resemblance too much weight would be a mistake . According to Saegar , the revolt was much closer to traditions of the 16th and 17th centuries and " was principally a local uprising led by local vested interest groups and unrelated to the important changes in the Spanish empire beginning in the 18th century . " It had little in common with the Revolt of the Comuneros of New Granada or the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II that occurred in the 1780s . López agrees that the Revolt of the Comuneros was not a " true revolution " that aimed at fundamental change in Paraguay ; most of the Paraguayans saw themselves as loyal servants of the Crown and were not attempting to fundamentally change the political or economic structure of the province . Rather , they were attempting to assert control over the Jesuits , who were seen as undermining the province and exacerbating its poverty .
Paraguay remained poor and somewhat discontented after the revolt was suppressed . Higher taxes imposed later further squeezed the region 's export income , and the Jesuit missions continued to be a hated competitor driving down prices of the Paraguayan 's cash crop . Antequera became a folk hero and martyr . The new cabildo , attempting to suppress talk of him , unwisely ordered the public burning of all " dangerous " documents in the city archives in 1740 . A would @-@ be coup against the governor organized by some who had been friendly to the comuneros before was discovered in 1747 ; the plotters were arrested , convicted of treason , and executed .
The Jesuits , however , saw their previously solid support in the royal courts of Europe dry up in the middle of the 18th century for a number of reasons . The theocratic Jesuit missions which expected total obedience to the Fathers grated against the Enlightenment values which were gaining favor among intellectuals . Both the Jesuits and their enemies agreed that the Jesuits were wealthy and prosperous : according to their enemies , due to illegal theft of the best land and corruption ; according to the Jesuits , due to their own ability , intellect , and hard work . The Jesuits ' influence , money , and near @-@ monopoly on education helped spawn the backlash against them . The Jesuits had lost the support of the Portuguese government in 1750 after they opposed the 1750 treaty of Madrid which led to the Guaraní War ; they were expelled from the Portuguese Empire entirely in 1758 . The Jesuits next lost the support of Charles III of Spain after the Esquilache Riots , food riots in Madrid in 1766 . Charles III fled Madrid for a time , and his ministers convinced him that the riots had been masterminded by the Jesuits as part of a plot . The Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish Empire . In 1767 , they were expelled from their college in Asunción , to the elation of its citizens ; by the end of 1768 , the Jesuits had been expelled from the missions in Paraguay and replaced by secular administrators . The best lands in the former mission territories were quickly taken by white settlers ; the herds of cattle were impounded and dwindled ; and the mission Indians scattered and diminished . Within a short period of time , the Jesuit missions of Paraguay were but a memory .
The comuneros ' reputation was rehabilitated ; already folk heroes in the people 's eyes , the Spanish government softened its stance on the comuneros as well . A new inquiry in Madrid concluded that Antequera had been the victim of a Jesuit conspiracy . On April 1 , 1778 , King Charles III signed a document which declared Antequera had been a dedicated and loyal servant of the Crown , and provided pensions for some of his relatives . Both Lima and Asunción feature streets named after Antequera . A monument on a hill in Asunción honors Antequera and all those who fought and died in the Revolt of the Comuneros as precursors to Latin America 's liberation movements .
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= Nikolai Tikhonov =
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Tikhonov ( Russian : Николай Александрович Тихонов ; Kharkiv , 14 May [ O.S. 1 May ] 1905 – Moscow , 1 June 1997 ) was a Soviet Russian @-@ Ukrainian statesman during the Cold War . He served as Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1980 to 1985 , and as a First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers , literally First Vice Premier , from 1976 to 1980 . Tikhonov was responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late era of stagnation . He was replaced as Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985 by Nikolai Ryzhkov . In the same year , he lost his seat in the Politburo ; however , he retained his seat in the Central Committee until 1989 .
He was born in the city of Kharkiv in 1905 to a Russian @-@ Ukrainian working @-@ class family ; he graduated in the 1920s and started working in the 1930s . Tikhonov began his political career in local industry , and worked his way up the hierarchy of Soviet industrial ministries . He was appointed deputy chairman of the Gosplan in 1963 . After Alexei Kosygin 's resignation Tikhonov was voted into office as Chairman of the Council of Ministers . In this position , he refrained from taking effective measures to reform the Soviet economy , a need which was strongly evidenced during the early – mid @-@ 1980s . He retired from active politics in 1989 as a pensioner . Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997 .
= = Early life and career = =
Tikhonov was born in the Ukrainian city of Kharkiv on 14 May [ O.S. 1 May ] 1905 to a Russian @-@ Ukrainian working @-@ class family ; he graduated from the St. Catherine Institute of Communications in 1924 . Tikhonov worked as an assistant engineer from 1924 to 1926 . Four years later , in 1930 , Tikhonov graduated as an engineer , earning a degree from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute . From 1930 to 1941 , Tikhonov worked as an engineer at the Lenin Metallurgical Plant in Dnipropetrovsk ; he was appointed as the plant 's Chief Engineer in January 1941 .
It was during his stay in Dnipropetrovsk that he met Leonid Brezhnev , a future leader of the Soviet Union . Tikhonov joined the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1940 and by the end of the decade , had secured a job as a plant director . As a director , Tikhonov was able to show off his organisational skills ; under his leadership the plant became the first in the region to reopen a hospital , organising dining rooms and restoring social clubs for workers caught up in the aftermath of the Eastern Front . Tikhonov was quickly promoted , and started working for the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy in the 1950s . Between 1955 and 1960 Tikhonov became a Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Ferrous Metallurgy , a member ( and later chairman ) of the Scientific Council of the Council of Ministers , and finally , a deputy chairman of the State Planning Committee . At the 22nd Party Congress Tikhonov was elected to the Central Committee as a non @-@ voting member . At the 23rd party congress in 1966 , Tikhonov was elected a member of the Central Committee . Tikhonov was awarded the Hero of Socialist Labour award for his first time .
During his tenure as Deputy Premier Tikhonov was in charge of metallurgy and chemical industry ; his responsibilities did not change with his ascension to the post of First Deputy Premier . However , he did provide a general coordination for heavy industry . When Alexei Kosygin , the Premier , was on sick leave in 1976 Brezhnev took advantage of his illness by appointing Tikhonov to the office of First Deputy Premier . As First Deputy Premier , Tikhonov was able to reduce Kosygin to a standby figure . Tikhonov was , however , one of the few who got along with both Brezhnev and Kosygin , both of them liked his candor and honesty . In 1978 Tikhonov was elected a candidate member of the Politburo and was made a voting member of the Politburo in 1979 . Tikhonov was not informed of the decision to intervene in Afghanistan ; the reason being his bad relationship with Dmitriy Ustinov , the Minister of Defence at the time .
= = Premiership ( 1980 – 85 ) = =
= = = Appointment and the 26th Congress = = =
When Alexei Kosygin resigned in 1980 Tikhonov , at the age of 75 , was elected the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers . During his five @-@ year term as premier Tikhonov refrained from reforming the Soviet economy , despite all statistics from that time showing the economy was stagnating . Tikhonov presented the Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 85 ) at the 26th Party Congress , and told the delegates that the state would allocate nine million rubles for mothers who were seeking parental leave . In his presentation to the congress , Tikhonov admitted that Soviet agriculture was not producing enough grain . Tikhonov called for an improvement in Soviet – US relations , but dismissed all speculations that the Soviet economy was in any sort of crisis . Despite this , Tikhonov admitted to economic " shortcomings " and acknowledged the ongoing " food problem " ; other topics for discussion were the need to save energy resources , boost labour productivity and to improve the quality of Soviet produced goods . Early in his term , in January 1981 , Tikhonov admitted that the government 's demographic policy was one of the weakest areas of his cabinet . In reality , however , he along with many others , were beginning to worry that not enough Russians were being born . The Era of Stagnation reduced the birth rate , and increased the death rate of the Russian population .
= = = Andropov and Chernenko = = =
Leonid Brezhnev awarded Tikhonov the Hero of Socialist Labour , after being advised to do so by Konstantin Chernenko . Upon Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , Tikhonov supported Chernenko 's candidacy for the General Secretaryship . Chernenko lost the vote , and Yuri Andropov became General Secretary . It has been suggested that Andropov had plans of replacing Tikhonov with Heydar Aliyev . Historian William A. Clark noted how Aliyev , a former head of the Azerbaijani KGB , was appointed to the First Deputy Premiership of the Council of Ministers without Tikhonov 's consent ; however , Andropov 's death in 1984 left Tikhonov secure in his office . Some Western analysts speculated that the appointment of Andrei Gromyko to the First Deputy Premiership , again without Tikhonov 's consent , was a sign that his position within the Soviet hierarchy was weakened . Tikhonov was on a state visit to Yugoslavia when Gromyko was appointed to the First Deputy Premiership .
With his health failing , Andropov used his spare times to write speeches to the Central Committee . In one of these speeches Andropov told the Central Committee that Mikhail Gorbachev , and not Chernenko , would succeed him upon his death . His speech was not read out to the Central Committee plenum because of an anti @-@ Gorbachev troika consisting of Chernenko , Dmitriy Ustinov and Tikhonov . During Andropov 's last days , Tikhonov presided over the Politburo sessions , headed the 1984 Soviet delegation to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance conference in East Berlin , conducted bilateral relations with the Eastern Bloc states , and hosted the Prime Minister of Finland when he visited the Soviet Union . In short , in @-@ between Andropov 's last days and Chernenko 's rise to power , Tikhonov was the dominant driving figure of the Soviet Union . However , Tikhonov peacefully stepped away , and supported Chernenko 's candidacy for General Secretary . When Chernenko died in 1985 , Tikhonov tried , but failed , to find a contender to Gorbachev 's candidacy to the General Secretaryship .
= = = Gorbachev and resignation = = =
Upon Gorbachev 's ascension to power , Tikhonov was elected chairman of the newly established Commission on Improvements of the Management System . The title of chairman was largely honorary , and its de facto head was its deputy chairman , Nikolai Ryzhkov . On 23 May 1985 Tikhonov presented his development plan for 1985 to 1990 , and up until 2000 , the plan was criticised by co @-@ workers , and Gorbachev told his colleagues that Tikhonov was " ill @-@ equipped " for the Premiership . Tikhonov forecast estimated growth of 20 – 22 percent growth in Soviet national income , an increase of 21 – 24 percent in industrial growth and doubling Soviet agriculture output by 2000 . As part of Gorbachev 's plan of removing , and replacing , the most conservative members of the Politburo , Tikhonov was compelled to retire . Ryzhkov succeeded Tikhonov in office on 27 September 1985 . His resignation was made official at a Central Committee plenum in September 1985 . It is noteworthy that by the time of his resignation , Tikhonov was the oldest member of the Soviet leadership . Tikhonov was active in Soviet politics , albeit in a much less prominent role , until 1989 when he lost his seat in the Central Committee .
= = Later life and death = =
After his forced resignation from active politics in 1989 , Tikhonov wrote a letter to Mikhail Gorbachev which stated that he regretted supporting his election to the General Secretaryship . This view was strengthened when the Communist Party was banned in the Soviet Union . After his retirement , he lived the rest of his life in seclusion at his dacha . As one of his friends noted , he lived as " a hermit " and never showed himself in public and that his later life was very difficult as he had no children and because his wife had died . Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union Tikhonov worked as a State Advisor to the Supreme Soviet . Tikhonov died on 1 June 1997 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery .
According to Time magazine , Tikhonov was a " tried and tested yes man " who had very little experience in foreign and defence policy when he took over the Premiership from Alexei Kosygin . A bust dedicated to Tikhonov can be found in Kharkiv , his birthplace . Tikhonov , when compared to other Soviet premiers , has made little impact on post @-@ Soviet culture and his legacy is remembered by few today . During his lifetime Tikhonov was awarded several awards ; he was awarded nine Order of Lenins , two Order of the Red Banner of Labour , one Red Star , two Stalin Prizes and several medals and foreign awards .
= = Decorations and awards = =
Hero of Socialist Labour ( 1975 , 1982 )
Nine Orders of Lenin
Order of the October Revolution
Two Orders of the Red Banner
Order of the Red Star
Stalin Prize ;
1st class ( 1943 ) - a radical improvement of the production of pipes and mortar ammunition
3rd class ( 1951 ) - for the development and commercial production of seamless pipes of large diameter
Doctor of Technical Sciences ( 1961 )
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= CQC @-@ 6 =
The CQC @-@ 6 ( Close Quarters Combat — Six ) or Viper Six is a handmade tactical folding knife with a tantō blade manufactured by knifemaker Ernest Emerson . Although initially reported as the sixth design in an evolution of fighting knives and the first model in the lineup of Emerson 's Specwar Custom Knives , Emerson later revealed that the knife was named for SEAL Team Six . It has a chisel @-@ ground blade of ATS @-@ 34 or 154CM stainless steel and a handle made of titanium and linen micarta . The CQC @-@ 6 is credited as the knife that popularized the concept of the tactical folding knife .
= = Specifications = =
The CQC @-@ 6 has a 3 5 / 16 " long blade . The handle is 4 5 / 8 " long making the knife close to 8 inches in length when opened . The butt @-@ end of the knife tapers to a point and features a hole for tying a lanyard .
The blade profile of most CQC @-@ 6 's is a Japanese chisel ground tantō with a single bevel or zero @-@ ground blade sharpened on only one side . Early models have a buffline similar to a hamon found on a Japanese Samurai Sword due to a leather buffing wheel used by Emerson to finish his blades . Unlike the typical Japanese chisel @-@ grind , Emerson 's grind is on the left @-@ side of the blade as opposed to the right @-@ side .
The handle material of the CQC @-@ 6 is composed of two titanium liners utilizing a Walker linerlock and a single or double detent as the locking mechanism , although one experimental model exists with a ratchet lock . Titanium bolsters make up the front half of the knife with the back half represented by linen micarta scales . The reasons for using titanium as a linerlock material were due to its memory characteristics and corrosion resistance . The screws in the handle , and pivot are traditional straight @-@ head screws to accommodate easy disassembly in the field with an improvised tool , if needed . Most models feature traction grooves for a more secure grip in a wet environment and a chamfered lockface . Early knives were made with black linen micarta and later models featured a proprietary green color made exclusively for Emerson . A pocket clip held in place by three screws allows the knife to be clipped to a pocket , web @-@ gear , or MOLLE .
= = History = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , individual Navy SEALs from a West Coast team had been using personally purchased custom fixed @-@ blade knives made by Southern California knifemaker Phill Hartsfield . Hartsfield 's knives are hard ground from differentially heat @-@ treated A2 tool steel and are known for their distinctive chisel @-@ ground blades . More accurately , they are zero ground ; that is , the edge has no secondary bevel , minimizing drag when used for cutting purposes . Emerson had long been impressed by the cutting ability of the chisel @-@ ground edge and had asked Hartsfield 's permission to incorporate it into his own folding knives , which Hartsfield granted . When the SEALs asked Hartsfield to make them a folding knife , he informed them that he did not make folding knives and referred them to Emerson who manufactured folding knives utilizing the Walker linerlock .
According to the SEALs ' requirements , the knife had to be corrosion resistant , designed for easy cleaning in the field , durable enough to be used on a daily basis as a tool , and capable as a weapon should the need arise . Emerson 's folding chisel @-@ ground " tantō " became the sixth model in his Viper series and , while a handful of prototypes were referred to as " Viper 6 " , the model was soon named the " CQC @-@ 6 " ( CQC refers to " close @-@ quarters combat " ) and was chosen by the SEALs for use . Writer , David Steele , refers to the CQC @-@ 6 as the sixth model after five prototypes as opposed to the next in the evolution of the Viper line of knives . Emerson , himself , says the moniker " six " was used because the SEALs in question were members of SEAL Team Six .
Ownership of a CQC6 soon became something of a status symbol among members of various elite military units , including Navy SEALs , Army Special Forces , German GSG 9 , and British SAS . Because of this connection to the Special Warfare community , Emerson changed the name of his custom knife line to " Specwar Knives " , and in 1996 this new designation began appearing in the logo on his line of custom blades . It should be noted that the CQC @-@ 6 was not an officially issued item , but rather one that was privately purchased by the troops in question .
Richard Marcinko 's Rogue Warrior novels ( Red Cell , Green Team , Task Force Blue , Detachment Bravo , SEAL Force Alpha , Violence of Action and Holy Terror ) prominently feature the CQC @-@ 6 as a regularly carried piece of equipment . On page 175 of Task Force Blue , Marcinko remarks that his CQC6 was a " personal gift from Ernie Emerson , himself " . The popularity of Marcinko 's books helped fuel the popularity of the CQC @-@ 6 in particular and Tactical Folding Knives in general beyond the realm of Military and Law @-@ enforcement personnel .
= = Variants = =
While each CQC @-@ 6 is made by hand by Emerson , there are certain subtle variations between models of different years . The earliest examples feature the Emerson " half @-@ moon " logo , which is simply the name " EMERSON " arranged in an arc on the blade . This was replaced by the Specwar logo in 1996 which resembles the gunsight on the Stealth aircraft and the moniker " Emerson Specwar Knives " . The gunsight logo was briefly replaced by Emerson 's Diamond logo for a period of 1 year ( 2004 – 2005 ) , until the die to cut the logo was broken and Emerson resumed the Specwar log . In 2004 , Emerson incorporated his patented " Wave " opening device into the profile of the blade .
The blade finish has almost uniformly been Emerson 's trademark satin flats and matte edges . However , some models were made with a Black Tenifer coating . The steel was originally ATS @-@ 34 but was replaced by its American equivalent : 154 CM . Emerson has made " dress " versions with Damascus steel blades and Titanium blades with a bonded carbide edge .
Emerson has used exotic handle materials such as decorative hardwoods , abalone shell , and mother @-@ of @-@ pearl on these dress variants ; these models often feature polished hardware as opposed to the bead blasted bolsters on the tactical models . A few early models featured a titanium backspacer , replaced in later years by a backspacer made of G10 fiberglass . Some early CQC @-@ 6 's featured cutouts in the micarta handle slabs for a small pair of tweezers as found on the Swiss Army Knife .
In Japan there are strict laws regarding the manufacture and possession of tantō blades . In response to this , Emerson made a small batch of CQC @-@ 6 's with a more conventional blade @-@ grind for a Cutlery Show in Seki City . These knives featured the grind on the right @-@ side of the blade as opposed to the left .
Emerson makes a 10 % scaled @-@ up version of the CQC @-@ 6 known as the " Super Six " and a 10 % scaled @-@ down version retro @-@ named the " CQC @-@ 5 " . Like all of Emerson 's custom knives there is a 13 + year backlog and no new orders for knives are taken .
In November 2001 , Emerson made a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind CQC @-@ 6 and auctioned it at the New York Custom Knife Show for the benefit of children whose parents had been killed on 9 / 11 / 2001 : 100 % of the proceeds went to this charity . This knife featured polished hardware , hand @-@ checkered micarta scales , and an engraved blade reading : " We shall strike a dagger deep into the heart of such evil " .
= = CQC @-@ 7 = =
In 1994 , the president of Benchmade Knives , Les DeAsis , approached Emerson to manufacture the CQC6 on a larger scale as a factory production model . Preferring to keep the CQC6 as a custom @-@ only knife , Emerson instead licensed a similar design of his , the CQC @-@ 7 . Even though it did not have the craftsmanship of a handmade piece of cutlery , it satisfied customers with their own version of Emerson 's work , at an affordable price and without the five @-@ year wait . Benchmade manufactured automatic versions of the CQC7 such as the BM9700 . Currently Pro @-@ Tech Knives of Santa Fe Springs , California manufactures an automatic version of the CQC @-@ 7 in collaboration with Emerson .
The CQC @-@ 7 is similar in size and blade profile to the CQC @-@ 6 with the main difference being a rear brake at the butt of the handle of the CQC @-@ 7 as opposed to the boattail shape of the CQC @-@ 6 . After the contract with Benchmade expired , Emerson began production of this model in his own factory , Emerson Knives , Inc . , in 1999 . The production version of the CQC7 is not a handmade knife and features no bolsters or micarta in the handle construction . The handle material on the production model is G @-@ 10 fiberglass and the edge of the blade has a secondary bevel . There is a larger and smaller version of this knife known as the " Super CQC @-@ 7 " and " Mini @-@ CQC @-@ 7 " , respectively and a version with a drop @-@ point blade as opposed to a tanto . An " all titanium " handled version with a framelock was made in 2005 known as the HD @-@ 7 to commemorate the tenth anniversary of this model . Emerson makes handmade versions of the CQC @-@ 7 with variations similar to the CQC @-@ 6 mentioned above .
In the Russian movie 12 a remake of the classic Twelve Angry Men , an " Emerson CQC7 " is revealed as the potential weapon used by a Chechen teen in the murder of his Russian foster @-@ parents . However , the knife shown in the movie is not a CQC7 or even an Emerson made knife .
In May 2013 , a non @-@ custom factory @-@ made Emerson CQC @-@ 7 knife carried by the Matt Bissonnette who served as point man on the mission to kill or capture Osama bin Laden was auctioned off for charity , netting over $ 35 @,@ 400 .
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= Robert Dover ( equestrian ) =
Robert Benjamin Dover ( born June 7 , 1956 ) is an American equestrian who has had international success in the sport of dressage . Riding from the age of 13 , he began specializing in dressage at age 19 and competed in his first Olympics in 1984 . He competed in every summer Games between 1984 and 2004 , winning four team bronze medals . He also took a team bronze at the 1994 World Equestrian Games . Dover is the most honored dressage rider in the United States , and has been inducted to the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Outside of competition , Dover founded the Equestrian Aid Foundation in 1996 to assist others in the equestrian world , and hosted a TV show that searched for the next dressage star . From late 2009 to early 2011 , Dover served as the Technical / Coach Advisor for the Canadian national dressage team . In April 2013 , Dover was named Technical Advisor / Chef d 'Equipe for the US national dressage team .
= = Personal life = =
Dover , who is Jewish , was born in Chicago , Illinois to parents Herb and Jean Dover . He was given a horse for his Bar Mitzvah at 13 and was active in Pony Club , graduating at " A " level , the highest level . He decided to specialize in dressage when he was 19 . Dover attended the University of Georgia . He is openly gay , and his partner is fellow rider Robert Ross . Injuries , including a torn rotator cuff and pinched sciatic nerve , began to plague him in the late 1990s , causing major back pain and reducing his ability to ride .
= = Career = =
= = = Competition = = =
In 1984 , Dover competed in his first Olympic Games at the age of 28 . At the Los Angeles Games , he finished 17th individually , and the US team finished 6th . At the 1988 Seoul Olympics , he finished 13th , and the team tied for 6th place . In 1992 , at the Barcelona Games , Dover tied for 22nd place , while the American team took the bronze medal . At the 1996 Atlanta Games , the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the 2004 Athina Games the United States dressage team took the bronze medal each time , while Dover finished 25th , 23rd and 6th respectively . He was elected team captain in all six Olympics in which he competed . Of his Olympic experience , Dover says , " The medals themselves aren 't the important thing . My memories of the Games and of the entire Olympic experience are , to me , everything . "
In 1987 , Dover defeated Reiner Klimke , a six @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , at the German Aachen Grand Prix freestyle competition . In doing so , he became the first American in 27 years to win that event . In 1994 he was named the US Olympic Male Equestrian Athlete of the Year , and in 1995 awarded the Whitney Stone Cup , given by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) for excellence in international competition . Dover has been named the USEF Dressage Champion five times , and ridden seven times in the FEI World Cup Final . In 1994 , Dover rode with the United States dressage team at the World Equestrian Games , winning a team bronze . He was also amassed more than 100 Grand Prix victories . Overall , Dover has won more honors in dressage than any other rider from the United States . In 2009 , Dover announced his retirement from competitive riding , instead choosing to focus on teaching and philanthropy .
= = = Other = = =
Dover founded the Equestrian Aid Foundation in 1996 . The Foundation 's mission is to financially assist members of the equestrian community who have suffered a catastrophic accident , injury or illness . In 2002 , Dover was listed as one of the 50 most influential horsemen by Chronicle of the Horse magazine . In 2007 , " The Search for America 's Next Equestrian Star : Dressage " , a reality TV show created and promoted by Dover , aired on the Fox Reality Channel with five one @-@ hour episodes . The show followed a search for young , talented dressage riders , with the final five being allowed to train with Dover for one month before a winner was selected ; the winner became Dover 's assistant . In 2008 , Dover was inducted into the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Dover served on the USEF Dressage Committee for many years , and spent eight years on the US Olympic Committee Athlete Advisory Council .
In late 2009 , Dover was selected as a Technical / Coach Advisor for the Canadian dressage team , with a contract that extended through the 2010 World Equestrian Games in Lexington , Kentucky . After the Games , it was announced that Dover and the Canadian team had not been able to agree on contract renewal terms , but in late 2010 it was announced that Dover would remain as the interim trainer for the first quarter of 2011 . In March 2011 , German equestrian Markus Gribbe was hired , and Dover 's term as a Canadian coach came to an end . Dover is known for his coaching abilities , with some of the best dressage riders with top international titles to their credit coming from his stables . During his time as a trainer for Canada , he was no longer be eligible to train top riders with the USEF . In April 2013 , Dover was named Technical Advisor / Chef d 'Equipe of the US national dressage team . He is expected to remain in the position through the 2016 Summer Olympics . Dover is currently a rider and trainer at Stillpoint Farm in Florida .
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= Richard M. Scrushy =
Richard Marin Scrushy ( born August 1952 in Selma , Alabama ) is an American businessman . He is the founder of HealthSouth Corporation , a global healthcare company based in Birmingham , Alabama .
In 2004 , following an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , Scrushy had charges brought against him by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Scrushy was charged with 36 of the original 85 counts but was acquitted of all charges on June 28 , 2005 , after a jury trial in Birmingham .
Four months after his acquittal in Birmingham , Scrushy was indicted along with former Alabama Governor Don Siegelman on October 28 , 2005 , by a federal grand jury in Montgomery , Alabama . The indictment included 30 counts of money laundering , extortion , obstruction of justice , racketeering , and bribery . Although the new charges were filed a month before the previous trial ended , Scrushy 's attorneys accused prosecutors of filing charges as retaliation for Scrushy 's acquittal . Scrushy pleaded not guilty to all charges , but was convicted along with Siegelman in June 2006 .
On May 7 , 2009 , Scrushy was transferred from the Texas jail where he had been incarcerated and placed in the custody of the Shelby County Jail in Columbiana , Alabama . Scrushy was returned to Alabama in order to testify in a new civil trial in the Jefferson County Circuit Court brought against him by shareholders of HealthSouth who sought damages related to Scrushy 's trial and conviction . On June 18 , 2009 , Judge Allwin E. Horn ruled that Scrushy was responsible for HealthSouth ’ s fraud , and ordered him to pay $ 2 @.@ 87 billion . On July 25 , 2012 , Scrushy was released from federal custody .
= = Early life and background = =
Richard M. Scrushy was born in August 1952 in Selma , Alabama . The son of a middle class family , Scrushy 's father , Gerald Scrushy , worked as a cash register repairman and his mother , Grace Scrushy , worked as a nurse and respiratory therapist . At an early age , Scrushy taught himself to play the piano and guitar and was earning money doing odd jobs by the time he was 12 years old . Scrushy , who then went by his middle name Marin , attended school until he was 17 . He dropped out prior to graduating from Parrish High School and married .
Scrushy soon found himself living in a Selma trailer park and working manual labor jobs to support his family . After a run @-@ in with a boss , Scrushy quit his job hauling cement and decided to return to school . He earned his GED , and at his mother 's advice , began studying respiratory therapy at Wallace State Community College . After a year at Wallace State , Scrushy transferred to Jefferson State Community College and later entered the respiratory therapy program at the University of Alabama at Birmingham ( UAB ) . Upon graduating from UAB 's program , Scrushy was offered a position teaching at the university , where he was promoted to director during his two and a half year tenure . Scrushy divorced his wife , with whom he had two children , and took a position teaching at Wallace State Community College in Dothan , Alabama . While teaching at Wallace State , Scrushy met and married his second wife , Karen Brooks . The two had four children before they divorced in 1996 . In early June 1997 , Scrushy married Leslie Anne Jones in Jamaica , with guests such as Martha Stewart attending . The group met at the HealthSouth Hangar at the Birmingham International Airport and boarded a chartered Boeing 727 to Jamaica . Together Richard and Leslie have had three children .
= = Career and HealthSouth = =
In the late 1970s , following his time teaching at UAB and Wallace State Community College , Scrushy was offered a position with Lifemark Corporation , a Houston , Texas @-@ based health care company . Within a few years of being hired at Lifemark , Scrushy was running a 100 @-@ million @-@ dollar operation that included the pharmacy , physical rehabilitation , and hospital acquisition divisions . While working for Lifemark , Scrushy moved to St. Louis , Missouri , where he worked as the regional director of the respiratory therapy division . He then moved to Houston where he became the company 's chief operating officer .
Still working for Lifemark , Scrushy devised a plan for an outpatient diagnostics and rehabilitative health clinic chain . He presented the plan to Lifemark , but the company was unable to act on it due to a company merger that was already underway with American Medical International . Scrushy left Lifemark in 1983 and founded Amcare , Inc within a year . The new company opened its first facility in Little Rock , Arkansas and had initial capital between $ 50,000- $ 70 @,@ 000 . With the assistance of four partners from Amcare Inc. and a one million dollar investment by Citicorp Venture Capital , Scrushy took the quickly growing company and founded HealthSouth in 1984 . Two years after its founding , HealthSouth became a publicly traded company in 1986 . The next year , HealthSouth expanded into two new fields , worker ’ s compensation and sports medicine , allowing the company to double its earnings and obtain assets close to $ 100 million . By the early 1990s , the company had expanded even more , with facilities in each of the 50 U.S states and revenues in excess of $ 181 million .
Over the next decade , HealthSouth ’ s sports medicine programs received international attention by being linked to star athletes including Bo Jackson , who served as the president of HealthSouth 's Sports Medicine Council , Roger Clemens , Jack Nicklaus , Kyle Petty , Michael Jordan , Shaquille O 'Neal , and Lúcio Carlos Cajueiro Souza . At its height , HealthSouth employed more than 50 @,@ 000 physicians , was the " nation 's largest provider of outpatient surgery and rehabilitative and diagnostic healthcare services " , and had over 2 @,@ 000 facilities in the United States , Puerto Rico , Australia , and the United Kingdom . HealthSouth facilities worldwide saw more than 120 @,@ 000 patients daily , and with earnings around $ 106 million in 1997 , Scrushy was the third highest paid CEO in the United States .
= = Legal battles = =
Although HealthSouth grew tremendously throughout the 1990s , becoming the largest comprehensive rehabilitative services company in the United States , ethical and financial questions began to arise as early as 1989 . An internal auditor alleged that he was fired for drawing attention to HealthSouth 's financial problems and that he was pressured to meet certain earnings targets . Two years later , in 1991 , HealthSouth was accused by Medicare of illegally adding costs to reports for outpatient physical therapy and inpatient rehabilitation admissions at the corporation 's Bakersfield Rehabilitation Hospital . In 1998 , Medicare changed its funding arrangements in an attempt to reduce exploitation and payments by $ 100 billion . Scrushy insisted that the change would not affect HealthSouth 's bottom line but profits dropped by 93 percent by the end of the year . Around this same time , HealthSouth began facing additional accusations of fraud . An investigation by the insurance company Blue Cross Blue Shield of Alabama determined that HealthSouth had " improperly billed Medicare for therapy by students , interns , athletic trainers , and other unlicensed aides " .
Additional lawsuits alleged HealthSouth had committed widespread abuse of Medicare by " billing for services it never provided , delivering poor care , treating patients without a formal plan of care , and using unlicensed therapists " . In March 2003 , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed a civil suit against Scrushy and HealthSouth alleging the company had falsified at least $ 2 @.@ 7 billion worth of profit between 1996 and 2002 . HealthSouth agreed to pay the United States government $ 325 million on December 30 , 2004 , in order to " settle allegations that the company defrauded Medicare and other federal healthcare programs " .
= = = Birmingham criminal trial = = =
On February 6 , 2003 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) announced that it had begun a criminal investigation relating to the " trading of shares of the HealthSouth Corporation " and possible securities law violations . A criminal complaint was filed by the FBI against HealthSouth 's Chief Financial Officer Weston Smith and Scrushy had civil charges brought against him by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Scrushy became the first CEO to be tried under the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act when he was indicted by the United States Department of Justice in United States of America v. Richard M. Scrushy on November 4 , 2003 .
The indictment included 85 counts of conspiracy , money laundering , securities fraud , and mail fraud but Scrushy was ultimately charged with just 36 counts . In the indictment , Scrushy was accused of using intimidation , threats , and cash payments to coerce top executives into committing fraud . These top executives called themselves " The Family " and referred to their creative accounting as " filling the gap " . The group attempted to hide the false earnings by illegally inflating balances of accounts such as fixed assets and estimated insurance reimbursements . Despite multiple chief executives testifying against Scrushy , the prosecutors were unable to produce any material evidence that Scrushy had been involved in the fraudulent accounting .
During the trial , Scrushy defended himself both inside and outside the courtroom . Scrushy was interviewed by Mike Wallace for a 60 Minutes segment called " Cooking The Books " , began hosting a Christian television show with his wife called Viewpoint , backed a city @-@ wide 40 day prayer movement referred to as " City , thou art loosed " , and joined the predominantly African American Guiding Light Church . These actions were seen as an attempt to sway potential jurors , since 70 percent of Birmingham 's population and 11 of the 18 jurors were African American . Following more than a month of deliberations , Scrushy was acquitted of all charges on June 28 , 2005 .
= = = Montgomery criminal trial = = =
On October 26 , 2005 , four months after his acquittal in Birmingham , Scrushy was indicted by a federal grand jury in Montgomery , Alabama . The indictment included 30 counts of money laundering , extortion , obstruction of justice , racketeering , and bribery of Alabama Governor Don Siegelman . Prosecutors claimed that Scrushy had agreed to pay over $ 500 @,@ 000 of Siegelman 's debt , which he accumulated during a failed attempt to bring a state lottery to Alabama , in exchange for a seat on the Certificates of Need Review Board . The board serves the state by reviewing hospitals and approving their construction . Although the new charges were filed a month before the previous trial ended , Scrushy 's attorney 's accused prosecutors of filing charges as retaliation for Scrushy 's acquittal . Scrushy and Siegleman pleaded not guilty to all charges , but they were both convicted following a trial that lasted approximately six weeks . Scrushy was convicted of bribery , conspiracy , and mail fraud , while Siegelman was convicted of bribery , conspiracy , mail fraud , and obstruction of justice .
While awaiting sentencing , on March 29 , 2007 , Scrushy 's probation officer filed a report claiming that Scrushy had violated the conditions of his bond by leaving Walt Disney World in Orlando , Florida and traveling to Palm Beach where he boarded a yacht and sailed to Miami . The probation officer suggested that Scrushy should be placed under house arrest and that he be required to wear an electronic monitoring device at all times . United States Magistrate Judge Charles Coody warned Scrushy that he " would not tolerate any future deviations from the requirements the court has placed on " him and ruled that Scrushy must wear a GPS tracking device anytime he travels outside of Alabama .
On June 28 , 2007 , Scrushy was sentenced to six years and ten months in a federal prison , ordered to pay $ 267 @,@ 000 in restitution to United Way of Alabama , three years probation , and a fine of $ 150 @,@ 000 . Scrushy is also expected to personally pay for his time in prison and perform 500 hours of community service . Siegelman was sentenced on the same day to seven years and four months in prison , restitution of $ 181 @,@ 325 to the state , three years probation , a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine , and 500 hours of community service upon his release . U.S. District Judge Mark Fuller would later rule , however , that Sieglman would not be required to pay the $ 181 @,@ 325 in restitution . The restitution was based on debts accumulated by the State of Alabama during a fraudulent warehouse deal , but Siegelman was acquitted on charges related to the deal . Upon sentencing , Scrushy and Siegelman were taken into custody and transported to a federal prison in Atlanta , Georgia , where they briefly shared a cell .
= = = Appeal = = =
Following the trial and conviction , Scrushy , Siegelman , and the prosecutors all indicated they would appeal . Scrushy and Seigelman vowed to appeal their convictions and sentences , while the prosecution announced its desire to appeal a judge 's decision to remove charges of perjury from Scrushy 's indictment . The prosecutors quickly dropped their appeal , and United States Attorney Alice Martin indicated they had reconsidered .
Awaiting appeal , Scrushy was briefly transported to a transfer site for inmates in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma before being sent to his permanent location at a low security federal prison in Beaumont , Texas . Scrushy filed a request with the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals , asking to be released on appeal bond . The 11th US Circuit Court of Appeals rejected Scrushy 's request to be released on bond , citing an earlier ruling written by U.S. District Judge Mark Fuller . The ruling was issued while Scrushy was on bond awaiting sentencing , and deemed him a flight risk . Scrushy again filed for release in February and May 2008 but both requests were denied .
In March 2009 , a panel of three judges from the 11th U.S. Circuit Court upheld all charges against Scrushy and dismissed two of the seven charges against Siegelman . A further appeal for a full court review of the case was also denied by the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on May 15 , 2009 . Scrushy appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States . On June 29 , 2010 , the Court issued an order directing the appeals court to review the case in light of their ( Supreme Court 's ) ruling the previous week on the " honest services " fraud statute . On June 4 , 2012 the U.S. Supreme Court rejected his appeal , allowing his public corruption and bribery convictions to stand .
= = = Birmingham civil trial = = =
Scrushy was returned to Alabama on May 7 , 2009 , in order to testify in a new civil trial in a Birmingham court . Former HealthSouth investors sued him seeking recompense for money lost due to the fraud of which Scrushy was acquitted in 2005 . While opposing counsel claimed Scrushy was a " hands @-@ on manager who treated the company as a personal piggy bank , " Scrushy continued to assign blame to his subordinates and maintain that he did nothing wrong . Closing arguments were heard in the trial on May 27 , 2009 . On June 18 , 2009 , Judge Horn ordered Scrushy to pay $ 2 @.@ 87 billion in damages . Judge Horn stated , " Scrushy knew of and actively participated in the fraud " and referred to Scrushy as the " CEO of the fraud " . As expected , Scrushy appealed the judgment to the Alabama Supreme Court . On January 28 , 2011 , Scrushy lost his appeal of the civil verdict .
= = = Release = = =
According to the federal Bureau of Prisons website , the 59 @-@ year @-@ old Scrushy was moved in April 2012 from the federal prison in Beaumont , Texas into the supervision of the community corrections management field office in San Antonio , Texas . Following his move to a halfway house , he was moved to home confinement , and then , on July 25 , 2012 , Richard Scrushy was released from federal custody .
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= Subject 13 =
" Subject 13 " is the 15th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 58th episode overall . Inspired by fan reaction to the show 's previous flashback episode , " Peter " , " Subject 13 " occurs 25 years before the show 's current timeline , in 1985 a few months after " Peter " . The episode , with scenes set in both the prime and the parallel universe , explore Walter and Elizabeth Bishop 's attempts to return Peter to the parallel universe using the Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities of young Olivia Dunham , while Walternate in the parallel universe struggles to deal with the kidnapping of his son .
Showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , as well as consulting producer Akiva Goldsman wrote the episode , while producer Frederick E. O. Toye worked as the director . Guest actress Orla Brady returned to reprise the role of Elizabeth , while Chandler Canterbury , Karley Scott Collins , and Chris Bradford made their first guest appearances . On its initial broadcast in the United States on February 25 , 2011 , an estimated 4 @.@ 0 million viewers tuned in . Critical reception to the episode was overwhelmingly positive . It was ranked the third best episode of the entire series by Entertainment Weekly .
= = Plot = =
" Subject 13 " is set in 1985 , a few months after the events of " Peter " , during which Walter ( John Noble ) brought the parallel universe 's version of his son Peter into the prime one to cure him of a genetic disease . In the following months , Peter ( Chandler Canterbury ) doubts he is from the prime universe , and attempts to drown himself in Reiden Lake , believing it the way to his universe . Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) , Walter 's wife , worries for the boy , and takes him with her to Jacksonville , Florida , where Walter is studying the effects of the nootropic drug on several children . Walter and Elizabeth agree they need to return Peter to the parallel universe for both the child 's sanity and to prevent that universe from discovering theirs .
In the parallel universe , Walternate 's ( Noble ) position as national security czar makes Peter 's disappearance a major news story . Walternate falls into a deep depression , unable to explain how his child has been kidnapped by someone that looked exactly like him . Elizabeth coaxes him out of his depression and he returns to Bishop Dynamic in Florida to continue his job .
One of Walter 's subjects is young Olivia Dunham ( Karley Scott Collins ) , aka " Subject 13 " . Walter suspects Olivia 's stepfather ( Chris Bradford ) is abusing her based on bruises she carries and frightening drawings in her sketchbook , but Olivia refuses to talk about it . One night , as Olivia is about to be struck by her stepfather , she temporarily finds herself in a different place ; the next day , she draws in her sketchbook a picture of what she saw in the other place : a zeppelin ( which are a common mode of transportation in the alternate universe ) . Walter realizes that Olivia crossed over to the parallel universe , and can be the means for returning Peter . Walter puts Olivia under several tests to try to coax her to cross over , eventually eliminating all emotions but fear as the triggering mechanism . He arranges a traumatic test for Olivia , but instead of crossing over , she exhibits pyrokinesis and sets the room afire . In the confusion of extinguishing the blaze , she disappears .
Peter , discovering a picture of white tulips in Olivia 's book , is able to find her nearby . After they introduce themselves , Olivia admits to being scared of going home to her stepfather . Peter tells her to trust Walter and to face her fear , and then returns her to the child care center , to everyone 's relief . As Olivia waits for her stepfather , she sketches a picture of her and Peter in her book . As her stepfather is about to arrive , Olivia decides she must tell Walter about him , and rushes to his office . Olivia , in tears , hands Walter the sketchbook , explaining about her stepfather 's abuse and that she knew she had crossed over to the parallel universe . She is interrupted by a sound from behind her : it is Walter . Olivia had temporarily entered the parallel universe and spoken to Walternate . Walter takes Olivia to her stepfather , but warns the man that he will be reported to social services if Olivia is harmed again .
Elizabeth and Peter return to Reiden Lake , and Peter eventually comes to call Elizabeth his mom , but Elizabeth becomes forlorn after she realizes the lie she has been maintaining for the last few months . The episode ends in the parallel universe , where Walternate has reviewed Olivia 's sketchbook , including her latest picture of her and Peter ; now aware of the parallel universe , Walternate gains new resolve to get his Peter back .
= = Production = =
" Subject 13 " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner , J. H. Wyman and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman , while former Fringe producer Frederick E. O. Toye directed . It was the first episode Toye directed since the first season . In an interview with TV Guide , Pinkner and Wyman revealed they had known Olivia and Peter met as children for a long time , but did not decide to show this to the audience until they wrote the episode . Wyman described Elizabeth Bishop 's successful lie at making Peter believe she is his real mother as " the beginning of the end for her , " as her character will ultimately commit suicide .
Olivia 's abusive stepfather , whom she non @-@ fatally shot when nine years old , makes his first appearance in " Subject 13 " . In early January 2011 , TVline 's Michael Ausiello exclusively reported that Fringe was casting for an actor to play the part . Several news sources later in early March noticed on the Internet Movie Database that actor Chris Bradford had been cast . The casting report later turned out to be true , as Bradford appeared in the episode . Chandler Canterbury appeared in the episode as a young Peter Bishop , a role previously played by Quinn Lord in the second season episode " Peter " . Karley Scott Collins also made a guest appearance as a younger version of Olivia Dunham .
Actor John Noble , who played two versions of a younger Walter in both " Peter " and " Subject 13 " , described the process it took to make him appear years younger in an interview with Digital Spy :
" Our makeup lady , particularly for the second flashback , worked out some terrific techniques to get the skin softer so it loses the wrinkles and so forth . This year we 've come up with some terrific technology . And [ I have ] a beautiful handmade wig which at that stage was the right length - should we go on further we 'd need to trim it back . We 've looked at it really carefully . As we become more efficient it 's generally about three or four hours in makeup " .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Subject 13 " , with the intention of having " students learn about adaptation and how the process helps organisms survive in their specific ecological environment . "
= = Cultural references = =
The show reuses the 1980s @-@ styled introduction sequence from " Peter " . One scene set in the prime universe is at a toy store and shows many vintage toys of that period , including toys from Ghostbusters , Battlestar Galactica , and G.I. Joe , as well as an Atari 2600 entertainment system . There , a boy can be seen playing the 1982 video game Joust . Before her stepfather strikes her , young Olivia is seen reading the book Winter 's Tale by Mark Helprin . Among the tests Walter puts Olivia through is the Project Christmas block test ( " The Indicator " ) from Alias , another television series created by Fringe executive producer J.J. Abrams . In the parallel universe , Walternate is credited with making the Star Wars program work , leading to his role as the national security czar . The episode also features a reference to the DC Comics character Green Lantern , dubbed Red Lantern in the parallel universe , as noted by Peter .
One of the other identified students at the daycare center is Nick Lane , whose adult character appears in the episodes " Bad Dreams " and " Over There " . In parallel with William Bell 's founding of the technology company Massive Dynamic in the prime universe , Walternate has founded Bishop Dynamic in the parallel universe , situated in Jacksonville . The field of white tulips revisits the theme of the episode " White Tulip " from Season 2 , where Walter believes that seeing a white tulip is a sign of God 's forgiveness of his actions . The video of Olivia setting fire to the lab , as well as the setting of the nursery school where the Cortexiphan experiments took place , are references to the second season episode " Jacksonville " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Subject 13 " first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 25 , 2011 . It retained similar viewership from the previous week 's episode , " 6B " , with an estimated 4 @.@ 0 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 5 ratings share among those aged between 18 and 49 . In that demographic , " Subject 13 " helped Fox tie with CBS for first place , though Fox placed in fourth among total viewers . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings among adults by 53 percent to a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received almost universal critical praise . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called it one of his favorite Fringe episodes due to the " incredible " opening , Brady and Noble 's " outstanding " performances , and the scene with Olivia unknowingly talking to Walternate . Like Hanson , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly also praised the actors ' performances , and thought it was " one of the most moving and revelatory episodes in the series ' short history " . Though he felt the episode did not quite match up to " Peter " , Ramsey Isler from IGN rated " Subject 13 " an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . He believed the opening to be " tense and surprising " and praised the child actors ' performances . Finally , he thought the scene in which Olivia accidentally encounters Walternate was a " brilliant plot twist that ties a lot of things together " .
CNN 's Henry Hanks wrote the episode " is reason enough to bring this series back for another season , " and praised Noble 's performance as Emmy @-@ worthy ; Hanks also loved the " genius " musical score written by composers Michael Giacchino and Chris Tilton . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the episode with an A- , explaining that , like the other reviewers , he loved the opening sequence with Peter on the lake , the newest mythology details , as well as how Walternate discovered the prime universe . Murray also loved the " mood " of the episode , but had minor problems with the plot , as he thought it was now harder to believe Olivia , Peter , and Walter were strangers to each other in the first season . James Poniewozik of Time magazine concluded that the episode " was not the revelation that ' Peter ' was , though a phase @-@ shifting Olivia ’ s mistaking of Walternate for Walter was one of the series ’ most mindblowing moments ( and , again , a Lostian bit of disorienting sleight of hand ) . But it was again an effective detour in which Fringe reminded us that time has parallels just as space does , and that the past is emotionally overlaid on the present just as its Over There is overlaid on our world . "
TV.com staff highlighted " Subject 13 " as one of the best television episodes of the 2010 – 11 United States network television schedule . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Subject 13 " the third best episode of the series , explaining " The nighttime scene between the two kids ( well played by Chandler Canterbury and Karley Scott Collins ) in the field of white tulips might be the most memorable scene in all of Fringe . ' Subject 13 ' is also one of the great parallel universe episodes , too , charting the shattering impact of Peter 's abduction on both sets of Walter and Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) . ' Subject 13 ' was so essential , so emotionally wrenching . " IGN found the episode to be the fifth best of the series .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 33rd Young Artist Awards , Chandler Canterbury received a nomination for Best Performance In a TV Series – Guest Starring Young Actor 11 @-@ 13 , but lost to Austin Michael Coleman of House M.D. and Baljodh Nagra of R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour .
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= Indiana Territory =
The Territory of Indiana was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4 , 1800 , until December 11 , 1816 , when the remaining southern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the state of Indiana .
The Indiana Territory was created by an Act of Congress and signed into law by President John Adams on May 7 , 1800 , effective on July 4 . It was the first new territory created from lands of the Northwest Territory , which had been organized in 1787 by the Northwest Ordinance . The territory originally contained approximately 259 @,@ 824 square miles ( 672 @,@ 940 km2 ) of land , but twice decreased in size as it was further subdivided into new territories ( Michigan Territory and Illinois Territory ) .
The territory was first governed by William Henry Harrison who oversaw the negotiation with the native inhabitants to open large parts of the territory to settlement . In 1810 a popularly elected government was established as the territory continued to grow in population and develop a very basic road network , government , and education system . At the outbreak of Tecumseh 's War , the territory was on the front line of battle and Harrison led a military force in the opening hostilities at the Battle of Tippecanoe , and then in the subsequent invasion of Canada during the War of 1812 . Thomas Posey was appointed to the vacant governorship , but the opposition party , led by Congressman Jonathan Jennings , had dominance in the territorial affairs for its remaining years and began pressing for statehood . In June 1816 , a constitutional convention was held and a state government was formed . The territory was dissolved on December 11 , 1816 , by an act of Congress granting statehood to Indiana .
= = Original boundaries = =
The original boundaries of the Indiana Territory included the area of the Northwest Territory west of a line running from the bank opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River northeast to Fort Recovery , and from there due northward along a line approximately 84 deg 45 min W longitude . The territory initially included most of present @-@ day Indiana and all of present @-@ day Illinois , and Wisconsin , as well as fragments of three other states : the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River , almost all of the Upper Peninsula of present @-@ day Michigan and the western half of the Lower Peninsula , and finally , a narrow strip of present @-@ day Ohio lying to the north and west of Fort Recovery . This latter parcel became part of the state of Ohio when it was admitted to the Union in 1803 . At the same time in 1803 , the southeast boundary shifted to the mouth of the Great Miami River from its former location at the point opposite the mouth of the Kentucky River . The eastern part of Michigan was added to the Indiana Territory at that time . The area of the Indiana Territory was reduced in 1805 by the creation of the Michigan Territory , and in 1809 by the creation of the Illinois Territory .
= = Government = =
= = = Governors = = =
= = = Legislature = = =
When the Indiana Territory was first created , no provision was allowed for the creation of popularly elected government . Congress granted the President power to appoint a General Court to serve as a legislative and judicial branch of the territorial government . The court consisted of five members , and the President delegated the task of choosing the members to the Governor of the territory . This remained the form of government until 1805 when Congress granted the territory the right to legalize slavery if they so choose . In doing so , they removed the court 's legislative powers , leaving it with only judicial authority , but still to be appointed by the President through the Governor . The formation of a new legislative council was approved and each county in the territory was granted the right to elect one representative to it . The council had the authority to pass laws , but they all had to be approved by the Governor before they could be enacted .
In 1809 , the makeup of the legislature was altered again by Congress to a bicameral body . A House of Representatives was created and the representation was apportioned by population . The House was then to choose ten candidates from whom the President , through the governor , would choose five to form a council which served as the upper house of the legislature . Thereafter , the structure of the legislature remained unchanged for the remainder of the territory 's existence .
= = = Congressional delegation = = =
The delegate from the Indiana Territory was elected at large in a territory @-@ wide election . The delegate attended Congress with the right to debate , submit legislation , and serve on committees , but was not permitted to vote on legislation .
= = = Other high officials = = =
The federal government paid the salaries of the governor , legislature , and judicial council , but did not provide funds for any additional governmental offices . At first , the territory had very limited revenue and could not afford to fund a large government . As the population increased , and revenues grew , so did the size and scope of the government with new offices being created at different times . The territory 's primary source of revenue was from the sale of federal lands ; the territory collected 3 % of the proceeds of each sale . Property tax and trading ventures with the Native American tribes also provided lesser revenues .
Secretary
Auditor
Treasurer
Attorney General
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Northwest Territory was formed by the Congress of the Confederation on July 13 , 1787 , and included all land between the Appalachia and the Mississippi River , the Great Lakes and the Ohio River . This single territory became the states of Ohio , Michigan , Indiana , Illinois , Wisconsin , and eastern Minnesota . The Northwest Territory act had all the newly acquired territory surveyed according to The Land Ordinance of 1785 for future development by the United States . The act also provided an administration to oversee the territory .
At the time the territory was created , there were only three American settlements in what would later become the Indiana Territory , Vincennes , Kaskaskia and Clark 's Grant . The entire population was under five @-@ thousand Europeans . The Native American population was estimated to be near twenty @-@ thousand , but possibly as high as seventy @-@ five thousand .
In 1785 , the Northwest Indian War began . In an attempt to end the native rebellion , the Miami town of Kekionga was unsuccessfully attacked by General Josiah Harmar and Northwest Territory governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair 's Defeat is the worst defeat of the U.S. army by Native Americans in history . The defeat led to the appointment of General " Mad Anthony " Wayne who organized the Legion of the United States and defeated a Native American force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . In 1795 the Treaty of Greenville was signed , taking a slice of eastern Indiana for the United States . Fort Miamis at Kekionga was occupied by the United States , who rebuilt it as Fort Wayne . The powerful Miami nation would consider themselves allies with the United States after the treaty .
= = = Formation = = =
On July 4 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was established out of Northwest Territory in preparation for Ohio 's statehood . The capital of the new territory was Vincennes , a former French trading post and one of the only white settlements in the vast territory . The name Indiana meant " Land of the Indians " , and referred to the fact that most of the area north of the Ohio River was still inhabited by Native Americans . ( South of the river , Kentucky had been a traditional hunting ground for the Northwestern and other tribes , and early American settlers in Kentucky referred to the north bank as the land of the Indians . ) In 1768 , several colonies purchased the Iroquois claim to the northwest and established the Indiana Land Company to hold that claim , the first recorded use of the word Indiana . The claim to the land was disputed by Virginia , and the company 's claim was extinguished in a 1798 United States Supreme Court case . Two years later , Congress used the name of the company and applied it to the new territory .
Indiana Territory began with just three counties : St. Clair ( part of present @-@ day Illinois , across the river from St Louis and south of the Illinois River ) , Randolph County ( part of present @-@ day Illinois , south of St. Clair county ) , and Knox ( present @-@ day Indiana , with parts of Illinois , Michigan and Wisconsin ) . There was also an area corresponding roughly to northern Illinois , much of Wisconsin , the northeastern corner of Minnesota , and the western part of Michigan 's upper peninsula that was unorganized .
The first Governor of the Territory was William Henry Harrison . Harrison County was named in his honor ; he gained national fame during his term as a hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe . He later became the ninth President of the United States . Harrison served as governor from May 13 , 1800 to December 28 , 1812 . Harrison did not arrive in the territory to begin governing until January 1801 . John Gibson , the Territorial Secretary , served as acting governor , from the creation of the territory until his arrival . The governor was assisted in governing the territory by a three @-@ member panel of judges , the General Court . The court served as both the highest legislative and judicial authority in the territory and its members were appointed by the governor .
As governor of a territory of the first stage ( as outlined in the Northwest Ordinance ) , Harrison had wide @-@ ranging powers in the new territory , including the authority to appoint all territorial officials as well as the territorial General Assembly , and the authority to divide the territory into districts . Harrison was eager to expand the territory , as his political fortunes were tied to Indiana 's rise to statehood . In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson granted Harrison authority to negotiate and conclude treaties with the Native American tribes in the territory . Harrison oversaw the creation of thirteen treaties , purchasing more than 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land from Native American leaders , including most present @-@ day southern Indiana .
The Treaty of Vincennes was the first treaty Harrison negotiated with his new power . In 1803 he invited the leaders on the local tribes to Vincennes where they signed a treaty recognizing American possession of the Vincennes tract . This area had been captured by George Rogers Clark in the American Revolutionary War from the French . The Treaty of Grouseland in 1805 further secured possession of all of south @-@ western Indiana . Tensions however grew on the frontier and neared the breaking the point after the contentious and disputed 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne , in which Harrison purchased more than 250 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ) of American Indian land in central Indiana and eastern Illinois .
The availability of new cheap land led to a rapid increase in the population of the territory , with thousands of new settlers entering the region every year . Large settlements began to spring up on the periphery of the territory around the Great Lakes , the Ohio River , the Wabash River , and the Mississippi River . Much of the interior , though , remained inhabited by the Native American tribes and was left unsettled .
= = = District of Louisiana = = =
From October 1 , 1804 until July 4 , 1805 , administrative powers of the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana were extended to the governor and judges of Indiana Territory as a temporary measure to govern the newly purchased lands . Under the terms of the act establishing the temporary government , the Governor and Judges of Indiana Territory were supposed to meet twice a year in a " at such place as will be most convenient to the inhabitants thereof in general " . Residents of the new district objected to many of the provisions of the new United States government , including their imposition of common law . Residents had previously lived under continental civil law .
The " district of Louisiana " encompassed all Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 33rd parallel , the present @-@ day border of the states of Arkansas and Louisiana . South of the parallel , the more densely populated " territory of Orleans " was separately administered , largely under civil law .
The [ D ] istrict of Louisiana was governed by Indiana Territory . One Kansas Territory source , recounting Kansas history up to 1855 , states that Kansas , as part of the district of Louisiana , was not only administered by but also " annexed to " Indiana Territory . Whether a temporary act can effect an annexation may depend on its actual duration , and most sources have declined to call Indiana Territory administration an annexation or even to use " annexed to " language . Less persuasively , maps generally fail to reflect the de jure common governance of Indiana Territory and the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana by way of , say , a common color scheme and / or a dotted border .
In any event , the [ D ] istrict of Louisiana soon became part of a separately administered [ T ] erritory of Louisiana , effective July 4 , 1805 .
One of the most notable events during this period was the Treaty of St. Louis in which the Sac and Fox tribes ceded northeastern Missouri , northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin to the United States . Resentments over this treaty were to cause the tribes to side with the British during the War of 1812 in raids along the Missouri , Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and was to spur the Black Hawk War in 1832 .
= = = Politics = = =
In 1803 , Harrison began to lobby Congress to repeal Article Six of the Northwest Ordinance , which prohibited slavery in the original Northwest Territory , in order permit slavery in the Indiana Territory . He claimed legalizing slavery was necessary to make the region more appealing to settlers and ultimately make the territory economically viable . That same year Harrison had indenturing legalized by the General Court . The territory was granted representation in the United States Congress in 1805 , and pro @-@ slavery Benjamin Parke became the territory 's first representative . Parke used his position to get Congress to support Harrison 's appeal . He was able pass legislation to have Article Six suspended for ten years , and the territories covered by the ordinance were granted the ability to legalize slavery . By the same act , Congress removed the General Court 's legislative power and created a legislative council to be elected by popular vote .
Harrison 's attempts caused a significant stir among the many Quakers who had settled in the eastern part of the territory ; they responded by forming an anti @-@ slavery party . In the 1805 election , Davis Floyd of Clark County was the only anti @-@ slavery representative elected to the council . Harrison 's measures to legalize slavery were blocked by the representatives from St. Clair County , who refused to authorize slavery unless Harrison supported their request for a separate territory , which Harrison opposed . In 1809 , the St. Clair County settlers petitioned Congress for the formation of a separate territory . Despite Harrison 's disapproval , the Illinois Territory was created . The same year , Congress granted the Indiana Territory the right to elect a House of Representatives . Harrison found himself at odds with the legislature when the anti @-@ slavery party came to power in that year 's election . They promptly rebuffed many of his plans for slavery and repealed the indenturing laws he had enacted in 1803 .
The capital of the territory remained in Vincennes for thirteen years . After the territory was reorganized in 1809 and the Illinois Territory was split off , Vincennes was then on the far west edge of the Indiana Territory . Due to this , the legislature made plans to move the capital to be more centralized with the population . Madison , Jeffersonville , and Corydon competed to become the new capital . Harrison favored Corydon , a town he had founded and named , and where he owned an estate . The new capitol building was finished in 1813 and the government quickly relocated to Corydon after the outbreak of the War of 1812 for fear of an attack on Vincennes .
= = = Tecumseh 's War = = =
An Indian resistance movement against U.S. expansion had been growing around the Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa ( The Prophet ) that became known as Tecumseh 's War . Tenskwatawa convinced the native tribes that they would be protected by the Great Spirit and no harm could befall them if they would rise up against the whites . He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to only pay white traders half of what they owed , and to give up all the white man 's ways , including their clothing , whiskey , and guns . In 1810 , Tecumseh , with about 400 armed warriors , traveled to Vincennes where he confronted Harrison and demanded that the Treaty of Fort Wayne be rescinded . Although Harrison refused , the war party left peacefully , but Tecumseh was angry and threatened retaliation . After the meeting Tecumseh journeyed to meet with many of the tribes in the region , hoping to create a confederation with which to battle the Americans .
In 1811 , while Tecumseh was still away , Harrison was authorized by Secretary of War William Eustis to march against the nascent confederation , as a show of force . Harrison moved north with an army of more than one thousand men in an attempt to intimidate the Shawnee into making peace . The ploy failed , and the tribes launched a surprise attack on Harrison 's army early on the morning of November 6 . The ensuing battle became known as the Battle of Tippecanoe . Harrison ultimately won his famous victory at Prophetstown , next to the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers . Harrison was publicly hailed as a national hero , despite the fact that his troops had greatly outnumbered the Indian forces , and had suffered many more casualties . The battle earned Harrison national fame , and the nickname " Old Tippecanoe " . The victory opened up central Indiana to settlement and allowed settlers to safely venture beyond the southern periphery of the state .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The war between Tecumseh and Harrison merged with the War of 1812 when the Indian Confederation allied with the British in Canada . In May 1812 , a meeting of all the tribal leaders in the region was held in the Miami village of Mississinewa hosted by Chief Little Turtle . Most of the tribes decided to remain neutral during the conflict and rejected Tecumseh 's plans of continued rebellion . Despite their rejection , Tecumseh continued to lead his dwindling army against the Americans , and moved farther north where he could be supported by the British army . His followers who remained behind continued raiding the countryside and engaged in the Siege of Fort Harrison , which was the United States ' first land victory during the war . John Gibson served as acting Governor during the War of 1812 while Harrison was leading the army . After Harrison was replaced in June 1812 , Gibson continued as acting @-@ governor until incoming governor Thomas Posey arrived in May 1813 .
Numerous other battles that occurred in the modern state of Indiana include the Siege of Fort Wayne , the Pigeon Roost Massacre and the Battle of the Mississinewa . Most of the Native Americans remained passive throughout the war , but there were many incidents between settlers and the tribes , leading to the deaths of hundreds in the territory . The Treaty of Ghent , signed in 1814 , ended the War and relieved American settlers from their fears of the nearby British and their Indian allies .
= = = Statehood = = =
In 1812 , Jonathan Jennings defeated Harrison 's chosen candidate and became the territory 's representative to Congress . Jennings used his position there to attempt to speed up Indiana 's path to statehood by immediately introducing legislation to grant Indiana statehood , even though the population of the entire territory was under 25 @,@ 000 . Jennings did this against the wishes of incoming governor Thomas Posey , and there was noted disagreement between the two men on the subject . No action was taken on the legislation at the time , though , because of the outbreak of the War of 1812 .
Thomas Posey was appointed territorial Governor on March 3 , 1813 , and served until the state 's first Governor was sworn into office on November 7 , 1816 . Posey , who was age sixty @-@ two and in poor health , had created a rift in the politics of the territory by refusing to reside in the capital of Corydon , instead living in Jeffersonville to be closer to his doctor . He further complicated matters by being a supporter of slavery , much to the chagrin of opponents like Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and others who dominated the Territorial Legislature , and who sought to use the bid for statehood to permanently end the possibility of slavery in the state .
In February 1815 , the United States House of Representatives began debate on granting Indiana Territory statehood . In early 1816 , the Territory approved a census and Pennington was named to be the census enumerator . The population of the territory was found to be 63 @,@ 897 , above the threshold required for statehood that was stated in the Northwest Ordinance . On May 13 , 1816 , the Enabling Act was passed and the state was granted permission to form a government subject to the approval of Congress . A constitutional convention met in 1816 in Corydon . The state 's first constitution was drawn up on June 10 , and elections were held in August to fill the offices of the new state government . In November of that year the constitution was approved by Congress and the territorial government was dissolved , ending the existence of the Indiana Territory and replacing it with the State of Indiana .
= = Commemoration = =
The Indiana Territory is celebrated at an annual event in Corydon centered on the territorial capitol building . The festival includes actors in period dress who reenact events and pretend to be some of the important settlers of early Indiana . Other commemorative festivals occur in Vincennes and Madison , and the history of the period is noted on historic markers and monuments across the former territory .
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= Mary Margaret O 'Reilly =
Mary Margaret O 'Reilly ( October 14 , 1865 – December 6 , 1949 ) was an American civil servant who worked as the Assistant Director of the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1924 until 1938 . One of the United States ' highest @-@ ranking female civil servants of her time , she worked at the Mint for 34 years , during which she often served as acting director during the Mint Director 's absence .
O 'Reilly was born in Springfield , Massachusetts to an Irish immigrant family . Growing up in that state , she left school around the age of 14 to help support both her widowed mother and her siblings . Likely starting work in the local textile mills , she gained clerical training at night school before working as a clerk in Worcester for eighteen years . In 1904 , O 'Reilly gained a position at the Mint Bureau , resulting in a move to Washington , D.C. She rose rapidly in the bureau 's hierarchy – an unusual feat for a woman at that time – and was frequently called upon to testify before the United States Congress . As many of the Mint 's directors were political appointees who had little knowledge or interest in the bureau 's operations , the task of running the institution often fell to her . In 1924 she was officially appointed Assistant Director .
In 1933 , the Mint gained its first female Director , Nellie Tayloe Ross , and despite initial mistrust between her and O 'Reilly , they came to forge a strong bond . Although scheduled for mandatory retirement in 1935 , O 'Reilly was considered to be so indispensable to the bureau 's operations that U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt postponed this until 1938 . During her later years , O 'Reilly remained in Washington D.C. ; she no longer involved herself in Mint affairs , instead devoting much of her attention to Catholic charitable work .
= = Early life and career = =
Mary Margaret O 'Reilly was born in Springfield , Massachusetts , on October 14 , 1865 . Her parents , James A. and Joanna O 'Reilly , were immigrants from Ireland , and Mary was one of five children . The family lived in Springfield and nearby Chicopee , Massachusetts , where James O 'Reilly was a liquor wholesaler . He died after an illness in 1873 . As well as depriving the family of income , his death caused his family legal trouble : Austin O 'Reilly , a clerk in the now @-@ closed O 'Reilly business , tried to settle the estate by selling the remaining alcohol , but lacked a license to do so . Joanna O 'Reilly denied any knowledge of business affairs . Austin 's conviction for transporting liquor without a license was upheld by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court .
Mary left school after ninth grade , at or soon after age 14 , as her help was needed to support the family . She likely worked for one of the local textile mills , and attended night school to train as a clerk and stenographer . From 1885 to 1903 , she worked as a clerk , living in Worcester along with a brother , in a boarding house owned by their mother .
= = Mint career ( 1904 – 1938 ) = =
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
O 'Reilly was hired by the United States Bureau of the Mint as a Class D temporary clerk in 1904 , when she was 38 years old , older than most new employees . She served in the Washington , D.C. headquarters of the Bureau of the Mint , where Mint Director George E. Roberts was impressed by her business experience and competence . Initially having only temporary status , she was made a permanent employee in 1905 , and was promoted again that year to Clerk Class I at a salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 . When Margaret Kelly was commissioned Examiner of the Bureau of the Mint in 1911 , the ripple of promotions in her wake included O 'Reilly , who became adjuster of accounts . This made her in effect the chief clerk of the Mint Bureau , with responsibility for reviewing all contracts . According to Teva J. Scheer , biographer of Nellie Tayloe Ross ( O 'Reilly 's final Mint Director before retirement ) " it must have required an almost unprecedented combination of drive and intelligence for [ O 'Reilly ] to have climbed so far up through the organization in her male @-@ dominated work environment " .
During the 1910s , O 'Reilly continued to gain promotion , serving both as examiner and as computer of bullion . She was frequently called upon to testify before Congress . In 1915 , Robert W. Woolley was appointed Mint Director , and was likely O 'Reilly 's favorite of those who served in that position during her third of a century at the Mint . She often concluded memoranda with personal good wishes , and Woolley reciprocated . After Woolley resigned in August 1916 , O 'Reilly served as acting director for part of the time until Woolley 's successor Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken took office the next month , though Adjuster of the Bureau of the Mint Fred H. Chafflin held the acting position for much of the interregnum .
= = = Assistant director = = =
Most directors of the Mint of the early 20th century were political appointees , lacking previous experience with the bureau . Von Engelken during his six @-@ month term as director in 1916 and 1917 left almost all supervision of the mints and assay offices to O 'Reilly . The Mint eliminated production of proof coins , popular among collectors , in 1916 . Although the suggestion that the bureau eliminate the special coins , on which it lost money , came from Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce , and was approved by von Engelken , O 'Reilly signed many of the letters to numismatists , and thus was blamed for the change in policy .
When von Engelken resigned in February 1917 , his successor was Raymond T. Baker , who foresaw that women would hold high government positions in increasing numbers , and gave O 'Reilly a more public role . Each year , Baker appeared before Congress to defend the bureau 's appropriation requests , and O 'Reilly sat behind him . In 1920 and 1921 , Baker tried to get Congress to formally designate O 'Reilly , who then held the title of executive clerk , as Assistant Director , but without success . After the Harding administration took office , Baker was replaced in 1922 by Frank E. Scobey , one of Harding 's Ohio Gang . The new director had little interest in Mint affairs , and O 'Reilly not only supervised the bureau 's operations , but was the chief witness before Congress in 1922 , defending both the appropriation request and the continuing drive to have herself designated Assistant Director . This time , Congress was more amenable , and she gained the title effective from 1924 .
In December 1921 , a public relations crisis over the design of the new Peace dollar had erupted while Baker was on a three @-@ day trip by train to the West Coast . Anthony de Francisci , designer of the coin , had included a broken sword on the reverse , which he intended as a sign of the end of war , but which many interpreted as a symbol of disgrace . Anger at such a design resonated in a country deeply sensitive about such matters due to World War I. With Baker unreachable , O 'Reilly realized the sword would have to be removed , and approached Treasury Undersecretary Seymour Parker Gilbert , who as acting secretary approved a revised design . The Mint 's Chief Engraver , George T. Morgan , skillfully removed the sword from the already @-@ prepared coinage hubs even before Baker cabled his own approval of the revised design he had not seen .
O 'Reilly ran most Mint operations under Scobey and his successor , Robert J. Grant . Although the Mint Bureau was very busy in the booming economy of the 1920s , numismatic historian Roger Burdette points out that there were flaws in operations — for example , Philadelphia Mint officials , instead of setting aside gold coins from each batch delivered for inspecting and testing by the annual Assay Commission , took all assay coins from a bag set aside at the start of the year , increasing the likelihood that nonstandard coins would go undetected . O 'Reilly did keep a close eye on coinage operations , warning the San Francisco Mint in November 1931 that it had produced fewer than 200 @,@ 000 nickels , a figure that if allowed to stand would have resulted in the issue being hoarded by collectors . She directed the mint to strike nothing but nickels for the remainder of the year , resulting in a total mintage for the 1931 – S of 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 , still the second @-@ lowest by date and mint mark in the Buffalo nickel series .
= = = Roosevelt administration and retirement = = =
When the Democratic Roosevelt administration took office in 1933 , O 'Reilly was serving as acting director following Grant 's resignation . President Franklin Roosevelt ( FDR ) appointed former Wyoming governor Nellie Tayloe Ross as Mint Director , the first woman to hold that position . By then , O 'Reilly was 67 years old , and appeared as a small , grandmotherly figure who was dubbed " the Sweetheart of the Treasury " — an appearance that hid her mental strength and determination . Ross 's personal secretary , Edness Wilkins , described the Assistant Director of the Mint as " ruthless " .
Ross and O 'Reilly had mutual suspicions to overcome . Ross , who had recently endured poor relations with Eleanor Roosevelt and others on FDR 's campaign , did not trust the career staff . O 'Reilly saw another political appointee with no experience at the Mint Bureau replacing Grant , who had been Denver Mint superintendent before his directorship . After a brief period , the two women came to appreciate each other 's merits .
Among the issues that the Mint Bureau had to face in 1933 and 1934 was the calling @-@ in of most gold coins . When the Treasury Department issued regulations allowing such coins to be surrendered at branches of the Federal Reserve Bank , O 'Reilly sent out a memorandum over her signature as acting director noting that the Fed had no facilities to accept any gold other than bars with a government stamp . At the time , the Mint Bureau was one of the lowest @-@ status branches of the Department of the Treasury , esteemed far less than the Secret Service and other law enforcement @-@ related agencies that fell under the Treasury Secretary . Burdette points out that the gold regulations showed a lack of basic Mint knowledge both by Roosevelt 's appointees and the holdover senior officials from the Hoover administration .
Ross and O 'Reilly soon came to the usual division of labor between the director and assistant : the director would handle public affairs and make policy decisions as needed , while the assistant dealt with the day @-@ to @-@ day business of the bureau . Ross undertook a heavy travel schedule , visiting Mint facilities , making speeches backing Roosevelt , and campaigning for Democratic candidates in Wyoming . This left O 'Reilly running the Washington office as acting director . The two women carried on a businesslike but warm correspondence during these times , with O 'Reilly writing to Ross ( who had embarked on a tour of the mints ) " I am so anxious to have your mind at ease about the office here [ in Washington ] that I have resorted to rather frequent telegrams . They are so much more direct and up to date than letters ... my love to you and every good wish for the success of your visits to our beloved mint institutions . " Scheer suggests that O 'Reilly would have found Ross 's reports from the field valuable ; they showed how the Mint recovered from the initial years of the Depression , when relatively few coins were produced , to the mid @-@ 1930s , when strong demand for coinage led the bureau to run the mints with two or even three shifts .
In 1935 , O 'Reilly reached the mandatory federal retirement age of 70 . Her knowledge of bureau affairs was so extensive , and was so badly needed , that she was exempted from mandatory retirement by special order of President Roosevelt , at the request of Ross , giving O 'Reilly an extra year in the Mint Service . Although Ross supported the extension , she could not be seen as unable to do her job without O 'Reilly 's assistance , and hired Frank Leland Howard of the University of Virginia , who had a background in accounting , as O 'Reilly 's prospective replacement . Roosevelt approved a similar extension in 1936 , a distinction considered so significant that Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr. hosted a luncheon in her honor . Roosevelt again extended her federal service by one year in late 1937 , though warning that he would not exempt her again . An attempt by Morgenthau to further extend her tenure was turned down by the president the next July , and she retired on October 29 , 1938 , to be replaced by Howard .
At O 'Reilly 's request , there was no ceremony to mark her retirement , though her fellow employees chipped in to buy her a diamond @-@ encrusted watch , which they persuaded her to accept . President Roosevelt and Secretary Morgenthau sent letters of appreciation for her service . The New York Times carried word of her retirement , but no interview , and a week later editorialized that " there is modernity here , too . An answer to America 's challenge to women . It points to what women want out of life , and what women can get and give . "
= = Retirement and death = =
After her retirement , O 'Reilly continued to live in her rooms at the Hay – Adams residence in Washington . She did not involve herself in Mint affairs ; though Morgenthau sent her a few letters , they did not mention business . O 'Reilly kept busy by organizing fundraising for Catholic charities . She was not interviewed when the Mint in 1944 investigated how several 1933 double eagles , never officially released , had come onto the market , an omission Burdette finds unusual .
O 'Reilly died on December 6 , 1949 in Washington . Her New York Times obituary recalled that when she had been granted the first extension by Roosevelt , reporters had sought to interview her , only to be met with the following statement :
I am deeply grateful to the President for his extreme kindness . Life without work does not remotely interest me . But do you have to print anything about me ?
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= Big Bang =
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large @-@ scale evolution . The model accounts for the fact that the universe expanded from a very high density and high temperature state , and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena , including the abundance of light elements , the cosmic microwave background , large scale structure and Hubble 's Law . If the known laws of physics are extrapolated beyond where they have been verified , there is a singularity . Some estimates place this moment at approximately 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , which is thus considered the age of the universe . After the initial expansion , the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles , and later simple atoms . Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies .
Since Georges Lemaître first noted , in 1927 , that an expanding universe might be traced back in time to an originating single point , scientists have built on his idea of cosmic expansion . While the scientific community was once divided between supporters of two different expanding universe theories , the Big Bang and the Steady State theory , accumulated empirical evidence provides strong support for the former . In 1929 , from analysis of galactic redshifts , Edwin Hubble concluded that galaxies are drifting apart ; this is important observational evidence consistent with the hypothesis of an expanding universe . In 1965 the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered , which was crucial evidence in favor of the Big Bang model , since that theory predicted the existence of background radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered . More recently , measurements of the redshifts of supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating , an observation attributed to dark energy 's existence . The known physical laws of nature can be used to calculate the characteristics of the universe in detail back in time to an initial state of extreme density and temperature .
= = Overview = =
American astronomer Edwin Hubble observed that the distances to faraway galaxies were strongly correlated with their redshifts . This was interpreted to mean that all distant galaxies and clusters are receding away from our vantage point with an apparent velocity proportional to their distance : that is , the farther they are , the faster they move away from us , regardless of direction . Assuming the Copernican principle ( that the Earth is not the center of the universe ) , the only remaining interpretation is that all observable regions of the universe are receding from all others . Since we know that the distance between galaxies increases today , it must mean that in the past galaxies were closer together . The continuous expansion of the universe implies that the universe was denser and hotter in the past .
Large particle accelerators can replicate the conditions that prevailed after the early moments of the universe , resulting in confirmation and refinement of the details of the Big Bang model . However , these accelerators can only probe so far into high energy regimes . Consequently , the state of the universe in the earliest instants of the Big Bang expansion is still poorly understood and an area of open investigation and speculation .
The first subatomic particles to be formed included protons , neutrons , and electrons . Though simple atomic nuclei formed within the first three minutes after the Big Bang , thousands of years passed before the first electrically neutral atoms formed . The majority of atoms produced by the Big Bang were hydrogen , along with helium and traces of lithium . Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies , and the heavier elements were synthesized either within stars or during supernovae .
The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena , including the abundance of light elements , the cosmic microwave background , large scale structure , and Hubble 's Law . The framework for the Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space . The governing equations were formulated by Alexander Friedmann , and similar solutions were worked on by Willem de Sitter . Since then , astrophysicists have incorporated observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model , and its parametrization as the Lambda @-@ CDM model serves as the framework for current investigations of theoretical cosmology . The Lambda @-@ CDM model is the standard model of Big Bang cosmology , the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of various observations about the universe .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Singularity = = =
Extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past . This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity and thus , all the laws of physics . How closely this can be extrapolated toward the singularity is debated — certainly no closer than the end of the Planck epoch . This singularity is sometimes called " the Big Bang " , but the term can also refer to the early hot , dense phase itself , which can be considered the " birth " of our universe . Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background , the universe has an estimated age of 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 billion years . The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the contents of the universe .
= = = Inflation and baryogenesis = = =
The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation . In the most common models the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high energy density and huge temperatures and pressures and was very rapidly expanding and cooling . Approximately 10 − 37 seconds into the expansion , a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation , during which the universe grew exponentially . After inflation stopped , the universe consisted of a quark – gluon plasma , as well as all other elementary particles . Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds , and particle – antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions . At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number , leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons — of the order of one part in 30 million . This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present universe .
= = = Cooling = = =
The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature , hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing . Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form . After about 10 − 11 seconds , the picture becomes less speculative , since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments . At about 10 − 6 seconds , quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons . The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons . The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton – antiproton pairs ( similarly for neutrons – antineutrons ) , so a mass annihilation immediately followed , leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons , and none of their antiparticles . A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons . After these annihilations , the remaining protons , neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by photons ( with a minor contribution from neutrinos ) .
A few minutes into the expansion , when the temperature was about a billion ( one thousand million ; 109 ; SI prefix giga- ) kelvin and the density was about that of air , neutrons combined with protons to form the universe 's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis . Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei . As the universe cooled , the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation . After about 379 @,@ 000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms ( mostly hydrogen ) ; hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded . This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation . The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the universe was only 10 – 17 million years old .
= = = Structure formation = = =
Over a long period of time , the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser , forming gas clouds , stars , galaxies , and the other astronomical structures observable today . The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe . The four possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter , warm dark matter , hot dark matter , and baryonic matter . The best measurements available ( from WMAP ) show that the data is well @-@ fit by a Lambda @-@ CDM model in which dark matter is assumed to be cold ( warm dark matter is ruled out by early reionization ) , and is estimated to make up about 23 % of the matter / energy of the universe , while baryonic matter makes up about 4 @.@ 6 % . In an " extended model " which includes hot dark matter in the form of neutrinos , then if the " physical baryon density " Ωbh2 is estimated at about 0 @.@ 023 ( this is different from the ' baryon density ' Ωb expressed as a fraction of the total matter / energy density , which as noted above is about 0 @.@ 046 ) , and the corresponding cold dark matter density Ωch2 is about 0 @.@ 11 , the corresponding neutrino density Ωvh2 is estimated to be less than 0 @.@ 0062 .
= = = Cosmic acceleration = = =
Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy , which apparently permeates all of space . The observations suggest 73 % of the total energy density of today 's universe is in this form . When the universe was very young , it was likely infused with dark energy , but with less space and everything closer together , gravity predominated , and it was slowly braking the expansion . But eventually , after numerous billion years of expansion , the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the universe to slowly begin to accelerate . Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein 's field equations of general relativity , but its composition and mechanism are unknown and , more generally , the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both through observation and theoretically .
All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology , which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and Einstein 's General Relativity . There is no well @-@ supported model describing the action prior to 10 − 15 seconds or so . Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier . Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics .
= = Underlying assumptions = =
The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions : the universality of physical laws and the cosmological principle . The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic .
These ideas were initially taken as postulates , but today there are efforts to test each of them . For example , the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10 − 5 . Also , general relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the Solar System and binary stars .
If the large @-@ scale universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth , the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican principle , which states that there is no preferred ( or special ) observer or vantage point . To this end , the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10 − 5 via observations of the CMB . The universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10 % level .
= = = Expansion of space = = =
General relativity describes spacetime by a metric , which determines the distances that separate nearby points . The points , which can be galaxies , stars , or other objects , themselves are specified using a coordinate chart or " grid " that is laid down over all spacetime . The cosmological principle implies that the metric should be homogeneous and isotropic on large scales , which uniquely singles out the Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker metric ( FLRW metric ) . This metric contains a scale factor , which describes how the size of the universe changes with time . This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made , called comoving coordinates . In this coordinate system the grid expands along with the universe , and objects that are moving only because of the expansion of the universe remain at fixed points on the grid . While their coordinate distance ( comoving distance ) remains constant , the physical distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the universe .
The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe . Instead , space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points . In other words , the Big Bang is not an explosion in space , but rather an expansion of space . Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy , it applies to our universe only on large scales — local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large @-@ scale expansion of space .
= = = Horizons = = =
An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons . Since the universe has a finite age , and light travels at a finite speed , there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us . This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed . Conversely , because space is expanding , and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly , light emitted by us today may never " catch up " to very distant objects . This defines a future horizon , which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence . The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our universe . Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon , though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times . So our view cannot extend further backward in time , though the horizon recedes in space . If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate , there is a future horizon as well .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
English astronomer Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term " Big Bang " during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast . It is popularly reported that Hoyle , who favored an alternative " steady state " cosmological model , intended this to be pejorative , but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models .
= = = Development = = =
The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations . In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a " spiral nebula " ( spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies ) , and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth . He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact , and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were " island universes " outside our Milky Way . Ten years later , Alexander Friedmann , a Russian cosmologist and mathematician , derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein 's equations of general relativity , showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the static universe model advocated by Einstein at that time . In 1924 Edwin Hubble 's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies . Independently deriving Friedmann 's equations in 1927 , Georges Lemaître , a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest , proposed that the inferred recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe .
In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe , if projected back in time , meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was , until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point , a " primeval atom " where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence .
Starting in 1924 , Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators , the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder , using the 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory . This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured , mostly by Slipher . In 1929 Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity — now known as Hubble 's law . Lemaître had already shown that this was expected , given the cosmological principle .
In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state universe , and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics ; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory . This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang theory , Monsignor Georges Lemaître , was a Roman Catholic priest . Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time , viz . , that matter is eternal . A beginning in time was " repugnant " to him . Lemaître , however , thought that
If the world has begun with a single quantum , the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning at the beginning ; they would only begin to have a sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta . If this suggestion is correct , the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space and time .
During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non @-@ standard cosmologies to explain Hubble 's observations , including the Milne model , the oscillatory universe ( originally suggested by Friedmann , but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman ) and Fritz Zwicky 's tired light hypothesis .
After World War II , two distinct possibilities emerged . One was Fred Hoyle 's steady state model , whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand . In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time . The other was Lemaître 's Big Bang theory , advocated and developed by George Gamow , who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis ( BBN ) and whose associates , Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman , predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . Ironically , it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître 's theory , referring to it as " this big bang idea " during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949 . For a while , support was split between these two theories . Eventually , the observational evidence , most notably from radio source counts , began to favor Big Bang over Steady State . The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe . Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang , understanding the physics of the universe at earlier and earlier times , and reconciling observations with the basic theory .
In 1968 and 1970 Roger Penrose , Stephen Hawking , and George F. R. Ellis published papers where they showed that mathematical singularities were an inevitable initial condition of general relativistic models of the Big Bang . Then , from the 1970s to the 1990s , cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems . In 1981 Alan Guth made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang theory with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called " inflation " . Meanwhile , during these decades , two questions in observational cosmology that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant and the matter @-@ density of the universe ( before the discovery of dark energy , thought to be the key predictor for the eventual fate of the universe ) . In the mid @-@ 1990s observations of certain globular clusters appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old , which conflicted with most then @-@ current estimates of the age of the universe ( and indeed with the age measured today ) . This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations , which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds , indicated a much younger age for globular clusters . While there still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured , globular clusters are of interest to cosmology as some of the oldest objects in the universe .
Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as COBE , the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP . Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model , and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating .
= = Observational evidence = =
The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble 's law ( as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies ) , discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis . More recent evidence includes observations of galaxy formation and evolution , and the distribution of large @-@ scale cosmic structures , These are sometimes called the " four pillars " of the Big Bang theory .
Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics . Of these features , dark matter is currently subjected to the most active laboratory investigations . Remaining issues include the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter . Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists , but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible . Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models . Viable , quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought . These are currently unsolved problems in physics .
= = = Hubble 's law and the expansion of space = = =
Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted — the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths . This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light . These redshifts are uniformly isotropic , distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions . If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift , the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated . For some galaxies , it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder . When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances , a linear relationship known as Hubble 's law is observed :
v
= H0D ,
where
v is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object ,
D is the comoving distance to the object , and
H0 is Hubble 's constant , measured to be 70 @.@ 4 + 1 @.@ 3
− 1 @.@ 4 km / s / Mpc by the WMAP probe .
Hubble 's law has two possible explanations . Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies — which is untenable given the Copernican principle — or the universe is uniformly expanding everywhere . This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedmann in 1922 and Georges Lemaître in 1927 , well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations , and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann , Lemaître , Robertson , and Walker .
The theory requires the relation v =
HD to hold at all times , where D is the comoving distance , v is the recessional velocity , and v , H , and D vary as the universe expands ( hence we write H0 to denote the present @-@ day Hubble " constant " ) . For distances much smaller than the size of the observable universe , the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However , the redshift is not a true Doppler shift , but rather the result of the expansion of the universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected .
That space is undergoing metric expansion is shown by direct observational evidence of the Cosmological principle and the Copernican principle , which together with Hubble 's law have no other explanation . Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogeneous , supporting the Cosmological principle that the universe looks the same in all directions , along with much other evidence . If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us , they would not be so similar in different directions .
Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican principle , that , on a cosmological scale , the Earth is not in a central position . Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the universe . Uniform cooling of the cosmic microwave background over billions of years is explainable only if the universe is experiencing a metric expansion , and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion .
= = = Cosmic microwave background radiation = = =
In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation , an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band . Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the big @-@ bang predictions by Alpher , Herman and Gamow around 1950 . Through the 1970s the radiation was found to be approximately consistent with a black body spectrum in all directions ; this spectrum has been redshifted by the expansion of the universe , and today corresponds to approximately 2 @.@ 725 K. This tipped the balance of evidence in favor of the Big Bang model , and Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1978 .
The surface of last scattering corresponding to emission of the CMB occurs shortly after recombination , the epoch when neutral hydrogen becomes stable . Prior to this , the universe comprised a hot dense photon @-@ baryon plasma sea where photons were quickly scattered from free charged particles . Peaking at around 372 ± 14 kyr , the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent .
In 1989 NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite ( COBE ) which made two major advances : in 1990 , high @-@ precision spectrum measurements showed the CMB frequency spectrum is an almost perfect blackbody with no deviations at a level of 1 part in 104 , and measured a residual temperature of 2 @.@ 726 K ( more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2 @.@ 7255 K ) ; then in 1992 further COBE measurements discovered tiny fluctuations ( anisotropies ) in the CMB temperature across the sky , at a level of about one part in 105 . John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for their leadership in these results . During the following decade , CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground @-@ based and balloon experiments . In 2000 – 2001 several experiments , most notably BOOMERanG , found the shape of the universe to be spatially almost flat by measuring the typical angular size ( the size on the sky ) of the anisotropies .
In early 2003 the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) were released , yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters . The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models , but are consistent with the inflation theory in general . The Planck space probe was launched in May 2009 . Other ground and balloon based cosmic microwave background experiments are ongoing .
= = = Abundance of primordial elements = = =
Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium @-@ 4 , helium @-@ 3 , deuterium , and lithium @-@ 7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen . The relative abundances depend on a single parameter , the ratio of photons to baryons . This value can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations . The ratios predicted ( by mass , not by number ) are about 0 @.@ 25 for 4He / H , about 10 − 3 for 2H / H , about 10 − 4 for 3He / H and about 10 − 9 for 7Li / H.
The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon @-@ to @-@ photon ratio . The agreement is excellent for deuterium , close but formally discrepant for 4He , and off by a factor of two for 7Li ; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties . Nonetheless , the general consistency with abundances predicted by Big Bang nucleosynthesis is strong evidence for the Big Bang , as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements , and it is virtually impossible to " tune " the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20 – 30 % helium . Indeed , there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that , for example , the young universe ( i.e. , before star formation , as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products ) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He , and in constant ratios , too .
= = = Galactic evolution and distribution = = =
Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars are in agreement with the current state of the Big Bang theory . A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang , and since then larger structures have been forming , such as galaxy clusters and superclusters . Populations of stars have been aging and evolving , so that distant galaxies ( which are observed as they were in the early universe ) appear very different from nearby galaxies ( observed in a more recent state ) . Moreover , galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang . These observations are strong arguments against the steady @-@ state model . Observations of star formation , galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory .
= = = Primordial gas clouds = = =
In 2011 astronomers found what they believe to be pristine clouds of primordial gas , by analyzing absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars . Before this discovery , all other astronomical objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars . These two clouds of gas contain no elements heavier than hydrogen and deuterium . Since the clouds of gas have no heavy elements , they likely formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang , during Big Bang nucleosynthesis .
= = = Other lines of evidence = = =
The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars , both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars .
The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift . This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev – Zel 'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift . Observations have found this to be roughly true , but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time , making precise measurements difficult .
On 17 March 2014 astronomers at the Harvard @-@ Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the apparent detection of primordial gravitational waves , which , was shown to be due to galactic dust . On February 11 , 2016 , the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made first observation of gravitational waves , originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors .
= = = Future observations = = =
Future gravitational waves observatories might see primordial gravitational waves , relics of the early universe , up to less than a second of the Big Bang .
= = Problems and related issues in physics = =
As with any theory , a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang theory . Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding . Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own . For example , the horizon problem , the magnetic monopole problem , and the flatness problem are most commonly resolved with inflationary theory , but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many , including some founders of the theory , say it has been disproven . What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang theory still under intense investigation by cosmologists and astrophysicists .
= = = Baryon asymmetry = = =
It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter . It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot , it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons . However , observations suggest that the universe , including its most distant parts , is made almost entirely of matter . A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry . For baryogenesis to occur , the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied . These require that baryon number is not conserved , that C @-@ symmetry and CP @-@ symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium . All these conditions occur in the Standard Model , but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry .
= = = Dark energy = = =
Measurements of the redshift – magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age . To explain this acceleration , general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure , dubbed " dark energy " . Dark energy , though speculative , solves numerous problems . Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is very nearly spatially flat , and therefore according to general relativity the universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass / energy . But the mass density of the universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering , and is found to have only about 30 % of the critical density . Since theory suggests that dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the " missing " energy density . Dark energy also helps to explain two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the universe , one using the frequency of gravitational lenses , and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large @-@ scale structure as a cosmic ruler .
Negative pressure is believed to be a property of vacuum energy , but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang . Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73 % dark energy , 23 % dark matter , 4 @.@ 6 % regular matter and less than 1 % neutrinos . According to theory , the energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the universe , but the dark energy density remains constant ( or nearly so ) as the universe expands . Therefore , matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the universe in the past than it does today , but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant .
The dark energy component of the universe has been explained by theorists using a variety of competing theories including Einstein 's cosmological constant but also extending to more exotic forms of quintessence or other modified gravity schemes . A cosmological constant problem sometimes called the " most embarrassing problem in physics " results from the apparent discrepancy between the measured energy density of dark energy and the one naively predicted from Planck units .
= = = Dark matter = = =
During the 1970s and 80s , various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies . This led to the idea that up to 90 % of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter . In addition , the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations . In particular , the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter . While dark matter has always been controversial , it is inferred by various observations : the anisotropies in the CMB , galaxy cluster velocity dispersions , large @-@ scale structure distributions , gravitational lensing studies , and X @-@ ray measurements of galaxy clusters .
Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter , as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories . Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed , and several projects to detect them directly are underway .
Additionally , there are outstanding problems associated with the currently favored cold dark matter model which include the dwarf galaxy problem and the cuspy halo problem . Alternative theories have been proposed that do not require a large amount of undetected matter but instead modify the laws of gravity established by Newton and Einstein , but no alternative theory as been as successful as the cold dark matter proposal in explaining all extant observations .
= = = Horizon problem = = =
The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light . In a universe of finite age this sets a limit — the particle horizon — on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact . The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard : if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering , the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky . There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature .
A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at some very early period ( before baryogenesis ) . During inflation , the universe undergoes exponential expansion , and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed , so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other 's particle horizon . The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation .
Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations , which would be magnified to cosmic scale . These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe . Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian , which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB .
If inflation occurred , exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon .
A related issue to the classic horizon problem arises because in most standard cosmological inflation models , inflation ceases well before electroweak symmetry breaking occurs , so inflation should not be able to prevent large @-@ scale discontinuities in the electroweak vacuum since distant parts of the observable universe were causally separate when the electroweak epoch ended .
= = = Magnetic monopoles = = =
The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s . Grand unified theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles . These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe , resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations , given that no monopoles have been found . This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation , which removes all point defects from the observable universe , in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness .
= = = Flatness problem = = =
The flatness problem ( also known as the oldness problem ) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker metric . The universe may have positive , negative , or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density . Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density , positive if greater , and zero at the critical density , in which case space is said to be flat . The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time , and yet the universe today remains very close to flat . Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time , 10 − 43 seconds , the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation . For instance , even at the relatively late age of a few minutes ( the time of nucleosynthesis ) , the universe density must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value , or it would not exist as it does today .
= = Ultimate fate of the universe = =
Before observations of dark energy , cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe . If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density , then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse . It would become denser and hotter again , ending with a state similar to that in which it started — a Big Crunch . Alternatively , if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density , the expansion would slow down but never stop . Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy ; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs , neutron stars , and black holes . Very gradually , collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes . The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero — a Big Freeze . Moreover , if the proton were unstable , then baryonic matter would disappear , leaving only radiation and black holes . Eventually , black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation . The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it , a scenario known as heat death .
Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us . The eventual result is not known . The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant . This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems , such as galaxies , will remain together , and they too will be subject to heat death as the universe expands and cools . Other explanations of dark energy , called phantom energy theories , suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters , stars , planets , atoms , nuclei , and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever @-@ increasing expansion in a so @-@ called Big Rip .
= = Speculations = =
While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology , it is likely to be refined . The Big Bang theory , built upon the equations of classical general relativity , indicates a singularity at the origin of cosmic time ; this infinite energy density is regarded as impossible in physics . Still , it is known that the equations are not applicable before the time when the universe cooled down to the Planck temperature , and this conclusion depends on various assumptions , of which some could never be experimentally verified . ( Also see Planck epoch . )
One proposed refinement to avoid this would @-@ be singularity is to develop a correct treatment of quantum gravity .
It is not known what could have preceded the hot dense state of the early universe or how and why it originated , though speculation abounds in the field of cosmogony .
Some proposals , each of which entails untested hypotheses , are :
Models including the Hartle – Hawking no @-@ boundary condition , in which the whole of space @-@ time is finite ; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time but without any singularity .
Big Bang lattice model , states that the universe at the moment of the Big Bang consists of an infinite lattice of fermions , which is smeared over the fundamental domain so it has rotational , translational and gauge symmetry . The symmetry is the largest symmetry possible and hence the lowest entropy of any state .
Brane cosmology models , in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory ; the pre @-@ Big Bang model ; the ekpyrotic model , in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes ; and the cyclic model , a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically . In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the universe cycles from one process to the other .
Eternal inflation , in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion , each end @-@ point leading to a bubble universe , expanding from its own big bang .
Proposals in the last two categories , see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and older universe or in a multiverse .
= = Religious and philosophical interpretations = =
As a description of the origin of the universe , the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy . As a result , it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between science and religion . Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator , and some see its mention in their holy books , while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous .
= = = Books = = =
Farrell , John ( 2005 ) . The Day Without Yesterday : Lemaitre , Einstein , and the Birth of Modern Cosmology . New York , NY : Thunder 's Mouth Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 56025 @-@ 660 @-@ 5 .
Kolb , E. ; Turner , M. ( 1988 ) . The Early Universe . Addison – Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 11604 @-@ 9 .
Peacock , J. ( 1999 ) . Cosmological Physics . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 42270 @-@ 1 .
Woolfson , M. ( 2013 ) . Time , Space , Stars and Man : The Story of Big Bang ( 2nd edition ) . World Scientific Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84816 @-@ 933 @-@ 3 .
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= Hasta la Raíz =
Hasta la Raíz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈasta la raˈis ] , " To the Root " ) is the sixth studio album by Mexican recording artist Natalia Lafourcade . It was released on March 17 , 2015 , by Sony Music Latin . After the success of her previous album , Mujer Divina , a tribute to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara , Lafourcade decided to record an album with original recordings . Lafourcade spent three years writing the songs and searching for inspiration in different cities , resulting in songs that express very personal feelings regarding love . The record was produced by Lafourcade , with the assistance of Argentinian musician Cachorro López and Mexican artist Leonel García .
Upon its release , Hasta la Raíz received favorable reviews from music critics , with some critics expressing skepticism about her songwriting and saying she had stayed within her comfort zone , and others praising her evolution as a musician and naming the album one of the best pop releases of the year . The record peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Latin Albums and number one in Mexico , where it was certified platinum , with over 60 @,@ 000 copies shipped in the country . Hasta la Raíz received a nomination for Album of the Year and won Best Alternative Music Album and Best Engineered Album at the 16th Latin Grammy Awards . The album also won Best Latin Rock , Urban or Alternative Album at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards .
To promote the album , four singles were released , and Lafourcade launched the 2015 Hasta la Raíz Tour to several Latin American countries , the United States , and Europe . The album 's first two singles , the title track and " Nunca Es Suficiente " reached the top five in Mexico .
= = Background = =
In 2010 Natalia Lafourcade joined Mexican orchestra conductor Alondra de la Parra on the musical project Travieso Carmesí , an album created as part of the Bicentennial of Mexico celebration . While conducting research to find songs for that album , Lafourcade studied Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Agustín Lara 's catalog and decided to record a tribute album with his songs . Released in 2012 , Mujer Divina earned her accolades for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Long Form Music Video at the 14th Latin Grammy Awards . Two years later , Lafourcade traveled to Veracruz ( Mexico ) , Colombia , and Cuba in a search for musical inspiration and a balance between heart , mind and body . She has said that composition of her new music for Hasta la Raíz was closely woven with the experience of singing Lara 's music .
Hasta la Raíz is Lafourcade 's sixth studio album and her first album of original material in seven years , since Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) . It was produced by Argentinean musician Cachorro López , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , and Lafourcade after another record producer became too expensive : " I could not afford a very famous producer who had his fees at exorbitant figures , I won 't say his name , so I decided to take refuge on my friends [ Cachorro and Leonel ] , doing songs with them as accomplices , and they understood " .
= = Writing and recording = =
After completing the album Hu Hu Hu ( 2009 ) Lafourcade experienced writer 's block , and felt that the songs she was writing were too similar to those in her previous albums . For her new work , she sought inspiration from Agustín Lara 's repertoire and her native country , Mexico . " One of the things I wanted to happen with this record was to find the connection with Mexico and its people again " . She said she was a Mexican and proud of the " very many " positive parts it has . Musically , she wanted more simplicity in her songs . Lafourcade forced herself to write " without judgement " , recording voice memos on her phone as part of the writing process . She was inspired by the works of Latin American songwriters such as Simón Díaz , Violeta Parra , Mercedes Sosa , Chavela Vargas , and Caetano Veloso . While recording demos , Lafourcade realized that the songs were more direct and emotional than her previous work . The writing took three years , resulting in approximately 30 songs . Since the album was about her personal life , she selected what she felt were " the strongest ones " , saying , " more than making an album , I wanted to have songs ... that could stand on their own " .
The title track , " Hasta la Raíz " , was written by Lafourcade and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Leonel García , with whom she had previously collaborated on her album Mujer Divina and on García 's album Todas Mías ( 2012 ) . García had an idea about the song ; they then wrote the music together . Laforcade referred to this collaboration as " magical " , saying the song was an anthem to human strength , and about not forgetting one 's roots . García played a huapango riff , and Lafourcade started singing along while producer Cachorro López recorded everything , and the final result is from that session .
There are two songs about falling in love , " Mi Lugar Favorito " and " Vámonos Negrito " . The former , arranged to emulate emotional outbursts , was the most difficult to finish , and the singer had a hard time trying to find the right place for it on the album . " Vámonos Negrito " is a tribute to her Latin American roots that she started writing after a show in Colombia and finished in Cuba ; in this song , one of her favorites , she tried to create a musical landscape with instruments , textures , and harmonies . The bolero " Antes de Huir " , is a " sad and hopeful " song . It is about not letting go of the things we love . " Ya No Te Puedo Querer " is , according to Lafourcade , an obscure folk @-@ pop song about finding that one cannot be in a relationship anymore ; it was written during a concert tour in Monterrey .
" Para Qué Sufrir " is a song about being all right and trusting someone . Lafourcade wrote the song in a short time but had problems with the chorus , so she asked Torreblanca 's lead singer Jose Manuel Torreblanca for help ; López did the arrangements . " Nunca es Suficiente " deals with emotions about a dysfunctional relationship and wanting something more . It was composed by Lafourcade and Daniela Azpiazu and was intended to be performed by Mexican artist Paulina Rubio , since both Lafourcade and Azpiazu wanted to write songs for other artists . However , upon finishing it , they decided to keep the song to themselves and use it either for Aziapizu 's project María Daniela y su Sonido Lasser or Lafourcade 's album . According to Beverly Bryan of The Village Voice , the song resembles Belle and Sebastian 's The Life Pursuit " in its treatment of Sixties @-@ era pop inspirations " . Mariano Prunes of AllMusic compared the track to the work of Spanish singer Jeanette on the song " Porque Te Vas " . Lafourcade decided upon the album 's title between the songs " Hasta la Raíz " and " Palomas Blancas " ; the latter was written in Las Vegas , during her trip to the Grammy Awards . It is a love story filled with metaphors about her love for Mexico , connection with the universe , and self @-@ preservation . The song had the most modified arrangement , being made with few chords .
In order to create a balance in the tracklist , Lafourcade wrote " Te Quiero Ver " as a " simple song " about wanting to be with someone . The track was co @-@ written by Marian Ruzzi , and was inspired by the music of the 1970s , including a chorus with answering voices , emulating musical theatre . The lyrics for " Lo Que Construimos " , deals with the decision to leave someone and going separate ways . " Estoy Lista " is a ballad about being ready to be well , and Lafourcade worked on the track in her spare time , taking a year to finish it . The last track , " No Más Llorar " , was written during a family reunion with her father and sister in Chile . Lafourcade wrote it about a love that could not be , her mourning and search for stability , forgiveness , and healing . In live performances , the singer dedicates the track to Mexico , to send hope through her music and help people deal with situations such as the Iguala mass kidnapping . " I feel that nowadays is really important that we acknowledge the social part . We must look inward and work , see which aspects we can address to deliver something more positive to the world " .
Regarding the musical arrangements , Lafourcade explained , " I felt that the arrangements had to function as the perfect embrace to the songs ... since each song had its own distinct personality . So it was like creating the ideal musical surroundings . I 'm very visual with music , so I always try to create atmospheres , panoramas , and images . Kind of like creating photographs through music " . She stated to Venue Magazine that the album sequence was selected to create a cycle , to have a beginning and an ending . Lissette Corsa of MTV Iggy said that the songs are " crafted as expansive , cinematic soundscapes that lend themselves to the mood of each song " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Hasta la Raíz received positive reactions from music critics . Beverly Bryan of The Village Voice stated that the album " casts a spell with deep feeling , and melodies and lyrics that linger in the mind . Elegantly adorned with subtle strings and velvety production , it has the kind of warmth people are always saying they can hear on old vinyl records " . Bryan also predicted that this release would be recognized in the future as the singer 's " most profound and enduring statement " . In another positive review , Natalia Cano of the magazine Rolling Stone Mexico , referred to the album as " fresh and honest pop , a reflection of her musical maturity " , reiterating that the album " continues to place her as one of the most important composer and performer of Latin America . " AllMusic 's Mariano Prunes gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars ranking , and on his review stated that " these are extremely well @-@ written songs in the spirit of the great Latin America romantic tradition of which Lara was a founding father , but infused with a contemporary perspective " . Luis Romero of the website Coffee and Saturday said that the album is one of the best pop releases of the year , praising Lafourcade 's evolution as a musician , but was critical of Lafourcade for not having extended " her comfort zone " , since it is too early in her career to become settled in one type of music , " and the proof is that the best album tracks are those where she is helped by Leonel García , Torreblanca and María Daniela " . An editor from Televisa Espectáculos wrote a mixed review , commenting that the album has to be listened to twice to " fall in love with at least one song " , comparing positively the title track with Lafourcade 's work on her previous album ( Mujer Divina ) and the songs " Mi Lugar Favorito " and " Te Quiero Ver " with her album Hu Hu Hu , creating a " mix of sounds " on which Lafourcade shows all the things she learned after working with Agustín Lara 's catalog . Lissette Corsa , of MTV Iggy , stated that " despite moments of darkness and heartfelt sadness , Hasta la Raiz bristles with a sense of adventure and optimism " , and noted the influence of Chilean songwriter Violeta Parra in the track " Vámonos Negrito " , as part of Lafourcade 's " eclectic artistry " . Corsa also noted that the singer " drew from Joni Mitchell , Charles Bradley , and Amy Winehouse " .
The album earned the accolades for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Engineered Album , and was nominated for Album of the Year , at the 16th Annual Latin Grammy Awards . About the nominations , Lafourcade said to the newspaper Al Día , " I am very grateful to the people because this album has allowed me to reach them in a closer way , create a complicity ... I feel very happy and with high expectations , regardless of whether we get the Latin Grammy or not " . Billboard columnist Leila Cobo , while reviewing the nominees for the Latin Grammy Award for Album of the Year , stated that this is a " breakthrough album " for the singer , since she is going " beyond her alt roots into commercial territory but with finesse and guts that stay close to her origins " . Hasta la Raíz won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Rock , Urban or Alternative Album . The album ranked at number @-@ one in the list for the " 10 Best Albums of 2015 in Mexico " by newspaper El País ; according to the reviewer Luis Pablo Beauregard , it is an album " naked and raw , where the lyrics and fragility of her voice draw the footprint of heartbreak " . The American edition of Rolling Stone magazine placed Hasta la Raíz at number 3 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Albums of the Year " , arguing that " the loftiness of the album 's ambitions are tempered by Lafourcade 's masterful songwriting , which remains as deft as a Mesut Özil cross pass " . The editors of Billboard magazine ranked the album at number 2 in the list for the " 10 Best Latin Albums of 2015 " , stating that the singer " manages to be retro and futuristic at the same time ... the sound is so unexpected , that coupled with Lafourcade ’ s sweet vocals , it 's arresting " . Website AllMusic included the album on their list for the " Best of 2015 : Favorite Latin and World Albums " , explaining that Lafourcade " delivers an intimate , poignant , quietly powerful collection of heartbreak songs on this gem of an album " .
= = Singles = =
The title track , " Hasta la Raíz " , was released as the lead single on January 14 , 2015 . It peaked at number 5 in Mexico 's Monitor Latino Pop Chart and number 17 in the U.S. Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and won Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Alternative Song at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 . The music video was directed by Alonso Ruizpalacios , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , gathering 300 fans who responded to an ad published in social networks . " Nunca Es Suficiente " was released as a promo single on January 21 , 2015 . The music video was released on March 23 , 2015 , and was directed by Martín Bautista , and features actors Diana Lein , Gustavo Sánchez Parra and Tenoch Huerta . The video presents two couples during different stages of a love relationship . " Nunca Es Suficiente " peaked at number 4 in the Monitor Latino Pop Chart in Mexico . The track " Lo Que Construimos " was selected as the third single , with its music video also directed by Ruizpalacios and premiering on September 13 , 2015 . On December 10 , 2015 was announced that the track " Mi Lugar Favorito " was the fourth single from the album .
= = Commercial reception = =
In the United States , the album was available on March 17 , 2015 , as a digital download only and debuted at number 12 in the Billboard Latin Albums chart , selling 1 @,@ 000 digital units . On April 14 , the album was available on Amazon on Demand and on September 25 , 2015 , a physical CD was released . Following Lafourcade 's performance at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 , sales of the album increased 176 % and re @-@ entered the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart at number 7 , almost matching its initial peak ( number 6 ) . The album re @-@ entered the Latin Albums chart in the week of January 23 , 2016 , to achieve its highest peak at number 8 and also reached a highest position in the Latin Pop Album chart , at number 5 . In the week of April 16 , 2016 , reached a peak of number 4 at the Latin Pop Album Chart . In Mexico , Hasta la Raíz peaked at number one in the Top 100 Mexico chart and was certified platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas for the shipment of 60 @,@ 000 copies . Hasta la Raíz peaked at number 73 in the Spanish Album Chart and 82 in the Italian Album Charts , spending one week on both record charts .
= = Track listing = =
= = Tour = =
Lafourcade launched a promotional tour throughout Mexico and only performed at theaters that were at least 100 years old . The Village Voice , reporting on an interview with Lafourcade , noted , " There are enough such grand old structures in her country to make this possible " , although according to Lafourcade , " some of them are better maintained than others . " The " Hasta la Raíz Tour " opened in Tijuana on April 18 , 2015 , and also visited several cities in the United States such as San Francisco , Washington , D.C. , and New York City . In Hollywood , Lafourcade participated on the Latin Grammy Acoustic Sessions at the Fonda Theatre . A few dates in Argentina , Chile , Italy , and Spain were announced ; however , her record label , Sony Music , announced that due to illness the performance in Spain , set for June , would be canceled . In September , Lafourcade performed at " Festival DCODE 2015 " in Madrid , Spain . The singer also visited Colombia on October 1 , 2015 , performing at Bogotá 's Royal Center . On November 4 , 2015 , Lafourcade fulfilled a long @-@ held dream of performing for the first time at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City . " I 've been here with Julieta Venegas , and someone reminded me that I opened for Juanes a few years ago . When I was 13 years old , I ran away from home with my best friend to come to the Auditorio Nacional to see Christina Aguilera , and I wanted to be on stage , longing to have this opportunity . After many years of work , this became a reality . " To further promote the album , Lafourcade became the first Mexican female singer @-@ songwriter to record an acoustic session for the music streaming service Spotify . Titled Spotify Sessions , the live EP includes six tracks from Hasta la Raíz ( " Para Qué Sufrir " , the title track , " Nunca Es Suficiente " , " Ya No Te Puedo Querer " , " Palomas Blancas " , and " No Más Llorar " ) and a cover version of Rafael Hernández 's " Silencio " . Lafourcade performed " Hasta la Raíz " at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2015 . Lafourcade also presented the tour in a sold @-@ out show held at the Teatro Cariola in Santiago de Chile , Chile on November 25 , 2015 .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Album certification = = =
= = Release history = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Hasta la Raíz album liner notes .
= = = Performance credits by song = = =
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
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= Nebraska Highway 250 =
Nebraska Highway 250 ( N @-@ 250 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . Its southern terminus is at N @-@ 2 , east of Ellsworth . N @-@ 250 does not intersect any state maintained road , until it reaches its northern terminus at U.S. Highway 20 ( US 20 ) in Rushville . The route was designated in 1960 , and was extended south in 1996 .
= = Route description = =
All of the route is in Sheridan County . N @-@ 250 starts at N @-@ 2 , south of Lakeside . The road shortly crosses a railroad owned by BNSF Railway and enters Lakeside . N @-@ 250 shifts west slightly , and bends around a lake . The route travels north , through sand hills , and passing by small lakes and ponds . East of Thompson Lake , N @-@ 250 intersects the 304th Trail , a road that connects to other lakes . Fifteen miles ( 24 km ) later , the road 298th Trail , which connects the Twin Lakes to the highway . A few miles later , the highway passes the Smith Lake State Wildlife Management Area , and crosses over the Niobrara River later . N @-@ 250 soon straightens out , and travels north for 26 miles ( 42 km ) . The road enters Rushville as Chamberlain Street . It enters downtown , and ends at US 20 . In 2012 , the Nebraska Department of Roads ( NDOR ) calculated as many as 305 vehicles traveling on N @-@ 250 near Rushville , and as few as 90 vehicles traveling north of Lakeside . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year .
= = History = =
A metal @-@ surfaced road from US 20 in Rushville to north of the Niobrara River was constructed between 1940 and 1948 . It was extended south to north of Cravath Lake by 1953 . The road was removed from the highway system map in 1957 , and was re @-@ added in 1960 , as N @-@ 250 . A narrow road was extended from N @-@ 250 to N @-@ 2 around 1981 – 82 , but it was not part of N @-@ 250 until 1996 . The routing has not changed significantly since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sheridan County .
|
= Americium =
Americium is a radioactive transuranic chemical element with symbol Am and atomic number 95 . This member of the actinide series is located in the periodic table under the lanthanide element europium , and thus by analogy was named after the Americas .
Americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley , California , at the metallurgical laboratory of University of Chicago . Although it is the third element in the transuranic series , it was discovered fourth , after the heavier curium . The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945 . Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of americium . It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors , as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges . Several unusual applications , such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion , have been proposed for the isotope 242mAm , but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer .
Americium is a relatively soft radioactive metal with silvery appearance . Its common isotopes are 241Am and 243Am . In chemical compounds , americium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 , especially in solutions . Several other oxidation states are known , which range from + 2 to + 8 and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra . The crystal lattice of solid americium and its compounds contain small instrinsic radiogenic defects , due to metamicitization induced by self @-@ irradiation with alpha particles , which accumulates with time ; this can cause a drift of some material properties over time , more noticeable in older samples .
= = History = =
Although americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments , it was first intentionally synthesized , isolated and identified in late autumn 1944 , at the University of California , Berkeley , by Glenn T. Seaborg , Leon O. Morgan , Ralph A. James , and Albert Ghiorso . They used a 60 @-@ inch cyclotron at the University of California , Berkeley . The element was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( now Argonne National Laboratory ) of the University of Chicago . Following the lighter neptunium , plutonium , and heavier curium , americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered . At the time , the periodic table had been restructured by Seaborg to its present layout , containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one . This led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium ; it was thus by analogy named after the Americas : " The name americium ( after the Americas ) and the symbol Am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rare @-@ earth series , analogous to europium , Eu , of the lanthanide series . "
The new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex , multi @-@ step process . First plutonium @-@ 239 nitrate ( 239PuNO3 ) solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0 @.@ 5 cm2 area , the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide ( PuO2 ) by annealing . After cyclotron irradiation , the coating was dissolved with nitric acid , and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution . The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid . Further separation was carried out by ion exchange , yielding a certain isotope of curium . The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the Berkeley group as pandemonium ( from Greek for all demons or hell ) and delirium ( from Latin for madness ) .
Initial experiments yielded four americium isotopes : 241Am , 242Am , 239Am and 238Am . Americium @-@ 241 was directly obtained from plutonium upon absorption of one neutron . It decays by emission of a α @-@ particle to 237Np ; the half @-@ life of this decay was first determined as 510 ± 20 years but then corrected to 432 @.@ 2 years .
<formula>
The times are half @-@ lives
The second isotope 242Am was produced upon neutron bombardment of the already @-@ created 241Am . Upon rapid β @-@ decay , 242Am converts into the isotope of curium 242Cm ( which had been discovered previously ) . The half @-@ life of this decay was initially determined at 17 hours , which was close to the presently accepted value of 16 @.@ 02 h .
<formula>
The discovery of americium and curium in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project ; the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945 . Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children Quiz Kids five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on 11 November 1945 , when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war . After the discovery of americium isotopes 241Am and 242Am , their production and compounds were patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor . The initial americium samples weighed a few micrograms ; they were barely visible and were identified by their radioactivity . The first substantial amounts of metallic americium weighing 40 – 200 micrograms were not prepared until 1951 by reduction of americium ( III ) fluoride with barium metal in high vacuum at 1100 ° C.
= = Occurrence = =
The longest @-@ lived and most common isotopes of americium , 241Am and 243Am , have half @-@ lives of 432 @.@ 2 and 7 @,@ 370 years , respectively . Therefore , any primordial americium ( americium that was present on Earth during its formation ) should have decayed by now .
Existing americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980 , as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents , such as the Chernobyl disaster . For example , the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb , Ivy Mike , ( 1 November 1952 , Enewetak Atoll ) , revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium ; but due to military secrecy , this result was published only until later in 1956 . Trinitite , the glassy residue left on the desert floor near Alamogordo , New Mexico , after the plutonium @-@ based Trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 July 1945 , contains traces of americium @-@ 241 . Elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a US Boeing B @-@ 52 bomber aircraft , which carried four hydrogen bombs , in 1968 in Greenland .
In other regions , the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 0 @.@ 01 picocuries / g ( 0 @.@ 37 mBq / g ) . Atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles . Soil analysis revealed about 1 @,@ 900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores ; an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils .
Americium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities , for research purposes . A tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of various americium isotopes , mostly 241Am and 243Am . Their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal , and therefore americium , together with other long @-@ lived actinides , must be neutralized . The associated procedure may involve several steps , where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short @-@ lived nuclides . This procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation , but it is still being developed for americium . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .
= = Synthesis and extraction = =
= = = Isotope nucleosyntheses = = =
Americium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades , and kilograms of its 241Am and 243Am isotopes have been accumulated by now . Nevertheless , since it was first offered for sale in 1962 , its price , about 1 @,@ 500 USD per gram of 241Am , remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure . The heavier isotope 243Am is produced in much smaller amounts ; it is thus more difficult to separate , resulting in a higher cost of the order 100 @,@ 000 – 160 @,@ 000 USD / g .
Americium is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from the plutonium isotope 239Pu . The latter needs to be produced first , according to the following nuclear process :
<formula>
The capture of two neutrons by 239Pu ( a so @-@ called ( n , γ ) reaction ) , followed by a β @-@ decay , results in 241Am :
<formula>
The plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12 % of 241Pu . Because it spontaneously converts to 241Am , 241Pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further 241Am . However , this process is rather slow : half of the original amount of 241Pu decays to 241Am after about 15 years , and the 241Am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years .
The obtained 241Am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor . In a light water reactor ( LWR ) , 79 % of 241Am converts to 242Am and 10 % to its nuclear isomer 242mAm :
79 % : <formula>
10 % : <formula>
Americium @-@ 242 has a half @-@ life of only 16 hours , which makes its further up @-@ conversion to 243Am , extremely inefficient . The latter isotope is produced instead in a process where 239Pu captures four neutrons under high neutron flux :
<formula>
= = = Metal generation = = =
Most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes in oxide forms , from which isotopes of americium can be separated . In a typical procedure , the spent reactor fuel ( e.g. MOX fuel ) is dissolved in nitric acid , and the bulk of uranium and plutonium is removed using a PUREX @-@ type extraction ( Plutonium – URanium EXtraction ) with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon . The lanthanides and remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue ( raffinate ) by a diamide @-@ based extraction , to give , after stripping , a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides . Americium compounds are then selectively extracted using multi @-@ step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent . A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium . For example , a 2003 EU @-@ funded project codenamed " EUROPART " studied triazines and other compounds as potential extraction agents . A bis @-@ triazinyl bipyridine complex was proposed in 2009 as such a reagent is highly selective to americium ( and curium ) . Separation of americium from the highly similar curium can be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone , at elevated temperatures . Both Am and Cm are mostly present in solutions in the + 3 valence state ; whereas curium remains unchanged , americium oxidizes to soluble Am ( IV ) complexes which can be washed away .
Metallic americium is obtained by reduction from its compounds . Americium ( III ) fluoride was first used for this purpose . The reaction was conducted using elemental barium as reducing agent in a water- and oxygen @-@ free environment inside an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten .
<formula>
An alternative is the reduction of americium dioxide by metallic lanthanum or thorium :
<formula>
= = Physical properties = =
In the periodic table , americium is located to the right of plutonium , to the left of curium , and below the lanthanide europium , with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties . Americium is a highly radioactive element . When freshly prepared , it has a silvery @-@ white metallic lustre , but then slowly tarnishes in air . With a density of 12 g / cm3 , americium is less dense than both curium ( 13 @.@ 52 g / cm3 ) and plutonium ( 19 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) ; but has a higher density than europium ( 5 @.@ 264 g / cm3 ) — mostly because of its higher atomic mass . Americium is relatively soft and easily deformable and has a significantly lower bulk modulus than the actinides before it : Th , Pa , U , Np and Pu . Its melting point of 1173 ° C is significantly higher than that of plutonium ( 639 ° C ) and europium ( 826 ° C ) , but lower than for curium ( 1340 ° C ) .
At ambient conditions , americium is present in its most stable α form which has a hexagonal crystal symmetry , and a space group P63 / mmc with lattice parameters a |
= 346 @.@ 8 pm and c =
1124 pm , and four atoms per unit cell . The crystal consists of a double @-@ hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α @-@ lanthanum and several actinides such as α @-@ curium . The crystal structure of americium changes with pressure and temperature . When compressed at room temperature to 5 GPa , α @-@ Am transforms to the β modification , which has a face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) symmetry , space group Fm3m and lattice constant a = 489 pm . This fcc structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence ABC . Upon further compression to 23 GPa , americium transforms to an orthorhombic γ @-@ Am structure similar to that of α @-@ uranium . There are no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa , except for an appearance of a monoclinic phase at pressures between 10 and 15 GPa . There is no consistency on the status of this phase in the literature , which also sometimes lists the α , β and γ phases as I , II and III . The β @-@ γ transition is accompanied by a 6 % decrease in the crystal volume ; although theory also predicts a significant volume change for the α @-@ β transition , it is not observed experimentally . The pressure of the α @-@ β transition decreases with increasing temperature , and when α @-@ americium is heated at ambient pressure , at 770 ° C it changes into an fcc phase which is different from β @-@ Am , and at 1075 ° C it converts to a body @-@ centered cubic structure . The pressure @-@ temperature phase diagram of americium is thus rather similar to those of lanthanum , praseodymium and neodymium .
As with many other actinides , self @-@ damage of the crystal lattice due to alpha @-@ particle irradiation is intrinsic to americium . It is especially noticeable at low temperatures , where the mobility of the produced lattice defects is relatively low , by broadening of X @-@ ray diffraction peaks . This effect makes somewhat uncertain the temperature of americium and some of its properties , such as electrical resistivity . So for americium @-@ 241 , the resistivity at 4 @.@ 2 K increases with time from about 2 µOhm · cm to 10 µOhm · cm after 40 hours , and saturates at about 16 µOhm · cm after 140 hours . This effect is less pronounced at room temperature , due to annihilation of radiation defects ; also heating to room temperature the sample which was kept for hours at low temperatures restores its resistivity . In fresh samples , the resistivity gradually increases with temperature from about 2 µOhm · cm at liquid helium to 69 µOhm · cm at room temperature ; this behavior is similar to that of neptunium , uranium , thorium and protactinium , but is different from plutonium and curium which show a rapid rise up to 60 K followed by saturation . The room temperature value for americium is lower than that of neptunium , plutonium and curium , but higher than for uranium , thorium and protactinium .
Americium is paramagnetic in a wide temperature range , from that of liquid helium , to room temperature and above . This behavior is markedly different from that of its neighbor curium which exhibits antiferromagnetic transition at 52 K. The thermal expansion coefficient of americium is slightly anisotropic and amounts to ( 7 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 2 ) × 10 − 6 / ° C along the shorter a axis and ( 6 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 4 ) × 10 − 6 / ° C for the longer c hexagonal axis . The enthalpy of dissolution of americium metal in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is − 620 @.@ 6 ± 1 @.@ 3 kJ / mol , from which the standard enthalpy change of formation ( ΔfH ° ) of aqueous Am3 + ion is − 621 @.@ 2 ± 2 @.@ 0 kJ / mol − 1 . The standard potential Am3 + / Am0 is − 2 @.@ 08 ± 0 @.@ 01 V.
= = Chemical properties = =
Americium readily reacts with oxygen and dissolves well in acids . The most common oxidation state for americium is + 3 , in which americium compounds are rather stable against oxidation and reduction . In this sense , americium is chemically similar to most lanthanides . The trivalent americium forms insoluble fluoride , oxalate , iodate , hydroxide , phosphate and other salts . Other oxidation states have been observed between + 2 and + 7 , which is the widest range among the actinide elements . Their color in aqueous solutions varies as follows : Am3 + ( colorless to yellow @-@ reddish ) , Am4 + ( yellow @-@ reddish ) , AmVO +
2 ; ( yellow ) , AmVIO2 +
2 ( brown ) and AmVIIO5 −
6 ( dark green ) . All oxidation states have their characteristic optical absorption spectra , with a few sharp peaks in the visible and mid @-@ infrared regions , and the position and intensity of these peaks can be converted into the concentrations of the corresponding oxidation states . For example , Am ( III ) has two sharp peaks at 504 and 811 nm , Am ( V ) at 514 and 715 nm , and Am ( VI ) at 666 and 992 nm .
Americium compounds with oxidation state + 4 and higher are strong oxidizing agents , comparable in strength to the permanganate ion ( MnO −
4 ) in acidic solutions . Whereas the Am4 + ions are unstable in solutions and readily convert to Am3 + , the + 4 oxidation state occurs well in solids , such as americium dioxide ( AmO2 ) and americium ( IV ) fluoride ( AmF4 ) .
All pentavalent and hexavalent americium compounds are complex salts such as KAmO2F2 , Li3AmO4 and Li6AmO6 , Ba3AmO6 , AmO2F2 . These high oxidation states Am ( IV ) , Am ( V ) and Am ( VI ) can be prepared from Am ( III ) by oxidation with ammonium persulfate in dilute nitric acid , with silver ( I ) oxide in perchloric acid , or with ozone or sodium persulfate in sodium carbonate solutions . The pentavalent oxidation state of americium was first observed in 1951 . It is present in aqueous solution in the form of AmO +
2 ions ( acidic ) or AmO −
3 ions ( alkaline ) which are however unstable and subject to several rapid disproportionation reactions :
<formula>
<formula>
= = Chemical compounds = =
= = = Oxygen compounds = = =
Three americium oxides are known , with the oxidation states + 2 ( AmO ) , + 3 ( Am2O3 ) and + 4 ( AmO2 ) . Americium ( II ) oxide was prepared in minute amounts and has not been characterized in details . Americium ( III ) oxide is a red @-@ brown solid with a melting point of 2205 ° C. Americium ( IV ) oxide is the main form of solid americium which is used in nearly all its applications . As most other actinide dioxides , it is a black solid with a cubic ( fluorite ) crystal structure .
The oxalate of americium ( III ) , vacuum dried at room temperature , has the chemical formula Am2 ( C2O4 ) 3 · 7H2O . Upon heating in vacuum , it loses water at 240 ° C and starts decomposing into AmO2 at 300 ° C , the decomposition completes at about 470 ° C. The initial oxalate dissolves in nitric acid with the maximum solubility of 0 @.@ 25 g / L.
= = = Halides = = =
Halides of americium are known for the oxidation states + 2 , + 3 and + 4 , where the + 3 is most stable , especially in solutions .
Reduction of Am ( III ) compounds with sodium amalgam yields Am ( II ) salts – the black halides AmCl2 , AmBr2 and AmI2 . They are very sensitive to oxygen and oxidize in water , releasing hydrogen and converting back to the Am ( III ) state . Specific lattice constants are :
Orthorhombic AmCl2 : a |
= 896 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 8 pm , b =
757 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 8 pm and c
= 453 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 6 pm
Tetragonal AmBr2 : a =
1159 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 4 and c |
= 712 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 3 pm . They can also be prepared by reacting metallic americium with an appropriate mercury halide HgX2 , where X =
Cl , Br or I :
<formula>
Americium ( III ) fluoride ( AmF3 ) is poorly soluble and precipitates upon reaction of Am3 + and fluoride ions in weak acidic solutions :
<formula>
The tetravalent americium ( IV ) fluoride ( AmF4 ) is obtained by reacting solid americium ( III ) fluoride with molecular fluorine :
<formula>
Another known form of solid tetravalent americium chloride is KAmF5 . Tetravalent americium has also been observed in the aqueous phase . For this purpose , black Am ( OH ) 4 was dissolved in 15 @-@ M NH3F with the americium concentration of 0 @.@ 01 M. The resulting reddish solution had a characteristic optical absorption spectrum which is similar to that of AmF4 but differed from other oxidation states of americium . Heating the Am ( IV ) solution to 90 ° C did not result in its disproportionation or reduction , however a slow reduction was observed to Am ( III ) and assigned to self @-@ irradiation of americium by alpha particles .
Most americium ( III ) halides form hexagonal crystals with slight variation of the color and exact structure between the halogens . So , chloride ( AmCl3 ) is reddish and has a structure isotypic to uranium ( III ) chloride ( space group P63 / m ) and the melting point of 715 ° C. The fluoride is isotypic to LaF3 ( space group P63 / mmc ) and the iodide to BiI3 ( space group R3 ) . The bromide is an exception with the orthorhombic PuBr3 @-@ type structure and space group Cmcm . Crystals of americium hexahydrate ( AmCl3 · 6H2O ) can be prepared by dissolving americium dioxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating the liquid . Those crystals are hygroscopic and have yellow @-@ reddish color and a monoclinic crystal structure .
Oxyhalides of americium in the form AmVIO2X2 , AmVO2X , AmIVOX2 and AmIIIOX can be obtained by reacting the corresponding americium halide with oxygen or Sb2O3 , and AmOCl can also be produced by vapor phase hydrolysis :
<formula>
= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =
The known chalcogenides of americium include the sulfide AmS2 , selenides AmSe2 and Am3Se4 , and tellurides Am2Te3 and AmTe2 . The pnictides of americium ( 243Am ) of the AmX type are known for the elements phosphorus , arsenic , antimony and bismuth . They crystallize in the rock @-@ salt lattice .
= = = Silicides and borides = = =
Americium monosilicide ( AmSi ) and " disilicide " ( nominally AmSix with : 1 @.@ 87 < x < 2 @.@ 0 ) were obtained by reduction of americium ( III ) fluoride with elementary silicon in vacuum at 1050 ° C ( AmSi ) and 1150 − 1200 ° C ( AmSix ) . AmSi is a black solid isomorphic with LaSi , it has an orthorhombic crystal symmetry . AmSix has a bright silvery lustre and a tetragonal crystal lattice ( space group I41 / amd ) , it is isomorphic with PuSi2 and ThSi2 . Borides of americium include AmB4 and AmB6 . The tetraboride can be obtained by heating an oxide or halide of americium with magnesium diboride in vacuum or inert atmosphere .
= = = Organoamericium compounds = = =
Analogous to uranocene , americium forms the organometallic compound amerocene with two cyclooctatetraene ligands , with the chemical formula ( η8 @-@ C8H8 ) 2Am . It also makes the trigonal tricyclopentadienylamericium [ ( η5 @-@ C5H5 ) 3Am ) ] complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings surrounding one atom of americium .
Formation of the complexes of the type Am ( n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP ) 3 , where BTP stands for 2 @,@ 6 @-@ di ( 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ triazin @-@ 3 @-@ yl ) pyridine , in solutions containing n @-@ C3H7 @-@ BTP and Am3 + ions has been confirmed by EXAFS . Some of these BTP @-@ type complexes selectively interact with americium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides .
= = Biological aspects = =
Americium is an artificial element of recent origin , and thus does not have a biological requirement . It is harmful to life . It has been proposed to use bacteria for removal of americium and other heavy metals from rivers and streams . Thus , Enterobacteriaceae of the genus Citrobacter precipitate americium ions from aqueous solutions , binding them into a metal @-@ phosphate complex at their cell walls . Several studies have been reported on the biosorption and bioaccumulation of americium by bacteria and fungi .
= = Fission = =
The isotope 242mAm ( half @-@ life 141 years ) has the largest cross sections for absorption of thermal neutrons ( 5 @,@ 700 barns ) , that results in a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction . The critical mass for a bare 242mAm sphere is about 9 – 14 kg ( the uncertainty results from insufficient knowledge of its material properties ) . It can be lowered to 3 – 5 kg with a metal reflector and should become even smaller with a water reflector . Such small critical mass is favorable for portable nuclear weapons , but those based on 242mAm are not known yet , probably because of its scarcity and high price . The critical masses of two other readily available isotopes , 241Am and 243Am , are relatively high – 57 @.@ 6 to 75 @.@ 6 kg for 241Am and 209 kg for 243Am . Scarcity and high price yet hinder application of americium as a nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors .
There are proposals of very compact 10 @-@ kW high @-@ flux reactors using as little as 20 grams of 242mAm . Such low @-@ power reactors would be relatively safe to use as neutron sources for radiation therapy in hospitals .
= = Isotopes = =
About 19 isotopes and 8 nuclear isomers are known for americium . There are two long @-@ lived alpha @-@ emitters , 241Am and 243Am with half @-@ lives of 432 @.@ 2 and 7 @,@ 370 years , respectively , and the nuclear isomer 242m1Am has a long half @-@ life of 141 years . The half @-@ lives of other isotopes and isomers range from 0 @.@ 64 microseconds for 245m1Am to 50 @.@ 8 hours for 240Am . As with most other actinides , the isotopes of americium with odd number of neutrons have relatively high rate of nuclear fission and low critical mass .
Americium @-@ 241 decays to 237Np emitting alpha particles of 5 different energies , mostly at 5 @.@ 486 MeV ( 85 @.@ 2 % ) and 5 @.@ 443 MeV ( 12 @.@ 8 % ) . Because many of the resulting states are metastable , they also emit gamma rays with the discrete energies between 26 @.@ 3 and 158 @.@ 5 keV .
Americium @-@ 242 is a short @-@ lived isotope with a half @-@ life of 16 @.@ 02 h . It mostly ( 82 @.@ 7 % ) converts by β @-@ decay to 242Cm , but also by electron capture to 242Pu ( 17 @.@ 3 % ) . Both 242Cm and 242Pu transform via nearly the same decay chain through 238Pu down to 234U .
Nearly all ( 99 @.@ 541 % ) of 242m1Am decays by internal conversion to 242Am and the remaining 0 @.@ 459 % by α @-@ decay to 238Np . The latter breaks down to 238Pu and then to 234U .
Americium @-@ 243 transforms by α @-@ emission into 239Np , which converts by β @-@ decay to 239Pu , and the 239Pu changes into 235U by emitting an α @-@ particle .
= = Applications = =
= = = Ionization @-@ type smoke detector = = =
Americium is the only synthetic element to have found its way into the household , where the most common type of smoke detector uses 241Am in the form of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing radiation . This isotope is preferred over 226Ra because it emits 5 times more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation . Element collector Theodore Gray mentions in his book The Elements : A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe " You might think that a synthetic radioactive element that follows plutonium ( 94 ) — and has a significantly shorter half @-@ life — would be some kind of superbomb material , available only to scientists in secret laboratories . Perhaps a mad scientist is studying americium in a lair somewhere , but if you want some yourself you can simply walk into any neighborhood hardware store , supermarket , or Wal @-@ Mart and buy some , no questions asked . " He also adds " The reason is not that americium is fundamentally less dangerous than the elements around it . In fact , the commonly available isotope , 241Am , is significantly more radioactive than weapons @-@ grade plutonium , and at least as toxic . No , the difference is simply that there is a useful application for americium that requires only a very tiny amount , and for which a company was prepared to go through the effort required to carve out and get a regulatory exception . " The amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is 1 microcurie ( 37 kBq ) or 0 @.@ 29 microgram . This amount declines slowly as the americium decays into neptunium @-@ 237 , a different transuranic element with a much longer half @-@ life ( about 2 @.@ 14 million years ) . With its half @-@ life of 432 @.@ 2 years , the americium in a smoke detector includes about 3 % neptunium after 19 years , and about 5 % after 32 years . The radiation passes through an ionization chamber , an air @-@ filled space between two electrodes , and permits a small , constant current between the electrodes . Any smoke that enters the chamber absorbs the alpha particles , which reduces the ionization and affects this current , triggering the alarm . Compared to the alternative optical smoke detector , the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering ; however , it is more prone to false alarms .
= = = Radionuclide = = =
As 241Am has a roughly similar half @-@ life to 238Pu ( 432 @.@ 2 years vs. 87 years ) , it has been proposed as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators , for example in spacecraft . Although americium produces less heat and electricity – the power yield is 114 @.@ 7 mW / g for 241Am and 6 @.@ 31 mW / g for 243Am ( cf . 390 mW / g for 238Pu ) – and its radiation poses more threat to humans owing to neutron emission , the European Space Agency is considering using americium for its space probes .
Another proposed space @-@ related application of americium is a fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion . It relies on the very high rate of nuclear fission of 242mAm , which can be maintained even in a micrometer @-@ thick foil . Small thickness avoids the problem of self @-@ absorption of emitted radiation . This problem is pertinent to uranium or plutonium rods , in which only surface layers provide alpha @-@ particles . The fission products of 242mAm can either directly propel the spaceship or they can heat up a thrusting gas ; they can also transfer their energy to a fluid and generate electricity through a magnetohydrodynamic generator .
One more proposal which utilizes the high nuclear fission rate of 242mAm is a nuclear battery . Its design relies not on the energy of the emitted by americium alpha particles , but on their charge , that is the americium acts as the self @-@ sustaining " cathode " . A single 3 @.@ 2 kg 242mAm charge of such battery could provide about 140 kW of power over a period of 80 days . With all the potential benefits , the current applications of 242mAm are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer .
= = = Neutron source = = =
The oxide of 241Am pressed with beryllium is an efficient neutron source . Here americium acts as the alpha source , and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large cross @-@ section for the ( α , n ) nuclear reaction :
<formula>
<formula>
The most widespread use of 241AmBe neutron sources is a neutron probe – a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil , as well as moisture / density for quality control in highway construction . 241Am neutron sources are also used in well logging applications , as well as in neutron radiography , tomography and other radiochemical investigations .
= = = Production of other elements = = =
Americium is a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides – for example , 82 @.@ 7 % of 242Am decays to 242Cm and 17 @.@ 3 % to 242Pu . In the nuclear reactor , 242Am is also up @-@ converted by neutron capture to 243Am and 244Am , which transforms by β @-@ decay to 244Cm :
<formula>
Irradiation of 241Am by 12C or 22Ne ions yields the isotopes 247Es ( einsteinium ) or 260Db ( dubnium ) , respectively . Furthermore , the element berkelium ( 243Bk isotope ) had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding 241Am with alpha particles , in 1949 , by the same Berkeley group , using the same 60 @-@ inch cyclotron . Similarly , nobelium was produced at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research , Dubna , Russia , in 1965 in several reactions , one of which included irradiation of 243Am with 15N ions . Besides , one of the synthesis reactions for lawrencium , discovered by scientists at Berkeley and Dubna , included bombardment of 243Am with 18O .
= = = Spectrometer = = =
Americium @-@ 241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses . The 59 @.@ 5409 keV gamma ray emissions from 241Am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X @-@ ray fluorescence spectroscopy , as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers . For example , the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass . Americium @-@ 241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma @-@ ray spectrometers in the low @-@ energy range , since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum ( at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity ) . Americium @-@ 241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function . This medical application is however obsolete .
= = Health concerns = =
As a highly radioactive element , americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements . Although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials , many of the daughter products emit gamma @-@ rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth .
If consumed , most of the americium is excreted within a few days , with only 0 @.@ 05 % absorbed in the blood , of which roughly 45 % goes to the liver and 45 % to the bones , and the remaining 10 % is excreted . The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age . In the bones , americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time . The biological half @-@ life of 241Am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver , whereas in the gonads ( testicles and ovaries ) it remains permanently ; in all these organs , americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity .
Americium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors . The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions . In 1994 , 17 @-@ year @-@ old David Hahn extracted the americium from about 100 smoke detectors in an attempt to build a breeder nuclear reactor . There have been a few cases of exposure to americium , the worst case being that of chemical operations technician Harold McCluskey , who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium @-@ 241 as a result of an explosion in his lab . McCluskey died at the age of 75 of unrelated pre @-@ existing disease .
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= Peter ( Fringe ) =
" Peter " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 36th episode overall .
Considered a keystone episode of the series , " Peter " is a flashback episode , told as Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) reveals to Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) that his son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is really the Peter of the parallel universe . Walter explains the events that occurred in 1985 that led to this , and the impact it had on the parallel universe to be at war with the prime one .
The episode 's story was written by Akiva Goldsman , J. H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , and Josh Singer . Its teleplay was written by Pinkner , Wyman , and Singer . David Straiton directed the episode . It was guest star Orla Brady 's first appearance as Walter 's wife Elizabeth .
" Peter " first aired in the United States on April 1 , 2010 . An estimated 5 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , giving it a 2 @.@ 2 rating share among those 18 – 49 . The episode received almost overwhelmingly positive reviews , with numerous critics considering it to be the best Fringe episode to date . Actor John Noble was lauded for his performance , and " Peter " topped many " best of television " lists for the year . It was ranked the best episode of the entire series by IGN and Den of Geek and the second best by Entertainment Weekly .
= = Plot = =
The introduction scene follows from " Jacksonville " , where Olivia ( Anna Torv ) has discovered , through her Cortexiphan @-@ induced abilities , that Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is from the parallel universe , and Walter ( John Noble ) takes her aside to tell her how this came to pass , shown to the viewer in an extended flashback .
In 1985 , Walter and William Bell had theorized the existence of a parallel universe , and created a window @-@ like device to observe it . Though they use their observations for military benefits , Walter has a more personal interest in the parallel universe , to seek a cure for a genetic disease crippling his son Peter ( Quinn Lord ) . " Walternate " , Walter 's doppelganger in the other universe , is also seeking a similar cure , his Peter suffering from the same disease .
The prime universe 's Peter succumbs to his illness and dies , and Walter and his wife Elizabeth ( Orla Brady ) mourn their loss , supported by Walter and William 's friend , Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) and Walter 's lab assistant , Carla Warren ( Jenni Blong ) . Walter , through his window , shows Elizabeth the other Peter , and asserts they should be happy knowing another Peter exists . Later , Walter watches Walternate explore other cures . Walternate is distracted by the arrival of an Observer , September ( Michael Cerveris ) , and fails to see the telltale color change indicating a cure . Walter is able to recreate and stabilize Walternate 's cure , and then decides to use untested equipment to cross over to give the cure to Peter . Carla tries to stop Walter , knowing the technology could damage the fabric of space @-@ time , and contacts Nina for help . Separately , September informs his fellow Observers that he may have made a mistake and assures them he will correct it .
Walter sets up his equipment on the frozen ice of Reiden Lake , near a cabin where Elizabeth and Peter are staying ; Walter theorizes the frozen waters will buffer the effects of the crossing . Carla arrives with Nina , and both try to talk him out of it . When Walter realizes William is not with them , he takes this as an implicit sign of William 's consent to his plan , and activates the portal . Nina attempts to tackle Walter as he steps through , but instead part of her arm disappears in the portal as it closes ; Carla rushes her to the hospital .
In the parallel universe , Walter finds the cure vial shattered when Nina tackled him and he devises a new plan : to bring Peter back , administer a new batch of the cure , and return him . Meeting the parallel universe 's Elizabeth , he explains he is taking Peter back to the lab for some tests . As Walter walks Peter back across the lake to the portal , Peter realizes that Walter is not his real father . They cross through the portal safely , but the ice has weakened and both fall through , losing consciousness . Walter wakes to find September driving him and Peter back to Walter 's lab . September warns that " the boy must live " , and leaves Walter to drive the rest of the way . At the lab , as Peter receives the cure , Carla informs him that William will see to replacing Nina 's arm . Elizabeth arrives unannounced , and is overjoyed to see Peter , even though it is not her child . At that point , Walter realizes he will never be able to make himself return Peter to his proper universe--the pain of losing their child for the second time would be too great .
In the show 's conclusion in the present day , Walter tells Olivia that his crossing is what caused the crack between the two universes , including the Pattern on their side , and leading to the oncoming " storm " that William warned Olivia about .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by supervising producer Josh Singer and co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman , based on a story by Singer , Wyman , Pinkner , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . House M.D. veteran David Straiton served as episode director .
Fringe began casting for an actress to play Walter 's wife Elizabeth in November 2009 . In their report , they were looking for a woman roughly forty years old who was described as being " strong ( yet broken ) , intelligent , attractive , likable , lovely and extremely versatile " . In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly announced Irish actress Orla Brady had been cast as Elizabeth Bishop , a possible recurring character . Some critics questioned the casting , as they considered Brady to be too young and were unsure if she would appear in the present or a flashback sequence .
" Peter " was set in 1985 , with a much younger Walter and Peter Bishop , and also features an appearance by Walter 's wife Elizabeth . Actor John Noble used material he had created since the airing of the pilot , which he explained was his sense of " what was this man like before he deteriorated . " The production crew tried different methods with the actor to create a younger Walter , such as changes to his hair , make @-@ up , and wardrobe ; they ultimately decided on using " tabs " to keep the wrinkles in his face back . He did not wear a wig , but the crew did add parts to the front and back . When asked what preparation went into playing a younger Walter , Noble explained :
" Quite a lot , but in the sense in my preparation to find the Walter that we all know now , I had to go back to him right at the beginning to see where he came from . So that process was started before the pilot really , what was this man like before he deteriorated , so I was able to revisit that . Physically , of course , what I had to do was capture the energy , to capture the physicality of the man , the vocal physicality of the man , this was my task . I was aided enormously by my hair and makeup and special effects people here in terms of getting the overall , and indeed wardrobe helped a lot as well . And then we , the shot up through these beautiful lenses that we got a different feel to the episode than we would now . All of those elements work together ... to create this version that you see in the episode . "
The episode was shot through special lenses to make it more reminiscent of the decade . At Peter 's funeral , actress Blair Brown wanted her character Nina Sharp to wear sunglasses , because she thought Nina would not share her emotions at the funeral . Unlike Noble , Brown wore a wig . The scenes at Reiden Lake were actually shot on a parking lot , and the crew placed a covering over it to simulate the cracks normally on a lake .
To reflect the episode 's setting in 1985 , the typical title credit sequence was redone using different music , the Asimov font for early computer type for the show 's logo , and terms that were " fringe science " at the time , such as " virtual reality , " " genetic engineering , " and " personal computing " . Pinkner later recalled , " One of our writers said off @-@ handedly that if we ’ re doing a show from 1985 , shouldn ’ t we do a credit sequence from 1985 , and literally , we pounced on it " . He and Wyman asked J. J. Abrams , who wrote the original credit sequence melody , to write a 1980s version ; Abrams was " very , very happy to do that , " according to Wyman .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox and Science Olympiad released a lesson plan for grade school children based upon the science depicted in " Peter " ; the lesson 's intention was for " students [ to ] learn about the challenges of effectively communicating scientific principles and concepts , especially via non @-@ verbal methods . "
= = Cultural references = =
In viewing the parallel universe through the window , Walter and others witness a zeppelin docking at the Empire State Building , which was originally part of the building 's purpose until it was shown to be impractical . In a scene that takes place in the parallel universe , the Observers are seen leaving a theater having watched Back to the Future starring Eric Stoltz ; in reality , Eric Stoltz was originally cast in the role of Marty after Michael J. Fox was unavailable , but after filming for several weeks , Stoltz was replaced by Fox .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its first broadcast , " Peter " was watched an estimated 5 @.@ 8 million viewers , achieving a 3 @.@ 6 share in all households and 2 @.@ 2 share of viewers between 18 and 49 . In a Thursday night that had rating slumps from all the network shows , " Peter " was down 15 percent from the previous episode " Jacksonville " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Peter " received widespread critical acclaim . As described by Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times , " ' Peter ' is exactly what Fringe needs to be " for the show to distinguish itself from others like The X @-@ Files , in that it teased hints of the episode 's reveal in earlier shows , and followed through by revealing the truth , leaving the viewer wanting to know even more . Ramsey Isler of IGN considered " Peter " " the most masterfully crafted episode Fringe has ever had " , praising the performance of Noble and Brady in delivering the emotion needed for the episode . Tim Grierson of New York Magazine also praised the emotional performance of John Noble , calling it his " showcase " and one where " he didn ’ t disappoint " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray considered the episode one of the best of 2010 up to that point , and that " the show came back with a sense of purpose and surety it ’ s rarely had , even at its best " .
Since its airing and continuation into Season 3 , " Peter " has been considered a keystone episode for the series . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly called " Peter " the episode " when Fringe crossed over from fitfully great to just plain great " , and continues to maintain that quality throughout 2010 . Time 's James Poniewozik ranked " Peter " as the 5th best television episode of 2010 , stating that it both " fleshed out its mythology " and " deepened the emotional backstory " , and further praised Noble 's acting in the episode . The A.V. Club ranked Fringe the 15th best show of 2010 , highlighting " Peter " as an episode that " finally dramatized the moment that changed [ Peter 's ] life , giving the series ’ overarching storyline a devastating emotional core , based in a father ’ s love instead of in theoretical concept " . The Futon Critic ranked " Peter " as the 9th best episode of 2010 , calling it a " series defining episode that not only rationalized what appeared to be the unforgiveable but also raised the stakes on everything we had come to expect from the show thus far " .
Similarly , BuddyTV rated it the seventh best episode of 2010 , praising it for " open [ ing ] the door to the show ’ s brilliant use of the alternate universe , " and calling Noble 's acting " one of the best performances on TV " . SFX ranked " Peter " among the twenty things they love about the series , calling it " the lynchpin episode on which all of Fringe rests . " Executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , and co @-@ creator J. J. Abrams later said that " Peter " was one of their favorite episodes . In a 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked the episode as the best of the entire series .
As one result of the high praise and fan appreciation for " Peter " , a future episode , " Subject 13 " ( originally named " 6 Months Later " ) in Fringe 's third season aired on February 25 , 2011 . It returned to the events within " Peter " but told from the perspective of the parallel universe , including the impact of Peter 's abduction on both Walter and Elizabeth . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Peter " the second best episode of the series , explaining that it " stands as a model for mythological storytelling that any sci @-@ fi / fantasy series would be wise to emulate . " In January 2013 , IGN ranked the episode as the best of the series :
The quintessential episode of Fringe lore , ' Peter ' gave us a flawless peek at the past , and the events that caused all this universe @-@ clashing mess in the first place . The episode was marked by a pitch @-@ perfect pace , excellent " youthenizing " special effects , and a story that plays your heartstrings like an expert bard plucking out a tearful tune on a lyre . This episode brought us so many answers to the major questions of the series ... This was Fringe at its best .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Writers J.H. Wyman , Jeff Pinkner , Josh Singer , and Akiva Goldsman submitted " Peter " for consideration in the Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . At the 2011 Young Artist Awards , Quinn Lord received a nomination for Best Performance in a TV Series under the category " Guest Starring Young Actor Ten and Under " .
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= Theory of Literature =
Theory of Literature is a book on literary scholarship by René Wellek , of the structuralist Prague school , and Austin Warren , a self @-@ described " old New Critic " . The two met at the University of Iowa in the late 1930s , and by 1940 had begun writing the book ; they wrote collaboratively , in a single voice over a period of three years . Its contents were based on their shared understandings of literature .
Originally consisting of twenty chapters – one was cut in later editions – Theory of Literature describes various aspects of literary theory , criticism , and history . After defining various aspects and relationships of literature in general , Wellek and Warren divide analysis of literature based on two approaches : extrinsic , relating to factors outside a work such as the author and society , and intrinsic , relating to factors within such as rhythm and meter . They stress the need to focus on the intrinsic elements of a work as the best way to truly understand it . In doing so they adapt the phenomenology used by Roman Ingarden .
Published by Harcourt , Brace , and Company in December 1948 , Theory of Literature received mixed reviews from the academic community . It was used to teach literary theory beginning soon after publication and remained in common use into the 1960s . Its success has been credited as introducing European literary scholarship into the US and crystallizing a movement towards intrinsic literary criticism . Theory of Literature saw three editions and has been translated into more than twenty languages .
= = Background = =
René Wellek ( 1903 – 1995 ) was an Austrian @-@ born scholar from the structuralist Prague school of linguistics , studying under Vilém Mathesius . Wellek had training in classical literature and was fluent in several European languages , both Romance and Slavic . His theoretical training included the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl , as used in Roman Ingarden 's work , and the psychologically influenced linguistics of Karl Bühler . After Nazi Germany occupied Prague in 1939 , Wellek fled London – where he had been teaching – for the United States , teaching at the University of Iowa under Norman Foerster .
There Wellek met Austin Warren ( 1899 – 1986 ) , an American literary scholar who considered himself an " old New Critic " . He had written extensively on literary criticism and was raised in , but later saw several limitations to , the New Humanist views promoted by Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More . Wellek and Warren were soon in agreement over several aspects of literature , and by 1940 they had begun considering collaboration on a book . Over the next several years they furthered their understandings of European and American literature theory through discussions with Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , and extensive reading of contemporary European writings .
= = Writing = =
Owing to several academic commitments , work on Theory of Literature did not begin until 1945 , after Wellek and Warren received a stipend from the Rockefeller Foundation over a period of two summers . Wellek and Warren began dividing their responsibilities , at first evenly , but with more work done by Wellek as Warren dealt with the illness , and later loss , of his wife Eleanor in 1946 . During this period of writing Wellek transferred to Yale University ( 1946 ) and Warren to the University of Michigan ( 1948 ) , but collaboration continued .
The title , according to Wellek and Warren , was " more than ordinarily difficult " to choose . Some titles , such as Theory of Literature and Methodology of Literary Study , were dismissed as too cumbersome . However , in a 1950 review for The Antioch Review , the literary scholar Herbert S. Benjamin wrote that a better title would have been Theory of the Methodology of the Literary Study ; he considered the book lacking the theory implied by the chosen title .
The original publication of Theory of Literature consists of twenty chapters set in five sections based on thematic similarities ; one chapter and section was removed in later editions . Wellek contributed thirteen of the book 's chapters , while Warren wrote six ; the final chapter was written collaboratively . Although most of the chapters are credited as the work of one man , the two often copyedited and proofread each other 's work , at times inserting entire sentences or paragraphs . Each also suggested further references that the other could use in expanding his chapter .
In their writing Wellek and Warren attempted to present a single voice despite the dominance of individuals . Their success in presenting such a voice has been debated . Wellek later recalled that people often told him it was difficult to tell who had written which chapter without consulting the book 's introduction . However , the literary scholar C. J. van Rees of Tilburg University notes that Wellek 's influences are prevalent in chapters authored by Warren . Aldo Scaglione , in a review of the second edition , wrote that " one immediately senses the change of hand " between chapters by different authors .
= = Contents = =
= = = Section 1 : Definitions and Distinctions . = = =
The first section , entitled Definitions and Distinctions , consists of five chapters and details how Wellek and Warren define literature . This section also contrasts Wellek and Warren 's definition with those of others , such views of literature as everything in print and as only belles @-@ lettres ( accepted literary canon ) . They define literary scholarship as beyond the personal ( " super @-@ personal " ) and contrasted with the literary arts by its more scientific approach . Wellek and Warren suggest that neither a purely objective nor a purely subjective approach would be able to properly describe literature . They note that literary scholarship should not only examine what makes a work or author unique , but also its general characteristics that allow it to be compared to other works .
Wellek and Warren limit their definition of literature to pieces of " imaginative literature " , which can gain artistic merit from their coherence and complexity . The language in literary works is contrasted from scientific and other language by the use of connotative ( non @-@ literal ) language and expressive content . Studies of literature must be literary and systematic , treating literature as literature and not part of another field . Wellek and Warren discuss several proposed functions of literature , beginning with Horace 's proclamation that literature must be " sweet and useful " ( dulce et utile ; have a coalescing aesthetic and functional role ) , and extending to literature as a substitute for travel and experience , a vehicle for truth or persuasion , to relieve or incite emotion , or as something without a function . They ultimately describe the main function of literature as being loyal to its own nature .
They call for a systematic and integrated study of literature , uniting literary theory , which outlines the basic principles of literature ; criticism , which critiques individual works ; and history , which outlines the development of literature . Although these aspects have clear distinctions , they are in a dialectical relationship and should not be separated ; for example , a theory of literature is impossible without referring to works of literature . They reject Historicist approaches to literary history , which they find reduce literary history to " a series of discrete and hence finally incomprehensible fragments " and emphasize the author 's intent too greatly . Instead , Wellek and Warren argue that a work must be seen from the point of view of both its own period and all subsequent periods , as a work 's historical meaning is derived from " the history of its criticism by its many readers in many ages . " Criticism should not be limited to classical and medieval literature , but also include works by living authors .
Wellek and Warren describe the term comparative literature as " troublesome " , noting that it has been used for the study of oral literature , the study of the literatures in two or more countries , and the study of a " general " , " universal " , or " world " literature ; this last use , according to the authors , obviates issues present in the other understandings of the term . This understanding of literature as a totality can be used to trace the development of the art , unlimited by differences between languages . Within this comparative literature other supernational literatures , which may be based on language families and schools , are also apparent . There are also national literatures which , although possibly of the same language , will still have thematic differentiations . These are also worthy of study .
= = = Section 2 : Preliminary Operations = = =
This section consists of a single chapter regarding the treatment , classification , annotation , and other aspects of working with manuscripts and related documentation . Wellek and Warren describe tasks such as authenticating manuscripts and establishing an author and date as important ones without which " critical analysis and historical understanding would be hopelessly handicapped " ; however , these tasks should be preliminary to the " ultimate task of scholarship " , analysis , and not a goal in themselves . Wellek and Warren note the importance of identifying forgeries , a task which can be completed in numerous ways : paleography , bibliography , linguistics , and history may all be involved . These forgeries may spark further investigation and literary debates which can result in a better understanding of the period , the writer , or the writer 's oevre .
The authors identify two levels of operations when dealing with manuscripts : the assembly and preparation of the materials , and the establishment of aspects such as chronology and authorship . At the first level one must locate and identify materials to study , be they written , printed , or oral ; such a task may be difficult and depend on factors outside literature in its completion . Written and printed works must then be edited for readability ; this task , which requires " lucky guesswork " , entails deciphering illegible parts in the material , classifying it , and identifying possible changes made by scribes ( and thus bringing the material closer to its " author 's own " ) . Meanwhile , the second level may require greater initiative from the one studying a work ; it involves , among other things , selection of what should be published , how it is best arranged in a collection , the establishment of chronology and authorship through internal and external evidence , and the provision of proper annotation and commentary .
= = = Section 3 : The Extrinsic Approach to the Study of Literature = = =
The third section consists of five chapters discussing various elements extrinsic to works of literature , such as biography , psychology , social milieu , ideas , and other arts ; this is opposed to elements intrinsic to a work , which are explored in Section 4 . They write that research into extrinsic elements often results in an attempt to establish some causality between the extrinsic elements and a work . Although " [ n ] obody can deny that much light has been thrown on literature by a proper knowledge of the conditions under which it has been produced " , such studies " can never dispose of problems of description , analysis , and evaluation of an object such as a work of literary art . "
Wellek and Warren describe three views of a biographical approach , of which only one – the biographical aspects relating to the production of a work – can be of use ; this use , however , is limited . They reject the views that works accurately reflect the author 's life or that the author 's life must be understood in order to understand a particular work . According to Wellek and Warren , works may indeed reflect the author 's experiences , but they may also reflect an author 's hopes and dreams , or literary tradition and convention , and as such are " not a document for biography " . Likewise , an understanding of personal style ( what makes a work " Miltonic " , " Keatsian " , " Shakespearean " , or " Virgilian " ) does not rely on knowledge of the author 's life . They conclude that " it seems dangerous to ascribe to [ biography ] any real critical importance " , and that such approaches , if undertaken at all , should be done with a " sense " of the distinctions outlined above .
Wellek and Warren consider analysis of characters the only legitimate application of psychological analysis in literary study . Such an analysis , however , they find lacking on its own merits : individual characters do not fit psychological theories of the time they are written . Works which are true to certain psychological theories , meanwhile , are not necessarily better . Thus , they question the value of looking for psychological " truth " in how a work is presented . Additionally they outline and critique psychological theories that have been used to analyze authors and the creative process .
Wellek and Warren write that literature is ultimately a social institution as several aspects of it are created or influenced through social conventions and norms . They reject a more specific understanding of social realities in literature . An author , for example , is a social being , raised and shaped by society and is in a dialectic relationship with the audience : the audience provides recognition and an income , and the author shapes audiences ' tastes and behavior . Intrinsic elements of the work , and indeed the " realization of certain aesthetic values " , can reflect contemporary society and its attitudes . Literature does not , however , " correctly " reflect society or life , and may exhibit little connection . As such , " social truth " should not become an artistic value of its own right , and literature should not be thought of as a " substitute for sociology or politics " .
Wellek and Warren note arguments that literature is a form of philosophy or , alternatively , that it is devoid of such ideas . They reject extreme versions of these arguments . They write that " a knowledge of the history of philosophy and of general ideas " will be valuable for a researcher . However , they note that philosophical ideas may not have been consciously included in a work . Instead , they agree with the German scholar Rudolf Unger that " literature expresses a general attitude toward life , that poets usually answer , unsystematically , questions which are also themes of philosophy " , in a manner that differs over time . They outline attempts at classifying these ideas , including through Weltanschauung ( " world view " ) and Geistesgeschichte ( " time spirit " ) , before showing shortcomings in these systems . They then write that students of literature , an art which may ( but need not ) parallel philosophical development , should focus on how ideas enter the work . Wellek and Warren argue that a work does not necessarily become better with more philosophical content .
Wellek and Warren write that the relationship between literature and other forms of art , such as architecture , sculpture , music , or visual art , is " highly various and complex " . For example , literature may inspire the other art forms , or vice versa . A work of literature may also attempt to have the same effect as another art , through visualization , musicality , or other techniques . However , literature remains a separate art form , and effects found within are conveyed imperfectly . The emotions triggered by a work , or the intentions or theories behind it , will likewise not completely parallel those of another art form ; individual forms of art have also " evolved " differently . Instead , Wellek and Warren suggest that works of art , like literature , can only be truly understood by looking at the works of art themselves and not their extrinsic aspects . A comparison between literature and another art form , thus , is secondary to establishing " outlines of strictly literary evolution " .
= = = Section 4 : The Intrinsic Study of Literature = = =
This section , almost twice the size of the others , consists of eight chapters regarding various elements intrinsic to works of literature . Wellek and Warren write that starting an analysis from elements intrinsic to the work is " natural and sensible " , given that " only the works themselves justify all our interest " in extrinsic issues . They outline different definitions of literature , including as artifacts , sequences of sounds pronounced when reading , the experiences of the reader or author , or the " sum of all past and possible experiences " ( alternatively " the experience common to all the experiences " ) related to a work . All these understandings they find lacking . Instead they suggest that literature is a " potential cause of experiences " consisting of a system of stratified norms – implicit in the work – which can only be partially realized by the reader ; it is neither purely material , mental , nor ideal , nor is it static or bereft of value .
Wellek and Warren consider patterns of sound as inherent to the text ; these must be analyzed while keeping the meaning ( or general emotional tone ) in mind . They suggest two different aspects of sound systems : sounds in isolation , and sounds in relations with others . The sounds in isolation are used in a work establish a euphony or orchestration – a sound aesthetic which may be pleasing or harsh – while the relational aspect " may become the basis of rhythm and meter " . Regarding euphony , Wellek and Warren discuss issues of classification , rhyme , onomotopeia , and the " physiognomy " of sounds as part of orchestration . Of rhythm they explore varying definitions , applications , typology , and artistic value . They then discuss theories of meter and their shortcomings , noting that the metric foundation differs between languages and stressing that meaning should not be divorced from meter .
Language , meanwhile , they describe as " quite literally the material of the literary artist " ; although a work is influenced by language , the writer 's style , the use of communicative language , may influence language . Rather than use a work to study linguistic history , they recommend examining works through stylistics , which in literature they define as " the study of a work of art or a group of works which are to be described in terms of their aesthetic function and meaning " . Such studies can be done either as a search for a " total meaning " or a " sum of individual traits " . Ideally , such a study should " establish some unifying principle , some general aesthetic " in a work or genre , although some may be more difficult than others . As such , they reject stylistic studies which focus mainly on " peculiarities of style " or which are linked to extrinsic elements .
For other understandings of meaning , Wellek and Warren suggest a look at the sequence of image , metaphor , symbol , and myth , which they consider making up the " central poetic structure " of a work . In turns , they outline various historical definitions of the terms – which at times overlap – before writing that most of these theories have treated the sequence as " detachable parts of the works in which they appear . " This Wellek and Warren refuse , instead arguing that " the meaning and function of literature [ i ] s centrally present in metaphor and myth " . They show that the dominant form of figurative language shifts over time before overviewing two diverging typologies of metaphor , that of Henry W. Wells and Hermann Pongs . They finally discuss several aspects of " practical criticism " based on poetic language and its underlying assumptions . They reject approaches which attempt to understand the author through his or her words or which attempt to understand figurative language alone ; instead , it should be studied not in isolation but as " an element in the totality , the integrity , of the literary work " .
After reiterating their views of the relationship between reality and literature , Wellek and Warren write that narrative fiction takes place in its own " worlds " , consisting of five codeterminant elements : narrative structure , characters , setting , world @-@ view , and tone . The latter two are discussed in the following chapter . They define the narrative structure as built around a pattern of dialog and description , and various concepts related to narrative ; these include time within a work , narrative points of view and voices , major types , plot , devices , and pacing . This is followed by a discussion of characterization , involving modes , types , and typologies , then setting ( the environment in a work ) . This world can serve as a basis for analysis and judgment of a work . Although they focus on the " world " in narrative fiction , drama shares similar aspects .
Wellek and Warren consider genres as influencing " any critical and evaluative ... study " . All works of literature can be so classified , although the genres themselves are ( presumably ) not fixed . After outlining a brief history of the " ultimate " genres as understood by Aristotle ( poetry , prose , and drama ) , they show such an understanding as " scarcely promising of objective results " and overly prescriptive ; they also reject several alternative theories of genre . Instead , they suggest that genres should be understood descriptively , as based on the " outer form " ( meter , structure ) and the " inner form " ( attitude , tone , purpose ) , with the " outer form " emphasized . Wellek and Warren consider genres to be continually shifting , with good writers conforming to but ultimately expanding them .
According to Wellek and Warren , evaluation of literary work should be done based on the work 's own nature , divorced from an author 's practical or scientific intent . They reject evaluation based on extra @-@ literary content , writing instead that literature – like all fine art – will provide an " aesthetic experience " which can be judged . They note various criteria used to identify " good " literature , rejecting Russian formalism 's criterion of defamiliarization and similar understandings for one based on the diversity of materials amalgamated within a work . They reject a static hierarchy or generationalist understanding of literary greats . Instead , they suggest that every work 's rank changes when a new work is introduced and that values within are " really , or potentially , present in the art object " . They note a dialectic relationship between evaluating and critically analyzing literature . This ties genre theory to the history of literature .
Wellek and Warren – disapproving of contemporary histories of literature – opine that a history of literature is possible and should be based on elements intrinsic to works . Such a history should describe the development of " [ t ] he process of interpretation , criticism , and appreciation " or trace the development of works in small and large groups before tying it to universal literature . This " historical evolution " of related yet individual events they tie to " variable schemes of values " which must be " abstracted from history itself . " They suggest numerous ways in which this can be accomplished , including identifying the development of values , traits , forms , themes , and motifs . Periodization , they write , should not be based on chronological boundaries , but a " time section dominated by a system of literary norms , standards , and conventions , whose introduction , spread , diversification , integration , and disappearance can be traced " which must be extracted from history , with boundaries marked by both internal and external changes . They close the chapter by stating that existing methods are " clumsy " and that a new ideal and methods of literary history is necessary .
= = = Section 5 : The Academic Situation = = =
The final section of the book , removed in later editions , consists of a single chapter regarding the study of literature . Wellek and Warren bemoan that literary students are " offered no wider choice than between the ' historical method ' ... and dilettantism " , supporting instead a critically oriented literary scholarship . After finding faults with the literary scholarship in England , Germany , France , and Russia , Wellek and Warren suggest that the US is poised to start a new era in scholarship . They note that this opportunity may , however , be lost in a conflict between those advocating change and the inertia ( including persons defending the status quo ) in American literary studies and institutions .
Rather than maintain the system of having scholars specialized in certain time periods and authors , Wellek and Warren push for scholars who have mastered certain approaches and thought patterns , preferably those who are from a literary background . They also recommend " sharper distinction between the teacher and the scholar " , allowing some individuals to devote their careers to research and not teaching . They emphasize a need for fluency in several modern languages rather than an understanding of the classical ones ; this coincides with their urge to establish departments teaching comparative literature . They recommend the teaching of literary methods and theories in combination with periods and authors , with a retooling of the doctoral dissertation procedures .
= = Theoretical borrowings = =
Theory of Literature was influenced by Russian formalism , a school of thought which sought to examine literature ( or , more precisely , what formalist @-@ turned @-@ structuralist Roman Jakobson 's termed literariness ) as an autonomous body , and the American New Criticism , which likewise denied external influences . The book borrowed formalism 's concepts of an aesthetic function and dominance of different elements of language . Unlike Russian formalism , however , Wellek and Warren 's theory recognized the possibility of factors outside the work being studied , although Wellek and Warren continued to emphasize aspects within the work itself . Also unlike their forerunners , Wellek and Warren saw aesthetic value as not the defamiliarization of the mundane , but an interaction among the strata derived from Roman Ingarden 's work : the phonological ( sound ) level at the base , then semantic ( meaning ) , and the " world " created by literature . This last strata they divided into paradigms and " metaphysical qualities " , the level which a reader contemplates . They did not , however , accept Ingarden 's teachings as a whole , writing that Ingarden " analyze [ d ] the work of art without reference to values " , a system which they found untenable .
Wellek and Warren 's concept of aesthetics borrowed from the writings of Immanuel Kant , implying that a specific " aesthetic realm " was autonomous within the work and required a certain perspective to properly understand ; they emphasize this with a quote from the neo @-@ Kantian philosopher and literary critic Eliseo Vivas , that beauty is a " character of some things ... present only in the thing for those endowed with the capacity and the training through which alone it can be perceived " . Meanwhile , their depiction of a dynamic scale of values , as opposed to an anarchical one , is a reimagining of perspectivism , which Wellek and Warren define as " recogniz [ ing ] that there is one poetry , one literature , comparable in all ages , developing , changing , full of possibilities " . They explicitly denounce absolutism and relativism .
= = Publication = =
Theory of Literature was published by Harcourt , Brace , and Company in December 1948 , with a copyright notice dated 1942 , 1947 , and 1949 . Wellek notes that 1942 , often quoted as a year of publication in Europe , is in fact when his article " The Mode of Existence of a Literary Work of Art " was published in The Southern Review ; the article was reused as a chapter of Theory of Literature , leading to the inclusion of the year 1942 . Several other works by Wellek and Warren had been adapted for Theory of Literature .
Translations of Theory of Literature began soon after it was published ; by 2010 the work had been translated into more than twenty languages , including Spanish , Korean , Hebrew , and Hindi . Two new editions were issued , first in 1956 then in 1962 . These new editions included updated bibliographies and clarified points ; the last chapter , " Study of Literature in the Graduate School " , was removed beginning in the second edition as Wellek and Warren considered the reforms suggested within already accomplished in several places . By 1976 Wellek was of the opinion that the book required updating , but asked rhetorically " who can master the astonishing and bewildering literature on theory which since [ 1949 ] has been produced in many countries ? " and noted that he and Warren were busy with their own projects .
= = Reception = =
Academic reception of Theory of Literature was mixed . The philologist Helmut Hatzfeld , reviewing shortly after the book 's release , described Theory of Literature as " radical in its viewpoint , rich in ideas and bibliographical material , poised in its judgment of other approaches to literature " as well as a " landmark in literary studies . " Although Hatzfeld agreed with Wellek and Warren 's main points , he thought it lacking in references to theories and literature from the Romance languages and concrete interpretations . William Troy , writing in The Hudson Review , echoed the sentiment , stating that , although the book was " unusually difficult " to read , he felt " unqualified agreement with the main position " . He expected that the book would not succeed with " anyone ungifted from birth with some susceptibility to ... ' intrinsic ' elements " , a group which he believed comprised the majority of those teaching literature in the US . Seymour Betsky , writing in Scrutiny , praised the book 's summary and adjucation ; he wrote that it was " in its way impressive " , a " tour de force " which would " usher in a new era " . However , Betsky felt that the book lacked a " controlling purpose " and that it neglected to emphasize the need to differentiate between " the cheap commercial appeal and the genuine " literature .
Edward G. Ballard , reviewing for The Journal of Philosophy , found the treatment lacking , with major terms left undefined and much of the book providing synopses of other writers ' theories ; he conceded , however , that it convincingly showed that " the intellectual study of literature qua literature has just begun " . In The Kenyon Review , Vivas wrote that the book 's discussion of the relation between literary criticism and scholarship " leaves nothing to be desired " , providing a " well balanced " look at the major points ; he found that no other such work existed in English at the time . Vivas opined , however , that Wellek and Warren lacked a single , non @-@ contradictory theory to use as a base for their conclusions . Kemp Malone , reviewing for Linguistics , discussed three chapters on elements of literature related to linguistics . He considered these to provide " food for thought " for linguists and suggested that Wellek was well @-@ versed in linguistics for a professor of literature , despite misusing several terms common in the discipline .
Newton Arvin , writing in the Partisan Review , found Theory of Literature to excessively indulge in formalism and expressed concern that the idea of literary history may have " gone into the discard once and for all " . Benjamin found the book not something new , but a final assertion of the dominance of New Criticism in literary theory , a dominance which he considered untenable . Rather than emphasize theory , he found that Theory of Literature was " ninety @-@ nine parts a ' good offense ' against its slain and buried foes " with " exceptionally lucid and authoritative " discussions of literary problems . Scaglione opined that Theory of Literature 's plain , imprecise language had introduced numerous inconsistencies within its theoretical framework ; he also stated that the book led readers to believe they were approaching an understanding of literature without ever reaching the core essence of the subject .
Ingarden , who believed his theories the basis of Wellek and Warren 's arguments , considered himself inadequately credited and took offense with the attribution of his ideas to " pure phenomenologists " . He also stated that they had misrepresented his views . George Grabowicz , prefacing his translation of Ingarden 's The Literary Work of Art , suggested that Theory of Literature was " instrumental " in spreading Ingarden 's ideas .
= = Legacy = =
At the time of publication Wellek and Warren considered Theory of Literature unparalleled in English @-@ language publications , an attempt to unite literary theory , criticism , history , and scholarship . Although they noted a similarity to existing German and Russian works , the authors considered those earlier works " eclectic " and " doctrinaire " , respectively . Ballard writes that Theory of Literature was published during a time of increasing focus on the art of literature , rather than its underlying philosophy .
In an academic biography of Wellek , Michael Holquist of the University of Columbia writes that Theory of Literature established Wellek 's reputation as a literary scholar for the next three decades . The book proved to be Wellek 's only " book @-@ length scholarly manifesto " , a format which Holquist credits to Warren 's influence . Wellek 's other works were essays on literary theory and criticism which , even though bound in a single volume , did not provide a single coherent manifesto . Wellek would continue to use the theories contained in Theory of Literature into the late 1980s .
The book was used to teach literary theory at universities beginning not long after publication and remained dominant into the mid @-@ 1960s , at which time an increasingly heterogeneous academia questioned the universal value of literature ; literary theorist Terry Eagleton finds that , after the 1960s , " it was no longer possible to take for granted what what literature was , how to read it , or what social functions it might serve " . Steven Mailloux describes Theory of Literature as crystallizing an American movement towards intrinsic literary criticism , as dominated by New Criticism , while van Rees credits the book with popularizing a text @-@ oriented interpretation . Grabowicz writes that its importance for both American and general literary studies is " indisputable " . Writing in 1987 , Jeremy Hawthorn described the book as an " excellent introductory study " , despite extrinsic studies having become more dominant in literary criticism , while Holquist found that the book could still " be usefully invoked " in literary debates of the early 21st century . In an obituary of Wellek , Robert Thomas Jr. credited Theory of Literature with " introduc [ ing ] European scholarship to the United States " and establishing a framework for comparative literature studies in the United States .
The theoretical positions promulgated in Theory of Literature have generally been criticized by later writers . Van Rees , for example , considers Wellek and Warren 's distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of literature to be too sharply drawn , leading to the two aspects becoming binary opposites . Holquist notes that this distinction proceeds from a different understanding of literature . He writes that Wellek 's school of thought considered literature as a " unified subject " with definite boundaries which could be mastered , while more recent scholarship has rendered " [ t ] he very identity of literature as an object of study ... no longer clear . "
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= HMS Valiant ( 1863 ) =
HMS Valiant was the second ship of the Hector @-@ class armoured frigates ordered by the Royal Navy in 1861 . Her builders went bankrupt shortly after she was laid down , which significantly delayed her completion . After being launched in 1863 , she waited a further five years to receive her guns due to supply issues . Upon being commissioned in 1868 the ship was assigned as the First Reserve guard ship for Southern Ireland , where she remained until she was decommissioned in 1885 . Valiant was hulked in 1897 as part of the stoker training school HMS Indus before becoming a storeship for kite balloons during the First World War . The ship was converted to a floating oil tank in 1926 and served in that role until sold for scrap in 1956 .
= = Design and description = =
The Hector @-@ class ironclads , like their immediate predecessors , the Defence class , were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates . They were modified versions of the Defence @-@ class ships with additional armour and more powerful engines .
Valiant was 280 feet 2 inches ( 85 @.@ 4 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 56 feet 4 inches ( 17 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship was 300 long tons ( 300 t ) overweight and displaced 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms . The ships of her class were designed with a very low centre of gravity and had a metacentric height of 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) . While handy in manoeuvring , they rolled quite badly .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Valiant had one 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod steam engine made by Maudslay Sons & Field driving a single 20 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) propeller . Six boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 3 @,@ 560 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) . During sea trials on 18 September 1865 Valiant had a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 65 knots ( 23 @.@ 43 km / h ; 14 @.@ 56 mph ) . The ship carried 450 long tons ( 460 t ) of coal , enough to steam 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) at full speed .
The ship was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 24 @,@ 500 square feet ( 2 @,@ 276 m2 ) . Her funnel was semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone . She was designed to allow the ship 's propeller to be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail , but the hoisting gear was never fitted .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Hector @-@ class ships was intended to be 32 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , 15 on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck . This was modified during construction to eight rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns and twenty @-@ four 68 @-@ pounders . The breech @-@ loading guns were a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards .
Due to her extended construction time , Valiant never received the breech loaders , and was armed with sixteen 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) and two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The two 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted on the quarterdeck where they could be fought in all weathers and four 7 @-@ inch guns were also fitted on the upper deck . The remaining twelve 7 @-@ inch guns were carried on the main deck . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The Hector @-@ class ships had a wrought iron waterline armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 216 feet ( 65 @.@ 8 m ) amidships and left the bow and stern unprotected . To protect against raking fire the belt was closed off by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end at lower deck level . The armour extended to 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . The main deck was protected by a strake of armour that ran the full length of the ship . Amidships , it was 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick for a length of 216 feet and tapered to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) to the ends of the ship . The armour was backed by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of teak . The lack of armour at the stern meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable .
= = Service history = =
HMS Valiant was laid down 1 February 1861 by Westwood , Baillie in Cubitt Town . This company went bankrupt in November 1861 and was ultimately bought by Thames Ironworks , which delayed the ship 's launching until 14 October 1863 . In August 1865 , after Valiant had been towed to Portsmouth for fitting out , the ship was inspected by French officers during a port visit by ironclads of the French Navy . Production of the new muzzle @-@ loaded rifles was slow and ships already in commission had priority so Valiant was not commissioned until September 1868 , nearly five years after she was launched .
After Valiant was commissioned she became the First Reserve guard ship in Southern Ireland , where she remained until 1885 , an experience unique among the British ironclads , although she did have one break to have new boilers installed . From June to August 1878 the ship formed part of the Particular Service Squadron at the time of the Russian war scare during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , and sailed up the Dardanelles under the command of Admiral Hornby . On 20 July 1884 Valiant was accidentally rammed by the ironclad HMS Defence in Lough Swilly , damaging her hull and tearing off her boats , davits and fittings on one side of the ship . Valiant was paid off in 1885 , and saw no further front @-@ line service ; lying for thirteen years in a partially dismantled state at Devonport . In 1897 she was assigned to the HMS Indus stoker training establishment , briefly losing her name , before being renamed as Indus IV in 1904 . The ship was converted to a kite balloon storeship in 1915 , during World War I , and her name was changed to HMS Valiant III . She was offered for sale in 1922 , but there were no takers so that she was converted into a floating oil tank in 1926 and towed to Hamoaze , where she remained until 1956 . Valiant was sold in that year to Belgian ship breakers and towed to Bruges on 8 December 1956 .
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= George Macaulay =
George Gibson Macaulay ( 7 December 1897 – 13 December 1940 ) was a professional English cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for Yorkshire County Cricket Club between 1920 and 1935 . He played in eight Test matches for England from 1923 to 1933 , achieving the rare feat of taking a wicket with his first ball in Test cricket . One of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1924 , he took 1 @,@ 838 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 64 including four hat @-@ tricks .
A leading member of the Yorkshire team which achieved a high level of success in the time he played , Macaulay was a volatile character who played aggressively . He left a job at a bank to become a professional cricketer , making his first @-@ class debut aged 23 as a fast bowler . Meeting limited success , he altered style to deliver off spin in addition to his pace bowling . This proved so effective that he was chosen to play for England in Test matches . However , his perceived poor attitude towards the game , and an unsuccessful match in the 1926 Ashes probably prevented him playing more Tests . His form slumped following injuries in the late 1920s , but a recovery in the early 1930s led to a recall by England , although he broke down in his second match back . Another injury in 1934 made cricket difficult for him and his first @-@ class career ended in 1935 , although he continued playing club cricket until the Second World War . A pilot officer in the Royal Air Force , he died of pneumonia on active service in the Second World War .
= = Early life = =
Macaulay was born in Thirsk on 7 December 1897 . His father was a well @-@ known local cricketer , as were his uncles . Macaulay was educated at Barnard Castle ; in later years , he took teams of famous cricketers to play annual matches against the school eleven . Upon leaving school , he worked as a bank clerk in Wakefield ; there , and in nearby Ossett , he played cricket and football . In the First World War , Macaulay served with the Royal Field Artillery ; afterwards he returned to work for the same bank as before , initially in London , then in Herne Bay , Kent , playing club cricket in his spare time .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Yorkshire debut = = =
In 1920 , Yorkshire needed to strengthen its bowling attack . Of the team 's previously successful bowlers , Major Booth had been killed in the war , Alonzo Drake had died soon afterwards from illness , and George Hirst was past his best . Although Wilfred Rhodes was able to ease the shortfall by resuming his career as a frontline spin bowler , Yorkshire needed new bowlers , particularly pacemen . Macaulay had been spotted playing club cricket by Sir Stanley Christopherson , a former Kent player . Subsequently , Harry Hayley , a 19th @-@ century Yorkshire cricketer , saw Macaulay in action and was sufficiently impressed to recommend him for a trial with the county . At the beginning of the 1920 season , Macaulay played in two warm @-@ up games for Yorkshire , taking six wickets for 52 runs in a one @-@ day game and four for 24 and two for 19 in a two @-@ day game . This was good enough to earn a first @-@ class debut on 15 May 1920 against Derbyshire in the County Championship , although he only took one wicket . Playing in the early part of the season , he took five wickets for 50 runs , his first five wicket haul , against Gloucestershire , followed by six for 47 against Worcestershire . He continued to play until the middle of June before dropping out of the team after an unsuccessful match against Surrey . In ten first @-@ class matches , he had taken 24 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 35 , and managed a top score of just 15 with the bat . Wisden said he " had neither the pace nor the stamina required " , while it later said he tried to bowl at speeds beyond his capability . Even so , he decided to become a professional cricketer . Hirst and Rhodes persuaded him to reduce his pace and concentrate on bowling a good length while trying to spin the ball . He practised through the winter of 1920 – 21 to be ready for the next season .
Bowling a mixture of medium pace and his new style of off spin , Macaulay played 27 matches in 1921 . After taking wickets steadily at the start of the season , in his fourth game he took six wickets for ten runs as Warwickshire were bowled out for 72 . Four more wickets in the second innings gave Yorkshire a big victory and Macaulay had match figures of ten wickets for 65 runs , the first time he had taken ten wickets in a match . Macaulay then came to wider public attention by taking six wickets for three runs to bowl out Derbyshire for 23 runs . He later took ten wickets in the match against Surrey in a losing cause , and in total that season he took 101 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 33 , placing him third in the Yorkshire bowling averages . With the bat , he scored 457 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 59 , surprising commentators with his ability . This included a maiden first @-@ class century against Nottinghamshire . His innings of 125 not out took Yorkshire from 211 for seven wickets when he came in to bat ( 228 for eight soon after ) to a total of 438 for nine declared , a lead of 264 ; Yorkshire went on to a comfortable win . His overall success in the season meant that his place in the team was secure .
Macaulay improved his bowling record in 1922 , taking more wickets at a lower average ( 133 wickets at an average of 14 @.@ 67 ) , and scoring another century . Helping Yorkshire to win the first of four County Championships in a row , Macaulay finished second to Rhodes in the team 's bowling averages . The first two matches of the season brought Macaulay figures of six for eight and five for 23 in a ten wicket win over Northamptonshire and six for 12 out of an opposition total of 78 in an innings win over Glamorgan . While he took only one wicket in the second innings , his first three innings had given him 17 wickets for 43 runs . He continued to pick up wickets , but his most significant performance came in June . In front of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) members at Lord 's , he took five for 31 as Middlesex were bowled out for 138 . Those watching were impressed and he was selected for the Players against the Gentlemen at the same ground in July . He took three for 97 out of a total of 430 in one of the most important matches of the season . These performances earned his selection for the MCC tour to South Africa that winter , although there were concerns his fitness was insufficient . Statistically , Macaulay 's best performance came shortly afterwards against Gloucestershire ; he took seven for 47 and twelve wickets in the match . Macaulay also scored 486 runs at an average of 17 @.@ 35 .
= = = Test debut = = =
Macaulay played eight first @-@ class matches in South Africa in 1922 – 23 , taking 29 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 37 . His best first @-@ class performances were six for 18 against Pretoria and eight wickets in the match against Transvaal , while he was effective in minor matches , taking five for 40 against East Rand and six for 19 against Zululand . After England lost the first Test match , which Wisden attributed to a weakness in bowling , Macaulay replaced Greville Stevens and made his Test match debut for England in the second Test . He took the wicket of George Hearne with his first ball . He was the fourth player to take a wicket with his maiden delivery in Test cricket . In total , he took two for 19 in the first innings . In the second innings , South Africa were comfortably placed with a score of 157 for one , but four wickets fell to Macaulay while 13 runs were scored . Macaulay ended the innings with five wickets for 64 . Wisden commented that he bowled very finely in this match . He hit the winning run , batting at number eleven , to seal a one @-@ wicket win for England . He played in the remaining three Tests , finishing with 16 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 37 . England won the series 2 – 1 , but the Wisden correspondent for the tour was not impressed by the English performances , noting that no really effective bowlers had emerged .
With his health improved by the tour , Wisden reported that Macaulay was in excellent form for the whole of the 1923 season . His performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation praised his stamina , spin and ability to bowl on all kinds of pitches but noted that he was easily discouraged and had a negative attitude if circumstances went against him . He achieved his highest season total of wickets to date , taking 166 at an average of 13 @.@ 84 , and came third in both the Yorkshire and national bowling averages . His best performance came in the first match of the season , when he took seven wickets for 13 against Glamorgan as they were dismissed for 63 . Later in the season , he took a hat @-@ trick against Warwickshire while claiming five for 42 . With the bat , Macaulay scored 463 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 52 . There were no international matches that season , but Macaulay was selected for The Rest in a Test trial against England in which he took just one wicket .
In 1924 , Macaulay further increased his total of wickets to 190 and lowered his bowling average to 13 @.@ 23 , placing him first in the national averages . His batting declined as he scored 395 runs at an average of 11 @.@ 96 . Although selected for another Test trial , Macaulay did not play in the series against the touring South African team until the third Test at Leeds , where he took one wicket in each South African innings , but was omitted from the final two Tests . Despite his success in the season , he was not chosen to tour Australia with the MCC that winter , even though Maurice Tate , the leading bowler on the tour , lacked support . Macaulay had been involved in controversy on the field in 1924 . At the time , the Yorkshire team were notorious for their aggressive attitude while fielding . In a match against Middlesex in 1924 at Sheffield , the hostility of the crowd provoked an MCC inquiry which found that Yorkshire bowler Abe Waddington had incited the spectators . Further incidents followed against Surrey . The editor of Wisden blamed Yorkshire 's poor discipline on a small group of approximately four players . Without naming Macaulay as one of them , he noted that Lord Hawke , the Yorkshire president , believed Macaulay should have been in the team to Australia , and that " it was entirely his own fault he was not chosen " . It is also possible that during a match at this time , Macaulay openly criticised the captaincy and bowling of Arthur Gilligan , the England captain .
Since 1923 , Macaulay had run a cricket outfitters in Leeds and Wakefield with his Yorkshire team @-@ mate Herbert Sutcliffe , borrowing £ 250 from his mother to help establish the business . During the winter of 1924 – 25 , the shop became a limited company and Macaulay one of its directors . According to Sutcliffe 's biographer Alan Hill , Macaulay quickly lost interest , and the partnership was dissolved a year later , but Sutcliffe made the lone venture a success . Macaulay received £ 900 from the outfitters upon his resignation .
= = = Mid @-@ 1920s career = = =
Macaulay 's most successful season in terms of wickets was 1925 , despite a very dry summer which produced a succession of good batting pitches . He took 211 wickets at an average of 15 @.@ 48 , coming top of the Yorkshire averages . Exactly 200 of his wickets were taken for Yorkshire — only Wilfred Rhodes and George Hirst had previously reached 200 wickets for Yorkshire , and only Bob Appleyard has done so since , as of 2013 . One of Macaulay 's highest profile performances in 1925 came for Yorkshire against Sussex , who were chasing 263 to win the game . Just after lunch on the final day , the score was 223 for three wickets . A possibly apocryphal story suggests that Macaulay drank champagne in the interval . He then delivered a spell of five wickets for eight runs in 33 balls to bowl out his opponents and finish with figures of seven for 67 . He then left the field exhausted . The cricket historian Mick Pope describes the match as a " lasting testimony to [ Macaulay 's ] belief that no cause was ever lost " . Macaulay was again selected for the Players against the Gentlemen at Lord 's , and took five wickets in the match . With the bat , Macaulay scored 621 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 88 , although he only passed fifty twice .
Yorkshire 's reign as County Champions ended in 1926 , the first season since 1921 when Yorkshire did not win the Championship . Wisden noted that the Yorkshire attack , with the exception of Rhodes , was less effective than previously . Macaulay bowled less overs and took fewer wickets at a higher bowling average ; his 134 wickets , at an average of 17 @.@ 78 , placed him second in the Yorkshire averages . Selected for a Test trial , he failed to take a wicket . Wisden described his performance as " lifeless " , while cricket writer Neville Cardus noted that he had " yet again ... fallen below his best away from the Yorkshire XI " . He was not chosen for the Gentlemen v Players match , never representing the Players again .
Macaulay was selected for the third Test against Australia at Headingley , possibly because Arthur Carr , the England captain , expected the pitch to favour spinners . The Australians were concerned that Macaulay represented a threat to their batting , but the match did not work out in Macaulay 's favour as a bowler ; having been dropped at the start of play , Charlie Macartney played what Wisden called one of the best innings of his career and vigorously attacked the England bowling , achieving the rare feat of scoring a century before the lunch interval . The Australian batsman had asked his captain if he could attack Macaulay in particular , and the Yorkshire bowler suffered as Macartney quickly dominated him . Macaulay eventually had Macartney caught after hitting a short ball in the air , but it was Macaulay 's only success in the innings . Macaulay conceded 123 runs in 32 overs as Australia scored 494 . When Macaulay came into bat from number ten in the batting order , England were 182 for eight wickets and facing defeat . He played an attacking innings of 76 , hitting ten fours , in a partnership of 108 with George Geary . This began an England recovery which helped the team to escape with a draw . Nevertheless , Macaulay did not play in the final two Tests of the series . Later in the season , he took fourteen wickets for 92 runs against Gloucestershire , including eight for 43 in the second innings . These were the best bowling figures of his career that he achieved in a match . Apart from his batting success in the Test match , Macaulay scored another two fifties and in the match against Somerset achieved a century .
= = = Decline = = =
Over the next four seasons , Yorkshire failed to win the Championship , although they never finished lower than fourth in the table . The team displayed an unaccustomed weakness in bowling , particularly after the death of Roy Kilner in 1928 . The effectiveness of the main bowlers was reduced by age and injury ; only Macaulay remained at something approaching his bowling peak . However , his performances worsened each year . His bowling figures in the 1927 season were similar to his achievements in 1926 , showing only a slight decline , but his total of wickets fell each season until 1930 .
In 1927 , Macaulay took 130 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 26 . However , he suffered a foot injury in 1928 , and took time to recover his best form . His wicket tally fell to 120 and his average climbed to 24 @.@ 37 . His total of wickets decreased further to 102 in 1929 and his average remained above 20 . Hampered by another foot injury throughout 1930 , Macaulay failed to take 100 wickets for the first time since his debut season ; his average of 25 @.@ 12 was the highest of his career . In these seasons , he was only selected for one representative match , a Test trial in 1928 in which he failed to take a wicket . At the same time , his batting faded . In 1927 , Macaulay scored his highest run aggregate and passed fifty six times while hitting 678 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 11 . He improved his batting average in 1928 , accumulating 517 runs at 25 @.@ 85 with four more fifties . However , after 1928 , he never averaged more than 16 @.@ 26 with the bat and only scored two more fifties in his career , both in 1929 .
= = End of first @-@ class career = =
= = = Return to form = = =
From the 1931 season , Yorkshire once again dominated the County Championship , winning three consecutive trophies . A large part of the success was an increase in bowling strength . In 1931 , Macaulay slightly increased his haul of wickets from 91 to 97 , and his average dropped from 25 @.@ 12 to 15 @.@ 75 . This placed him third in the Yorkshire averages , behind Hedley Verity and Bill Bowes , who both took over 100 wickets and led a very strong bowling attack . That season , Macaulay was awarded a benefit match against Surrey which raised £ 1 @,@ 633 , worth approximately £ 82 @,@ 700 in 2008 . At the time , this was considered a poor reward for a Yorkshire cricketer . The following season , Macaulay took fewer wickets , managing 84 at an average of 19 @.@ 07 , which placed him fifth in the Yorkshire averages . He achieved his best bowling figures in first @-@ class cricket when he took eight for 21 against the Indian touring side . By now , Macaulay was a specialist spinner and had largely abandoned pace bowling ; Bill Bowes and Arthur Rhodes opened the Yorkshire bowling .
The 1933 season signalled a return to form for Macaulay . Wisden judged that he " recovered fully his length , spin and command over variations in pace " . He bowled more overs than anyone else in the team and passed 100 wickets for the first time since 1929 , the tenth and final time he did so , taking 148 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 45 . Against Northamptonshire , he took seven for nine as the team was bowled out for 27 . He finished the match with thirteen for 34 . Against Lancashire , when his match figures were twelve for 49 , he took a hat @-@ trick in a sequence of four wickets in five balls ; he also took twelve wickets against Leicestershire . His form won a recall to the Test side after seven years . Not picked initially , a decision described by Wisden as unfair , he played in the first Test when E. W. Clark dropped out of the team before the match . Macaulay took one wicket in the first innings but had figures of four for 57 in the second innings to earn approval from Wisden . He was picked for the second Test but bowled only 14 overs before injuring his foot when fielding ; he was unable to take any further part in the game . He did not play in the third Test but was selected in festival game at Scarborough for the team selected from the MCC party which toured Australia in the previous winter . He played instead of an injured player , even though he did not take part in the tour . Macaulay ended second in the Yorkshire bowling averages . In its review of the season , Wisden stated that his form in the early part of the season would have placed his among the best cricketers in the world .
= = = Final seasons = = =
Macaulay 's final two seasons were affected by injury , as he was increasingly bothered by rheumatism . In the 1934 season , while trying to take a catch , he injured the finger he used to spin the ball . He did not appear for Yorkshire until June , but went on to take 55 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 43 . The next season was his final one . He only played nine matches , taking 22 wickets at 20 @.@ 09 . At the end of the year , he retired from first @-@ class cricket and Yorkshire awarded him a special grant of £ 250 . Yorkshire did have a replacement in mind ; Frank Smailes was considered to be versatile enough in his bowling style to take Macaulay 's place , but it was not until Ellis Robinson secured a place in 1937 that a new specialist off @-@ spinner was found .
Macaulay ended his career with 1 @,@ 837 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 65 . In eight Test matches , he took 24 of those wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 58 . In addition , he scored 6 @,@ 055 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 07 and held 373 catches . He took 100 wickets in a season ten times , a record only surpassed by four others for Yorkshire , while only three other Yorkshire bowlers have taken 200 wickets in a season . He also took four hat @-@ tricks .
= = = Post @-@ Yorkshire career = = =
Following his retirement , Macaulay initially attempted to market a patented rheumatic medicine , but the business quickly failed . He then established an athletic outfitting shop in Leeds . This business also was unsuccessful ; Macaulay blamed a lack of money and competition from other businesses . Consequently , he filed for bankruptcy in 1937 . Macaulay accused Yorkshire of worsening his situation by withholding most of his benefit money — of the total raised , he received only £ 530 . He believed that he was owed the balance , and continued his business under that assumption , but Yorkshire had invested the amount and he only received the interest . The matter arose in court , and when asked why he thought the money would be paid to him , Macaulay answered : " Because I had earned it " . He also rejected the accusation that he spent his time drinking in public houses , and another that he had neglected his two failed businesses . The Official Receiver found that Macaulay 's complaint against Yorkshire was without justification . Macaulay suggested that he should arrange for the invested money to be paid to his creditors in his will . Macaulay secured new employment , and a few days after the hearing it was announced that he would play professional cricket in Wales .
Macaulay played league cricket in Wales and Lancashire until the Second World War . During 1937 , he was the professional at Ebbw cricket club , and in 1938 and 1939 , he played in the Lancashire League as the professional for Todmorden , for whom he took nine wickets for 10 runs against Ramsbottom in the Worsley Cup final . Ramsbottom were bowled out for 47 to give Macaulay 's team a 26 @-@ run win .
When the Second World War began , Macaulay joined the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Volunteer Reserve in 1940 as a Pilot Officer , and was stationed at Church Fenton , close to Barkston Ash where he lived with his wife Edith . Later in the year , he was stationed in the Shetland Islands , where he was bothered by the cold . Six days after his 43rd birthday , he died of pneumonia at the Sullom Voe RAF station on 13 December 1940 . He was buried in Lerwick Cemetery on Shetland .
= = Style and personality = =
As a batsman , Macaulay was reasonably good and possibly better than his statistics would suggest . He was capable of batting well in a crisis but may have been prevented from honing his batting skills by the Yorkshire leadership who wished him to focus on bowling . He generally batted low down in the order after the all @-@ rounders in the team . Macaulay 's fielding was also very effective . He was excellent at close range to the batsmen , particularly from his own bowling .
As a bowler , Macaulay fulfilled two roles . At the start of an innings , when the ball was new and hard , he opened the bowling with medium @-@ fast deliveries that swung away from right @-@ handed batsmen . In this style , he was very accurate and bowled a variety of deliveries to unsettle his opponents . Cricket writer R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow considered him to be better than any similar bowler in the 1920s except Maurice Tate , the leading medium paced bowler in England . Macaulay could vary his pace from medium to fast depending on the needs of the match situation and the type of pitch . When the pitch was suitable for spinning the ball , he bowled medium @-@ paced off breaks . Wisden said that his spin made him more effective than other bowlers of his speed on a sticky wicket , a pitch which has been affected by rain , making it erratic and difficult to bat on . His obituary further stated : " Under suitable conditions for using the off @-@ break , batsmen seemed at his mercy . " This was because he could bowl deliveries which were almost impossible for batsmen to play without getting out , but at the same time it was very difficult to score runs against him . Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote that " on a rain @-@ damaged pitch he was in his glory . " He would make small adjustments to the positions of his fielders or bowl from different sides of the wicket , often making gestures or facial expressions as he did so . Robertson @-@ Glasgow said that " only the best could survive the onslaught except by a miracle " , and described Macaulay as a great bowler . The cricket writer Jim Kilburn suggested that Macaulay was " a great cricketer . He was great not so much in mathematical accomplishment ... as in cricketing character . "
Macaulay 's bowling action was relaxed and effortless , being admired by his contemporaries . Kilburn wrote : " His run @-@ up was half @-@ shambling , his steps short and his shoulders swaying , but his feet were faultlessly placed and his aim was high at the instant of delivery " . However , critics and team @-@ mates more widely knew him as passionate , hostile and fiery when bowling . Kilburn said that batsmen were Macaulay 's " mortal enemies " . He knew many tricks to dismiss or unsettle them , including the tactic of bowling the ball straight at their head without pitching , which was usually considered dangerous and unfair . Kilburn observed that " should the batsman survive he would be rewarded with a glare of concentrated venom calculated to stagger any but the stoutest heart ... Every scrap of his heart and soul went into every ball he bowled . He never gave up and his persistence was invariably triumphant sooner or later " . The Yorkshire Post , after his death , observed : " Macaulay will always be remembered for the fierceness of his enthusiasm when there was a fighting chance of victory " .
Macaulay displayed a temper when matters went against him . Robertson @-@ Glasgow described him as an unusual man , " fiercely independent , witty , argumentative , swift to joy and anger . He had pleasure in cracking a convention or cursing an enemy ... A cricket @-@ bag came between him and his blazer hanging on a peg ; and he 'd kick it and tell it a truth or two , then laugh . " Bill Bowes described how , when he was bowling , he would glare and mutter under his breath ; he seemed to be " filled with a devilish energy " . He would make sharp or biting comments , particularly if a fielder made a mistake when he was bowling and although often amusing , it could at times hurt the recipients , and his anger made his team @-@ mates wary of him . Yet , he could also express appreciation when a skillful batsmen hit a good shot from his bowling ; the result was that his colleagues were never sure what to expect from him , even after playing with him for years . Herbert Sutcliffe said he could be charming when not playing , but his wit could be sharp . Robertson @-@ Glasgow nevertheless described him as " a glorious opponent ; a great cricketer ; and a companion in a thousand " .
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= A Trick of the Tail =
A Trick of the Tail is the seventh studio album from the English progressive rock band Genesis . It was released in February 1976 on Charisma Records and was the first album to feature drummer Phil Collins as lead vocalist following the departure of Peter Gabriel . It was a critical and commercial success in the UK and U.S. , reaching No. 3 and No. 31 respectively .
Following Gabriel 's decision to leave the band , the remaining members wanted to carry on and show they could still write and record successful material . The group wrote and rehearsed new songs during mid @-@ 1975 , and listened to around 400 audition tapes for a replacement frontman . They entered Trident Studios in October with producer David Hentschel to record the album without a definitive idea of who was going to perform lead vocals . Eventually , Collins was persuaded to sing " Squonk " , and the performance was so strong , he sang lead on the rest of album .
Upon release , critics were impressed by the improved sound quality and the group 's ability to survive the loss of Gabriel without sacrificing the quality of the music . The group went out on tour with Collins as frontman and Bill Bruford as an additional drummer , and the resulting performances in the US raised Genesis ' profile there . The album has been reissued on CD several times , including a deluxe package with bonus tracks in 2007 .
= = Background = =
Founding member and lead singer Peter Gabriel decided to leave Genesis in late 1974 , midway through the tour for the album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway . The other members hoped he would reconsider , as they were still in debt and felt his departure could destroy the band 's future , but ultimately accepted that he would leave . The remaining members felt they still wanted to collaborate musically , and show journalists and critics they were primarily a song writing team that could still produce good music . Keyboardist Tony Banks had been close to Gabriel personally , and did not want the band to split up on top of seeing less of one of his best friends . He had written a number of songs for a possible solo project before deciding they should be used on the new Genesis album .
Following the end of the tour , guitarist Steve Hackett recorded a solo album , Voyage of the Acolyte with guitarist / bassist Mike Rutherford and drummer Phil Collins , feeling unsure that Genesis would survive . He reconvened with the remaining group members in July 1975 . Banks and Rutherford were particularly keen to write and record new material so that critics and fans would accept Gabriel 's departure . The group began rehearsals in a basement studio in Acton , and quickly wrote material they were happy with , but had not yet found a replacement lead singer . They placed an anonymous advertisement in the music paper Melody Maker for " a singer for a Genesis @-@ type group " , which received around 400 replies . Some applicants sent photographs of themselves in costume and wearing masks , as Gabriel had done on stage . A few weeks into rehearsals , Melody Maker managed to find out about Gabriel leaving the band , and their story made the front page of the 16 August issue , where journalist Chris Welch declared Genesis dead . The group spoke to the music papers to deny they were splitting up and explaining they had an album finished and waiting to be recorded .
= = Recording = =
Recording began in Trident Studios in October 1975 with producer David Hentschel . Hentschel had served as tape op and then engineer on earlier Genesis albums and Collins had become a fan of his album Startling Music , a re @-@ recording of Ringo Starr 's album Ringo on an ARP 2500 synthesizer . Collins thought the group could carry on as an instrumental act , but other group members felt that it would be boring without vocals . The group had still not decided on a replacement singer , so they decided to start recording backing tracks and audition singers as they went .
Some songs such as " Ripples ... " were written with the intention that Collins could sing them , similar to " More Fool Me " on Selling England by the Pound , but he did not want to take over as a permanent replacement , opting instead to teach potential lead singers the songs . The group still wanted a regular frontman for live performances , as they thought Collins would not be able to handle all the material , and it would be problematic trying to sing Gabriel 's vocal parts while drumming on tour . One of the auditionees , Mick Stickland , was invited into the studio to sing , but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range and the band decided not to work with him . Having failed to produce a suitable vocalist , Collins reluctantly went in the studio to sing " Squonk " . His performance was well received by the band , and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist . Hentschel stayed on as co @-@ producer for future Genesis albums up to 1980 's Duke .
= = Songs = =
The opening track , " Dance on a Volcano " was the first song written for the album . Rutherford felt in contrast to the material on The Lamb ... , it was easy to write , and was intended to show how Genesis would move forward . " Entangled " was mostly written by Hackett , with help from Banks . Rutherford recalled that Hackett " started writing verses which were very airy @-@ fairy and then he came down with a bang . " " Squonk " is based on the North American tale of the Squonk which , when captured , dissolves in a pool of tears . The song combines a main theme written by Rutherford against a middle section written by Banks , and was designed to sound like Led Zeppelin 's " Kashmir " .
" Robbery , Assault and Battery " was mostly written by Banks , in an attempt to capture some of the humorous lyrics that Gabriel had written for earlier albums . Collins sang the song in character , inspired by his earlier role as the Artful Dodger in Oliver ! before he became a professional musician . " Ripples ... " was a combination of a 12 @-@ string guitar piece composed by Rutherford and a piano @-@ led middle section written by Banks . The title track was inspired by Banks reading William Golding 's The Inheritors and described an alien visiting Earth and the reaction to it .
The closing song , " Los Endos " , was written by the whole band . Collins came up with the basic rhythmic structure , inspired by his work in side project Brand X and wanting to take the looser playing style into Genesis , while Banks and Hackett wrote the main themes , including reprises of " Dance on a Volcano " and " Squonk " . The opening piece was recorded for a completely different song , " It 's Yourself " , which was later released as a B @-@ side . The track became a live favourite , and continued to be played through to the 2007 Turn It On Again tour . In 2014 , Hackett added the song to the playlist of his extended Genesis Revisited II tour .
= = Reception = =
A Trick of the Tail had a positive reception from music critics , who were impressed that the group could not only survive the loss of Gabriel but still deliver a good album . The sound quality had improved from previous albums as a result of Hentschel 's production skills . The album reached No. 3 in the UK , remaining on the charts for 39 weeks , and No. 31 in the U.S. It was certified Gold in the UK by the British Phonographic Institute in June and in the US by the RIAA in March 1990 . The album remained in the UK charts for 39 weeks and recouped a significant amount of $ 400 @,@ 000 worth of debt they had accumulated by the time Gabriel left .
For the first time in their career , Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs . The first to be filmed was the title track , which features the band playing to the song together around a piano , including composite shots of a miniature Collins hopping around on a piano and a guitar . The group also produced promotional films of " Ripples ... " and " Robbery , Assault and Battery " .
= = Tour = =
Even after the album had been completed , Collins was unhappy about leaving the drumkit to sing lead , and the band were unsure he would be comfortable as frontman on tour . The group decided to try anyway , and needed someone to drum while Collins was singing . Collins insisted on choosing the touring drummer himself , selecting Bill Bruford , who he had already worked with in Brand X. Collins continued to drum during instrumental sections .
The new line @-@ up rehearsed in Dallas for a North American tour , starting in London , Ontario . Collins was nervous about what to say to the audience between songs , so Rutherford and Hackett helped with some announcements . Unlike Gabriel 's theatrical approach , Collins developed a humorous rapport with the audience , and it was immediately successful . Audiences were happy for Collins to sing old material such as " Supper 's Ready " in concert as he had been recruited as frontman from within the group . The resulting tour raised Genesis ' profile in the U.S. , where they had been relatively unknown while Gabriel was in the band .
= = Track listing = =
This is the first Genesis album to credit songwriters individually , as opposed to the band as a whole .
= = = 2007 SACD / CD / DVD release = = =
A new version of A Trick of the Tail was released in the UK and Japan in 2007 as part of the Genesis 1976 – 1982 box set . This includes the entire album in remixed stereo , surround sound , and related video tracks . A further DVD release includes audio and video tracks , including an interview with the band , the promotional videos , and the film Genesis : In Concert , filmed during the 1976 tour promoting the album .
= = Personnel = =
Genesis
Mike Rutherford – 12 @-@ string guitar , bass , bass pedals
Tony Banks – pianos , synthesizers , organ , Mellotron , 12 @-@ string guitar , backing vocals
Phil Collins - drums , percussion , lead & backing vocals
Steve Hackett – electric guitar , 12 @-@ string guitars
Production
Genesis – production
David Hentschel – production , engineering
Nick " Haddock " Bradford – engineering
Tex and Jeff – equipment
Neal , John and Terry – liquid sustenance
Hipgnosis – sleeve design
Colin Elgie – sleeve design
Special thanks to Tony Smith , Alex Sim and Regis
Recorded at Trident Studios , London
= = Certifications = =
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= James Graham ( British Army soldier ) =
James Graham ( 1791 – 1845 ) was an Irish non @-@ commissioned officer ( NCO ) in the British Army during the Napoleonic wars , recognised as the " bravest man in the army " . Serving in the Coldstream Guards , he was commended for his gallantry during the defence of Hougoumont , at Waterloo . Graham saved the life of an officer , and his own brother , and was among the small group responsible for closing the North Gate at Hougoumont after a French attack – an act which won the Duke of Wellington 's encomium . He was rewarded with a specially cast gallantry medal and an annuity . Graham continued to serve with distinction , and was credited with saving the life of Lord Frederick FitzClarence during the arrest of the Cato Street conspirators . After later serving in the 12th Royal Lancers , Graham was discharged in 1830 for ill health , and died at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham in 1845 .
= = Early life and service = =
James Graham was born in 1791 , in Clones , County Monaghan , Ireland . One of three brothers to serve in the British Army , Graham enlisted in the 2nd Battalion of the Coldstream Guards in 1813 , which was then stationed in England . Almost all soldiers at the time signed on for life in exchange for a " bounty " of £ 23 17s 6d , a large portion of which was absorbed by the cost of outfitting " necessities " . Graham was assigned to the battalion 's light company , and by 1815 had been made a corporal . It was not unusual for Irishmen to join English or Scottish regiments after the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland . Most battalions during the Napoleonic wars had a proportion of Irish soldiers . The Coldstream Guards were a regiment of Foot Guards , a group of elite infantry regiments of the British Army . In background and natural attributes , recruits to the Foot Guards differed little from those recruited into other regiments , but they received superior training and were expected to maintain rigorous discipline . Wellington considered Guards NCOs to be among the best in the army .
= = The road to Waterloo = =
The United Kingdom and her Allies had been at war against Napoleon 's French Empire since 1803 , but by early 1814 Wellington 's army had fought its way through the Peninsula to France , and the eastern Allies were threatening France 's eastern borders . On 31 March 1814 , allied armies entered Paris , and Napoleon abdicated on 6 April . Within a month of Napoleon 's abdication , he had been exiled to Elba . It appeared that the war was over , and arrangements for the peace were discussed at the Congress of Vienna . But on 26 February 1815 , Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France , where he raised an army .
The Allies assembled another army and planned for a summer offensive . The combatant Coldstream companies had been garrisoned in Brussels and Ath , where they were joined by the 2nd Battalion 's remaining four companies in early 1815 . In preparation for the coming offensive , Graham 's battalion joined with the 2nd Battalion of the Scots Guards to form the 1st Division 's 2nd Brigade . Basing themselves in Belgium , the Allies formed two armies , with the Duke of Wellington commanding the Anglo @-@ Allies , and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher commanding the Prussians . Napoleon marched swiftly through France to meet them , and split his army to launch a two @-@ pronged attack . On 16 June 1815 , Napoleon himself led men against Blücher at Ligny , while Marshall Ney commanded an attack against Wellington 's forward army at the Battle of Quatre Bras .
Wellington had received news of Napoleon 's position on the night of 15 June , and issued orders to his army to hold the ground at Quatre Bras . Graham 's battalion , along with the rest of the 2nd Brigade , left Enghien , where they were quartered , at 3 a.m. on the morning of the 16th , for a twenty @-@ five mile march to Quatre Bras . They reached Quatre Bras at 4 p.m. , by which time the battle had been engaged for two hours . The Coldstream Guards immediately deployed into position to support the 1st Foot Guards , who were engaged with the enemy at Bossu Wood . Once the wood was cleared of French , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Macdonnell led the 2nd Brigade 's light companies ( including Graham 's ) in a counter @-@ attack against Jérôme Bonaparte 's Frenchmen , with other Guards companies in support . The various Guards battalions sustained heavy losses , but by 6 @.@ 30 p.m. Wellington 's position had strengthened . By 9 p.m. , Ney had withdrawn his men , and Wellington held the field . The French had lost 4 @,@ 000 men , the Allies 4 @,@ 800 .
Wellington held Quatre Bras , but the Prussians were not so successful at Ligny , and were forced to retreat . Hearing of Blücher 's defeat on the morning of 17 June , Wellington ordered his army to withdraw level with his ally ; they took position near the Belgian village of Waterloo . Graham 's company , and the Scots Guards ' light company , masked the retreat from the right , and did not leave Quatre Bras until mid @-@ afternoon .
The field at Waterloo was 5 @.@ 5 km wide , with two parallel ridges running west to east , creating a shallow valley 1 @.@ 4 km across . On the allied right lay the chateau of Hougoumont , a collection of walled farm buildings lying closer to the French line than the Allies ' line . Recognising its defensive importance , Wellington ordered Hanoverian and Nassau troops to occupy the farm . In allied hands , it would provide cover for flanking fire against any French assault of the main allied line ; in French hands , it would provide a bastion from which they could launch attacks . Since it defended the Nivelles road as well as the Allies ' right flank , Wellington ordered that it was to be held at all costs .
= = Hougoumont = =
The day 's battle began on 18 June 1815 at about 11 a.m. with a French attack on Hougoumont from the south @-@ west , led by Napoleon 's brother Jerome . The French gained control of much of the chateau 's park , but the Allies retained possession of the farmhouse and courtyard surrounds . Jerome continued his attempts to take the farmhouse throughout the day , making four or five assaults , most of which were repulsed by the defenders , who fired through loopholes , windows , and doorways . One assault at about 12 @.@ 30 p.m. breached the north gate , which had been left open to allow allied troop and supply movements . Sous @-@ Lieutenant Legro , of the French 1st Light Infantry , broke through the wooden doors with an axe , allowing French soldiers to flood the courtyard . Graham 's commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Macdonnell , led his men through the melee in the courtyard to the gates , in an attempt to shut them against the pressing French . This was done with the help of three officers ( Captain Wyndham , Ensign Hervey , and Ensign Gooch ) , Corporal Graham , and a few other soldiers including Graham 's brother Joseph . James Graham was the one to slot the bar in place . Flagstones , carts , and debris were then piled against the gates to hold them secure . The Frenchmen trapped within the courtyard were all killed , apart from a young drummer @-@ boy .
Wellington monitored the action at Hougoumont until about 1 p.m. , by which time he was content enough with the position 's security to concentrate his own attention on the allied centre . With the chateau secure , the 3 @,@ 500 British and German troops in the vicinity were able to defend the strongpoint against an estimated 14 @,@ 500 French soldiers . About 8 @,@ 000 French soldiers died attacking Hougoumont over the day .
During the battle , Graham also saved the life of Captain Wyndham – one of those who had shut the gate – by shooting a sniper whose musket was trained on the officer . Mid @-@ afternoon , a fire broke out in one of the farm buildings following a bombardment of incendiary shells . Graham 's brother Joseph was lying wounded within , and Graham requested permission to fall out , so he might rescue his brother ; given permission , he retrieved his brother and returned to his post . Joseph Graham died of wounds five days later .
At 7 p.m. the defenders at Hougoumont were still resisting , despite the burning buildings and their own dwindling ammunition . Within a couple of hours , the action in the rest of the field had resulted in a victory for the Allies : the French were in retreat . Afterwards , Wellington declared that " the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont . " It seems likely that if the gates had not been shut so quickly the men holding the perimeter at Hougoumont would have been killed . It was a costly defence : the Coldstream Guards lost 8 officers , with 300 casualties among the men . James Graham was promoted to sergeant for his bravery at Hougoumont , and received a special medal for gallantry .
= = " The bravest man at Waterloo " = =
Wellington 's respect for those who served in Hougoumont was well known . After the battle he wrote : " You may depend upon it , no troops could have held Hougoumont but the British , and only the best of them . " But among those " best soldiers " , Graham stood out as being exceptional . In August 1815 , John Norcross , the Rector of Framlingham , sought to make over the income from a freehold farm to the " most deserving soldier at Waterloo " ; he approached the Duke of Wellington , who nominated Graham . Graham received an annuity from the farm of £ 10 a year for two years until the vicar became bankrupt . Wellington 's Supplementary Dispatches ( Vol . 11 ) make mention of Graham :
[ He ] assisted Lieutenant @-@ colonel Macdonnell in closing the gates , which had been left open for the purpose of communication , and which the enemy were in the act of forcing . His brother , a corporal in the regiment , was lying wounded in a barn , which was on fire , and Graham removed him so as to be secure from the fire , and then returned to his duty . He had been 3 2 / 12 years in the regiment .
This honour is noted in his service record now held at the Public Record Office , with the words : " The most valorous NCO at the battle of Waterloo selected by the Duke of Wellington . "
The Reverend Norcross died in 1837 . It was reported in a number of books and newspapers in the years following that Norcross had recovered his fortunes enough to leave £ 500 in his will to " the bravest man in England " and that , once appealed to , Wellington again turned to the events in Hougoumont , selecting Colonel Macdonnell . Macdonnell apparently split the bequest with Graham , since they had shut the gate together . There remains some doubt concerning this second bequest . Graham 's entry in the Dictionary of National Biography records only the initial annuity , and states that " various apparently incorrect versions of the Norcross gift have been published . " Archibald Murray ( in 1862 ) made reference to " the alleged sum of £ 500 " given to Colonel Macdonnell and reported investigations made by a fellow researcher who could find no proof of this bequest ; Murray concluded that the reports arose from a misrepresentation of the original annuity . In his history of Waterloo , Colonel Siborne provided a full account of Graham 's action at Hougoumont and the later annuity , but made no reference to the second bequest , despite reporting Graham 's own death at Kilmainham Hospital . Siborne had personally interviewed Graham .
= = Later career = =
Graham continued to serve in the Coldstream Guards after Waterloo . The 2nd Battalion advanced on Paris with the army , remaining there until 1816 as part of the army of occupation , after which they were posted to Cambrai . In November 1818 they returned to England . While stationed in London in 1820 , a detachment of Guards were ordered to support the police with the arrest of the Cato Street conspirators , under the command of Captain FitzClarence ( later given the title Lord Frederick FitzClarence ) , one of the illegitimate sons of the Duke of Clarence . The arrest was not straightforward , and a scuffle ensued . The Naval and Military Gazette ( May 1845 ) identified Sergeant Graham as the man who saved FitzClarence 's life .
Graham was discharged from the Guards in 1821 , and enlisted in the 12th Royal Lancers as a private . When Graham joined the Lancers , they were stationed in Ireland , and returned to England in 1824 . In 1826 , two squadrons saw service in Portugal before returning to England . Graham was discharged for ill health – " an injured chest and worn out " – in July 1830 , and received a Chelsea pension .
James Graham died in 1845 , at the Royal Hospital , Kilmainham . He was buried with military honours . A memorial plaque was erected at the Hospital , and it was later transferred to St Tiernach 's Church , in Clones .
His obituary appeared in The Gentleman 's Magazine under the name " John Graham " :
23 April . At the Royal Hospital of Kilmainham , Sergeant John Graham , formerly in the light company of the 2nd battalion of Coldstream Guards , the individual selected by the Duke of Wellington as " the bravest of the brave " in the desperate combat at Waterloo , in order to profit by the generous offer of the Rev. Mr. Norcross , Rector of Framlingham , to confer a pension , during life , upon the soldier most distinguished in the brigade of guards on that glorious day . After the most minute inquiry , carried out by Sir John Byng 's directions , the laurel was awarded to an Irishman , John Graham , a native of Cloona [ sic ] , co . Monaghan .
= = Enduring legacy = =
James Graham 's exploits at Waterloo became much celebrated throughout Great Britain , and many accounts of the battle make reference to his actions , including a biography of Wellington , the memoirs of another sergeant , and Charles Dickens ' magazine Household Words . The shutting of the gate was portrayed by artist Robert Gibb in 1903 ; the painting is currently held by the National Museums of Scotland . A watercolour portrait of Sergeant Graham himself is held at the National Gallery of Ireland .
The actions of Graham and Macdonnell continue to be remembered as an iconic moment in the battle of Waterloo . In 1915 , cigarette manufacturers W.D. & H.O. Wills portrayed Graham and Macdonnell on one of the cigarette cards printed to commemorate the centenary of Waterloo . Since then , many authors of fiction concerning Waterloo have recreated the events at the gate , and even if they include their own fictional heroes they attribute the closing of the gate to Macdonnell and Graham .
The efforts of the Coldstream Guards at Waterloo , and Graham 's gallantry , remain celebrated by the Regiment . Every December the Sergeants ' Mess commemorate Graham 's bravery with a ceremonial game " Hanging the Brick " . The " Brick " – a stone from Hougoumont – is paraded through the barracks and hung up in the Sergeants ' Mess with all the honour due to regimental colours . Also retained by the Regiment are Graham 's Waterloo Medal and gallantry medal . In 2004 the Regiment named a new sergeants ' accommodation block after him , in Lille Barracks , Aldershot . A plaque on the building is inscribed with the words :
" In Memory of Sergeant James Graham WM , 2nd Battalion Coldstream Guards , " The Bravest Man in England " , Following His Actions in Closing The Gates at Hougoumont Farm , Waterloo , 18 June 1815 . "
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= Hanky Panky ( Madonna song ) =
" Hanky Panky " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her soundtrack album I 'm Breathless . It was released on June 30 , 1990 , by Sire Records as the album 's second and final single . Written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , the song was developed from a line in the parent film , Dick Tracy , talking about a woman who enjoys being spanked by her partner . Performed in an almost comical style , " Hanky Panky " is a jazz and swing song with a changing bassline and minor to major key @-@ shift in the chorus . It caused some controversy in Ireland because of its innuendo and racy lyrics , with women 's groups deeming them as harmful ; Madonna later clarified that the lyrics were intended as a joke .
The song garnered positive response from music critics , many of them highlighting its lyrical content . It was a moderate success , becoming a top @-@ ten hit in many countries including Australia , Ireland , Italy , the United Kingdom and the United States , while topping the chart in Finland . Madonna has performed the song on two of her concert tours ; on the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , and 14 years later on the Re @-@ Invention World Tour . The song has been covered by several tribute acts , and was also performed on the television series Ally McBeal ( 1997 ) .
= = Background and release = =
In 1990 , Madonna starred in the film Dick Tracy as Breathless Mahoney — a new role introduced for her — with Warren Beatty , her boyfriend at the time , playing the titular character . After the shooting for Dick Tracy was over , Madonna started working on the soundtrack . She had begun recording three songs by Stephen Sondheim for the film — " Sooner or Later " , " More " and " What Can You Lose " — which would be part of the album , but also had to write and develop new songs comparable in style to her previous releases . She produced the entire album , including the Sondheim songs . " I want people to think of me as a musical comedy actress . That 's what this album is about for me . It 's a stretch . Not just pop music , but songs that have a different feel to them , a theatrical feel " , she said at the time .
Madonna recruited producer Patrick Leonard and engineer Bill Bottrell to help her with the project . She and Leonard toiled to create music that would fit the style and production of the film , set in the days of the Untouchables law enforcement . " Hanky Panky " was written and produced by Madonna and Leonard and was released as the second and final single from I 'm Breathless on June 30 , 1990 . The cassette and the 7 " versions had " More " , another song from the album as its B @-@ side , while the 12 " releases had additional two remixes of the song by Kevin McGuilbert . Cover photograph for the single was done by Patrick Demarchelier with Jeri Heiden designing the sleeves .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Hanky Panky " was recorded within the three weeks time taken for the whole project . Personnel working on the song included Leonard on keyboards , Jeff Porcaro on drums , Guy Pratt on bass and Donna De Lory , Niki Haris and N 'Dea Davenport on background vocals . Lyrically , the song deals with sadomasochistic themes and is centered around a girl who celebrates the pleasures of a " good spanking " . It is performed in an almost comical style , and stemmed from a line in the film , where Breathless says to Tracy , " You don 't know whether to hit me or kiss me " . The track has a false introduction and starts slowly with piano , but changes after a few moments into a large jazz and swing song , with a changing bassline and minor to major key @-@ shift in the chorus . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , the song is set in common time , with a moderately slow groove tempo of 70 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D minor , with Madonna 's vocals spanning from B ♭ 3 to D5 . The song has a basic sequence of Dm – C – Bm – A7sus in the beginning and changes to Dm – A – B ♭ 9 – A7 – Dm – C when the swing starts . During an interview with Rolling Stone , Madonna explained :
The spanking thing started because I believed that my character in Dick Tracy liked to get smacked around and that 's why she hung around with people like Al Pacino 's character . Warren [ Beatty ] asked me to write some songs , one of them , the Hanky Panky song , was about that . I say in the song ' Nothing like a good spanky ' , and in the middle I say , ' Ooh , my bottom hurts just thinking about it ' . When it came out everybody started asking , ' Do you like to get spanked ? ' and I said : ' Yeah . Yeah , I do ' .
The singer had to tone down some of the suggestive lyrics to please the officers at Disney , the producers of Dick Tracy , who were worried about their image . In Ireland , the song was subject to controversy after two women 's organizations accused Madonna of glorifying violence against women , specifically on the line " I 'll settle for the back of your hand " ; one of the groups , the National Women 's Council of Ireland , labelled the song " highly dangerous " while the other group , Ireland 's Women 's Aid , said the line was " extremely harmful " . Although initially approving of the idea of " getting spanked " — even admitting her fondness on The Arsenio Hall Show — Madonna later backed down from the theme of spanking , explaining that the lyrics were written as a joke and believed that it was instead her character Breathless Mahoney that liked to get spanked . She added that it should have been obvious that the song was humorous in nature , since Madonna believed her image was more of a dominant person who took charge , contrary to the song 's characterization .
= = Critical response = =
J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , commented that " the steamrolling ' Hanky Panky ' simply sounds like a silly innocent romp until you realize what she 's going on and on is about ( ' Warren 's favorite pastime ' ) ... being spanked ! " . The author also felt Madonna sang with " just a little too much authority " . Academic Georges Claude Guilbert , author of Madonna As Postmodern Myth , called it " a comic hymn to spanking " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described it as a " double entendre @-@ laden hit " . Music critic Robert Christgau highlighted " Hanky Panky " as one of the best tracks on I 'm Breathless ; calling it a " fake period piece " but praising its " risqué s & m @-@ lite " sound as " all her " . Rolling Stone 's Mark Coleman wrote that the song , alongside " Cry Baby " and " I 'm Going Bananas " , was one of the " more @-@ legitimate sounding and confidently sung show tunes without a trace of disco " on the album . He also noted that " its titles alone are enough to conjure up visions of the elaborate production numbers on Madonna 's summer tour . " People magazine called it a " paean to kink " . Billboard 's Keith Caulfield referred to the song as a " goofy ( but catchy ! ) ditty about having a ' good spanky ' " .
Greg Sandow , from Entertainment Weekly , called it a " delightful challenge to censorship " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt it was a " cheeky " song , also writing that it touched on themes Madonna would go on to explore more explicitly later in the 1990s . Stephen Holden of The New York Times described it as a " big @-@ band blues [ song ] in which she endorses sexual spanking [ ... ] a calculated bid for outrage " . Ray Boren from The Deseret News described " Hanky Panky " as " naughty " , comparing it to the 1928 jazz song " Makin ' Whoopee " by Eddie Cantor . Dave Tianen from The Milwaukee Sentinel , while reviewing I 'm Breathless noted that " one aspect of Madonna remains constant even when you push her back in time . ' Hanky Panky ' is one of the few pop tunes to explore the erotic entertainment value in a good spanking . " Writing for The Pittsburgh Press , Peter B. King believed that the subject matter of " Hanky Panky " would surely receive " flank " , but defended Madonna saying that she had been singing about such topics for years by then . The Huffington Post ranked the song fifth on their list of " The 13 Most Underrated Madonna Songs " ; author Pandora Boxx hailed it as " a great fusion of ' 90s pop and vintage ' 30s " , but noted that " it 's ' scandalous ' subject matter ruffled too many feathers to make it a big hit " . A negative review came from Royal S. Brown , author of Film Musings : A Selected Anthology from Fanfare Magazine , who called it " ridiculous " .
= = Chart performance = =
Following its release , " Hanky Panky " was initially blacklisted at some radio stations when they faced objections from audiences about the lyrical content . Nevertheless , it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 the week of June 30 , 1990 , as " Vogue " was descending from the top ten . The single quickly climbed up the chart , ultimately peaking at number ten the week of July 28 , 1990 . It was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on September 19 , 1990 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Billboard ranked it at number 36 on their list of " Madonna 's 40 Biggest Hits " on the Hot 100 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 92 on the RPM Top Singles chart , and reached a peak of number 18 on the week of September 1 , 1990 . It was present for a total of 13 weeks on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart and after two weeks , reached its peak of number two the week of July 27 , 1990 ; spending a total of nine weeks within the top 100 of the chart . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on August 1 , 1990 , for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to the Official Charts Company , the single has sold over 210 @,@ 000 copies as of October 2010 . In Australia , " Hanky Panky " debuted at number 18 on the ARIA Singles Chart the week of July 29 , 1990 , and peaked at number six four weeks later . It was ranked at number 45 on the ARIA year end chart . In New Zealand , the single debuted at number 23 on RIANZ Singles Chart and , after fluctuating for the next three weeks , reached a peak of number six , becoming Madonna 's 18th top @-@ ten single in the country . In the European nations , " Hanky Panky " reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Ireland and Italy , as well as topping the charts in Finland . On the year @-@ end Italian charts , the song was ranked at number 38 . In other countries such as Austria , Belgium , Germany , Spain , Switzerland and the Netherlands , it managed to peak within the top 20 of the charts .
= = Live performances and covers = =
" Hanky Panky " was first performed on Madonna 's third concert tour , the Blond Ambition World Tour of 1990 . She performed the song dressed in a green and white striped vaudeville @-@ style corset , playing the part of a nightclub singer , standing in front of a microphone . Near the end of the performance , Madonna joked : " You all know the pleasures of a good spanking , don 't you ? [ ... ] When I hurt people , I feel better , you know what I mean ? " . Regarding the " shameless promotion " of Dick Tracy in this segment , author Lucy O 'Brien said that " along with her yen for artistic expression , Madonna has always had an eye on the bottom dollar ... [ But ] the Dick Tracy section is the least dynamic part of the show " . Two different performances were released on video , the first was included in Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped from the performance at Yokohama Stadium in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the other once included on Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped at the Stade de l 'Ouest in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
Fourteen years later , Madonna performed an energetic , showgirl themed version of " Hanky Panky " as part of her 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour . She appeared onstage dressed in a circus themed outfit , consisting of black hot pants and a bustier ; this ensemble resembled like a 1920s flapper in red and white stripes . Sean Piccoli , from the Sun @-@ Sentinel , praised Madonna 's ability to " summon the vampy humor of ' Hanky Panky ' — a Bette Midler moment if ever [ Madonna ] had one " . On May 2000 , the song was performed by actress Alicia Witt on the third season finale of the American television series Ally McBeal , titled " The Musical , Almost " . An Indie cover version by the band Killer Nannies In America , was included on the 2000 tribute album The Material Girl : A Tribute to Madonna . The Gary Tesca Orchestra included an instrumental version of the song on their album Who 's That Girl : The Madonna Story , Vol . 1 ( 2006 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
US cassette / 7 " single
" Hanky Panky " – 3 : 57
" More " – 4 : 56
AUS / US / EUR maxi @-@ single
" Hanky Panky " ( Bare Bones Single Mix ) – 3 : 57
" Hanky Panky " ( Bare Bottom 12 " Mix ) – 6 : 36
" More " – 4 : 56
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , producer
Patrick Leonard – writer , producer , keyboards
Jeff Porcaro – drums
Guy Pratt – bass
Donna De Lory – background vocals
Niki Haris – background vocals
N 'Dea Davenport – background vocals
Kevin McGuilbert – remix and additional production
Patrick Demarchelier – cover photographer
Jeri Heiden – designer
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Tucker : The Man and His Dream =
Tucker : The Man and His Dream is a 1988 American biographical comedy @-@ drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and starring Jeff Bridges . The film recounts the story of Preston Tucker and his attempt to produce and market the 1948 Tucker Sedan , which was met with scandal between the " Big Three automobile manufacturers " and accusations of stock fraud from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Joan Allen , Martin Landau , Elias Koteas , Frederic Forrest and Christian Slater appear in supporting roles .
In 1973 , Coppola began development of a film based on the life of Tucker , originally with Marlon Brando in the lead role . Starting in 1976 , Coppola planned Tucker to be both a musical and an experimental film with music and lyrics written by Leonard Bernstein , Betty Comden and Adolph Green . The project eventually collapsed when Coppola 's American Zoetrope experienced financial problems . Tucker was revived in 1986 when Coppola 's friend , George Lucas , joined as a producer .
The film received critical praise , but was a box office disappointment . Nonetheless , Tucker : The Man and His Dream produced a spike in prices of Tucker Sedans , as well as a renewed appreciation for Tucker and his automobiles .
= = Plot = =
Detroit engineer Preston Tucker ( Jeff Bridges ) has been interested in building cars since childhood . During World War II he designed an armored car for the military and made money building gun turrets for aircraft in a small shop next to his home in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Tucker is supported by his large , extended family , including wife Vera ( Joan Allen ) and eldest son Preston Jr ( Christian Slater ) .
As the war winds down , Tucker has a dream of finally building the " car of the future . " The " Tucker Torpedo " will feature revolutionary safety designs including disc brakes , seat belts , a pop out windshield , and head lights which swivel when you turn . Tucker hires young designer Alex Tremulis ( Elias Koteas ) to help with the design and enlists New York financier Abe Karatz ( Martin Landau ) , to arrange financial support . Raising the money through a stock issue , Tucker and Karatz acquire the enormous Dodge Chicago Plant to begin manufacturing . Abe hires Robert Bennington ( Dean Goodman ) to run the new Tucker Corporation on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis .
Launching " the car of tomorrow " in a spectacular way , the Tucker Corporation is met with enthusiasm from shareholders and the general public . However , the Tucker company board of directors , unsure of his ability to overcome the technical and financial obstacles ahead , send Tucker off on a publicity campaign , and attempt to take complete control of the company . While Tucker travels the country , Bennington and directors change the design of Tucker 's car to a more conventional design , eliminating the safety and engineering advances Tucker was advertising . At the same time , Tucker faces animosity from the Big Three and the authorities led by Michigan Senator Homer S. Ferguson ( Lloyd Bridges ) .
Tucker returns from his publicity tour and confronts Bennington , who curtly informs him that he no longer has any power in the company to make decisions , and the engine originally planned for the car is not viable . Tucker then receives a call from Howard Hughes ( Dean Stockwell ) , who sends a private plane to bring Tucker to his aircraft manufacturing site . Hughes advises Tucker to purchase Air Cooled Motors , which can supply both the steel Tucker needs , as well as a small , powerful helicopter engine that might replace Tucker 's original " 589 " power plant .
Faced with being unable to change Bennington 's design , Tucker modifies the new engine and installs it in a test Tucker in the secrecy of his backyard tool and die shop . This prototype proves successful in both durability and crash testing . However , Tucker is confronted with allegations of stock fraud . Ferguson 's investigation with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) , causes Karatz , once convicted of bank fraud , to resign , fearful that his criminal record will prejudice the hearings . Yellow journalism starts ruining Tucker 's public image even though the ultimate courtroom battle is resolved when he parades his entire production run of 50 Tucker Torpedoes , proving that he has reached production status .
After giving a speech to the jurors on how capitalism in the United States is harmed by efforts of large corporations against small entrepreneurs like himself , Tucker is acquitted on all charges . Nevertheless , his company falls into bankruptcy and Preston Tucker dies of lung cancer seven years later , never able to realize his dream of producing a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art automobile .
The film ends with all 50 Tucker Sedans being driven down the streets of downtown Chicago , admired by everyone as they pass .
= = Cast = =
= = Background = =
From childhood , Coppola envisioned a film about the Tucker automobile and while attending the UCLA School of Theater , Film and Television in the early 1960s , further refined a film concept based on the life of Preston Tucker . In June 1973 , during the filming of The Godfather Part II ( 1974 ) , Coppola announced his intention to start development at American Zoetrope as writer , producer and director . He had already approached Marlon Brando for the lead role . He then purchased the rights from the Tucker Estate in 1976 , and , in addition to Brando , discussed the leading role with Jack Nicholson and also considered Burt Reynolds . Taking inspiration from Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , Kabuki theater and the work of Bertolt Brecht , Coppola initially planned to make Tucker as a " dark kind of musical . " He later said that the idea approximated the style of an experimental film , similar to Mishima : A Life in Four Chapters ( 1985 ) , which he produced .
The musical would have featured Tucker predominantly , but storylines would have interwoven Thomas Edison , Henry Ford , Harvey Samuel Firestone and Andrew Carnegie as supporting characters . Leonard Bernstein agreed to write the music , and Betty Comden and Adolph Green were hired to write the lyrics . They all spent a week at Coppola 's home in California , planning the musical which resulted in Bernstein writing one song . Coppola also approached Gene Kelly as a consultant for the dance choreography . However , financing for Tucker fell through when Coppola 's production company , American Zoetrope , filed for bankruptcy after the box office failures of One from the Heart ( 1982 ) and The Cotton Club ( 1984 ) . Coppola abandoned Tucker for the time being and went to work on Peggy Sue Got Married ( 1986 ) .
In 1986 , during the production of Captain EO ( 1986 ) , Coppola 's friend George Lucas encouraged him to revive development for Tucker , believing it to be " the best film Francis had ever been involved with . " In addition , Lucas agreed to serve as executive producer and offered the use of his filmmaking companies , Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic . He also convinced Coppola to drop the musical idea in favor of doing a homage to the films of Frank Capra , especially Mr. Smith Goes to Washington ( 1939 ) . Coppola became interested in the American Dream aspect of the storyline , as well as post @-@ World War II capitalism and politics . At one point , Coppola approached Capra to produce the film with Lucas , however , Capra thought Tucker was a failure and Coppola dropped that plan .
Coppola originally intended to write the screenplay himself , but due to his commitment to the filming of Gardens of Stone ( 1987 ) , engaged Arnold Schulman who scripted Capra 's A Hole in the Head ( 1959 ) . Schulman eventually collaborated with David Seidler on the Tucker project . Subsequently , Coppola rewrote the Schulman and Seidler scripts , but an attempt to get a co @-@ writing credit on the film was overruled by the Writers Guild of America , as an arbitration committee determined Coppola did not contribute enough to the script to warrant an on @-@ screen writing credit . The filmmakers devised a $ 24 million production budget , but Universal Pictures , Walt Disney Pictures , TriStar Pictures and Paramount Pictures wanted Coppola and Lucas to lower it to $ 15 million . Distributors were also dubious about working with Lucas after the 1986 commercial and critical failures of both Labyrinth and Howard the Duck . Lucas decided to cover the $ 24 million budget himself , and pre @-@ production proceeded .
= = Production = =
Development and production for Tucker : The Man and His Dream included the involvement of Tucker 's children and grandchildren . Jeff Bridges was cast in the title role and , for research , studied Preston Tucker 's mannerisms and movements through home movies . Tucker 's descendants also granted Bridges the opportunity to sport the man 's black pearl ring and cuff links for his wardrobe . Preston 's son , John Tucker , said that Bridges has " got it all in the mannerisms and the look . My father was very positive , always thinking of what came next . Jeff captures that . " Martin Landau was enthusiastic about accepting the pivotal role of Abe Karatz as a means to avoid typecasting . The construct of family values played a crucial role in the Tuckers ' life and Coppola studiously selected Joan Allen for the part of Vera , Tucker 's devoted wife while Christian Slater and Elias Koteas fill in the other central roles of eldest son and Tucker 's friend and confederate , Alex Tremulis . Coppola 's family was undergoing a stressful time during the production and he dedicated the film to Gio , his eldest son , who died before filming began .
Principal photography started with first unit shooting on April 13 , 1987 in the Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant in Richmond , California , doubling for the Dodge Chicago Plant . The majority of outdoor filming took place in Marin County , California as well as various locations including Oakland , Novato , and San Francisco . Forty @-@ seven of the original 52 Tucker ' 48s still exist , and many are in excellent condition . Twenty @-@ one of the cars were borrowed from members of the Tucker Automobile Club of America and were extensively used as both " set dressing " and in starring roles . Three cars were used to film the crash scene , a " before " version , with a fiberglass body , the car used to do the actual rollover was a Studebaker modified to look like a Tucker ( this car is currently in a privately owned museum in Tallahassee , Florida ) , and an " after crash " version which was another fiberglass body fitted to a Ford LTD chassis . The production is notable as the first film to have audio mixing work done at Lucas 's Skywalker Ranch . Production wrapped on July 17 , 1987 , and in the following month , Lucas convinced Paramount Pictures to distribute the film and cover the majority of the budget . He was helped by the fact that the studio was courting Coppola to direct The Godfather Part III ( 1990 ) . Prior to final editing , the studio insisted on amplifying the title to Tucker : The Man and His Dream .
= = Historical accuracy = =
Coppola had a certain amount of personal affinity with the short @-@ lived legacy of Preston Tucker . His father , Carmine Coppola , had been one of the original investors in Tucker stock and purchased one of the cars off the production line . Coppola included the involvement of Preston Tucker 's children , grandchildren and members of the Tucker Estate during the development of Tucker in the late 1970s , as well as during filming in 1987 . Coppola and Lucas acknowledged that they purposely intended to portray Tucker in an entirely sympathetic way . Both filmmakers each owned two Tuckers , although Lucas eventually sold one of his cars in September 2005 for $ 385 @,@ 500 . The Tucker Automobile Club made up of a legion of Tucker owners and collectors pronounced in their trade journal , TACA , that the " basic theme of the movie is quite accurate ... " although " the film compresses time and often takes artistic license with facts in order to more effectively present the story . "
Anahid Nazarian , Coppola 's librarian , spoke of the historical inaccuracies . " Preston Tucker didn 't really have an assembly line ; there 's one in the film . He actually had five kids ; there are only four in the film . Our story takes place in one year ; the real story took place over four years . People who know the story will find a lot of what they call errors . I 'm sure I 'll be deluged with letters . " Nazarian 's research , collected over several years , consisted of books , some 350 articles , interviews with the Tucker family , hundreds of photographs , home movies and information from the Tucker Automobile Club of America who the production company considered important arbiters of the Tucker mystique . " We knew the facts , " she continued , " but to fit the spirit of the story in a film that is exciting and has characters you love and characters you hate - that made us change a lot of things . Things like the president of the Tucker Company was a good guy really , but we needed a villain , so we made him a villain . " Alex Tremulis who served as one of the historical consultants during production , is depicted as the chief car designer of the Tucker Torpedo rather than as the stylist , and the film ignores the involvement of designer Philip Egan .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Tucker : The Man and His Dream was released in the United States on August 12 , 1988 , earning $ 3 @,@ 709 @,@ 562 in its opening weekend in 720 theaters . The film eventually grossed $ 19 @.@ 65 million in US totals and was declared a box office bomb because it did not reimburse its $ 24 million production budget , despite positive reviews . Pocket Books published a novelization written by Robert Tine to coincide with the release of the film . Paramount Home Video released Tucker : The Man and His Dream on DVD in October 2000 , which included audio commentary by Coppola , the 1948 promotional film Tucker : The Man and the Car ( with optional commentary by Coppola ) , as well as a making @-@ of featurette , Under the Hood : Making Tucker .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction was mainly positive . Based on 37 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 84 % of the critics enjoyed the film with an average score of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . By comparison Metacritic calculated an average score of 74 / 100 , based on 13 reviews . Richard Schickel of Time magazine praised the film for its exaggerated kitsch style . He also believed the role of Preston Tucker to be Jeff Bridges ' best performance . Janet Maslin from The New York Times agreed , writing that Coppola , known for his dark approach on his previous films , " found the directorial range to actually make a feel @-@ good movie . " In addition , Desson Thomson , writing in The Washington Post , called the film a " satisfying commercial breakthrough for Coppola , " and praised the cinematography of Vittorio Storaro , as well as the ubiquitous approach for Dean Stockwell 's cameo appearance as Howard Hughes . Roger Ebert gave a mixed review . " Preston Tucker lacks an ounce of common sense or any notion of the real odds against him . And since the movie never really deals with that - never really comes to grips with Tucker 's character - it begins as a saga but ends in whimsy . "
Although Coppola enjoyed his working relationship with Lucas , he commented in a July 1988 The New York Times interview with Robert Lindsey that " I think it 's a good movie - it 's eccentric , a little wacky , like the Tucker car - but it 's not the movie I would have made at the height of my power . " Coppola was able to stoically accept the critical and commercial reaction to Tucker : The Man and His Dream . " Every time in my career I tried to make , dare I say it , an art film , it never did well . "
Despite helming his " labor of love , " Coppola was insistent that Tucker : The Man and His Dream would be his last Hollywood project . He reiterated a long @-@ held dream of his own , embarking on a " period of amateurism and experimentation as a Hollywood dropout . " One of the unexpected benefits of the film 's release was a renewed interest in the Tucker automobile and a boost in the collector 's value of the Tucker 48 ; a recent auction of a low @-@ mileage example topped the $ 1 million mark .
= = Awards = =
At the 61st Academy Awards , Martin Landau was nominated for Best Supporting Actor , while production and set designers Dean Tavoularis and Armin Ganz ( Art Direction ) and Milena Canonero ( Costume Design ) were also nominated for their work . Landau did end up winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture , while Tavoularis won the BAFTA Award for Best Production Design . Casting directors Jane Jenkins and Janet Hirshenson received a nomination for Feature Film Casting- Drama by the Casting Society of America . The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics . Music composer Joe Jackson received a Grammy Award nomination .
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= Aggie Bonfire =
Aggie Bonfire was a long @-@ standing tradition at Texas A & M University as part of the college rivalry with the University of Texas at Austin . For 90 years , Texas A & M students — known as Aggies — built and burned a bonfire on campus each autumn . Known to the Aggie community simply as " Bonfire " , the annual autumn event symbolized Aggie students ' " burning desire to beat the hell outta t.u. " , a derogatory nickname for the University of Texas . The bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with festivities surrounding the annual college football game . Although early bonfires were little more than piles of trash , as time passed the annual event became more organized . Over the years the bonfire grew to an immense size , setting the world record in 1969 . In 1999 , the Bonfire collapsed during construction , killing twelve people , eleven students and one former student , and injuring twenty @-@ seven others . The accident led Texas A & M to declare a hiatus on an official Bonfire . However , since 2002 , a student @-@ sponsored coalition has constructed an annual unsanctioned , off @-@ campus " Student Bonfire " in the spirit of its predecessor .
= = Early years = =
The students of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas , known as Aggies , burned their first bonfire on November 18 , 1907 to congratulate the football team on a recent win . The first on @-@ campus Aggie Bonfire , a heap of trash and debris , was burned in 1909 to generate enthusiasm for a variety of sporting events . A decade later , the focus of the event narrowed to the annual rivalry game between Texas A & M and the University of Texas , held near Thanksgiving Day . Little information was recorded about the early Bonfires ; the 1921 Texas A & M yearbook mentioned the " final rally " of the students before the game against Texas , but did not refer to a bonfire . Six years later , the school yearbook published a photograph of the event .
Freshmen were expected to build the early Bonfires to help prove their worth . For almost two decades , the students constructed Bonfire from debris and wood acquired through various , sometimes illicit , means , including appropriating lumber intended for a dormitory in 1912 . In 1935 , a farmer reported that students carried off his entire barn as fuel for Bonfire . To prevent future incidents , the university made Bonfire a school @-@ sanctioned event . The following year , for the first time , the school provided axes , saws , and trucks for the students and pointed them toward a grove of dead trees on the edge of town .
During the 1940s , the school paper described Bonfire as " the greatest event of the football season " . The 1947 Corps handbook stated that " bonfire symbolizes two things : a burning desire to beat the team from the University of Texas , and the undying flame of love that every loyal Aggie carries in his heart for the school " ; this was often shortened to " the burning desire to beat the hell out of t.u. " The Bonfire design changed in 1942 . Universal Studios , filming the movie We 've Never Been Licked on the Texas A & M Campus , built a bonfire as a prop for the movie . Their structure used a design similar to a teepee , where all the logs rested against each other in a conical shape . The logs were placed at an angle between 23 and 30 degrees , giving it " a tremendous vertical and horizontal resistance " . This allowed Bonfire to grow from 25 feet ( 8 m ) tall to over 50 feet ( 20 m ) tall . Subsequent Aggies adopted the new idea , and the teepee design became standard for Bonfires for the next twenty @-@ five years .
Beginning in 1952 , the bonfires were constructed entirely from fresh @-@ cut logs . The event suffered its first fatality in 1955 , when a student was struck by a swerving car . The same year ( for unrelated reasons ) , Bonfire was moved from Simpson Drill Field in front of the Memorial Student Center to Duncan Field , near the dorms of the Corps of Cadets ( whose leaders oversaw construction ) . In 1957 , the structure collapsed two days before Bonfire was to be held , but students worked around @-@ the @-@ clock to rebuild it , and the bonfire burned as scheduled .
During this period , University of Texas students attempted several stunts , trying to light the stack early , but to no avail . In both 1933 and 1948 , students from UT rented an airplane and tried to drop fire bombs onto the stack . In one of these instances , the plane ran low on fuel , and was forced to land at Easterwood Airport in College Station — the wooden portions of the plane found themselves part of Bonfire that year . In 1956 , there was an unsuccessful attempt to plant explosives at the Bonfire site , and , in the late 1970s , a College Station police officer was fired after trying to ignite the bonfire several days ahead of schedule . Students spotted the officer before he could succeed and chased him across campus . In 1999 , a Longhorn fan hired someone to build a six @-@ foot model airplane designed to carry a bomb into the wood stack to ignite it prematurely . " He was actually in the process of building that plane when they had the tragedy at bonfire " , Mel Stekoll said . " At that point , we scrapped the plan . It would have been the next year that we planned to try it . "
= = Organizational change and expansion = =
In 1965 , membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary for students at Texas A & M. Before , Corps leaders directed construction of Bonfire . However , because the Corps had no authority over the " non @-@ regs " , or civilian students , a separate Bonfire leadership structure was instituted . The new leaders were designated with colored hard hats , or pots , with the overall leaders known as redpots .
The first Bonfire built with both Corps and non @-@ reg participation was in 1963 . The stack was scheduled to burn only days after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Out of respect , the students dismantled the stack . As Head Yell Leader Mike Marlowe explained , " It is the most we have and the least we can give . "
In the following years the structure became more elaborate , and in 1967 the flames could be seen 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . In 1969 , the stack of logs set the world record for the height of a bonfire at 109 ft 10 in ( 33 m ) tall . Out of concern for the safety of participants and the community , the university limited the size to 55 feet ( 17 m ) tall and 45 feet ( 14 m ) in diameter . As an added precaution , nearby campus buildings were equipped with rooftop sprinkler systems . Despite the new height restrictions , in the 1970s , the Guinness Book of Records listed Aggie Bonfire as the largest Bonfire in the world .
= = Design change = =
In 1978 , Bonfire shifted from its previous teepee design to a wedding cake style , in which upper stacks of logs were wedged on top of lower stacks . The structure was built around a fortified center pole , made from two telephone poles spliced together by cutting matching notches , approximately 10 feet ( 3 m ) long , and with 5 US gallons ( 19 L ) of glue . Four steel plates were bolted to the two poles , and a 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) cable wrapped around the joint and secured to the pole with steel staples . Four perimeter poles were placed 150 feet ( 46 m ) away and ropes were stretched between the perimeter poles to center poles and tension placed on them to hold the center pole together . After the center pole was erected , logs were placed vertically around it in a multi @-@ tiered wedding cake design composed of thousands of logs . By 1984 , the logs were sloping only 14 degrees . The spiral arrangement of the logs was designed to make Bonfire collapse into itself in a twisting motion , thus protecting spectators . Although the tradition stated that if Bonfire burned through midnight then A & M would win the following day 's football game , the introduction of the wedding cake design drastically reduced the time it took for Bonfire to fall , sometimes burning for only 30 or 45 minutes .
Despite the complexity of the design , there were no formal written instructions or architectural blueprints for the construction of Bonfire . Knowledge on how to build the structure was passed verbally from one redpot to the next . By 1999 , the only written documentation on the building of Bonfire was the rough schematic printed on the back of the official Bonfire T @-@ shirt worn by participants from the freshman honors dormitory , Lechner .
While the Bonfires of the 1960s were constructed in five to ten days , working primarily in daylight , by the late 1970s , changes in the school led to a more elaborate and lengthy construction schedule . Construction began in late October with " Cut " , obtaining wood by cutting down trees with axes , which took several weekends . After Cut , students brought the logs to campus during " Load " , a process by which the logs were loaded by hand onto flatbed trucks and brought to campus . In early November , crews began " Stack " , a three @-@ week period in which the logs were wired together and Bonfire took shape . Near the end of stack , known as " Push " , students worked around the clock in rotating shifts . The first four of the six stacks were built with the efforts of all safety @-@ trained participants . The day before Bonfire was scheduled to burn , junior redpots would build the fifth stack , and then senior redpots would build the sixth .
During Cut , all logs were felled by hand , with students working in teams to chop down each tree with their axes . The manual labor ensured that participants were invested in each log that went into the Bonfire . Once the trees had fallen , brownpots , the " executive lumberjacks " , used chainsaws to cut limbs and prepare the logs .
To ensure safety during the Stack period , the organizers maintained a perimeter around the working area , and allowed only safety @-@ trained students through . Cranes , donated by local construction companies , assisted in getting logs onto the upper tiers , and volunteers from those companies were on @-@ hand at all times to offer advice . Emergency medical technicians were also required to be on site at all times and no more than 70 students at a time were allowed on the stack . Once the stack was finished , " an outhouse constructed by the freshmen of Texas A & M 's " Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band " and painted orange [ symbolizing a ] t.u. frat house " was bedecked with derogatory statements about rival University of Texas at Austin and then placed on top of the stack .
Although between two and five thousand students participated in the construction of Bonfire each year , most worked only part @-@ time , and many worked only one or two shifts . Student workers were organized by dormitories or Corps units , with a separate off @-@ campus student team . Many former students participated with teams they belonged to as students . Each team had assigned shifts , although individuals were not limited to working only the assigned shifts . Students working on Bonfire wore " grodes " — old T @-@ shirts , jeans , and boots . By tradition , grodes were either not washed until after Bonfire burned or not washed at all .
In 1983 , the city of College Station began manufacturing Austin city limits signs for students to place at the summit of the Bonfire so that students would stop stealing signs from Austin . The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band began building the outhouse , ending the tradition of stealing Bonfire 's components .
= = Controversy = =
Although women were allowed to serve coffee and provide first aid in the late 1960s , in 1974 they were officially banned from both Cut and Stack . The ban was partially rescinded in 1979 , when women were again allowed to participate in Cut , and completely rescinded in 1981 . Few women participated in the early years , as female volunteers were subject to verbal abuse from their male counterparts . In 1987 , two female photographers from the school yearbook alleged that male workers shouted obscenities and threw dirt on them as they tried to take pictures of the raising of the center pole . The redpots responded that women were always welcome to participate as long as they did their share of the work , and that the photographers were standing dangerously close to the stack . To find their own place in the Bonfire hierarchy , female students founded the all @-@ female Bonfire Reload Crew to provide refreshments to those working at Cut and Stack .
Injuries plagued the construction process . In 1981 , student Wiley Keith Jopling died after being run over by a tractor at the Cut site . At the 1985 Cut site , one student broke his hip , and , in 1989 , another student lost two fingers when logs crushed his hand . Fractures and amputations were rare , but many students suffered cuts , scrapes , or exposure to poison ivy . Hazing , including beatings with ax handles , was common .
The 1980s also saw increased alcohol consumption during the Bonfire ceremony . In 1988 , police issued 140 Minor in Possession ( of alcohol ) citations and arrested six people . The following year , the local police department brought a paddywagon to the site for the first time , as they anticipated mass arrests for alcohol violations . As many as 150 police officers were on duty during the Bonfire burning from the Texas A & M and College Station police departments and the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission .
In 1989 , the Campus Ministry Association , representing 17 religious denominations , unanimously approved a resolution asking the university to change Bonfire because of concerns about safety , participant academic performance , humanitarian considerations , and the environment . Shortly afterwards , the Faculty Senate 's Committee of the Whole approved a resolution asking for a panel to explore alternatives to Bonfire .
Although students protested Bonfire 's environmental impact since 1970 , no changes were made for decades . In 1990 , student Scott Hantman asked the Bonfire leadership to help him address the problem . The group solicited volunteers , and in the spring of 1991 , they planted 400 trees . The tradition , Aggie Replant , has been repeated annually . The Replant organization became independent of Bonfire in 1994 when it gained its own Student Government Committee .
= = Later years = =
After being held at the Duncan Intramural Fields on the south side of A & M 's campus for twenty @-@ seven years , in 1992 , Bonfire was relocated to the Polo Fields on the northeast corner of campus . This more isolated site , with a larger area for people to gather , made it a safer location . After heavy rains in 1994 , the partially completed Bonfire began to slowly lean to the side as the soil underneath shifted . Student officials had enough warning to clear the area and tear down the Bonfire one week before its scheduled burn date . Nine tractors , two bulldozers , and two forklifts dismantled the stack on October 26 , 1994 , which , at 70 % completed , stood 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide .
The 1999 collapse of Bonfire was witnessed by thousands of people around the world . The Texas A & M Department of Computer Science set up a camera aimed at the Bonfire site that took a picture every 10 minutes and posted it on the Internet . On the day of the collapse over 29 @,@ 000 visitors visited the web page , at a time when only 20 million people worldwide had Internet access .
Students and alumni flocked to the Polo Fields , working around the clock , to rebuild the Bonfire in time for the game . It was completed only hours before it was scheduled to burn . After the 1994 Bonfire was burned , two tons of lime were spread on the Polo Fields to stabilize the ground . This layer hardened to a consistency similar to concrete .
In 1996 a student , Greg White , died in a car accident on his way home from Cut . The student and several companions were riding in the bed of a pickup truck when the driver lost control and the truck rolled . Nine other students were injured .
In its later years , students building Bonfire used logs donated by local landowners who wanted their land cleared for construction or farming . Over 8000 logs were used each year in the late 1990s , taking about 5000 students a combined 125 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct . After being doused in 700 lb ( 318 kg ) of jet fuel , applied by staff members at A & M 's Fire Training School , the Yell Leaders , Drum Majors , and Redpots then lit the stack with torches the night before the annual football game against the University of Texas when at home and two nights before the game when it was played in Austin .
This event was popular amongst current and former students and people traveled from all over the state and the nation to observe the burning of Bonfire . Hotel rooms within 65 miles ( 105 km ) of College Station were booked weeks or months in advance of the date Bonfire burned . Crowds ranged from 30 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 people , depending on the weather and the strength of the Aggie football team . The 1998 Bonfire was broadcast live on Fox Sports Southwest .
= = 1999 collapse = =
At approximately 2 : 42 a.m. on November 18 , 1999 , the 59 @-@ foot high stack , consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction . Of the 58 students and former students working on the stack , 12 were killed and 27 were injured . Immediately after the collapse , Emergency Medical Technicians and trained First Responders of the Texas A & M Emergency Care Team ( TAMECT ) , the student @-@ run , volunteer first @-@ responder service of Texas A & M University , who staffed every stage of construction of Bonfire , triaged patients and administered first aid . TAMECT medics radioed an alert to University Police and Texas A & M University EMS ( also a student @-@ run service ) , who dispatched all remaining university medics , and requested mutual aid from the surrounding EMS , Fire , and Police agencies . In addition to the mutual aid received from the College Station and Bryan , Texas EMS , Fire , and Police Departments , members of Texas Task Force 1 , the state 's elite emergency response team , arrived to assist the rescue efforts .
Rescue operations took over 24 hours ; the pace was hampered by the decision to remove many of the logs by hand for fear that using heavy equipment to remove them would cause further collapses , resulting in further injuries to those still trapped . Students , including the entire Texas A & M football team and many members of the university 's Corps of Cadets , rushed to the site to assist rescue workers with the manual removal of the logs . The Texas A & M civil engineering department was also called on to examine the site and help the workers determine the order in which the logs could be safely removed , and , at the request of the Texas Forest Service , Steely Lumber Company in Huntsville , Texas sent log @-@ moving equipment and operators . Bonfire survivor John Comstock was the last living person to be removed from the stack . He spent months in the hospital following amputation of his left leg and partial paralysis of his right side . Comstock returned to A & M in 2001 to finish his degree .
= = = Response = = =
Within minutes of the collapse , word of the accident spread among students and the community . Before sunrise , the accident was the subject of news reports around the world . Within hours , 50 satellite trucks were broadcasting from the Texas A & M campus . At noon , students held an impromptu prayer service in the center of campus , at Rudder Fountain . An official memorial service was held less than seventeen hours after the collapse . Over 16 @,@ 000 mourners , including then Texas Lieutenant Governor Rick Perry , packed Reed Arena to pay tribute to those who died and those who had spent all day trying to rescue the injured . At the end of the service , as A & M University President Ray Bowen presented roses to the families of the dead and injured students , the crowd spontaneously stood in silence , linking arms with those standing next to them , before quietly singing " Amazing Grace " . Only after all of the rescue workers and family members had left the facility did the audience depart .
On November 25 , 1999 , the date that Bonfire would have burned , Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony . Over 40 @,@ 000 people lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the collapse , before walking to Kyle Field for yell practice . At the stadium , fans spontaneously relit their candles as the Parsons Mounted Cavalry fired the Aggie cannon twelve times , once for each victim . Former President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara and Texas Governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura attended the remembrance ceremony .
The following day , the Aggies upset the Texas Longhorns , winning 20 – 16 in the annual rivalry game . The game began with a flyover of F @-@ 16 jets , all piloted by former A & M students , in the missing man formation . This flyover was donated by Senator Phil Gramm who , as an elected official , had the title of a fly @-@ over reserved for his death and asked that the fly @-@ over be given instead in the honor of the 12 Aggies that died . At halftime , the Texas Longhorn Band dedicated their performance to the students lost and injured in the collapse , and ended by playing Amazing Grace and Taps , then removing their white hats in a show of respect as they walked off the field . The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band also played a tribute to the fallen and , contrary to the usual tradition , marched off the field in a silent cadence . Aggie students , who normally sit only when the opposing band plays , stood throughout both performances and gave both standing ovations .
The Bonfire Memorial Commission collected the hundreds of thousands of items that were left by grieving visitors at the site of the collapse . At the Systems Building , Texas A & M leaders erected pictures of the deceased students . There , over a dozen seniors left behind their Aggie rings , permanently donating them to the students who did not live long enough to earn their own . Various organizations also established funds in memory of the victims and to help with expenses incurred because of the accident . In total , the funds received exceeded US $ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cause , aftermath , and controversy = = =
A commission created by Texas A & M University discovered that a number of factors led to the Bonfire collapse , including " excessive internal stresses " on the logs and " inadequate containment strength " in the wiring used to tie the logs together . The wiring broke after logs from upper tiers were " wedged " into lower tiers .
Detractors further blamed the school for the accident , saying that , in the name of tradition , administrators turned a blind eye to an unsafe structure being constructed with minimal engineering and safety protocols . Before the collapse , some people expressed concerns about the safety of the Bonfire , citing the partial collapse that occurred in a previous Bonfire , the progressively shorter Bonfire burn times ( collapse of the stack after lighting ) which had dropped from several hours to less than 20 minutes , and numerous incidents involving alcohol or unsafe horseplay at the Bonfire site . One of the students killed in the 1999 Bonfire collapse was under the legal drinking age yet a toxicology test showed high blood @-@ alcohol levels ; however , lower readings in a second test and inconsistencies in the initial sampling and annotation methods led to questions about the accuracy of the original tests .
Parents of students injured or killed in the 1999 collapse filed lawsuits against Texas A & M officials , including President Ray Bowen , Vice President of Student Affairs J. Malon Southerland , the 1999 redpots , and the university . In one of the six lawsuits , plaintiffs alleged that A & M officials violated the Bonfire victims ' right of due process by placing those victims in a " state @-@ created danger " by not ensuring Bonfire 's structural integrity and by allowing unqualified students to work on the stack . The plaintiffs pointed to a $ 2 million liability policy the university obtained in 1996 and accidental death and dismemberment insurance policies that the university obtained for student workers as early as 1987 as proof that the administrators knew of the dangers of Bonfire . Texas A & M maintains that the insurance policies were actually purchased by an advisory committee to Bonfire and not the university . On May 21 , 2004 , Federal Judge Samuel B. Kent dismissed all claims against the Texas A & M officials . In 2005 , 36 of the 64 original defendants , including all of the redpots , settled their portion of the case for an estimated $ 4 @.@ 25 million , paid by their insurance companies . The 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed the remaining lawsuits against Texas A & M and its officials in April 2007 . In October 2007 , the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the appeals court ruling .
The Texas Board of Professional Engineers announced in 2000 that the Aggie Bonfire met the requirements to be considered a complex construction project that should be regulated by state engineering laws . If Bonfire is resumed by the university in its former state , it will have to be designed and overseen by a professional engineer .
For the next two years , the university pondered options for reinstating the tradition . Bowen formed a task force , which proposed a new design . The task force recommended that students be allowed to participate in building the Bonfire as long as they were monitored by professional construction experts . Current and former students debated whether the proposed division of labor could be considered a student project . The debate was rendered moot when the university discovered liability insurance for the revamped project would cost more than $ 2 million per year . In 2002 , Bowen announced that Bonfire was officially cancelled . Bowen 's successor Robert Gates upheld this decision , stating that a " change in the status quo regarding the future of Bonfire would be inappropriate while litigation is still on @-@ going " .
On October 28 , 2008 , Texas A & M settled the final lawsuit filed against them by the victims and their families . The university agreed to pay $ 2 @.@ 1 million and promised that if Bonfire returned to campus that " engineering oversight " would be provided . The final lawsuit , filed against two companies that provided crane operators and cranes for the bonfire , was settled in April 2014 .
= = Bonfire Memorial = =
A memorial was constructed on the university polo fields , the site of the accident . Construction began in October 2003 and was completed by November 2004 . On November 18 , 2004 , five years following the incident , the Bonfire Memorial was officially dedicated . The memorial is composed of three design elements :
Tradition Plaza – Marks the entrance to the memorial and reflects on Aggie traditions .
History Walk – Consists of 89 stones representing the 89 previous years of Bonfire . A gap in the timeline signifies the 1963 Bonfire , which did not burn due to the John F. Kennedy assassination . The three previous Bonfire @-@ related deaths are also memorialized on this time line .
Spirit Ring – The ring surrounds the site of the collapse and represents the spirit that brought the students together . Twelve portals are placed around the ring , oriented toward each student 's hometown . Twenty @-@ seven stones complete the ring , representing the 27 students injured in the collapse .
The memorial design has been recognized by several organizations as an outstanding architectural design and masonry accomplishment . The American Institute of Architects , San Antonio Chapter , recognized the memorial as a winner of the 2005 AIA San Antonio Design Award . The memorial also was recognized as a winner of the 2005 MCAA International Excellence in Masonry Awards .
To further honor the victims , in 2000 , the Aggie Replant Committee planted twelve live oak trees at the Polo Grounds .
= = Continuation : Student Bonfire = =
Shortly after the university officially cancelled Bonfire , students began planning an unofficial bonfire for November 2002 . Known as the " Unity Project " , it became the first unofficial Bonfire since the 1930s . This fire consisted of three piles of wood , with the center stack being 35 feet ( 11 m ) high . Despite a lack of official advertisement , over one thousand spectators attended .
The following year , the unofficial event was rebranded Student Bonfire . Now a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization , Student Bonfire has official bylaws and a Board of Directors comprising former students . The bylaws specify the design that must be used each year , and no changes have been permitted since the first burn in 2003 . This design , based on the recommendation of the 2002 university task force and approved by a structural engineer , results in a Bonfire less than half the size of those from the 1960s . In a departure from tradition , every log in the stack touches the ground . To maintain the traditional wedding @-@ cake design , the logs are cut to different heights , with the tallest set reaching 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high . The lowered height eliminates the need for a spliced center pole . Instead , a single utility pole , sunk 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) into the ground , serves as the center pole . As in the pre @-@ 1999 versions of Bonfire , each log is tied to the log next to it with baling wire . To further fortify the structure , aircraft @-@ grade steel cable is wrapped around each tier . For added support , four 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) poles are spaced evenly around the stack and then bolted to the 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) center pole , each with a steel pipe . These poles are known as Windle @-@ sticks , after Levi Windle , a staunch supporter of Student Bonfire who died in an unrelated accident in 2003 .
The Board changed or eliminated many of the minor traditions that had proliferated during Aggie Bonfire , primarily for safety reasons . Alcohol is no longer permitted , and hazing has been banned . The Bonfire leadership structure has remained in place , although in 2014 only 10 of the 26 dorms were represented by Bonfire crews . Attendance for Student Bonfire ranges from 8 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 people and the event is held in Brazos County or one of the surrounding counties . The 2013 Student Bonfire attracted 12 @,@ 000 people , despite being postponed until January due to flooding .
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= George Pickett =
George Edward Pickett ( January 16 , 1825 – July 30 , 1875 ) was a career United States Army officer who became a major general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . He is best remembered for his participation in the futile and bloody Confederate offensive on the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg that bears his name , Pickett 's Charge .
Pickett graduated last out of 59 cadets in the West Point Class of 1846 . He served as a second lieutenant in the United States Army during the Mexican @-@ American War , and is noted for his service in the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . After this , he served in the Washington Territory , and eventually reached the rank of captain . Pickett participated in the Pig War of 1859 . Near the beginning of the American Civil War , he enlisted in the Confederate Army , and he attained the rank of brigadier general in January 1862 . He commanded a brigade that saw heavy action during the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 . Pickett was wounded at the Battle of Gaines 's Mill on June 27 .
He did not return to command until September , following the Battle of Antietam , when he was given command of a division in the Right Wing of the Army of Northern Virginia , commanded by Major General James Longstreet , which became the I Corps that December . His division was lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg , and , along with most of Longstreet 's Corps , missed the Battle of Chancellorsville while participating in the Suffolk Campaign in 1863 . During the Gettysburg Campaign , his division was , much to Pickett 's frustration , the last to arrive on the field . However , it was one of three divisions under the command of General Longstreet to participate in a disastrous assault on Union positions on July 3 , the final day of the battle . The attack has been given the name " Pickett 's Charge " . In February 1864 , Pickett commanded the Confederate forces at the Battle of New Bern , and ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters found to be fighting amongst the U.S. troops . On April 1 , 1865 , he was defeated while in overall command of Confederate troops at the Battle of Five Forks .
Following the war , Pickett feared prosecution for his execution of deserters and temporarily fled to Canada . He returned to Virginia in 1866 , where he died at age 50 in 1875 . Legend says that after the war he remained bitter and dwelt extensively upon the loss of his men at Gettysburg .
= = Early life = =
George Edward Pickett was born in his grandfather 's shop in Richmond , Virginia on January 16 , 1825 . He was the first of the eight children of Robert and Mary Pickett , a prominent family of Old Virginia of English origins , and one of the " first families " of Virginia . He was the cousin of future Confederate general Henry Heth . He went to Springfield , Illinois , to study law , but at the age of 17 he was appointed to the United States Military Academy . Legend has it that Pickett 's West Point appointment was secured for him by Abraham Lincoln , but this is largely believed to be a story circulated by his widow following his death . Lincoln , as an Illinois state legislator , could not nominate candidates , although he did give the young man advice after he was accepted . Pickett was actually appointed by Illinois Congressman John T. Stuart , a friend of Pickett 's uncle and a law partner of Lincoln .
Pickett was popular as a cadet at West Point . He was mischievous and a player of pranks , " ... a man of ability , but belonging to a cadet set that appeared to have no ambition for class standing and wanted to do only enough study to secure their graduation . " At a time when often a third of the class left before graduation , Pickett persisted , working off his demerits and doing enough in his studies to graduate , ranking last out of the 59 surviving students in the Class of 1846 . It is a position held with some backhanded distinction , referred to today as the " goat " , both for its stubbornness and tenacity . Pickett 's cousin Henry Heth graduated last in the Class of 1847 .
= = United States Army Career = =
Pickett was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the U.S. 8th Infantry Regiment . He soon gained national recognition in the Mexican – American War when he carried the American colors over the parapet during the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . Wounded at the base of the wall , Pickett 's friend and colleague Lieutenant James Longstreet handed him the colors . Pickett carried the flag over the wall and fought his way to the roof of the palace , unfurling it over the fortress and announcing its surrender . He received a brevet promotion to captain following this action .
In 1849 , while serving on the Texas frontier after the war , he was promoted to first lieutenant and then to captain in the 9th U.S. Infantry in 1855 . In 1853 , Pickett challenged a fellow junior officer , future Union general Winfield Scott Hancock , to a duel ; ( they had met only briefly when Hancock was passing through Texas ) . Hancock declined the duel , a response not unlikely as dueling had fallen out of favor at the time .
In January 1851 , Pickett married Sally Harrison Minge , the daughter of Dr. John Minge of Virginia , the great @-@ great @-@ grandniece of President William Henry Harrison , and the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Benjamin Harrison , a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence . Sally died during childbirth that November , at Fort Gates , Texas .
Pickett next served in the Washington Territory . In 1856 he commanded the construction of Fort Bellingham on Bellingham Bay , in what is today the city of Bellingham , Washington . He also built a frame home that year which still stands ; Pickett House is the oldest house in Bellingham and the oldest house on its original foundation in the Pacific Northwest . While posted to Fort Bellingham , Pickett married a Native American woman of the Haida tribe , Morning Mist , who gave birth to a son , James Tilton Pickett ( 1857 – 1889 ) ; Morning Mist died a few months later . " Jimmy " Pickett made a name for himself as a newspaper artist , before dying of tuberculosis at the age of 32 near Portland , Oregon .
In 1859 Pickett was dispatched in command of Company D , 9th U.S. Infantry , to garrison San Juan Island in response to discord that had arisen there between American farmers and the Hudson 's Bay Company . The confrontation was instigated when American farmer Lyman Cutler shot and killed a pig that had repeatedly broken into his garden . The pig belonged to the Hudson 's Bay Company , and though Cutler was prepared to pay a fair price for the pig , the Company was not satisfied , insisting he be brought before the British magistrate , thus initiating the territorial dispute that came to be known as the Pig War . In response to the U.S. forces , the British sent a force of three warships and 1000 men . The British commander demanded that Pickett and his men leave . Pickett declined , and the British officer returned to his frigate , threatening to land his own men . Pickett with his 68 men appeared to be fully prepared to oppose a British landing , ordering them into a line of battle near the beach . " Don 't be afraid of their big guns , " he told his men , " We 'll make a Bunker Hill of it . " Pickett 's presence and determination prevented the landing , the British being under orders to avoid armed conflict with United States forces , if possible . After initial tensions passed the crisis was averted , both sides being unwilling to go to war over a pig . President James Buchanan dispatched Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott to negotiate a settlement between the parties .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Early assignments = = =
On April 19 , after the firing on Battle of Fort Sumter and President Lincoln 's call for 75 @,@ 000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion , Virginia joined four more Southern states in seceding from the Union . Native son Pickett journeyed from Oregon to serve his state . Arriving after the First Battle of Bull Run , he resigned his commission in the U.S. Army on June 25 , 1861 ; he had been holding a commission as a major in the Confederate States Army Artillery since March 16 . Within a month he was appointed colonel in command of the Rappahannock Line of the Department of Fredericksburg , under the command of Major General Theophilus H. Holmes . Holmes 's influence obtained a commission for Pickett as a brigadier general , dated January 14 , 1862 .
Pickett made a colorful general . He rode a sleek black charger named " Old Black , " and wore a small blue kepi @-@ style cap , with buffed gloves over the sleeves of an immaculately tailored uniform that had a double row of gold buttons on the coat , and shiny gold spurs on his highly polished boots . He held an elegant riding crop whether mounted or walking . His moustache drooped gracefully beyond the corners of his mouth and then turned upward at the ends . His hair was the talk of the Army : " long ringlets flowed loosely over his shoulders , trimmed and highly perfumed , his beard likewise was curling and giving up the scent of Araby . "
Pickett 's first combat command was during the Peninsula Campaign , leading a brigade that was nicknamed the Gamecocks ( the brigade would eventually be led by Richard B. Garnett in Pickett 's Charge ) . Pickett led his brigade ably in the battles of Williamsburg and Seven Pines , earning commendations from his superiors . At Gaines 's Mill he was shot off his horse while leading his brigade in its first assault . Pickett continued to move forward with his men for a while , leading his horse on foot . A second assault by Pickett 's brigade , led by Colonel Eppa Hunton , along with the brigade led by Cadmus Wilcox , broke the Union line . Pickett feared that he had taken a mortal blow to his shoulder , but the wound was initially assessed by others as minor . The shoulder wound turned out to be severe enough that , while not fatal , Pickett was out of action for the next three months , and his arm would remain stiff for at least a year .
When Pickett returned to the Army in September 1862 , following the Battle of Antietam , he was given command of a two @-@ brigade division in the corps commanded by his old colleague from Mexico , Major General Longstreet . Pickett was promoted to major general on October 10 . Shortly afterwards it was upgraded to five brigades , commanded by Generals Garnett , James Kemper , Lewis Armistead , Montgomery Dent Corse and Micah Jenkins . The division was only lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December . His division would not see serious combat until the Gettysburg Campaign the following summer . Longstreet and two of his divisions @-@ those commanded by Pickett and John Bell Hood @-@ were detached from Lee 's main army in April while participating in the Suffolk Campaign . They thus missed the Battle of Chancellorsville . The Suffolk Campaign was minor and inconclusive , while the Battle of Chancellorsville was an enormous Confederate victory .
Before the Gettysburg Campaign , Pickett fell in love with a Virginia teenager , LaSalle " Sallie " Corbell ( 1843 – 1931 ) , commuting back and forth from his duties in Suffolk to be with her . Although Sallie would later insist that she met him in 1852 ( at age 9 ) , she did not marry the 38 @-@ year @-@ old widower until November 13 , 1863 . The couple had two children , George Edward Pickett , Jr . ( born July 17 , 1864 ) and David Corbell Pickett ( born 1865 or 1866 ) . David died in late 1873 or January 1874 of measles .
= = = Gettysburg and Pickett 's Charge = = =
Pickett 's division arrived at the Battle of Gettysburg on the evening of the second day , July 2 , 1863 . It was reduced to 3 brigades present , Corse 's still being detached in Virginia and Jenkins ' transferred . It had been delayed by the assignment of guarding the Confederate lines of communication through Chambersburg , Pennsylvania . After two days of heavy fighting , General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia , which had initially driven the Union Army of the Potomac to the high ground south of Gettysburg , had been unable to dislodge the Union soldiers from their position . Lee 's plan for July 3 called for a massive assault on the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge , calculating that Meade had concentrated his forces to protect his flanks while leaving his center weak . Lee directed General Longstreet to assemble a force of three divisions for the attack — two divisions from the corps of Lieutenant General A.P. Hill , under the temporary command of J. Johnston Pettigrew and Major General Isaac R. Trimble , which had both seen action on July 1 , and Pickett 's fresh division from Longstreet 's own corps . The center was occupied by the Union II Corps , commanded by Major General Winfield S. Hancock . Longstreet was technically in command , not Pickett . Nevertheless , the attack became known as " Pickett 's Charge " . In addition , much of the mythology of the Charge arose from newspaper reports . As Pickett was the only major general from Virginia to participate in the charge , the Virginia newspapers both played up their native son 's role and made the assault a more " glamorous " event .
Following a two @-@ hour artillery barrage meant to soften up the Union defenses , the three divisions stepped off across open fields almost a mile from Cemetery Ridge . Pickett inspired his men by shouting , " Up , Men , and to your posts ! Don 't forget today that you are from Old Virginia . " Pickett 's division , with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Armistead , Garnett , and Kemper , was on the right flank of the assault . It received punishing artillery fire , and then volleys of massed musket fire as it approached its objective . Armistead 's brigade made the farthest progress through the Union lines . Armistead was mortally wounded , falling near " The Angle " , at what is now termed the " High Water Mark of the Confederacy " . Neither of the other two divisions made comparable progress across the fields ; Armistead 's success was not reinforced , and his men were quickly killed or captured .
Pickett 's Charge was a bloodbath . While the Union suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties , the Confederates had over 6 @,@ 000 . Over 50 % of the men sent across the fields were killed or wounded . Pickett 's division alone , out of about 5 @,@ 500 men , lost 224 killed , 1 @,@ 140 wounded , and 1 @,@ 499 missing / captured . Pickett 's three brigade commanders and all thirteen of his regimental commanders were casualties . Kemper was wounded , Garnett killed , and Armistead mortally wounded . Trimble and Pettigrew were the most senior casualties of the entire Confederate assault , the former losing a leg and the latter wounded in the hand and later mortally wounded during the retreat to Virginia . Pickett has received some historical criticism for establishing his final position well to the rear of his troops , most likely at the Codori farm on the Emmitsburg Road . Thomas R. Friend , who served Pickett as a courier , defended Pickett by writing that he " went as far as any Major General , Commanding a division , ought to have gone , and farther . "
As soldiers straggled back to the Confederate lines along Seminary Ridge , Lee feared a Union counteroffensive and tried to rally his center , telling returning soldiers that the failure was " all my fault . " Pickett was inconsolable . When Lee told Pickett to rally his division for the defense , Pickett allegedly replied , " General Lee , I have no division . " Pickett 's official report for the battle has never been found . It is rumored that Lee rejected it for its bitter negativity and demanded that it be rewritten , and an updated version was never filed .
= = = North Carolina = = =
After the Battle of Gettysburg , Pickett commanded the Department of Southern Virginia and North Carolina . In February , Pickett was ordered to capture New Bern , North Carolina from Federal forces . The subsequent Battle of New Bern resulted in a Confederate defeat . Following the battle , Pickett ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters who were found to have joined the United States Army .
= = = Overland Campaign and Siege of Petersburg = = =
Pickett then served as a division commander in the Defenses of Richmond . After P.G.T. Beauregard bottled up Benjamin Butler in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign , Pickett 's division was detached in support of Robert E. Lee 's operation in the Overland Campaign , just before the Battle of Cold Harbor , in which Pickett 's division occupied the center of the defensive line , a place in which the main Union attack did not occur . His division participated in the Siege of Petersburg .
= = = Battle of Five Forks = = =
General Pickett had received orders from Robert E. Lee to , with the Cavalry divisions of Major Generals William Henry Fitzhugh Lee and Thomas L. Rosser , hold the vital railroad crossing at Five Forks at all costs . On April 1 , at the Battle of Five Forks , their troops were attacked by a combined force under Major General Philip Henry Sheridan , which consisted of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac , commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren , and the Cavalry Corps of the Army , commanded by Brigadier General Wesley Merritt . Pickett , W.H.L. Lee , and Rosser were located behind the lines of their troops at the time of the attack , enjoying a shad bake while failing to inform their subordinate officers of their location . Meanwhile , Warren 's troops overwhelmed their left flank , and the Cavalry troops pinned the Confederates down elsewhere . By the time the Confederate commanders realized the catastrophe , it was too late to prevent the defeat . The result of the battle helped lead to the eventual capture of Richmond and the surrender of Lee 's army .
= = = Relief controversy = = =
A controversy existed over whether or not Pickett was relieved of his command in the final days of the war . After the war , Lee 's Chief of Staff , Lieutenant Colonel Walter H. Taylor , wrote that following the Battle of Sayler 's Creek on April 6 , 1865 , he had issued orders for Lee relieving Major Generals Richard H. Anderson and Bushrod R. Johnson , whose forces had been lost in the battle and who thereby no longer had troops under their command . In fact , Anderson had returned to his home in South Carolina following the battle . In addition , Taylor recollected that he had issued an order relieving Pickett as well . Pickett 's division was still intact , though reduced in number to about the size of a brigade . No copies of these orders exist . Douglas Southall Freeman , a biographer of Lee , supported this assertion , writing in 1935 that at the same time Lee relieved Anderson of command , he took the same action regarding Pickett and Bushrod Johnson , but the order regarding Pickett apparently never reached him . As late as April 11 he signed himself , " Maj. Genl . Commdg . "
In contradiction to this assertion , in his 1870 book Pickett 's Men Walter Harrison reprinted an order from Lieutenant Colonel Taylor to Pickett dated April 10 , 1865 , in which Taylor addressed Pickett as " Maj Gen G E Picket [ sic ] , General Commanding " The order was a request for an account of the movements and actions of Pickett 's Division from the time of the Battle of Five Forks on April 1 to the surrender at Appomattox on April 9 . In the report Pickett submitted he said :
The second day after the battle referred to ( Five Forks ) not being able to find General Anderson 's headquarters , I reported to Lieut . Gen. Longstreet , and continued to receive orders from him until the army was paroled and disbursed . "
Pickett 's official report to Taylor was signed " G.E. Pickett , Major @-@ Gen. , Commd 'g . " This is April 11 report mentioned by Freeman above . Thus in Pickett 's official report to Taylor he speaks of commanding his men and interacting with his superior officer right up until the surrender at Appomattox . Taylor attempted to explain the apparent contradiction by telling Fitzhugh Lee that he addressed his request in the manner he did because Pickett was not dismissed from the Army , and for the period in question Pickett was initially in command . This explanation , however , leaves unanswered the question of how Taylor expected Pickett to answer for the period of time Pickett purportedly was not in command . The explanation does not explain Pickett 's report which covered the entire period , nor the fact that Pickett signed the report as the acting commander , nor did it explain Longstreet 's interactions with Pickett over this period of time . Furthermore , there is no record of Taylor requesting reports from any other officers dismissed from the service on the movements of their former troops , nor of his referring to such officers in a manner which would connote active command .
The medical officer of Pickett 's division , Dr. M. G. Elzey , was with Pickett at the time of these events . Years later when an elderly Colonel John Mosby raised this issue in 1911 , Elzey wrote a letter to the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch in answer to Mosby :
I was General Pickett 's personal medical advisor , and continued to be such until the time of his death . We rode together a greater part of the way during the retreat of our army from Petersburg to Appomattox . We escaped together from the battlefield at Sailor 's Creek and were constantly together until we reached Appomattox . I repeat it , therefore , with all confidence , that I am a competent witness to the fact that he was never under arrest , but remained in command of his Division until the last scene at Appomattox .
M. G. Elzey
In Longstreet 's final report , he makes no mention of any other officer being in charge of the unit . In point of fact his final report makes no mention of Pickett or his division . Pickett commanded the men remaining in his division and reported to Longstreet . These men surrendered with Pickett at Appomattox . Regarding Pickett and his division , no source can be produced which asserts anything otherwise .
= = = Appomattox = = =
On April 9 Pickett commanded his remaining troops in the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , forming up in the final battle line of the Army of Northern Virginia . He surrendered with Lee 's army and was paroled at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 .
A legend told by Pickett 's widow stated that when the Union Army marched into Richmond , she received a surprise visitor . He acted graciously and inquired whether he had found the Pickett house . Abraham Lincoln himself had come to determine the fate of an old acquaintance before the wars , and Sallie , astonished , admitted she was his wife and held out her infant for the president to cradle . Lincoln historian Gerald J. Prokopowicz has called this story a " fantasy " .
= = Postbellum life = =
Fearing prosecution for his execution of 22 deserters following the Battle of New Bern , which was then under investigation , Pickett fled with his wife and son to Canada . He remained out of the country for a year until hearing that , at the recommendation of Ulysses S. Grant , the investigation had ended . Pickett returned to the United States with his family in 1866 to work as an insurance agent and farmer in Norfolk , Virginia .
On June 23 , 1874 House Resolution 3086 , an " act to remove the political disabilities of George E. Pickett of Virginia " , was passed by the U.S. Congress . Pickett was granted a full pardon , about a year before his death .
Pickett lamented his men , lost in great number at Gettysburg . Late in his life , Colonel John Singleton Mosby , who had served under General J.E.B. Stuart , was present when Lee and Pickett met briefly after the war . He claimed their interaction was cold and reserved . Others present at the meeting refuted this , stating Lee only acted in his usual reserved and gentlemanly fashion . Pickett , Mosby said , complained bitterly after this meeting , saying to Mosby : " That man destroyed my division . " Mosby allegedly replied " Yes , but he made you immortal . " Most historians find the encounter as Mosby interpreted it unlikely . Asked by reporters why Pickett 's Charge failed , Pickett frequently replied : " I 've always thought the Yankees had something to do with it . "
George E. Pickett died in Norfolk , Virginia , on July 30 , 1875 . The cause of death was a liver abscess , although whether it was amoebic or bacterial is not clear . He was initially interred in Cedar Grove Cemetery in Norfolk . His remains were disinterred on October 23 and he was buried in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond , Virginia on October 24 , 1875 . More than 40 @,@ 000 people lined the funeral route while another 5 @,@ 000 marched in the funeral procession . A memorial to Pickett was erected over his grave site and dedicated on October 5 , 1888 . The memorial was not , however , placed directly above Pickett 's burial site , and the exact location of his remains is not clear .
LaSalle Corbell Pickett died on March 22 , 1931 , having outlived her husband by more than 55 years . Initially , Hollywood Cemetery declined to allow her to be buried next to her husband . Pickett 's grandson , Lieutenant George E. Pickett III , threatened to have his grandfather disinterred and moved to Arlington National Cemetery where both grandparents could be buried side @-@ by @-@ side . Hollywood Cemetery quickly agreed to permit LaSalle 's interment at Hollywood , but this did not immediately occur for reasons which are not clear , and LaSalle was cremated and buried at Abbey Mausoleum in Arlington County , Virginia . Originally a mausoleum for the wealthy , it went bankrupt in 1968 . The structure fell into disrepair , and it was vandalized many times and several graves desecrated . In early 1998 , the Military Order of the Stars and Bars and United Daughters of the Confederacy worked together to pay for LaSalle 's disinterment and reburial in front of the George E. Pickett Memorial in Hollywood Cemetery . LaSalle Pickett was buried on Saturday , March 21 , 1998 . She was the first woman interred in the Confederate military burial section .
= = Legacy = =
Decades after Pickett 's death , his widow LaSalle ( also known as " Sallie " and " Mother " ) became a well @-@ known writer and speaker on " her Soldier , " eventually leading to the creation of an idealized Pickett who was the perfect Southern gentleman and soldier . Much controversy attends LaSalle Pickett 's lionizing of her husband . LaSalle was the author of Pickett and His Men , a history of her husband 's military campaigns , which was published in 1899 . She published two other books in her deceased husband 's name , The Heart of a Soldier , As Revealed in the Intimate Letters of Gen 'l George E. Pickett ( published in 1913 ) and Soldier of the South : General Pickett 's War Letters to His Wife ( 1928 ) . These two writings have been described as " unreliable works that were fictionalized by Pickett 's wife . " As a result , General Pickett has become a figure partially obscured by " Lost Cause " mythology . Pickett today is widely perceived as being a tragic hero of sorts — a flamboyant officer who wanted to lead his troops into a glorious battle , but always missed the opportunity until the disastrous charge at Gettysburg .
Historian John C. Waugh wrote of Pickett , " An excellent brigade commander , he never proved he could handle a division . " He quotes George B. McClellan , the Union general , as saying : " Perhaps there is no doubt that he was the best infantry soldier developed on either side during the Civil War . "
Pickett 's grave is marked by a memorial in Hollywood Cemetery , which was placed there in 1888 . A monument to Pickett also stands in the American Camp on San Juan Island , Washington , erected by the Washington University Historical Society on October 21 , 1904 .
Fort Pickett in Blackstone , Virginia , is named in his honor . It was completed in 1942 and served as an active U.S. Army training facility in World War II and is currently occupied by the Virginia National Guard .
= = In popular media = =
Actor Stephen Lang portrayed George Pickett in the 1993 film Gettysburg . Billy Campbell portrayed Pickett in the 2003 prequel Gods and Generals .
Pickett also appeared in two episodes of the 1985 mini @-@ series North and South , depicting his cadet years at West Point , at which time he was a friend of George Hazard and Orry Main , the two main fictional characters of the series .
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= Hurricane Fred ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Fred was the first hurricane to move through the Cape Verde Islands since 1892 . The second hurricane and sixth named storm of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season , Fred originated from a well @-@ defined tropical wave over West Africa in late August . Once offshore , the wave moved northwestward within a favorable tropospheric environment and strengthened into a tropical storm on August 30 . The next day , Fred further grew to a Category 1 hurricane with peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) as it approached Cape Verde . After passing Boa Vista and moving away from Santo Antão , it entered a phase of steady weakening , dropping below hurricane status by September 1 . Fred then turned to the west @-@ northwest and endured increasingly hostile wind shear , but maintained its status as a tropical cyclone despite repeated forecasts of dissipation . It fluctuated between a minimal tropical storm and tropical depression through September 4 – 5 before curving sharply to the north . By September 6 , Fred 's circulation pattern had diminished considerably , and it dissipated later that day .
At the threat of the hurricane , all of Cape Verde was placed under a hurricane warning for the first time in history . Gale @-@ force winds battered much of the Barlavento region through August 31 , downing numerous trees and utility poles . On the easternmost islands of Boa Vista and Sal , Fred leveled roofs and left several villages without power and phone services for several days . About 70 percent of the houses in Povoação Velha were damaged to some degree . Throughout the northern islands , rainstorms damaged homes and roads , and São Nicolau lost large amounts of its crop and livestock . Monetary losses exceeded $ 1 @.@ 1 million ( 2015 USD ) across Cape Verde , though the rain 's overall impact on the agriculture was positive . Swells from the hurricane produced violent seas along West African shores , destroying fishing villages and submerging large swaths of residential area in Senegal . Between the coasts of West Africa and Cape Verde , maritime incidents related to Fred resulted in nine deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on August 28 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a tropical wave — an elongated area of low air pressure — inland over West Africa . Traced by widespread cloudiness , the wave tracked toward the open Atlantic throughout the remainder of the day . A broad cyclonic rotation began to develop within the lower atmosphere on August 29 , near the Guinea coastline . The disturbance veered toward the northwest and emerged offshore near Conakry around 18 : 00 UTC that day . By then , the NHC predicted a favorable environment for tropical cyclone development within the next 48 hours . Heavy thunderstorms thrived overnight , and consolidated near a well @-@ defined low @-@ pressure center . On the morning of August 30 , satellite images and scatterometer data confirmed that a tropical depression had formed about 300 mi ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Conakry , with wind speeds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) .
Although tropical cyclones in the extreme eastern Atlantic are normally propelled westward by high pressure from a subtropical ridge , this depression moved toward the northwest , along a breach in the ridge caused by another disturbance . Its cyclonic structure steadily improved : a sharply curved rainband tightened around the center , resembling the precursor to an eye . At 06 : 00 UTC on August 30 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fred about 390 mi ( 625 km ) east @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde — one of the four easternmost locations for a tropical storm since modern record @-@ keeping began in 1851 . Intensification trends continued at a steady pace while Fred trekked through a region with ample tropical moisture , light upper winds , and above @-@ average sea surface temperatures ; the storm developed a thick , circular central dense overcast with good outflow , and the eye feature became well established at all levels of the circulation . Based on a combination of these characteristics and satellite estimates of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds , Fred was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on August 31 . Then centered 120 mi ( 195 km ) east @-@ southeast of Praia , Cape Verde , it was the easternmost tropical cyclone ever to attain hurricane status in the tropical Atlantic .
A compact cyclone , Fred quickly reached its peak intensity with a minimum central pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) and 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds . Through the rest of August 31 , the hurricane traversed the Barlavento Islands of Cape Verde . The eye barely skirted the southern coast of Boa Vista around 12 : 00 UTC , decreasing in definition over the next 12 hours as it passed north of São Nicolau and then north @-@ northeast of Santo Antão . On September 1 , drier air and increasing wind shear aloft dispersed the inner convection , which caused Fred to weaken to a tropical storm . Rebuilding high pressure to the north over the eastern Atlantic turned the weakening storm slightly toward the west @-@ northwest over considerably cooler waters . Through much of September 1 – 4 , convection was limited to intermittent flare @-@ ups , with the associated thunderstorms continuously blown away from the center by the strong upper winds . Despite the adverse environment and its lack of stable convection , Fred retained a robust spiral of low @-@ level clouds and gales during this period , defying the NHC 's repeated forecasts of its dissipation .
Around 12 : 00 UTC , September 4 , a waning wind circulation prompted the NHC to downgrade Fred to a tropical depression ; though its winds briefly reincreased to tropical storm force the next day , it continued as a depression with minimal convection throughout the remainder of its existence . Concurrently , a deep @-@ altitude disturbance a few hundred miles east of Bermuda began to erode the southern edge of the high @-@ pressure ridge that Fred had circumnavigated for most of its journey . This changed the steering pattern in the region , turning the depression abruptly to the north on September 6 . Over the following hours , Fred became increasingly indistinguishable as a result of its progressively worsening surroundings . It officially lost its status as a tropical cyclone at 18 : 00 UTC , degenerating into a trough , about 1 @,@ 210 mi ( 1 @,@ 945 km ) southwest of the Azores . The remnants were absorbed into a frontal boundary shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Cape Verde = = =
A tropical storm warning was issued for Cape Verde upon the storm 's formation , as well as a hurricane watch in light of forecasts for further development . When Fred showed definitive signs of strengthening , the alerts were replaced by a hurricane warning , marking the first occasion of a hurricane @-@ level threat in the nation 's recorded history . On the morning of August 31 , TACV Cabo Verde Airlines suspended its flights from the capital of Praia to Dakar ; all operations at the airports of Boa Vista , Sal and São Vicente were halted soon after squally conditions across the islands . Officials ordered shipping interests on all islands to remain in port and to secure their vessels . A national music festival was canceled in Porto Novo , on the northernmost island of Santo Antão .
As it traversed the easternmost Cape Verde Islands on the afternoon of August 31 , Fred brought strong winds and thunderstorms to Boa Vista that uprooted trees , damaged roofs and plaster , and knocked out power to most of the population . Cellphone service from a local carrier went down due to a toppled transmission tower in Sal Rei . Two inhabitants were taken to hospital when their home partially collapsed , but they remained in good condition . Floods affected low @-@ lying areas of Rabil and cut off the main road to surrounding towns , hampering mobilization efforts . The southern village of Povoação Velha bore the brunt of the storm ; about 70 percent of the houses experienced some degree of damage , from broken tiles and windows to crumbled walls , with repair costs of 3 million escudos ( 2015 value ; $ 30 @,@ 000 in USD ) . A compromised infrastructure left the village without power and telephone services for at least five days . Throughout Boa Vista , Fred led to losses of 76 million escudos ( U $ 770 @,@ 000 ) , an estimated 50 million ( US $ 500 @,@ 000 ) occurring in the private sector .
Similar effects were felt in parts of the other eastern islands . Along the southern shore of Sal , Fred 's storm surge sunk or stranded dozens of vessels and destroyed an important tourist pier in Santa Maria . Hotels , restaurants , and other beach facilities were flooded , and roads in the town became impassable . High winds leveled the roof of a sport center at a gymnasium , which had initially been set up as a storm shelter to about 100 citizens . Elsewhere on the island , the hurricane knocked out power to homes in Palmeira , and caused minor structural damage to Sal International Airport . At the height of the storm , flooding forced nearly 130 people living in the impoverished outskirts of Terra Boa and Espargos to relocate to shelters . On the island of Santiago , the most significant impact was due to heavy rainfall peaking at 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) . The rains filled a large dam in São Salvador do Mundo to maximum capacity , which prompted residents from adjacent areas to evacuate . In São Miguel , floods and fallen trees obstructed traffic and caused 2 million escudos ( US $ 20 @,@ 000 ) in damage .
Fred produced gusts and downpours across the northern Barlavento Islands , with a maximum 7 @.@ 9 in ( 200 mm ) of rainfall recorded on São Nicolau . Many old trees were uprooted across that island , and several villages lost power . The storm damaged 70 homes in Ribeira Brava , the main town , leaving several families homeless . Local farmers suffered great losses following the destruction of greenhouses and a farm . Strong winds in Cabeçalinho downed power poles and wrecked the roof of a church . In Carriçal , heavy rainfall and flooding ruined fruit and hydroponic crops , as well as damaging roads and homes . Much of the island 's livestock was lost in the storm . Damage to homes and the agriculture — in particular banana and sugarcane — on São Nicolau totaled 30 million escudos ( US $ 305 @,@ 000 ) , although considerable disruptions in the infrastructure due to broken roads and telecommunication antennae were unaccounted for . On the neighboring islands of São Vicente and Santo Antão , impact from the storm was mostly limited to power outages , floods , and damaged crops . About 35 people in Porto Novo , on the latter island , were moved to secure locations . Flooding there isolated two neighborhoods and destroyed carrot , cabbage , and tomato plantations . On São Vicente , roads were closed in and around Laginha , and a few people suffered minor injuries when a tree fell on their car .
Throughout Cape Verde , the hurricane displaced more than 50 families and caused 108 million escudos ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) in damage , largely to the agricultural and private sectors of the Barlavento region . Although there were no casualties onshore , two fishermen navigating through the storm were presumed dead after never returning to port in Boa Vista . Nonetheless , rainfall from Fred had a generally positive effect on the larger @-@ scale agriculture of the islands , refilling many rivers and dams and irrigating drought @-@ stricken farmland across the Sotavento region .
= = = West Africa = = =
Swells from Fred reached stretches of West African coastline , producing high surf as far north as Senegal . Along the shores of Dakar , rough seas devastated fishing districts and harbor towns , stranding boats and damaging roads and bridges . About 200 houses were demolished in the district of Hann , many of which experienced total wall collapse . In the suburb of Rufisque , the waves overtopped dams , entered homes and cemeteries , and destroyed a mosque . Outside the capital , several villages were completely isolated from their surroundings . Victims across the affected region received over 100 tons ( 220 @,@ 000 lbs ) of rice and 12 million CFA francs ( US $ 20 @,@ 000 ) in relief funds .
Farther south , in Guinea @-@ Bissau , a storm surge flooded roads and low @-@ lying establishments such as offices and military barracks . Vast amounts of cropland in the Tombali Region were submerged by sea water , resulting in great losses of rice . Offshore , waves as high as 23 ft ( 7 m ) capsized a fishing boat with a crew of 19 ; 12 were rescued shortly , though the remaining seven disappeared at sea and were presumed dead .
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= Lake Vostok =
Lake Vostok ( Russian : Озеро Восток , Ozero Vostok , lit . " Lake East " ) is the largest of Antarctica 's almost 400 known subglacial lakes . Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold , beneath Russia 's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet , which is at 3 @,@ 488 m ( 11 @,@ 444 ft ) above mean sea level . The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 100 ft ) under the surface of the ice , which places it at approximately 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) below sea level .
Measuring 250 km ( 160 mi ) long by 50 km ( 30 mi ) wide at its widest point , and covering an area of 12 @,@ 500 km2 ( 4 @,@ 830 sq mi ) and an average depth of 432 m ( 1 @,@ 417 ft ) , it has an estimated volume of 5 @,@ 400 km3 ( 1 @,@ 300 cu mi ) . The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge . The liquid water over the ridge is about 200 m ( 700 ft ) , compared to roughly 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) deep in the northern basin and 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) deep in the southern .
The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok ( Восток ) , a sloop @-@ of @-@ war ship , which means " East " in Russian . The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake by J.P. Ridley using ERS @-@ 1 laser altimetry .
The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400 @,@ 000 years , although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years . On 5 February 2012 , a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3 @,@ 768 m ( 12 @,@ 400 ft ) and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake .
The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3 @,@ 406 m ( 11 @,@ 175 ft ) . However , as soon as the ice was pierced , water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole , mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing . A new " clean " borehole was drilled and an allegedly pristine water sample was obtained in January 2015 . The Russian team plans to eventually lower a probe into the lake to collect water samples and sediments from the bottom . It is hypothesized that unusual forms of life could be found in the lake 's liquid layer , a fossil water reserve . Lake Vostok contains an environment sealed off below the ice for millions of years , in conditions which could resemble those of the ice @-@ covered ocean of Jupiter 's moon Europa , and Saturn 's moon Enceladus .
= = Discovery = =
Russian scientist Peter Kropotkin first proposed the idea of fresh water under Antarctic ice sheets at the end of the 19th century . He theorized that the tremendous pressure exerted by the cumulative mass of thousands of vertical meters of ice could increase the temperature at the lowest portions of the ice sheet to the point where the ice would melt . Kropotkin 's theory was further developed by Russian glaciologist I.A. Zotikov , who wrote his Ph.D. thesis on this subject in 1967 .
Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa used seismic soundings in the region of Vostok Station made during the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . Kapitsa was the first to suggest the existence of a subglacial lake in the region , and the subsequent research confirmed his hypothesis .
When British scientists in Antarctica performed airborne ice @-@ penetrating radar surveys in the early 1970s , they detected unusual radar readings at the site which suggested the presence of a liquid freshwater lake below the ice . In 1991 , Jeff Ridley , a remote sensing specialist with the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London , directed the ERS @-@ 1 satellite to turn its high @-@ frequency array toward the center of the Antarctic ice cap . The data from ERS @-@ 1 confirmed the findings from the 1973 British surveys , but these new data were not published in the Journal of Glaciology until 1993 . Space @-@ based radar revealed that this subglacial body of fresh water is one of the largest lakes in the world , and one of some 140 subglacial lakes in Antarctica . Russian and British scientists delineated the lake in 1996 by integrating a variety of data , including airborne ice @-@ penetrating radar imaging observations and space @-@ based radar altimetry . It has been confirmed that the lake contains large amounts of liquid water under the more than 3 @-@ kilometer ( 2 mi ) thick ice cap . The lake has at least 22 cavities of liquid water , averaging 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) each .
The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok ( Восток ) , the 900 ton sloop @-@ of @-@ war ship sailed by one of the discoverers of Antarctica , Russian explorer Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen . The word Bосток means " East " in Russian , and the name of the station and the lake also reflects the fact that they are located in East Antarctica .
In 2005 an island was found in the central part of the lake . Then , in January 2006 , the discovery of two nearby smaller lakes under the ice cap was published ; they are named 90 Degrees East and Sovetskaya . It is suspected that these Antarctic subglacial lakes may be connected by a network of subglacial rivers . Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling glaciologists propose that many of the subglacial lakes of Antarctica are at least temporarily interconnected . Because of varying water pressure in individual lakes , large subsurface rivers may suddenly form and then force large amounts of water through the solid ice .
= = Geological history = =
Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 million years ago , followed by the Indian subcontinent , in the early Cretaceous ( about 125 million years ago ) . About 66 million years ago , Antarctica ( then connected to Australia ) still had a tropical to subtropical climate , complete with marsupial fauna and an extensive temperate rainforest .
The Lake Vostok basin is a small ( 50 km / 30 mi wide ) tectonic feature within the overall setting of a several hundred kilometer wide continental collision zone between the Gamburtsev Mountain Range , a subglacial mountain range and the Dome C region . The lake water is cradled on a bed of sediments 70 meters ( 230 ft ) thick , offering the possibility that they contain a unique record of the climate and life in Antarctica before the ice cap formed .
= = Traits = =
The lake water is estimated to have been sealed off under the thick ice sheet about 15 million years ago . Initially , it was thought that the same water had made up the lake since the time of its formation , giving a residence time in the order of one million years . Later research by Robin Bell and Michael Studinger from the Lamont – Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University suggested that the water of the lake is continually freezing and being carried away by the motion of the Antarctic ice sheet , while being replaced by water melting from other parts of the ice sheet in these high pressure conditions . This resulted in an estimate that the entire volume of the lake is replaced every 13 @,@ 300 years — its effective mean residence time .
The coldest temperature ever observed on Earth , − 89 ° C ( − 128 ° F ) , was recorded at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983 . The average water temperature is calculated to be around − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) ; it remains liquid below the normal freezing point because of high pressure from the weight of the ice above it . Geothermal heat from the Earth 's interior may warm the bottom of the lake , while the ice sheet itself insulates the lake from cold temperatures on the surface .
Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment , one that is expected to be supersaturated with nitrogen and oxygen , measuring 2 @.@ 5 litres ( 0 @.@ 088 cu ft ) of nitrogen and oxygen per 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of water , that is 50 times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth 's surface . The sheer weight and pressure around 345 bars ( 5 @,@ 000 psi ) of the continental ice cap on top of Lake Vostok is estimated to contribute to the high gas concentration .
Besides dissolving in the water , oxygen and other gases are trapped in a type of structure called a clathrate . In clathrate structures , gases are enclosed in an icy cage and look like packed snow . These structures form at the high @-@ pressure depths of Lake Vostok and would become unstable if brought to the surface .
In April 2005 , German , Russian , and Japanese researchers found that the lake has tides . Depending on the position of the Sun and the Moon , the surface of the lake rises about 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . The lake is under complete darkness , under 355 bar ( 5 @,@ 150 psi ) of pressure , and expected to be rich in oxygen , so there is speculation that any organisms inhabiting the lake could have evolved in a manner unique to this environment . There is a 1 microtesla magnetic anomaly on the east coast of the lake , spanning 105 by 75 km ( 65 by 47 mi ) . Researchers hypothesize that the anomaly may be caused by a thinning of Earth 's crust in that location .
Living Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus micro @-@ organisms have been found in Lake Vostok 's deep ice core drillings ; they are an extant surface @-@ dwelling species . This suggests the presence of a deep biosphere utilizing a geothermal system of the bedrock encircling the subglacial lake . There is optimism that microbial life in the lake may be possible despite high pressure , constant cold , low nutrient input , potentially high oxygen concentration and an absence of sunlight . Jupiter 's moon Europa and Saturn 's moon Enceladus may also harbor lakes or oceans below a thick crust of ice . Any confirmation of life in Lake Vostok could strengthen the prospect for the presence of life on icy moons .
= = Research = =
Researchers working at Vostok Station produced one of the world 's longest ice cores in 1998 . A joint Russian , French , and United States team drilled and analyzed the core , which is 3 @,@ 623 m ( 11 @,@ 886 ft ) long . Ice samples from cores drilled close to the top of the lake have been assessed to be as old as 420 @,@ 000 years . The assumption is that the lake has been sealed from the surface since the ice sheet formed , 15 million years ago . Drilling of the core was deliberately halted roughly 100 m ( 300 ft ) above the suspected boundary between the ice sheet and the liquid waters of the lake . This was to prevent contamination of the lake with the 60 ton column of Freon and kerosene used to prevent the borehole from collapsing and freezing over .
From this core , specifically from ice that is thought to have formed from lake water freezing onto the base of the ice sheet , extremophile microbes were found , suggesting that the lake water supports life . Scientists suggested that the lake could possess a unique habitat for ancient bacteria with an isolated microbial gene pool containing characteristics developed perhaps 500 @,@ 000 years ago .
In January 2011 , the head of the Russian Antarctic Expedition , Valery Lukin , announced that his team had only 50 m ( 200 ft ) of ice left to drill in order to reach the water . The researchers then switched to a new thermal drill head with a " clean " silicone oil fluid to drill the rest of the way . Instead of drilling all the way into the water , they said they would stop just above it when a sensor on the thermal drill detected free water . At that point , the drill was to be stopped and extracted from the bore hole . Removal of the drill would lower the pressure beneath it , drawing water into the hole to be left to freeze , creating a plug of ice in the bottom of the hole . Drilling stopped on 5 February 2011 at a depth of 3 @,@ 720 m ( 12 @,@ 200 ft ) so that the research team could make it off the ice before the beginning of the Antarctic winter season . The drilling team left by aircraft on 6 February 2011 .
By plan , the following summer , the team was to drill down again to take a sample of that ice and analyze it . The Russians resumed drilling into the lake in January 2012 and reached the upper surface of the water on 6 February 2012 . The researchers allowed the rushing lake water to freeze within the bore hole and months later , they collected ice core samples of this newly formed ice and sent to the Laboratory for Glaciology and Environmental Geophysics in Grenoble , France , for analysis .
= = = Biology results = = =
= = = = United Kingdom and United States = = = =
Scientists first reported evidence of microbes in the accretion ice in 1999 . Since then , a different team led by Scott O. Rogers has been identifying a variety of bacteria and fungi from accretion ice ( not from the subglacial water layer ) collected during U.S. drilling projects in the 1990s . According to him , this indicates that the lake below the ice is not sterile but contains a unique ecosystem . Then Scott Rogers published in July 2013 that his team performed nucleic acid ( DNA and RNA ) sequencing and the results allowed deduction of the metabolic pathways represented in the accretion ice and , by extension , in the lake . The team found 3 @,@ 507 unique gene sequences , and approximately 94 % of the sequences were from bacteria and 6 % were from Eukarya . Taxonomic classifications ( to genus and / or species ) or identification were possible for 1 @,@ 623 of the sequences . In general , the taxa were similar to organisms previously described from lakes , brackish water , marine environments , soil , glaciers , ice , lake sediments , deep @-@ sea sediments , deep @-@ sea thermal vents , animals and plants . Sequences from aerobic , anaerobic , psychrophilic , thermophilic , halophilic , alkaliphilic , acidophilic , desiccation @-@ resistant , autotrophic , and heterotrophic organisms were present , including a number from multicellular eukaryotes .
However , microbiologist David Pearce of the University of Northumbria in Newcastle , UK , stated that the DNA could simply be contamination from the drilling process , and not representative of Lake Vostok itself . The old ice cores were drilled in the 1990s to look for evidence of past climates buried in the ice , rather than for life , so the drilling equipment was not sterilized . Also Sergey Bulat , a Lake Vostok expert at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in Gatchina , Russia , doubts that any of the cells or DNA fragments in the samples would belong to organisms that might actually exist in the lake . He says that it is very probable that the samples are heavily contaminated with tissue and microbes from the outside world .
= = = = Russia and France = = = =
Russian and French scientists have been carrying out molecular DNA studies of the water from Lake Vostok that was frozen in the borehole , by constructing numerous DNA libraries , which are collections of fragments of DNA that allow scientists to identify which species of bacteria may belong to . Samples taken from the lake so far contain about one part of kerosene per 1000 of water , and they are contaminated with bacteria previously present in the drill bit and the kerosene drilling fluid . So far , the scientists have been able to identify 255 contaminant species , but also have found an unknown bacterium when they initially drilled down to the lake 's surface in 2012 , with no matches in any international databases , and they hope it may be a unique inhabitant of Lake Vostok . However , Vladimar Korolev , the laboratory head of the study at the same institution , said that the bacteria could in principle be a contaminant that use kerosene — the antifreeze used during drilling — as an energy source .
Critics from the scientific community state that no valuable information can be obtained until they can test clean samples of lake water , uncontaminated by drilling fluid . Regardless of the contamination issues , in May 2013 the drilling facility at the Russian Vostok Antarctic station was declared a historic monument as " the result of the recognition of the achievements of the Russian research of Antarctica by the international scientific community , and of the unique operations on opening the subglacial Lake Vostok performed by Russian scientists on February 5 , 2012 . "
In January 2015 , the Russian press stated that Russian scientists have made a new " clean " borehole into Lake Vostok using a special 50 kg probe that collected about 1 liter of water not adulterated by the antifreezing fluid . It was predicted that the water would rise 30 – 40 m in the bottom part of the borehole , but in fact the water rose from the lake to a height of more than 500 m . In October of that same year , the work was suspended for that southern summer because of insufficient funding by the federal Russian government .
= = = Contamination due to drilling = = =
The drilling project has been opposed by some environmental groups and scientists who have argued that hot @-@ water drilling would have a more limited environmental impact . The main concern is that the lake could become contaminated with the antifreeze that the Russians used to keep the bore hole from refreezing . Scientists of the United States National Research Council have taken the position that it should be assumed that microbial life exists in Lake Vostok and that after such a long isolation , any life forms in the lake require strict protection from contamination .
The original drilling technique employed by the Russians involved the use of Freon and kerosene to lubricate the borehole and prevent it from collapsing and freezing over ; 60 short tons ( 54 t ) of these chemicals have been used thus far on the ice above Lake Vostok . Other countries , particularly the United States and Britain , have failed to persuade the Russians not to pierce to the lake until cleaner technologies such as hot @-@ water drilling are available . Though the Russians claim to have improved their operations , they continue to use the same borehole , which has already been contaminated with kerosene . According to the head of Russian Antarctic Expeditions , Valery Lukin , new equipment was developed by researchers at the St. Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute that would ensure the lake remains uncontaminated upon intrusion . Lukin has repeatedly reassured other signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty System that the drilling will not affect the lake , arguing that on breakthrough , water will rush up the borehole , freeze , and seal the other fluids out .
Some environmentalist groups remain unconvinced by these arguments . The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition has argued that this manner of drilling is a profoundly misguided step which endangers Lake Vostok and other subglacial lakes in Antarctica ( which some scientists are convinced are inter @-@ linked with Lake Vostok ) . The coalition has asserted that " it would be far preferable to join with other countries to penetrate a smaller and more isolated lake before re @-@ examining whether penetration of Lake Vostok is environmentally defensible . If we are wise , the Lake will be allowed to reveal its secrets in due course . "
However , Lukin claims that hot @-@ water drilling is much more dangerous for the microbiotic fauna , as it would ' boil ' the living species , plus disturb the entire structure of water layers of the lake . Additionally , hot @-@ water drilling would have required more power than the Russian expedition could have generated at their remote camp .
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= Get Sexy =
" Get Sexy " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , taken from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . It was written by Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , Rob Manzoli , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and produced by the latter three under their stage name The Smeezingtons . The song was released on 30 August 2009 as the album 's lead single . Musically , " Get Sexy " is an uptempo electropop song with influences of dance and techno . The song features an interpolation of Right Said Fred 's " I 'm Too Sexy " . It is the last single to feature founding member Keisha Buchanan .
" Get Sexy " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics ; some reviewers criticised its lack of originality , while others praised its production and lyrics . The song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart and number three on the Irish Singles Chart . It also charted on the singles charts in Australia , Austria , Belgium , the Czech Republic , Germany , Slovakia , Sweden and Turkey . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Emil Nava and features the group 's members in a house of mirrors , a bird cage and a room covered in graffiti .
The song was featured in the titles of the first series of Serbia 's Next Top Model .
= = Background and release = =
In April 2009 , Sugababes travelled to the United States to work on their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 . They signed a contract with Jay Z 's record label , Roc Nation , resulting in working with high @-@ profile produceers . " Get Sexy " , which was selected as the album 's lead single , was written by Fred Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , Rob Manzoli , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and produced by the latter three under their stage name The Smeezingtons . Working with The Smeezingtons was described by group member Amelle Berrabah as an " amazing " and " great opportunity " . Berrabah also stated in an interview with Bang Showbiz that the song " doesn 't sound like anything we have ever done before " . On 6 July 2009 , Sugababes announced the release date of " Get Sexy " as 31 August 2009 . The song premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 7 July 2009 in a show presented by Scott Mills . In an interview for Digital Spy , Buchanan said that the response to the song was great , saying : " From the beginning there 's been a real buzz about the track . It 's had a great response from so many people , even if they say , ' Forget about the rest of them , this one I love ' . " Later , on 27 September 2013 , Keisha Buchanan said of the Bruno Mars penned song that , " I just didn 't feel like that was a representation of who we were as a band but we didn 't , at that point , have a lot of say . " However , " It was amazing working with Bruno , and we 'd love to work with him in this line @-@ up "
" Get Sexy " was digitally released on 30 August 2009 , while the CD single was made available the following day . During the single release interval between the release of " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " , Buchanan controversially left the group . As a result of the group line @-@ up change , " Get Sexy " was re @-@ recorded along with a number of other tracks to feature the vocals of new member Jade Ewen and the removal of the vocals by ex @-@ member Buchanan for the release of Sweet 7 in 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Get Sexy " is an uptempo electropop song , with dance , techno and R & B influences . David Balls and Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as an " electro @-@ R & B club banger " . The song has a length of three minutes and 14 seconds . The song was composed in the key of E minor , with a beat set in common time and a tempo moving at 124 beats per minute . " Get Sexy " makes use of techno synthesizers that are present immediately before the song 's chorus , which has been described as " siren @-@ peaked " . Balls also called the song a " slamming dance anthem " .
" Get Sexy " features an interpolation of Right Said Fred 's song " I 'm Too Sexy " , which was composed by Christopher Fairbrass , Richard Fairbrass , and Robert Manzoli . It samples the trademark lyric , " I 'm too sexy for my shirt , too sexy for my shirt , so sexy it hurts " , but replaces " for my shirt " with " in this club " . According to Digital Spy , in an interview with Teletext , Buchanan revealed that inspiration for the song came " by accident " , saying : " The producers were messing around going , ' I 'm too sexy for the studio ' . We were like , ' That sounds cool ' , and [ the producer ] said , ' You remember that Right Said Fred song ? ' We were like , ' Do you think we can do it ? ' By accident it came together . " Balls and Levine compared the song to " Boom Boom Pow " by Black Eyed Peas .
= = Critical reception = =
" Get Sexy " garnered mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as a " grinding , fiercely catchy R & B number " . David Balls of Digital Spy gave the song a four out of five star rating , saying : " ' Get Sexy ' is a dancefloor stomper that nestles somewhere between ' Boom Boom Pow ' and ' Bonkers ' in its blend of electropop , techno and R & B sounds . It may not be massively original , nor an instant classic to rival ' About You Now ' or ' Push the Button ' , but with a Right Said Fred @-@ sampling hook , a thundering chorus and plenty of attitude – most noticeably from Amelle – it returns Sugababes right to the forefront of the pop landscape . ' Popjustice positively reviewed " Get Sexy " , saying " ' Get Sexy ' is a punchy , explosive pop single which while not being quite as adventurous as it thinks it could never be described as a pedestrian " . Fraser McAlpine of BBC gave the single a mainly negative review , calling it a " mess " which has " not bothered to make it rhyme " in the way the original , ' I 'm Too Sexy ' did . McAlpine went on to say : " the ' shut up and watch me walk ' bit is pilfered from the Ting Tings . [ ... ] [ Amelle 's ' silly boys ' bit – which is brilliant , by the way – may have more than a passing acquaintance with ' My Humps ' . [ ... ] the chorus is desperate for someone to scream ' will.i.am drop the beat now ' .
= = Chart performance = =
During the first week of its release , " Get Sexy " was ahead of its nearest competitor , " Run This Town " , by Jay @-@ Z featuring Rihanna and Kanye West , at number one . Eventually , " Get Sexy " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart , selling 55 @,@ 707 copies in its first week of release . The song spent 9 weeks inside the UK Singles Chart . " Get Sexy " has sold 165 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , making it their eighth best @-@ selling single in that country . The single debuted and peaked at number three on the Irish Singles Chart , becoming the band 's highest charting single in Ireland since " About You Now " . It remained on the chart in the country for seven weeks .
" Get Sexy " peaked at number 42 on the singles chart in Sweden , becoming the group 's first single since " About You Now " to chart in the country . The song peaked at number 41 on the German Singles Chart and number 72 on the Austrian Singles Chart . It also charted on the singles charts in the Czech Republic and Slovakia , both at number 48 . The song also impacted the charts in Belgium , peaking at numbers 21 and 37 on the Flanders and Wallonia charts , respectively . " Get Sexy " also became the group 's first single since " About You Now " to chart in Australia when it debuted at number 76 on the Australian Singles Chart . The following week , it rose to its peak of number 75 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Get Sexy " was directed by Emil Nava and choreographed by LaVelle Smith . Nava has also directed the music video for Tinchy Stryder 's number one UK single " Never Leave You " , which features Berrabah . " Get Sexy " ' s music video premiered on 1 August 2009 on More4 . The video features Berrabah in a bird cage , Buchanan posing on a couch and Heidi Range in a house of mirrors shot at by intense light beams . During the chorus , all three members are seen standing together with chains around their waists and arms , tying them together . The video ends with the Sugababes in a room covered in graffiti . Popjustice praised the video , saying that it " seems to feature Sugababes 3 @.@ 0 as ' the full package ' , and makes sense of this lineup , for the first time . This is a good thing . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Operation Pedestal =
Operation Pedestal ( referenced in Italian sources as the Battaglia di Mezzo Agosto ) was a British operation to get desperately needed supplies to the island of Malta in August 1942 , during the Second World War . Malta was the base from which surface ships , submarines and aircraft attacked Axis convoys carrying supplies to the Italian and German armies in North Africa . From 1940 to 1942 , Malta was under siege , blockaded by Axis air and naval forces . To sustain Malta , the United Kingdom had to get convoys through at all costs . Despite serious losses , just enough supplies were delivered for Malta to continue resistance , although it ceased to be an effective offensive base for much of 1942 . The most crucial supply was fuel delivered by the SS Ohio , an American @-@ built tanker with a British crew . The operation officially started on 3 August 1942 and the convoy sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 9 / 10 August .
The convoy is also known as the Battle of Mid @-@ August in Italy and as the Konvoj ta ' Santa Marija in Malta ; the arrival of the last ships of the convoy on 15 August 1942 , coincided with the Feast of the Assumption ( Santa Marija ) . The name Santa Marija Convoy or Sta Marija Convoy is still used and the day 's public holiday and celebrations , in part , honour the arrival of the convoy . The attempt to run fifty ships past bombers , E @-@ boats , minefields and submarines has gone down in military history as one of the most important British strategic victories of the Second World War . More than 500 Merchant and Royal Navy sailors and airmen were killed and only five of the 14 merchant ships reached Grand Harbour . The arrival of the remains of the convoy did not break the siege , which continued until the Allied reconquest of Egypt and Libya . The Second Battle of El Alamein ( 23 October – 11 November ) and Operation Torch ( 8 – 16 November ) in the western Mediterranean , transformed the strategic situation and enabled land @-@ based aircraft to escort merchant ships to the island .
= = Background = =
= = = Allied operations = = =
The Allies waged the Western Desert Campaign ( 1940 – 43 ) in North Africa , against the Axis forces of Italy aided by Germany , that had sent the Deutsches Afrika Korps and substantial Luftwaffe detachments to the Mediterranean in late 1940 . Up to the end of the year , 21 ships with 160 @,@ 000 long tons ( 160 @,@ 000 t ) of cargo had reached Malta without loss and a reserve of seven months ' supplies had been accumulated . Three convoy operations to Malta in 1941 lost only one merchant ship . From January 1941 to August 1942 , 46 ships had delivered 320 @,@ 000 long tons ( 330 @,@ 000 t ) but 23 ships had been sunk and modern , efficient , merchant ships , naval and air forces had been diverted from other routes for long periods ; 31 supply runs by submarines had been conducted . Reinforcements for Malta , included 19 costly and dangerous aircraft carrier ferry operations to deliver fighters . From August 1940 to the end of August 1942 , 670 Hurricane and Spitfire fighters had been flown off carriers in the western Mediterranean . Many of these used Malta as a staging post and then continued to North Africa and the Desert Air Force .
Malta was also a base for air , sea and submarine operations against Axis supply lines and from 1 June and 31 October 1941 , British forces sank about 220 @,@ 000 long tons ( 220 @,@ 000 t ) of Axis shipping on the African convoy routes , 94 @,@ 000 long tons ( 96 @,@ 000 t ) by the navy and 115 @,@ 000 long tons ( 117 @,@ 000 t ) by the RAF and Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) . Loaded ships sailing to Africa accounted for 90 percent of the ships sunk and Malta @-@ based squadrons were responsible for about 75 percent of those ships sunk by aircraft . Military operations from Malta and using the island as a staging post , led to Axis air campaigns against the island in 1941 and 1942 . By late July , the 80 fighters on the island averaged wastage of 17 per week ; the remaining aviation fuel was only sufficient for the fighters , making it impractical to send more bombers and torpedo @-@ bombers for offensive operations .
= = = Malta , 1942 = = =
Operation Harpoon from Gibraltar and Operation Vigorous from Alexandria ( 12 – 15 / 16 June ) were costly failures . Only two merchantmen from Harpoon reached the island , as the Vigorous convoy was forced to turn back and many merchantmen , including the only tanker in Harpoon and several convoy escorts were sunk . By August , the fortnightly ( two @-@ weekly ) ration on Malta for one person was 14 ounces ( 400 g ) sugar , 7 ounces ( 200 g ) fats , 10 @.@ 5 ounces ( 300 g ) bread and 14 ounces ( 400 g ) of corned beef . An adult male worker had a daily intake of 1 @,@ 690 calories and women and children received 1 @,@ 500 calories . In August a mass slaughter of livestock began on the island to reduce the need for fodder imports and to convert grazing land for crop growing ; the meat was supplied to the public through Victory Kitchens .
Malta would be forced to surrender if fuel , food and ammunition were not delivered before September and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Keith Park , the local air commander since July , warned that there remained only a few weeks ' supply of aviation fuel . The Admiralty had the fast minelayer HMS Welshman converted to carry fuel and submarines were pressed into service , to run supplies of aviation fuel , anti @-@ aircraft ammunition and torpedoes through the blockade , to keep the remaining aircraft operational . The First Lord of the Admiralty A. V. Alexander and Admiral of the Fleet Dudley Pound , the First Sea Lord ( professional head of the Royal Navy ) , concurred with Churchill that the loss of Malta would be
... a disaster of [ the ] first magnitude to the British Empire , and probably [ would be ] fatal in the long run to the defence of the Nile Valley .
and prepared a new convoy operation from Gibraltar , with an unprecedented number of escorts , using ships taken from the Far East and from the Home Fleet , that had vessels to spare since Arctic convoys had been suspended , following the disaster to Convoy PQ 17 .
= = = Axis command = = =
The Axis command structure in the Mediterranean was centralized at the top and fragmented at the lower levels . Mussolini had monopolised authority over Italian armed forces in 1933 , by taking the offices of Minister of War , Minister of the Navy and Minister of the Air Force . Feldmarschall Albert Kesselring of the Luftwaffe commanded the German ground forces in the theatre as Oberbefehlshaber Süd ( OB Süd ) but had no authority over Axis operations in North Africa or the organization of convoys to Libya . Fliegerkorps II and Fliegerkorps X were subordinate to the normal chain of command of the Luftwaffe . Since November 1941 , Kesselring had some influence over the conduct of the German naval operations in the Mediterranean , as nominal commander of Naval Command Italy ( Marinekommando Italien ) but this was subordinate to the Kriegsmarine chain of command . German service rivalries obstructed co @-@ operation and there was little unity of effort between German and the Italian forces in the Mediterranean . Kesselring had the authority only to coordinate plans for combined operations by German and Italian forces and some influence on the use of the Regia Aeronautica for the protection of convoys to North Africa . The Italian Navy resisted all German attempts to integrate its operations , ships in different squadrons never trained together and Supermarina constantly overruled lower @-@ level commanders .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Allied plans = = =
= = = = Operation Pedestal = = = =
Admiralty planning for Operation Pedestal began in late July 1942 , under the direction of Vice @-@ Admiral Neville Syfret , Rear Admirals Lumley Lyster and Harold Burrough and the Naval Staff . Syfret transferred to HMS Nelson on 27 July when Nelson and HMS Rodney returned to Scapa Flow from Freetown , West Africa . Syfret convened a conference on 29 July , for Flag and Commanding Officers of the naval forces for Pedestal at Scapa , to consider the orders for the operation . Several smaller operations were also planned , to be carried out concurrently with Pedestal . The convoy comprised 14 merchant vessels , the most important being SS Ohio , the only large , fast tanker available , an American ship loaned to the British , with a British crew . As insurance against the loss of Ohio and its 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of oil , the other ships were to carry fuel in drums . The convoy was to be protected by two battleships , three aircraft carriers , seven cruisers , 32 destroyers and seven submarines , the largest escort force yet .
The combined group was named Force F , the convoy and escorts from Britain to the rendezvous became Force P , the aircraft carriers Victorious , Argus and escorts were named Force M on the voyage to the meeting point . The aircraft carrier Eagle and its escort from Gibraltar to the rendezvous became Force J , the carrier Indomitable and its escorts from Freetown were Force K ; during Operation Berserk , all the carriers and escorts became Force G , Force R was made up of the fleet refuelling vessels RFA Brown Ranger , RFA Dingledale , escorted by four corvettes and an ocean @-@ going tug , RFA Abbeydale a Dale @-@ class oiler and escorts were named Force W also for Operation Berserk , Force X formed the close escort to Malta , Force Z was made up of the heavy ships of Force F , that were to turn back to Gibraltar and Force Y was to conduct Operation Ascendant , a run from Malta to Gibraltar , by the two ships that had reached the island during Operation Harpoon and escorts , as Pedestal entered the Mediterranean .
Embarked on Victorious were 809 Squadron and 884 Squadron FAA with 16 Fairey Fulmars and 885 Squadron with six Sea Hurricanes ; on Indomitable , 806 Squadron had ten Grumman Martlets , 800 Squadron and 880 Squadron had 24 Sea Hurricanes , 827 Squadron and 831 Squadron had 14 Fairey Albacores . On Eagle were 801 Squadron and 813 Squadron with 16 Sea Hurricanes . Based on Malta were five Baltimores , six PRU Spitfires and five Wellington Mk VIII reconnaissance aircraft . Reinforcements were sent temporarily from Egypt , raising the maximum number of operational aircraft to 100 Spitfires , 36 Beaufighters , 30 Beauforts , 3 Wellingtons , 2 Liberators , 2 Baltimores and three FAA Albacores and Swordfish .
The convoy was given the bogus title WS.5.21.S ( genuine Winston 's Specials were convoys from Britain to Suez via the Cape of Good Hope ) . After the usual convoy conference , just before sailing , Burrough met with the Convoy Commodore , A. G. Venables and the masters of the merchant ships on board his flagship , HMS Nigeria to brief them . A similar meeting was held with radio operators of the merchantmen , to explain fleet communications and procedures . Envelopes marked " Not to be opened until 08 : 00 hours August 10 " were handed to the ships ' masters , containing personal messages signed by the First Lord of the Admiralty wishing the masters " God Speed " . The convoy sailed from the River Clyde on the night of 2 / 3 August , escorted by HMS Nigeria , HMS Kenya and destroyers , to rendezvous with the other escorts the following morning .
= = = = Operation Bellows = = = =
Shortly before the departure from Scapa , the Admiralty decided that Furious should carry out Operation Bellows , to reinforce Malta ( known informally as a Club Run ) with Spitfires at the same time as Operation Pedestal . The departure of Furious was delayed by technical difficulties caused by the flight deck , that sloped upwards to a point amidships . A Spitfire made a practice take @-@ off , with wooden wedges in the flaps to ensure a 25 ° angle and Furious steaming at 30 knots ( 35 mph ) , into a 10 @-@ knot ( 12 mph ) wind . The Spitfire was thrown into the air by the rise on the flight deck , bounced onto the forward slope , fell off the front near stalling speed and narrowly avoided ditching . An immediate request was made to the Air Ministry for Constant @-@ speed propellers and two days later , a Spitfire with the new propeller took off easily , leaving 38 aircraft still on board to be flown to Malta . In company with HMS Manchester , she joined Nelson and the convoy three days before the start of Operation Pedestal .
= = = = Operations Berserk and Ascendant = = = =
On 31 July , Nelson , Rodney , HMS Victorious , HMS Argus , HMS Sirius and destroyers sailed from Scapa to rendezvous with HMS Eagle and HMS Charybdis from Gibraltar and HMS Indomitable and HMS Phoebe , from Freetown , for Operation Berserk . The operation took place between the Azores and Gibraltar from 6 – 9 August and included exercises with the merchant ships in anti @-@ aircraft gunnery , emergency turns and in changing cruising formations , communicating with signal flags and short range wireless telegraphy ( W / T ) . The risk to security in breaking W / T silence during the exercises , was accepted by Allied planners and according to Cunningham , the convoy attained an efficiency in manoeuvring " comparable to that of a fleet unit . " The aircraft of the force performed dummy air attacks in the afternoon of 8 August , to exercise radar reporting , the fighter direction organisation and to give anti @-@ aircraft gun crews aircraft recognition practice , followed by a fly past . In Operation Ascendant , Troilus and Orari , the two merchant ships that had survived the Harpoon fiasco in June , were to sail from Malta for Gibraltar , with a screen of two destroyers ( Force Y ) on the night of the first day of Operation Pedestal . Force Y was to be disguised and show Italian deck markings and sortie from Malta , to 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) to the south of Lampedusa , then sail past Kelibia on Cap Bon , keeping close to the Tunisian coast as far as the Galita Channel and from there make for Gibraltar . ( Force Y left Malta about 20 : 30 on 10 August , reached Cap Bon the next day and arrived at Gibraltar at about 10 : 00 on 14 August . )
= = = Axis plans = = =
The Germans and Italians planned separately and although they co @-@ operated to an extent , their forces operated independently in the operation against the convoy ; Fliegerkorps II in Sicily co @-@ ordinated plans with the local Regia Aeronautica commanders but conducted its attacks separately . Supermarina the Italian Navy headquarters , considered four contingencies , that the Allies would use their naval strength to protect a convoy , that a sortie would be made by the main Allied battle fleet to provoke the Italians to react , to use a powerful covering force for a convoy to force a passage to the north of Pantelleria instead of turning westward at the entrance to Skerki Bank or to use aircraft @-@ carriers for attacks on Sardinian airfields to ease the passage of a convoy . The Regia Aeronautica had 328 aircraft ( 90 torpedo @-@ bombers , 62 bombers , 25 dive @-@ bombers and 151 fighters ) and the Luftwaffe 456 aircraft ( 328 dive @-@ bombers , 32 high @-@ level bombers and 96 fighters ) . Most Luftwaffe torpedo @-@ bombers had been sent to Norway in June and did not return in time for the operation . About 20 Ju @-@ 88s from Fliegerkorps X Air Corps on Crete arrived at Sicily on 11 August , were ready for operations the next morning and another 8 Ju @-@ 88s arrived from Crete the same day , after completing convoy escort duties in the Aegean .
The Regia Marina had four battleships , three heavy and ten light cruisers , 21 destroyers , 28 torpedo boats and 64 submarines but most of the capital ships were non @-@ operational , for lack of fuel and air cover . The navy had received only 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel in June , equivalent to 20 percent of fuel consumption by convoys and the Italian battleships had to refuel the smaller vessels . Because of the acute fuel @-@ shortage , Mussolini suggested to Hitler that a Malta convoy should be opposed only by submarines and land @-@ based aircraft . Supermarina managed to prepare the 3rd Cruiser Division with three eight @-@ inch cruisers ( Gorizia , Bolzano and Trieste ) and seven destroyers , along with the 7th Cruiser Division with three six @-@ inch cruisers ( Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli and Muzio Attendolo ) and five destroyers plus 18 submarines , 19 torpedo boats ( six Ms and 13 Mas ) ; the Germans had three U @-@ boats and four S @-@ boats . The Axis air forces lacked the fighters to escort surface ships , bombers and torpedo bombers and Mussolini preferred to use the fighters as bomber escorts and as cover for surface forces . Kesselring rejected the Italian request to provide air cover for the Italian fleet , because the Luftwaffe did not have enough fighters for bomber and ship escorts .
Kesselring doubted that the Italian heavy cruisers could succeed even with air cover and used the lack of fuel as a pretext but Admiral Eberhard Weichold , the German naval attaché in Rome , wanted the Luftwaffe to give air cover for Italian ships . Marshal Ugo Cavallero , Chief of the General Staff ( Capo di Stato Maggiore Generale ) , also wanted Italian surface forces to participate in the operation but Supermarina did not want its big ships to operate without air cover . Axis tactics were similar to those used against Operation Harpoon in June ; a joint special air reconnaissance of the western Mediterranean by Axis aircraft on 11 and 12 August and Axis aircraft in Sicily and Sardinia , Italian submarines and German U @-@ boats , Axis torpedo boats and minefields would be used as successive barriers . The four barriers were to cause the convoy to disperse and be vulnerable to a force of cruisers and destroyers . Twenty @-@ two torpedo @-@ bombers , about 125 dive @-@ bombers all with fighter escorts and 40 high @-@ level bombers , were to be used in a synchronized attack . Priority was given to the destruction of aircraft carriers , to prevent them from intervening when Italian surface forces closed in on the remnants of the convoy . The Axis navies had 19 submarines available in the western Mediterranean and nine boats were to be stationed north of Algeria between longitudes 01 ° 40 ' E and 02 ° 40 ' E and ten submarines were to wait between Fratelli Rocks and the northern entrance to the Skerki Bank , some arrayed north @-@ west of Cap Bon , to operate in co @-@ operation with aircraft . An Italian submarine was to patrol west of Malta , one off Navarino ( Greece ) and three more about 87 nautical miles ( 100 mi ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Crete .
From June 1940 to April 1942 , the Regia Marina laid about 2 @,@ 320 mines between Cap Granitola at the south @-@ west end of Sicily and Pantelleria , 1 @,@ 020 mines between Pantelleria and Ras el Mustafa , Tunisia , 6 @,@ 880 mines between the Aegadian Islands and Cap Bon and 1 @,@ 040 mines between Bizerte and Keith Rock . The Italians also intended to lay a temporary minefield off Cap Bon on the night of 11 / 12 August , just before the convoy passed through . On the night of 12 / 13 August , 13 Mas and six Ms torpedo boats and four S @-@ boats were to lie in wait south of Marettimo ( one of the Aegades ) and off Cap Bon , then later off Pantelleria . The 3rd Cruiser Division and the 7th Cruiser Division would be about 100 nmi ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) north of Pantelleria during the afternoon of 12 August and then sail on an interception course south of Pantelleria through the night , to attack the remains of the convoy and its close escort just before dawn . It was assumed that at this time , Axis aircraft could provide fighter cover against the larger number of British aircraft from Malta . An Allied convoy from Egypt would be attacked by the 8th Cruiser Division based at Navarino in Greece , because of a lack of readiness , the division was ordered on 12 August , into the Ionian Sea to support the 3rd Cruiser Division .
= = = Axis preparations = = =
Axis planners lacked information about Allied plans but had fair knowledge of the Allied order of battle and the movement of Allied forces inside the Mediterranean from the reports of Abwehr agents near Gibraltar , the Spanish enclave of Ceuta ( opposite the Strait of Gibraltar ) and from reconnaissance aircraft and submarines . Reports from the Abwehr on 5 August , convinced Kesselring that the Allies were preparing a big operation to supply Malta from the west , in conjunction with a simultaneous attack on Mersa Matruh in Egypt . Allied bomber aircraft on Malta were expected to attack Italian naval forces as Malta fighters covered the passage of a convoy through the Sicilian Narrows . The Germans also considered a threat to Crete when the convoy had reached Malta and Kesselring ordered increased readiness of Luftwaffe units in Sicily and Crete , ordering the transfer of aircraft from Crete to Sardinia and Sicily .
Fliegerkorps II reduced operations to increase serviceability and prepared facilities at Elmas in Sardinia for reinforcements from Fliegerkorps X in the eastern Mediterranean and Kesselring began discussions with the Regia Aeronautica , for employment of the German and Italian forces in the forthcoming operation . The Allies learned through Enigma that the Luftwaffe had supply difficulties in Sardinia , preventing the movement there of long @-@ range bombers and of fighter operations to the extent intended and that the Luftwaffe had sent 40 – 45 long @-@ range bombers and six twin @-@ engined fighters from the eastern Mediterranean ; Fliegerführer Afrika was forced to divert aircraft for convoy escorts in the Tobruk area . On the morning of 8 August , a report erroneously indicated that an Argus @-@ class carrier and four destroyers had sailed into Gibraltar and Abwehr agents reported much shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar on the night of 8 / 9 August . By 10 August , 220 Luftwaffe aircraft were on Sicily along with 300 aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica and another 150 Italian aircraft assembled on Sardinia . As soon as it was clear that a convoy was sailing eastwards , 20 long @-@ range bombers from Crete and ten torpedo @-@ bombers from the training school at Grosseto were to be transferred to Sardinia . In Sicily , 15 dive @-@ bomber crews resting from operations were alerted and six Bf 110 long @-@ range fighters were sent from Africa , bringing the total to 701 aircraft .
= = Battle = =
= = = 9 / 10 August = = =
Force R left Gibraltar on 9 August , ready to meet the convoy at a rendezvous south of Majorca and Force F made an uneventful passage of the Straits in dense fog , during the night of 9 / 10 August . Fishing boats and one merchant vessel were passed at close quarters but due to the moonless night and the fog , Syfret thought it improbable that the force had been sighted from the shore . Abwehr agents near Gibraltar and Ceuta had sighted the convoy and the British decrypted their Enigma messages , learning how well @-@ informed the Axis were and their plans to defeat the convoy . At about 08 : 00 on 10 August , German reconnaissance aircraft detected the convoy and at 12 : 45 reported that the convoy was about 70 north of Algiers .
At 17 : 00 a French aircraft reported two aircraft carriers , two battleships , two cruisers , fourteen destroyers and twelve merchant vessels about 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) north of Oran . Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported at 19 : 00 that a convoy of two battleships , two carriers , two cruisers , fourteen destroyers and twelve merchantmen was on an easterly course , 55 nmi ( 102 km ; 63 mi ) north @-@ north @-@ east of Oran . By the afternoon of 10 August , Kesselring and Supermarina were aware that a convoy of forty to fifty ships , including possibly two carriers and nineteen freighters , was in the western Mediterranean , sailing on an easterly course at a speed of 13 – 14 nmi ( 24 – 26 km ; 15 – 16 mi ) . The convoy was expected to be south of Majorca by 06 : 00 on 11 August and south of Sardinia by the same time on 12 August . Fliegerkorps II in the western Mediterranean was alerted and Fligerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre the eastern Mediterranean beyond the 25 ° E line of latitude after dawn on 11 August .
= = = 11 August = = =
Despite Axis submarines , three cruisers and twenty @-@ six destroyers refuelled from the tankers Dingledale and Brown Ranger of Force R by dawn . ( Previous Malta convoys had refuelled at Malta but now the island had no oil to spare . ) The convoy was south of the Balearic Islands on course for Cap Bon at daybreak and at about 06 : 20 , a U @-@ boat sighted the convoy . At 08 : 15 a Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft reported that the convoy was 95 nmi ( 176 km ; 109 mi ) north @-@ west of Algiers ; fifteen minutes later , a Ju @-@ 88 began to shadow the convoy at 20 @,@ 000 – 24 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 – 7 @,@ 300 m ) and continued throughout the day . At noon , the convoy was about 75 nmi ( 139 km ; 86 mi ) south of Majorca , sailing due east on a zigzag course . Furious conducted Operation Bellows between 12 : 30 and 15 : 15 , flying off 38 Spitfires for the 555 – 584 nmi ( 1 @,@ 028 – 1 @,@ 082 km ; 639 – 672 mi ) journey to Malta and then turned round with her escorts for Gibraltar ( 37 of the aircraft reached Malta ) . During the evening , HMS Wolverine one of the destroyers escorting Furious , rammed and sank the Italian submarine Dagabur .
Enigma decrypts showed that at 11 : 55 , the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli , Muzio Attendolo of the 7th Cruiser Division at Cagliari had been ordered by Supermarina to be at two hours ' notice from 18 : 00 and that with the heavy cruisers Gorizia , Bolzano and Trieste of the 3rd Cruiser Division at Messina , had been informed at 13 : 00 that Italian submarines were operating north of Bizerte . Three Axis submarines were seen departing Cagliari at 20 : 45 and the British learned that at 18 : 00 the 7th Cruiser Division with 17 destroyers , had sailed east and that 3rd Cruiser Division had departed from Messina and Naples . Allied intelligence also learned that Panzerarmee Afrika in Egypt believed that the convoy was a threat to Tobruk . Kesselring thought that a landing on the North African coast might be attempted and next day issued an order of the day , that landings would influence operations in Africa and must be prevented . Luftgau Afrika ( Air District Africa ) expected a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August .
At 13 : 15 , the aircraft carrier Eagle was hit by four torpedoes from U @-@ 73 ( Kapitänleutnant Helmut Rosenbaum ) and sank eight minutes later , 70 nmi ( 130 km ; 81 mi ) south of Cape Salinas and 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) north of Algiers . About 900 of the 1 @,@ 160 crew were rescued by the destroyers but 200 men and all the aircraft were lost , about 25 percent of the fighter strength of the convoy . The Luftwaffe attacked just after sunset at 20 : 56 , when the convoy was about 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) from Sardinia , with 36 Ju @-@ 88 and He @-@ 111 bombers and torpedo bombers , that evaded the British fighters in the dusk . The aircraft scored no hits and the fleet anti @-@ aircraft gunners claimed three attackers destroyed . During the night the Axis airfields in Sardinia were attacked by B @-@ 24 Liberators and Beaufighters , which set a hangar on fire and destroyed several aircraft .
= = = = Night , 11 / 12 August = = = =
On the night of 11 / 12 August , the Italian 7th and 3rd Cruiser divisions and 17 destroyers , sailed from Cagliari , Messina and Naples to engage the British convoy . The RAF at the Malta Operations Room sent orders in plain language to a Wellington bomber that dropped flares and sent messages in clear , supposedly guiding a fictitious B @-@ 24 Liberator force , to bluff the Italian ships away from the convoy . ( Supermarina ( Italian Naval Headquarters ) had actually cancelled the operation before the British signals were received , because of a lack of air cover . ) At 00 : 20 , the British discovered from Enigma that Italian intelligence had sighted four British cruisers and ten destroyers and thought that part of the convoy might be proceeding to the eastern Mediterranean . Enigma also revealed operation orders from Fliegerkorps II to the fighters of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 ) at Elmas in Sardinia , to expect a convoy the Sicilian Narrows early on 12 August . Fliegerkorps II was to co @-@ operate with the Regia Aeronautica in Sicily and Sardinia , flying in waves with fighter escorts against the convoy .
British intelligence concluded that the convoy and its huge escort force had caused the Axis commanders to be apprehensive of a landing anywhere along the North African coast or on Crete . Axis precautionary measures had been taken on the assumption that if Crete was the target , landings would occur before 14 August . Defensive measures were also taken in the Benghazi – Tripoli area of Libya , where a squadron of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and the long @-@ range bombers based at Derna were alerted to move to Benghazi or Tripoli , supported by Ju @-@ 52 transport aircraft . Panzerarmee Afrika prepared detachments to repel landings and moved forces to the Sollum – Mersa Matruh area , to defend the coast east of Tobruk . At 07 : 00 , all ship movements from North Africa to Italy and the Aegean were suspended and by late afternoon , the British knew that the Luftwaffe anticipated a landing at Tripoli on 13 or 14 August . Fighter and dive @-@ bomber reinforcements were sent from Sicily and Enigma intercepted a message from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , the commander in chief of the Luftwaffe , ordering that the Luftwaffe
... will operate with no other thought in mind than the destruction of the British convoy ... The destruction of this convoy is of decisive importance .
and that the attacks were to be directed against the British aircraft carriers and merchantmen .
= = = 12 August = = =
= = = = Morning = = = =
Axis aircraft resumed shadowing at 05 : 00 and Indomitable launched Martlets at 06 : 00 to shoot down two shadowing aircraft . The carriers then launched Sea Hurricanes for air cover . At 09 : 15 when the convoy was about 130 nmi ( 240 km ; 150 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Sardina , 19 Junkers Ju 88s dive @-@ bombers attacked and eight were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire and fighters for the loss of one FAA fighter . The biggest attack came at noon , when a combined attack by about 80 torpedo bombers , dive bombers and fighter @-@ bombers used a mixture of weapons , including new Motobomba pattern @-@ running torpedoes . Ten Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bombers carrying Motobomba torpedoes were followed by German fighter @-@ bombers to disorganise the convoy before the main force of torpedo bombers attacked five minutes later .
= = = = Afternoon = = = =
The attack was not synchronised as intended and lasted from 12 : 15 to 14 : 45 , the main force being intercepted by FAA Martlets and Sea Hurricanes and forced to drop their torpedoes at long range ; the merchant ships implemented the evasive manoeuvres practised in Operation Berserk and were not hit . Two Re.2001G / Vs modified to carry a 640 kg ( 1 @,@ 410 lb ) bomb each and escorted by Re.2001s , joined Sea Hurricanes on their landing approach to Victorious and were not recognised by the anti @-@ aircraft gunners ; one bomb struck the flight deck but broke apart and the other missed . A force of dive bombers hit Deucalion and forced it out of the convoy , escorted by HMS Bramham . Enigma decrypts showed the British that at 18 : 30 on 12 August , an S @-@ boat flotilla was due to sail at 16 : 00 from Porto Empedocle in Sicily for Cap Bon , to operate in the area until about 04 : 30 on 13 August . At 21 : 45 , a Fliegerkorps II assessment revealed that the Axis thought that there were 51 ships in the western Mediterranean , including two carriers , two battleships , seven cruisers and twenty destroyers . The Germans mistakenly thought that a US Yorktown @-@ class aircraft carrier was present but correctly identified Rodney and Nelson . The convoy was thought to consist of 13 freighters of 105 @,@ 000 long tons ( 107 @,@ 000 t ) , protected by 10 – 16 fighters and plenty of anti @-@ aircraft guns .
During the afternoon , there were many submarine alarms and the convoy was approached by Italian submarine Cobalto and Emo . Emo was depth charged and prevented from attacking and HMS Ithuriel rammed and sank Cobalto ; Ithuriel was badly damaged and had to return to Gibraltar . The Italian submarine Brin was driven off by destroyers and a Sunderland flying boat attacked and damaged the Giada off Algiers and a later attack by another flying boat caused more damage . Giada shot down the Sunderland before heading for shelter to the Spanish port of Valencia ( where she remained until the 14 August ) . Between 18 : 00 and 18 : 50 , the convoy was attacked by about 40 Ju @-@ 88s and Ju @-@ 87s , co @-@ ordinated with about twenty CANT Z.1007 torpedo @-@ bombers . A SM.79 drone and a CANT Z.1007bis guide aircraft , escorted by five FIAT G.50 fighters , attacked the convoy . The pilot of the SM.79 pointed the aircraft towards the ships and parachuted , for the Z.1007bis crew to guide the bomb by radio . The radio failed and the SM 79 drone flew on until it ran out of fuel and crashed into Mount Khenchela on the Algerian mainland .
Foresight had to be scuttled after a torpedo detonation on the stern sent crewmen flying spread @-@ eagled through the air and Junkers Ju 87s wrecked the flight deck of Indomitable with three bomb hits along with two or three near misses , leaving Victorious the last operational carrier . Several fighters on Victorious were ditched to make room and Indomitable was able to maintain a speed 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 8 mph ) ; a torpedo bomber hit the destroyer Foresight , which was later sunk by the British . Syfret intended Force Z to turn west upon reaching the Skerki Bank at 19 : 15 but ordered the turn at 18 : 55 , because the Axis air attacks caused a twenty @-@ minute delay , the turn not being noticed by the Axis until 20 : 30 . Because of the number of aircraft in the attacks up to 18 : 50 , Syfret thought that there could be no more before dark and that the danger at the Skeri Bank would come from torpedo boats in the night and aircraft after dawn , not Axis submarines .
At 18 : 55 , Burrough with the close escort of Force X continued towards Malta with the merchant ships as Force R cruised in the western Mediterranean in case it was needed , until ordered to return to Gibraltar ( arriving in the morning of 16 August ) . An hour later , to pass through the Skerki Channel , the convoy manoeuvred from four to two columns , Nigeria , HMS Cairo and SS Ohio were torpedoed by the Italian submarine Axum . Destroyers were still with the damaged ships and when long @-@ range Beaufighter aircraft arrived and were fired on by the convoy gunners . Ashanti and HMS Penn laid a smokescreen to cover the light western horizon but the merchantman Empire Hope was hit by a dive @-@ bomber and sunk . The Axis air forces had flown 180 – 220 escorted bomber sorties during the day and the Germans believed that they had damaged an aircraft carrier , a cruiser , a destroyer and a large merchant ship .
The captain of Kenya described the state of the convoy as " chaotic " and there are several versions of events . At about 21 : 00 Italian submarine Alagi reported that it had sunk the merchant ship Empire Hope and damaged the cruiser Kenya . While Kenya turned to avoid a torpedo , Bronzo reported that it had sunk Deucalion . Clan Ferguson was torpedoed and was later destroyed by an ammunition detonation and Brisbane Star was hit in the bows ( possibly by Alagi ) but kept going . At 21 : 30 , Tenente di Vascello Sergio Puccini of the Alagi noted that
... from 180 degrees around to 140 degrees we could see a continuous line of flame from the burning , sinking ships ... A burning ship blows up .
The torpedoing of HMS Nigeria and Cairo , the diversion of HMS Ashanti to become Burrough 's new flagship and the detachment of four Hunt @-@ class destroyers to stand by the damaged cruisers , temporarily deprived Force X of its commander , the two columns of their leaders , lost the convoy nearly half its escort and its two Fighter Direction ships . On hearing that Nigeria and Cairo had been torpedoed , Syfret ordered Force Z to send back HMS Charybdis , HMS Eskimo and HMS Somali to reinforce Force X. Nigeria and the other damaged ships turned back to Gibraltar , escorted by HMS Wilton and HMS Bicester .
= = = 13 August = = =
= = = = Operation MG 3 = = = =
In the eastern Mediterranean , the British Operation MG 3 decoy had begun when convoy MW12 with three freighters had sailed from Port Said after dusk on 10 August , escorted by two cruisers , ten destroyers and two escorts . One merchant ship escorted by two cruisers and three destroyers left Haifa at 03 : 00 the next day . The two forces had rendezvoused early on 11 August and sailed west to the longitude of Alexandria , then turned back . German aircraft had spotted the movements and early on 12 August , Kesselring informed Fliegerkorps X that four merchant vessels , six cruisers and an unknown number of destroyers were at 33 ° 40 ' N , 28 ° 34 ' E , sailing north @-@ east at 12 knots ( 14 mph ) . Kesselring thought that the convoy was a British wireless @-@ telegraphy spoof but might also be a supply convoy for Malta . Fliegerkorps X was ordered to reconnoitre all of the eastern Mediterranean on the morning of 12 August . During the night of 12 / 13 August , British cruisers and destroyers had bombarded the port of Rhodes and during the day , the RAF attacked Maritsa airfield on Rhodes and a British submarine landed commandos at Simeto south of Catania on the east coast of Sicily , to sabotage electricity pylons . The Italian 8th Cruiser Division remained at port and the Germans detached one destroyer to reinforce the Italians ; local traffic along the North African coast and shipping traffic between Italy and Greece was suspended but MG 3 failed to divert Axis attention from Operation Pedestal .
= = = = Night , 12 / 13 August = = = =
Around midnight , the convoy passed south of Zembra Island towards Kelibia on Cap Bon , to avoid the minefields between Africa and Sicily around midnight , still out of formation . Three minesweeping destroyers sailed ahead , followed by the cruisers Kenya , Manchester and two freighters . Charybdis and the destroyers Eskimo and Somali from Force Z were still some hours behind and Ashanti was steaming fast to overhaul the main body . Three destroyers remained with nine of the merchantmen and Bramham was en route after Deucalion had been sunk . The main part of the convoy was attacked at 00 : 40 by eight Italian and seven German torpedo @-@ boats , which made fifteen attacks ; the long line of merchant ships and the reduced number of escort ships providing an easy target . At 01 : 20 off Cap Bon , Manchester was hit by a torpedo from either MS @-@ 16 or MS @-@ 22 , that wrecked three of its four propeller shafts and left the ship listing , stopped in the water . Power was restored , 156 men were taken on board HMS Pathfinder and at 05 : 00 , the captain ordered that the Manchester be scuttled and the remaining crew to make for the Tunisian coast .
Between 03 : 15 and 04 : 30 about 15 nmi ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) off Kelibia , the torpedo boats hit and sank Wairangi , Almeria Lykes ( US ) , Santa Elisa ( US ) and Glenorchy , as they took a short cut to catch up with the convoy . Rochester Castle was torpedoed but escaped at 13 knots ( 15 mph ) and caught up with the main body by 05 : 30 , by when Charybdis , Eskimo and Somali had arrived , increasing the escort to two cruisers and seven destroyers escorting Rochester Castle , Waimarama and Melbourne Star . Ohio and its destroyer were slowly closing the distance and further back were Port Chalmers and two destroyers . Dorset was sailing independently and Brisbane Star lurked near the Tunisian coast , ready to make a run for Malta after dark . Dawn brought an end to the torpedo boat attacks and at 07 : 30 , Burrough sent Eskimo and Somali back to help Manchester but they arrived too late , took on survivors who had not reached the shore and made for Gibraltar .
= = = = Morning = = = =
An attack by the Italian cruisers appeared imminent , after air reconnaissance had sighted them the previous evening , heading south about 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) from the west end of Sicily , on course to reach the convoy at dawn . At 01 : 30 the cruisers had turned east and run along the north coast of Sicily ; British aircraft from Malta had conducted a ruse to decoy the cruisers but the main attacking force on Malta was held back , in case the Italian battleships sailed from Taranto . Some of the Italian cruisers were ordered to return to port and the rest were sent through the Straits of Messina to join the 8th Cruiser Division against the decoy convoy in the eastern Mediterranean . The cruisers were attacked by the British submarines HMS Safari and Unbroken and Unbroken torpedoed the Bolzano in the oil tank and the ship was run aground ; the light cruiser Muzio Attendolo was hit forward and 60 ft ( 18 m ) of her bow was blown off .
At 07 : 00 the convoy was about 120 nmi ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) from Malta and twelve Junkers Ju 88s attacked at 08 : 00 despite Beaufighters and Spitfires overhead . Waimarama was hit and disintegrated , the aviation fuel on deck burst into flame and HMS Ledbury passed through the fires , rescuing 27 survivors of the ship 's complement of 107 men . The wreckage of Waimarama showered flaming debris on Melbourne Star and several of her crew abandoned ship prematurely , some of whom were later rescued by Ledbury . At 10 : 50 , Ohio was disabled by several near @-@ misses from Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers and one crashed onto the deck ; Rochester Castle was torpedoed and set ablaze but kept going and Dorset was hit and stopped . The crew of Port Chalmers found a torpedo caught in the starboard paravane ( a minesweeping device ) but it exploded harmlessly ; two destroyers were left behind with the disabled ships and another air attack at 11 : 50 had no effect . The main body of the convoy , with Port Chalmers , Melbourne Star and Rochester Castle sailed on and when it was within 80 nmi ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) of Malta , further air attacks were prevented by 407 Spitfire sorties from the island .
= = = = Afternoon = = = =
The remnants of the convoy steamed on to meet the 17th Minesweeper Flotilla of the Malta Escort Force at 14 : 30 and Force X turned for Gibraltar , the convoy reaching Grand Harbour in Valletta at 16 : 30 , where Operation Ceres , the immediate unloading of the ships began . Another aerial attack at dusk hit Ohio and Dorset was sunk . Penn tried to tow Ohio but the tanker was listing and snapped the tow line . During another attack , Ohio broke its keel when a bomb hit the same area as a previous torpedo hit . The crew , led by Captain D. W. Mason , temporarily abandoned the ship , as Italian torpedo bombers attacked . Brisbane Star evaded a U @-@ boat and managed to steam at 5 – 9 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 – 16 @.@ 7 km ; 5 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 4 mi ) despite the damage to its bows . While off Tunisia , Brisbane Star was boarded by the Sousse harbour master who tried to impound the vessel , until persuaded to relent and let the ship sail on after dark .
= = = 14 – 15 August = = =
Brisbane Star arrived at Valetta Harbour with Spitfires circling overhead , during the afternoon of 14 August . Ohio was surrounded by ships to nurse the tanker to Grand Harbour and several American volunteers from Santa Eliza , manned anti @-@ aircraft guns on Ohio during the tow . The weight of the tanker kept breaking the tow lines , while constant air attacks were made by 20 bombers that destroyed the rudder , made a hole in her stern and brought the decks awash . The tanker was towed in by the destroyers Ledbury and Penn lashed on either side , with the minesweeper HMS Rye acting as a stabilizer at the stern . More air attacks disrupted the towing formation , until it was re @-@ established with Bramham replacing Ledbury for the remainder of the journey . Ohio was towed into Grand Harbour at 09 : 30 on 15 August , to cheering crowds and a band playing Rule Britannia . The crowd fell silent as the ships entered harbour , men removed their hats , women crossed themselves and a bugle sounded Still . The tanker discharged oil into two tankers and water was pumped in at the same time , to reduce the chance of structural failure . Ohio settled on the bottom just as the last of the fuel was emptied .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
German reports on 17 August , stated that all the tankers in the recent Mediterranean convoy had been sunk and none of the transports had reached their destination ( assumed to be Egypt ) . In August , with Malta still besieged , 35 percent of Axis convoy shipping to North Africa was lost . The Allies had lost 13 vessels sunk , including nine merchantmen , one aircraft carrier ( Eagle ) , two cruisers ( Manchester and Cairo ) and a destroyer ( Foresight ) but the Royal Navy and the Merchant Navy had saved Malta . The arrival of about 32 @,@ 000 short tons ( 29 @,@ 000 t ) of general cargo , together with petrol , oil fuel , kerosene and diesel fuel , was enough to give the island about ten more weeks supply beyond the few weeks that the existing stocks could maintain . Later that year , Weichold summed up the German navy 's analysis ,
.... To the continental observer , the British losses seemed to represent a big victory for the Axis , but in reality the facts were quite different , since it had not been possible to prevent a British force , among which were five merchant vessels , from reaching Valetta .... Thanks to these new supplies Malta was now capable of fighting for several weeks , or , at a pinch , for several months . The main issue , the danger of air attack on the supply route to North Africa , remained . To achieve this objective no price was too high , and from this point of view the British operation , in spite of all the losses , was not a defeat , but a strategical failure of the first order by the Axis , the repercussions of which will one day be felt ...
Royal Navy gunners and Fleet Air Arm fighters shot down 42 of about 330 Axis aircraft that flew against the convoy . In 1994 , Sadkovich wrote that Operation Pedestal was a tactical disaster for the British , of a magnitude comparable to the German attack on Convoy PQ @-@ 17 . In 2002 , Giorgerini wrote that the operation was an Italian success , the Italian submarines had adopted more offensive tactics and sank a cruiser and two merchantmen , damaged two cruisers and the Ohio . For the British and the other Allies , Operation Pedestal was a strategic victory , raising the morale of the people and garrison of Malta , averting famine and an inevitable surrender . In September and October , Malta was supplied by submarines ( Otus , Rorqual on the Magic Carpet run and Clyde had sailed during the operation with ammunition , aviation fuel and torpedoes ) . Submarines Parthian , Clyde , Traveller and Thrasher made more Magic Carpet runs and the fast minelayer Welshman made a dash from Gibraltar with 300 long tons ( 300 t ) of food .
= = = Casualties = = =
In 1956 , Playfair wrote that the Fleet Air Arm lost 13 aircraft in action and 16 when Eagle was sunk , the RAF lost 5 aircraft and 35 Axis aircraft were shot down , including losses over Malta . In 1957 , Santoro wrote that the Regia Aeronautica lost 24 aircraft ( excluding those lost in British raids on Sardinian airfields and the radio @-@ controlled SM 79 bomber ) and that the Germans lost 24 aircraft , plus an unknown number of reconnaissance aircraft operating against the convoy . In 2003 Malcolm listed 160 men killed on Eagle , 132 on Manchester , 52 on Nigeria , 50 on Indomitable , 24 on Cairo , 5 on Foresight , 3 on Kenya . Merchant Navy casualties were 83 on Waimarama , 18 on Clan Ferguson , 7 on Glenorchy , 5 on Melbourne Star , 4 on Santa Elisa , 1 on Deucalion , 1 on Ohio and 1 on Brisbane Star . In 2010 , Vego wrote that about 350 men had been killed , Ohio never sailed again and the British lost one carrier ( Eagle ) , two cruisers ( Manchester and Cairo ) and the destroyer Foresight . One carrier ( Indomitable ) , two cruisers ( Nigeria and Kenya ) and three destroyers were damaged and under repair for some time and the Fleet Air Arm lost thirteen aircraft on operations and sixteen Sea Hurricanes when Eagle was sunk . The Allies could not risk such losses again and another large convoy to Malta was not attempted until November 1942 , when the re @-@ capture of airfields in Egypt and Libya after the Second Battle of El Alamein made it much easier to provide land @-@ based air cover . Two Italian cruisers ( Bolzano and Muzio Attendolo ) were damaged and not operational for the rest of the war , the Italian submarines Cobalto and Dagabur were sunk , Giada was damaged and 42 Axis aircraft were shot down .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
From 16 to 18 August , HMS Furious made another Club Run from Gibraltar and dispatched 29 Spitfires to Malta in Operation Baritone . In September , with Malta supplied , Allied forces sank 100 @,@ 000 long tons ( 100 @,@ 000 t ) of Axis shipping , including 24 @,@ 000 long tons ( 24 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel destined for Rommel , leaving the Axis forces in Egypt consuming supplies faster than receipts , contributing to tactical paralysis during the Second Battle of El Alamein ( 23 October – 11 November ) and Operation Torch ( 8 – 16 November ) . Submarines and Bristol Beaufort torpedo @-@ bombers escorted by Bristol Beaufighters , regularly attacked Axis supply ships , known to the Allies through Ultra intercepts from Bletchley Park . An attempt to run a disguised merchant ship to Malta early in November failed and then Operation Stoneage ( 17 – 21 November ) , a convoy of four merchant ships from Alexandria , arrived undamaged ( the light cruiser Arethusa was torpedoed with 155 men killed and had to be towed back to port ) . Force K was re @-@ established at Malta and in Operation Portcullis ( 1 – 5 December ) , five ships were dispatched and arrived safely . Chariot manned torpedoes began to operate from Malta that month and from late December to January 1943 , four convoys , Quadrangle A , B , C and D , with pairs of merchantmen each , delivered 200 @,@ 000 long tons ( 200 @,@ 000 t ) of stores without loss and empty ships were retrieved from the island .
= = Commemoration = =
In recognition of their fortitude during the siege and air attacks during all of the Mediterranean campaign , Malta was awarded the George Cross in the months immediately preceding this operation . Vice @-@ Admiral Syfret was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his " bravery and dauntless resolution in fighting an important convoy through to Malta in the face of relentless attacks by day and night from enemy submarines , aircraft , and surface forces . " The master of the tanker Ohio , Dudley Mason , was awarded the George Cross for showing " skill and courage of the highest order and it was due to his determination that , in spite of the most persistent enemy opposition , the vessel , with her valuable cargo , eventually reached Malta and was safely berthed . " Several other officers , crew members and commanders of both the Royal and Merchant Navies , including the commander of HMS Ledbury , Roger Hill , received military awards ranging from the Distinguished Service Order and Conspicuous Gallantry Medal to Mentioned in Despatches , for the bravery and intrepidity shown in ferrying the merchantmen to Malta . The Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal was awarded to Junior Third Officer Frederick August Larsen , Jr. and to Cadet @-@ Midshipman , U.S. Merchant Marine Academy , Francis A. Dales for " Heroism beyond the call of duty " . Operation Pedestal was the subject of a 1953 black and white British film , Malta Story , that interspersed archive footage of the SS Ohio with scripted studio scenes .
= = Order of battle = =
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= Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes =
Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes is the second solo album by Thom Yorke of the English alternative rock band Radiohead , released on 26 September 2014 . It was produced by Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich , with artwork by Radiohead artist Stanley Donwood . The album blends Yorke 's vocals and piano playing with electronic beats and textures .
Yorke first released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes independently via a paid @-@ for BitTorrent bundle . He and Godrich expressed their wish to find " an effective way of handing some control of internet commerce back to people who are creating the work " . The album was downloaded over a million times within six days of release , and became the most @-@ downloaded legal torrent of 2014 ; by February 2015 , it had been downloaded over 4 @.@ 5 million times .
A vinyl edition was also sold from the official site , and in August 2015 a CD edition was released in Japan by Hostess Entertainment . On 26 December 2014 , Yorke released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes on the online music shop Bandcamp alongside a new song , " Youwouldn 'tlikemewhenI 'mangry " . The album received generally positive reviews and Rolling Stone named it one of the best of 2014 .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , Radiohead released their album In Rainbows independently as a pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want download . Matt Mason , chief content officer at BitTorrent Inc , said the release was the " gold standard for how to do something direct @-@ to @-@ fan on the internet " , and began talks with Radiohead 's managers about the future of online music distribution . Radiohead singer Yorke and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich had expressed concern about how the internet has affected the music business , and accused the music streaming service Spotify of not compensating new artists fairly . In 2013 , Godrich stated : " [ Streaming ] cannot work as a way of supporting new artists ' work . Spotify and the like either have to address that fact and change the model for new releases or else all new music producers should be bold and vote with their feet . " Mason told The Guardian that Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes was " born out of these conversations we had on how the internet should work for artists : the vision we both share , which is that at present we don 't have a sustainable business model for artists on the internet . "
In 2013 , Yorke contributed music to The UK Gold , a documentary about tax avoidance in the UK ; the soundtrack includes an early version of the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes track " A Brain in a Bottle " . The following year , elements of Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes were used in the soundtrack for the second version of the Polyfauna app , released on 1 September 2014 , before the album 's announcement . The app , for Android and iOS phones , is an " experimental collaboration " between Radiohead and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything . Later that month , Yorke posted a photo of an unidentified vinyl record on Tumblr , prompting media speculation about a new album release .
= = Release = =
Yorke and producer Nigel Godrich announced Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes on 26 September 2014 . It was released the same day via the peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing protocol BitTorrent using BitTorrent Inc 's " bundles " initiative , whereby creators distribute their work in packaged torrent files . It was the first album to use BitTorrent 's " pay @-@ gate " feature ; customers pay US $ 6 ( £ 3 @.@ 69 ) to download the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes torrent bundle containing eight MP3 files , cover artwork by Stanley Donwood , and a music video for " A Brain in a Bottle " featuring Yorke in boxing gloves . Users can also download a free torrent bundle containing only the " Brain in a Bottle " MP3 and video , or order a " deluxe " vinyl edition of the album packaged in a bespoke antistatic bag .
In a press release announcing the album , Yorke and Godrich wrote :
= = = Other formats = = =
On 26 December 2014 , Yorke released Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes in MP3 and FLAC formats for £ 3 @.@ 86 on the online music shop Bandcamp . He also released a free new song , " Youwouldn 'tlikemewhenI 'mangry " , which Godrich described as a " complimentary addendum " to the album . On 30 June 2015 , the album was made available to stream with the launch of Apple Music , Apple 's streaming service . In August 2015 , a CD version was released in Japan by Hostess Entertainment .
= = Music = =
Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes blends Yorke 's vocals and piano playing with electronic beats and textures . Critics described it as " eerie " and " neurotic " , with " a quiet , restrained sense of dread " . The AV Club likened its music to the Radiohead tracks " Like Spinning Plates " ( from 2001 's Amnesiac ) and " The Gloaming " ( 2003 's Hail to the Thief ) .
The opening track , " A Brain in a Bottle " , combines Yorke 's falsetto with a stuttering beat and " old @-@ school " oscillator effects . Radiohead bassist Colin Greenwood is credited for beat programming on " Guess Again ! " , which features " decaying " piano and " crunchy " backbeats . " Interference " is a minimal " mumbled love song " with " chilly " synth pads . Slant Magazine described " The Mother Lode " as melodic and dubstep @-@ inspired , with an " intoxicating " house beat . The album 's second half features a ten @-@ minute ambient suite led by the " percussive " looping track " There is No Ice ( For My Drink ) " . Rolling Stone described the final track , " Nose Grows Some " , as a " dread @-@ soaked hymn of emotional defeat " , likening it to Radiohead finales such as " Motion Picture Soundtrack " from Kid A ( 2000 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes was downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times in the first 24 hours of release and over a million times in its first six days . Excluding internet piracy , it was the most torrented album of 2014 . By February 2015 , it had been downloaded over 4 @.@ 5 million times . These figures include downloads of the free torrent bundle containing only the " Brain in a Bottle " MP3 and music video ; sales figures for the full album bundle have not been released .
Stereogum and Gigaom estimated that Yorke may have made $ 20 million from the release , more than he would likely have made through a traditional album release . Stereogum wrote that " this sort of album @-@ release strategy only works for artists who are already astronomically famous , but salute Thom Yorke for figuring out ways to keep stacking cash while keeping his artistic autonomy . " However , Billboard argued that , assuming the ratio of people who paid for the full album was comparable to subscription numbers of Spotify and Pandora Radio , earnings between $ 1 and 6 million were more likely : " not bad showing for a self @-@ released , direct @-@ to @-@ fan album that allowed Yorke to circumvent major download stores and gather customer information — but it 's no Hollywood starring role , either . "
In November 2015 , asked if the BitTorrent release had been a success , Yorke said : " No , not exactly . But I wanted it to be an experiment ... I wanted to show that , in theory , today one could follow the entire chain of record production , from start to finish , on his own . But in practice it is very different . We cannot be burdened with all of the responsibilities of the record label . But I 'm glad I did it , for having tried to . "
= = = Critical = = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes has an average score of 72 based on 29 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as " deliberately underwhelming , an old @-@ fashioned grower that doesn 't startle upon first listen but rather slowly unfolds ... instead of wallowing in alienation , Yorke has found comfort within it on Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes and the difference is palpable . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes " demands deep listening " and praised " Nose Grows Some " as the strongest track . Slant Magazine critic Franklin Jones wrote : " This is paranoia with a soul , and occasionally a heart ... Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes maintains the trademark elements of a Thom Yorke release while injecting subtle moments of fresh invention . " Barry Nicholson of the NME wrote : " It 's hardly love at first listen … Yet across repeat plays , the album 's charms begin to unfurl . " Rolling Stone ranked the album number 30 in its list of the best albums of 2014 .
The A.V. Club gave the album a positive review , but wrote : " Flashes of brilliance aside , the result sounds an awful lot like something Yorke dashed off to pass the time before delving into the new Radiohead album . " Mark Beaumont of The Guardian called it " deviously understated " , but found that its unconventional release was " more impactful than the product . " Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork wrote : " There 's precious little to grab on to in terms of melody and feeling , and you won 't find yourself humming along to anything here . That said , certain elements of Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes , if given the right amount of attention , can be enjoyable to luxuriate in . " Chris Barton of the Los Angeles Times found the album too similar to Yorke 's previous solo album The Eraser ( 2006 ) and his work with Atoms for Peace , writing that " it ’ s just a bit disappointing that Yorke 's path seems short on new directions . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Thom Yorke except " Guess Again ! " by Thom Yorke and Colin Greenwood .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from the Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes vinyl packaging .
Stanley Donwood – artwork
Nigel Godrich – production and editing
Colin Greenwood – beat programming on " Guess Again ! "
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Thom Yorke – artwork ( credited as " Tchocky " ) , music and vocals
= = Chart positions = =
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= El Celler de Can Roca =
El Celler de Can Roca is a restaurant in Girona , Catalonia , Spain which was opened in 1986 by the Roca brothers , Joan , Josep and Jordi . It was first located next to their parent 's restaurant Can Roca , but moved to its current purpose built building in 2007 . It has been received warmly by critics , and holds three Michelin stars . In 2013 , it was named the best restaurant in the world by the magazine Restaurant , after having been ranked second in 2011 and 2012 . In 2014 , it was named second best restaurant in the world . In 2015 , it was once again named the best restaurant in the world by the magazine Restaurant .
= = Style and Cuisine = =
The cuisine served by the restaurant is traditional Catalan , but with twists to the extent that the Michelin Guide describes it as " creative " . The restaurant has a large wine cellar with some 60 @,@ 000 bottles . Dishes served include those based on perfumes , and with unusual presentations such as caramelised olives served on a bonsai tree .
= = Description = =
El Celler de Can Roca was founded in 1986 by the Roca brothers next to their family 's main restaurant Can Roca which had been open on the site since 1967 . The oldest brother , Joan Roca is the head chef ; Josep Roca , the middle brother , is the sommelier , and the youngest brother , Jordi Roca , is in charge of desserts . Because of their work at the restaurant , the brothers have appeared at Harvard University in the United States as part of the Science and Cooking program .
= = Modernism = =
In late 2007 the restaurant moved to a modern building custom @-@ built for the restaurant about 100 meters from the prior location , with the original location still being used for staff meals . The new layout features wooden floors , with simply dressed tables . On each table sits three stones to signify the three Roca brothers , while the tableware is Rosenthal china . The enlarged kitchen in the new location includes space for thirty chefs to work and also features Joan Roca 's open plan office , so that he can keep an eye on the chefs even while he is doing more administrative tasks . At least one of the three brothers is present for every service . There is a capacity for 45 diners .
= = Media = =
El Celler de Can Roca appeared on the UK television series MasterChef : The Professionals on 13 December 2011 . The three finalists in the competition were asked to cook their own creations for the three Roca brothers , as well as cooking six of the restaurant 's signature dishes for a group of invited guests . Mark Birchall , the 2009 winner of the Roux Scholarship elected to work at El Celler de Can Roca as part of his prize . Birchall was head chef of L 'Enclume in Cartmel , England , under chef @-@ patron Simon Rogan . This resulted in the restaurant appearing on the featured chef series of British chef networking website " The Staff Canteen " .
= = = Menu = = =
The restaurant primarily uses local ingredients from the Catalan area . Simple flavour combinations are combined with molecular gastronomy techniques and unusual presentations of food , including caramelised olives which are presented on a bonsai tree . The Michelin Guide describes the type of cuisine produced by El Celler de Can Roca simply as " creative " , while Edward Owen of The Times said it was a " fusion of traditional dishes with surrealist touches " . Techniques include the freezing of calamari with liquid nitrogen and then blended in order to be piped and baked into a cracker .
When diners first arrive , they are given a selection of small bites from a section of the kitchen called " El Món " , who only produce small snack portions for the guests . They typically demonstrate flavours from around the world and come in sets of five . These introduce the diner to the unusual techniques and presentations of the restaurants . For example , a small ball of frozen spiced fish stock coated in cocoa butter represents Thailand , while the set comes on a purpose @-@ built wooden holder . While there are typical fine dining ingredients including in the menu such as lobster and foie gras , due to the Catalan influence on the menu , ingredients such as pigeon , hake and pig 's trotters also appear . Fish dishes include a crayfish velouté , accompanied by spring onions with cocoa and mint .
They have created some dishes and desserts based on perfumes such as Calvin Klein 's Eternity , Carolina Herrera , Lancôme and Bulgari . This has resulted in a perfume being released by the restaurant itself , called Nuvol de Ilimona . It was based on a dessert served at the restaurant called Lemon Distillation , and was developed to spray as a mist over the diners as they ate the dish . The wine list is split into separate lists for red and white , and is delivered on a trolley to each table .
= = Reception = =
El Celler de Can Roca has been praised by fellow chefs , with Michel Roux describing it as " one of the top restaurants in Europe " , and Michel Roux , Jr. stating that it was his favourite restaurant . Nicholas Lander reviewed the restaurant for the Financial Times in 2008 and also praised the veal tartare , but was impressed by the main of kid goat , and the dessert of sheep 's milk ice cream .
Jonathan Gold of the Wall Street Journal wrote of the presentation of the caramelised olives , describing it as " delectable and unforgettable " . In September 2011 , it was included in a list of the top ten places to eat by Tony Turnbull , The Times food editor . Critic A. A. Gill compared the restaurant to former restaurant El Bulli saying that it wasn 't a direct replacement and was an " outstanding kitchen , and part of the great confident wave of new Spanish food that is complex , technically exhausting , aware of the landscape , history and politics " . The comparison is commonly made , with El Celler de Can Roca often being referred to as the successor to El Bulli which was once ranked as the number one restaurant in the world .
The restaurant was awarded its first Michelin star in 1995 , its second in 2002 and was awarded three star status in 2009 . It remains at that level of accolade as of the 2013 Michelin Guide . El Celler de Can Roca has been listed in The World 's 50 Best Restaurants by Restaurant magazine since 2006 when it was ranked 21st . In 2009 it was ranked fifth and was awarded the prize for being the highest climbing restaurant on the list . In 2010 , it rose one place to fourth and in 2011 , 2012 and 2014 , it was ranked in second place behind Danish New Nordic cuisine restaurant Noma , with fellow Spanish restaurant Mugaritz in third place . On 29 April 2013 the restaurant was named the best in the world . In The Daily Meal 's inaugural list of the best 101 restaurants in Europe in 2012 , El Celler de Can Roca was ranked twelfth . During the same year , it was named as restaurant of the year by The Sunday Telegraph .
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= 2012 Delhi gang rape =
The 2012 Delhi gang rape case involved a rape and fatal assault that occurred on 16 December 2012 in Munirka , a neighbourhood in South Delhi . The incident took place when a 23 @-@ year @-@ old female physiotherapy intern , Jyoti Singh was beaten , gang raped , and tortured in a private bus in which she was traveling with her friend , Awindra Pratap Pandey . There were six others in the bus , including the driver , all of whom raped the woman and beat her friend . Thirteen days after the assault , she was transferred to a hospital in Singapore for emergency treatment , but died from her injuries two days later . The incident generated widespread national and international coverage and was widely condemned , both in India and abroad . Subsequently , public protests against the state and central governments for failing to provide adequate security for women took place in New Delhi , where thousands of protesters clashed with security forces . Similar protests took place in major cities throughout the country . Because India does not allow the press to publicise a rape victim 's name , the victim has become widely known as Nirbhaya , meaning " fearless " , and her life and death have come to symbolise women 's struggle to end rape and the long @-@ held practice of blaming the victim rather than the perpetrator .
All the accused were arrested and charged with sexual assault and murder . One of the accused , Ram Singh , died in police custody from possible suicide on 11 March 2013 in the Tihar Jail . According to some published reports , the police say Ram Singh hanged himself , but defense lawyers and his family suspect he was murdered . The rest of the accused went on trial in a fast @-@ track court ; the prosecution finished presenting its evidence on 8 July 2013 . The juvenile was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years ' imprisonment in a reform facility . On 10 September 2013 , the four remaining adult defendants were found guilty of rape and murder and three days later were sentenced to death by hanging . On 13 March 2014 , Delhi High Court in the death reference case and hearing appeals against the conviction by the lower Court , upheld the guilty verdict and the death sentences .
As a result of the protests , in December 2012 , a judicial committee was set up to study and take public suggestions for the best ways to amend laws to provide quicker investigation and prosecution of sex offenders . After considering about 80 @,@ 000 suggestions , the committee submitted a report which indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women . In 2013 , the Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Ordinance , 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee , several new laws were passed , and six new fast @-@ track courts were created to hear rape cases . Critics argue that the legal system remains slow to hear and prosecute rape cases , but most agree that the case has resulted in a tremendous increase in the public discussion of crimes against women and statistics show that there has been an improvement in the number of women willing to file a crime report . However , in December 2014 , the two @-@ year anniversary of the attack , the girl 's father called the promises of reform unmet and said that he felt regret in that he had not been able to bring justice for his daughter and other women like her . A BBC documentary titled India 's Daughter based on the attack was broadcast in the UK on 4 March 2015 .
= = Incident = =
The victims , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old woman , Jyoti Singh , and her friend , Awindra Pratap Pandey , were returning home on the night of 16 December 2012 after watching the film Life of Pi in Saket , South Delhi . They boarded an off @-@ duty charter bus at Munirka for Dwarka that was being driven by joyriders at about 9 : 30 pm ( IST ) . There were only six others on the bus , including the driver . One of the men , a minor , had called for passengers telling them that the bus was going towards their destination . Pandey became suspicious when the bus deviated from its normal route and its doors were shut . When he objected , the group of six men already on board , including the driver , taunted the couple , asking what they were doing alone at such a late hour .
During the argument , a scuffle ensued between Pandey and the group of men . He was beaten , gagged and knocked unconscious with an iron rod . The men then dragged Jyoti to the rear of the bus , beating her with the rod and raping her while the bus driver continued to drive . Medical reports later said that she suffered serious injuries to her abdomen , intestines and genitals due to the assault , and doctors said that the damage indicated that a blunt object ( suspected to be the iron rod ) may have been used for penetration . That rod was later described by police as being a rusted , L @-@ shaped implement of the type used as a wheel jack handle .
According to police reports Jyoti attempted to fight off her assailants , biting three of the attackers and leaving bite marks on the accused men . After the beatings and rape ended , the attackers threw both victims from the moving bus . Then the bus driver allegedly tried to drive the bus over Jyoti , but she was pulled aside by her male friend . One of the perpetrators later cleaned the vehicle to remove evidence . Police impounded it the next day .
The partially clothed victims were found on the road by a passerby at around 11 pm ( IST ) . The passerby called the Delhi Police , who took the couple to Safdarjung Hospital , where Jyoti was given emergency treatment and placed on mechanical ventilation . She was found with injury marks , including numerous bite marks , all over her body . According to reports , one of the accused men admitted to having seen a rope @-@ like object , assumed to be her intestines , being pulled out of the woman by the other assailants on the bus . Two blood @-@ stained metal rods were retrieved from the bus and medical staff confirmed that " it was penetration by this that caused massive damage to her genitals , uterus and intestines " .
= = Victims = =
Jyoti Singh was born and raised in Delhi while her parents were from a small village in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh . Her father sold his ancestral land to educate her , and worked double shifts to continue to pay for her schooling . In an interview he related that as a youth he had dreamed of becoming a school teacher , but at that time education was not considered important and girls were not even sent to school . " Attitudes are changing back home now , but when I left 30 years ago , I vowed never deny my children so sending them to school was fulfilling my desire for knowledge . " He said that he put his daughter 's education above that of even his two sons . " It never entered our hearts to ever discriminate . How could I be happy if my son is happy and my daughter isn 't ? And it was impossible to refuse a little girl who loved going to school . "
In compliance with Indian law , the real name of the victim was initially not released to the media , so pseudonyms were used for her by various media houses instead , including Jagruti ( " awareness " ) , Jyoti ( " flame " ) , Amanat ( " treasure " ) , Nirbhaya ( " fearless one " ) , Damini ( " lightning " , after the 1993 Hindi film ) and Delhi braveheart .
Awindra Pratap Pandey , the man who was attacked , is a software engineer from Gorakhpur , Uttar Pradesh , who lives in Ber Sarai , New Delhi ; he suffered broken limbs but survived .
Delhi police registered a criminal case against the editor of a Delhi @-@ based tabloid , Mail Today , for disclosing the female victim 's identity , as such disclosure is an offence under section 228 ( A ) of Indian Penal Code . Shashi Tharoor , then a union minister , suggested that if the parents had no objection , her identity could be made public , with a view to showing respect for her courageous response by naming future laws after her , but Tharoor 's remark created controversy . Speaking to a British press reporter on 5 January , the victim 's father was quoted as saying , " We want the world to know her real name . My daughter didn 't do anything wrong , she died while protecting herself . I am proud of her . Revealing her name will give courage to other women who have survived these attacks . They will find strength from my daughter . " Indian law forbids revealing the name of a rape victim unless the family agrees to it and , following the news article which published the father 's reported quote and the victim 's name , some news outlets in India , Germany , Australia , and the United States also revealed her name . However , the following day Zee News quoted the father as saying , " I have only said we won 't have any objection if the government uses my daughter 's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed than the existing one . " During a protest against the juvenile convict 's release on December 16 , 2015 , the victim 's mother said that the victim 's name was Jyoti Singh and she was not ashamed of disclosing her name .
= = Medical treatment and death = =
On 19 December 2012 , Jyoti underwent her fifth surgery , removing most of her remaining intestine . Doctors reported that she was in " stable but critical " condition . On 21 December , the government appointed a committee of physicians to ensure she received the best medical care . By 25 December , she remained intubated , on life support and in critical condition . Doctors stated that she was running a fever of 102 to 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) and that internal bleeding due to sepsis , a severe blood infection that can lead to organ failure , was somewhat controlled . It was reported that she was " stable , conscious and meaningfully communicative " .
At a cabinet meeting chaired by Manmohan Singh on 26 December , the decision was made to fly her to Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore for further care . Mount Elizabeth is a multi @-@ organ transplant specialty hospital . Some doctors criticised the decision as political , questioning the need to transfer an intensive care unit ( ICU ) patient for organ transplants that were not scheduled for weeks or even months later . Government sources indicate that the Chief Minister of Delhi , Sheila Dikshit , was personally behind the decision . Hours earlier , Union Minister P. Chidambaram had stated that Jyoti was not in a condition to be moved . An anonymous source quoted by The Sunday Guardian stated that the decision to move her was taken " when it was already clear that she would not survive the next 48 hours " .
During the six @-@ hour flight by air @-@ ambulance to Singapore on 27 December , Jyoti suddenly went into a " near collapse " , which a later report described as a cardiac arrest . The doctors on the flight created an arterial line to stabilise her , but she had been without pulse and blood pressure for nearly three minutes and never regained consciousness in Singapore .
On 28 December , at 11 am ( IST ) , her condition was extremely critical . The chief executive officer of the Mount Elizabeth Hospital said that the girl suffered brain damage , pneumonia , and abdominal infection , and that she was " fighting for her life . " Her condition continued to deteriorate , and she died at 4 : 45 am on 29 December , Singapore Standard Time ( 2 : 15 am , 29 December , IST ; 8 : 45 pm , 28 December , UTC ) . Her body was cremated on 30 December in Delhi under high police security . The Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , the country 's main opposition party , criticised the high security levels , stating that they were reminiscent of the Emergency Era , during which civil liberties were suspended .
= = Arrests = =
Police found and arrested some suspects within 24 hours of the crime . From recordings made by a highway CCTV vehicle , a description of the bus , a white charter bus with a name written on it , was broadcast . Other operators identified it as being contracted by a South Delhi private school . They then traced it and found its driver , Ram Singh . Police obtained sketches of the assailants with the help of the male victim , and used a cell phone stolen from the two victims to find one of the assailants .
Six men were arrested in connection with the incident . They included Ram Singh , the bus driver , and his brother , Mukesh Singh , who were both arrested in Rajasthan . Ram and Mukesh Singh lived in Ravidas camp , a slum in South Delhi . Vinay Sharma , an assistant gym instructor , and Pawan Gupta , a fruit seller , were both arrested in Delhi . A seventeen @-@ year @-@ old juvenile from Badayun , Uttar Pradesh , was arrested at the Anand Vihar terminal in Delhi . The juvenile had only met the others that day . Akshay Thakur , who had come to Delhi seeking employment , was arrested in Aurangabad .
According to reports , the group had been eating and drinking together and " having a party " earlier in the day . Although the charter bus which Ram Singh drove on weekdays was not permitted to pick up public passengers or even to operate in Delhi because of its tinted windows , they decided to take it out " to have some fun " . A few hours before committing the gang rape , the attackers had robbed a carpenter . The carpenter was 35 @-@ years old Ram Adhar who boarded the bus which was being driven by Mukesh Singh . The juvenile convict had lured him into the bus saying it was going to Nehru Place . He was then beaten up , robbed of his cellphone and ₹ 1500 in cash . After robbing him , the group dumped him at the IIT Flyover . Ram reported about the group in the bus robbing him to three police constables Kailash , Ashok and Sandeep who were passing nearby . They however refused to take action saying that the crime scene wasn 't under their purview as they were from the Hauz Khas police station and he will have to report the incident to the Vasant Vihar police station .
Shortly after the attacks , Gupta said he accepted his guilt and should be hanged . Mukesh Singh , who was placed in Tihar Jail after his arrest , was assaulted by other inmates and was kept in solitary confinement for his own protection .
Ram Singh was presented before the Metropolitan Magistrate on 18 December 2012 . He refused to participate in an identification process . Investigation revealed a history of frequent drinking that resulted in " blinding rage " , " bad temper " , and quarrels with employers , that had led friends to call him " mental " . On 11 March , Ram Singh was discovered hanging from a ventilator shaft in his cell at about 5 : 45 am . Authorities said it was unclear whether it was a suicide or a murder .
= = Trial = =
The male victim , Awindra Pratap Pandey , testified in court on 19 December 2012 . Pandey recorded his statement with a sub @-@ divisional magistrate at the Safdarjung Hospital on 21 December , in the presence of the Deputy Commissioner of police .
On 21 December , the government promised to file the charge sheet quickly and seek the maximum penalty of life imprisonment for the perpetrators . Following public outrage and a demand for a speedy trial and prosecution , on 24 December , the police promised to file the charge sheet within one week . The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs met on 27 December to discuss the issue , and Union Home Secretary R. K. Singh and Delhi Police Commissioner Neeraj Kumar were summoned to appear . The Delhi High Court approved the creation of five fast @-@ track courts to try rape and sexual assault cases . The first of the five approved fast @-@ track courts was inaugurated on 2 January 2013 by Altamas Kabir , Chief Justice of India , in Saket court complex of South Delhi .
On 21 December , the Delhi High Court reprimanded the Delhi police for being " evasive " in a probe status report providing details of officers on patrol duty in the area covered by the bus route . A further court hearing on the matter was scheduled for 9 January 2013 . The following day , the Delhi Police initiated action against three Hauz Khas police station personnel for alleged inaction of an alleged robbery committed against the carpenter by the occupants of the bus in which the gang rape and assault occurred . On 24 December , two Assistant Commissioners of Police were suspended for failing to prevent the gang rape incident .
= = = Juvenile defendant = = =
The juvenile defendant whose name according to some reports was Mohammed Afroz , was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the Juvenile Justice Board ( JJB ) , which relied on his birth certificate and school documents . The JJB rejected a police request for a bone ossification ( age determination ) test for a positive documentation of his age .
On 28 January 2013 , the JJB determined that he would not be tried as an adult . A petition moved by Janata Party president Subramanian Swamy seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult because of the extremely violent nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB . The minor was tried separately in a juvenile court .
A verdict in the case was scheduled to be announced on 25 July , but was deferred until 5 August and then deferred again to 19 August . On 31 August , he was convicted of rape and murder under the Juvenile Justice Act and given the maximum sentence of three years ' imprisonment in a reform facility , inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial . The juvenile was released on 20 December 2015 .
= = = Adult defendants = = =
Five days after Jyoti 's death , on 3 January 2013 , the police filed charges against the five adult men for rape , murder , kidnapping , destruction of evidence , and the attempted murder of the woman 's male companion . Senior lawyer Dayan Krishnan was appointed as the special public prosecutor . Mukesh Singh , Vinay Sharma , Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta denied the charges . Some of the men had confessed earlier , however their lawyers said that their clients had been tortured and that their confessions had been coerced .
On 10 January , one of their lawyers , Manohar Lal Sharma , said in a media interview that the victims were responsible for the assault because they should not have been using public transportation and , as an unmarried couple , they should not have been on the streets at night . He went on to say : " Until today I have not seen a single incident or example of rape with a respected lady . Even an underworld don would not like to touch a girl with respect . " He also called the male victim " wholly responsible " for the incident because he " failed in his duty to protect the woman " .
The Delhi police filed a charge sheet against the defendants on March 13 in the robbery of Ram Adhar .
The four surviving adult defendants went on trial in a fast @-@ track court . The prosecution presented evidence including witness statements , the victim 's statement , fingerprints , DNA testing , and dental modelling . It completed its case on 8 July .
= = = = Conviction and sentencing = = = =
On 10 September 2013 , the four adult defendants were found guilty of rape , murder , unnatural offences and destruction of evidence . All four men faced the death penalty , and demonstrators outside the courthouse called for the hanging of the defendants . The victim 's father also called for the defendants to be hanged , stating , " We will get complete closure only if all the accused are wiped off from the face of the earth . " Lawyers for three of the four stated that their clients intended to appeal the verdict . The four men were sentenced on 13 September to death by hanging . Judge Yogesh Khanna rejected pleas for a lesser sentence saying the case has " shocked the collective conscience of India " , and that " courts cannot turn a blind eye to such crimes " . The victim 's family was present for the sentencing and her mother expressed satisfaction over the verdict saying , " We were waiting with bated breath , now we are relieved . I thank the people of my country and the media . " After the verdict was delivered , the people waiting outside the courtroom applauded .
On 13 March 2014 , the Delhi High Court found all the defendants guilty of rape , murder , unnatural offences and destruction of evidence . With the verdict , the High Court confirmed death sentence for all four men convicted in September 2013 . The court noted that the crime , which stirred widespread protests over sexual crimes against women in the country , fell into the judicial system 's " rarest of rare category " that allows capital punishment . The lawyers of the four men said they will appeal to the Supreme Court .
On 15 March 2014 , the Supreme Court of India stayed the execution of two of the four convicts , Mukesh Singh and Gupta to allow them to make their appeal against their conviction on 31 March . This was further extended by the court to the second week of July . On 2 June , the two other convicts , Sharma and Thakur also asked the Supreme Court to stay their execution to allow them to make an appeal of their convictions . On 14 July , their execution was also stayed by Supreme Court . As of December 2014 , two years following the attack , the Supreme Court has not yet handed down their decision . On 27 August 2015 , Vinay , Akshay , Mukesh and Pawan were convicted of robbing Ram Adhar and were later sentenced to 10 @-@ years imprisonment .
= = Public protests = =
= = = After the incident = = =
Public protests took place in New Delhi on 21 December 2012 at India Gate and Raisina Hill , the latter being the location of both the Parliament of India and Rashtrapati Bhavan , the official residence of the President of India . Thousands of protesters clashed with police and battled Rapid Action Force units . Demonstrators were baton charged , shot with water cannon and tear gas shells , and arrested .
Similar protests occurred throughout the country . More than 600 women belonging to various organisations demonstrated in Bangalore . Thousands of people silently marched in Kolkata . Protests occurred online as well on the social networking sites Facebook and WhatsApp , with users replacing their profile images with a black dot symbol . Tens of thousands signed an online petition protesting the incident .
Yoga guru Baba Ramdev and former Army chief General Vijay Kumar Singh were among the demonstrators who clashed with Delhi Police at Jantar Mantar . On 24 December , activist Rajesh Gangwar started a hunger strike , saying about the accused men , " If my death shakes the system and gets them hanged , I am ready to die " . Gangwar ended his fast after 14 days , saying , " My fight to demand a strict law against rape will be continued in the future ... I have dedicated myself for this cause " .
Seven metro rail stations in New Delhi were closed on 22 December to discourage protesters from gathering at Raisina Hill . On 24 December , police blocked roads leading to India Gate and Raisina Hill to prevent possible mass protests , and closed nine metro stations , affecting thousands of transit patrons . News reporters were not allowed to reach India Gate and Raisina Hill . In addition to CrPC section 144 , which disallows assembly of groups larger than five , curfew was imposed near the presidential residence . The Hindustan Times accused police of using excessive force against the protestors , reporting that 375 tear gas canisters were used at India Gate and elsewhere in Delhi to disperse the crowds . An article in First Post criticised the Indian government as well , saying that they failed to act positively or give credible assurances to the protesters and instead used police force , lathi @-@ charging , pushing the media out of the scene , and shutting down metro rail stations .
Police stated that peaceful protests had been " hijacked " by hooligans and political activists .
During one protest , a police constable named Subhash Tomar collapsed and later died in hospital . Two witnesses claimed that Tomar collapsed without being hit by any protesters , while a third disputed this . Hospital doctors and the post @-@ mortem gave contradictory reports : he died due to cardiac arrest , but it is not known if the heart attack was caused by blunt @-@ force injuries that he suffered to his chest and neck . Some experts state that his chest injuries may have been a side effect of the administration of CPR . The Delhi Police arrested 8 young men and charged them with Tomar 's murder and rioting at India Gate . Later in March 2013 , the police admitted in the High Court they had no evidence against the eight and gave them a clean chit . The youths said the move by the commissioner of police to charge them with murder had been " irresponsible " .
= = = After the victim 's death = = =
After Jyoti Singh 's death on 29 December 2012 , protests were staged all over India , including Kolkata , Chennai , Bengaluru , Hyderabad , Kochi , Thiruvananthapuram , Mumbai and Visakhapatnam . Many of the mourners carried candles and wore black dress ; some pasted black cloth across their mouths .
The following day a large number of people staged protests near Jantar Mantar , New Delhi . There were minor clashes between some groups of protesters and the police ; the police then removed some protesters from the area . One group of protesters also observed a one @-@ day hunger strike at Jantar Mantar . All roads leading to India Gate were closed by police and areas where protesters had gathered during the previous week were out of bounds to the public . Some of the protesters drew graffiti and slogans on papers spread on the road , condemning the incident and demanding stricter laws and speedy judgement . The BJP renewed its demand for a special parliament session to discuss the case and to adopt stricter laws on crime against women .
New Year 's celebrations were scaled down to a large extent , with the Indian armed forces and some clubs and hotels in Delhi cancelling their New Year parties .
The Indian protests also sparked protests across south Asia , including marches and rallies in Nepal , Sri Lanka , Pakistan and Bangladesh . In Nepal , hundreds of demonstrators in Kathmandu called for legal reforms and an overhaul of attitudes to women . In Bangladesh the human rights group Ain o Salish Kendra ( ASK ) said the protests in Delhi had given fresh impetus to protests against sexual violence . According to an ASK spokesperson , " although previous demonstrations on similar issues were largely dominated by women , men were now protesting too . The protests had also drawn people from a broad range of society . "
In Paris , people participated in a march to the Indian embassy where a petition was handed over asking for action to make India safer for women .
An author for the South Asia Analysis Group explained the protests as expressions of middle @-@ class angst arising out of a collapse of a social contract between them and the liberal state . New Delhi has the highest number of sex crimes among India 's major cities . Police figures show a rape reported on average every 18 hours ; reported rape cases rose by nearly 17 percent between 2007 and 2011 . Only one of 706 rape cases filed in Delhi in 2012 ended in conviction . Between 16 December and 4 January , 501 calls for harassment and 64 calls for rape were recorded by the Delhi Police , but only four were followed up by inquiries . The regional programme director for U.N. Women South Asia said , " There are rape cases in almost all cities and rural areas , where the victim dies immediately because of the brutality of the crime ... This time , it was like , ' Wake up . ' "
= = Reactions = =
Members of the Indian parliament demanded severe punishment for the perpetrators . The then Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha , Sushma Swaraj , stated : " The rapists should be hanged " . Sonia Gandhi visited the Safdarjang Hospital and met doctors on duty in the anaesthesia and surgery departments for an update on the woman 's health . Bahujan Samaj Party chief , Mayawati , said that proper investigation was required , and that " action should be so strict that no one should dare to act in such a manner again " . Actress and member of the Rajya Sabha , Jaya Bachchan said that she was " terribly disturbed " over the incident , and felt " ashamed " sitting in the House , feeling " helpless " for " not being able to do anything " . Meira Kumar , Speaker of the Lok Sabha , told reporters a " new law should be brought in and must get passed to ensure the safety of women . " She went on to say : " The laws at present are not enough , we need stricter laws . "
Sheila Dikshit , who at that time was the Chief Minister of Delhi , said that she did not have the courage to meet the victim and described Delhi as a " rape capital " in interviews . She said that senior police officials should be held accountable for the failure to take adequate measures to stop such incidents and called for " immediate setting up of fast @-@ track courts to try rape cases and to get justice in a time @-@ bound manner " . The three constables who had refused to take action upon Ram Adhar 's complaint of robbery were suspended for deriliction of duty .
On 24 December 2012 , in his first official reaction after the incident , Prime Minister Manmohan Singh appealed for calm , stressing that " violence will serve no purpose " . In a televised address , he assured that all possible efforts would be made to ensure the safety of women in India . Singh expressed empathy , saying : " As a father of three daughters I feel as strongly about the incident as each one of you " . As a tribute to Nirbhaya , the prime minister cancelled all his official events to celebrate the new year . The Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh , Akhilesh Yadav , announced a package of financial assistance ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) and a government job to Pandey 's family .
Speaking out against the protesters , President Pranab Mukherjee 's son Abhijit Mukherjee argued that the women protesters did not appear to him to be students , saying , " What 's basically happening in Delhi is a lot like Egypt or elsewhere , where there 's something called the Pink Revolution , which has very little connection with ground realities . In India , staging candle @-@ lit marches , going to discothèques ... I can see many beautiful women among them – highly dented @-@ painted ... [ but ] I have grave doubts whether they 're students ... " The remark was widely condemned as sexist . His sister Sharmistha said that she and their father the president both disapproved . Then Maharashtra Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan also expressed disapproval . Abhijit quickly withdrew his comment and apologised . Spiritual guru Asaram Bapu also provoked extensive criticism from the public by saying that the victim was also to blame for her own assault because she could have stopped the attack if she had " chanted God 's name and fallen at the feet of the attackers " . In 2014 , Finance minister Arun Jaitley commented that " ' one small incident of rape in Delhi ' advertised world @-@ over is enough to cost us billions of dollars in terms of lower tourism " .
= = = International = = =
The American embassy released a statement on 29 December 2012 , offering their condolences to Nirbhaya 's family and stated " we also recommit ourselves to changing attitudes and ending all forms of gender @-@ based violence , which plagues every country in the world " . Nirbhaya was posthumously awarded one of the 2013 International Women of Courage Awards of the US State Department . The citation stated that " for millions of Indian women , her personal ordeal , perseverance to fight for justice , and her family 's continued bravery is helping to lift the stigma and vulnerability that drive violence against women . "
UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated , " Violence against women must never be accepted , never excused , never tolerated . Every girl and woman has the right to be respected , valued and protected " . UN Women called on the Government of India and the Government of Delhi " to do everything in their power to take up radical reforms , ensure justice and reach out with robust public services to make women 's lives more safe and secure " .
In the wake of remarks against India in Western media , Jessica Valenti , writing in The Nation , argued that such rapes are also common in the United States , but US commentators exhibit a double standard in denying or minimising their systemic nature while simultaneously attacking India for an alleged rape culture . Author and activist Eve Ensler , who organised One Billion Rising , a global campaign to end violence against women and girls , said that the gang rape and murder was a turning point in India and around the world . Ensler said that she had travelled to India at the time of the rape and murder and that after
having worked every day of my life for the last 15 years on sexual violence , I have never seen anything like that , where sexual violence broke through the consciousness and was on the front page , nine articles in every paper every day , in the centre of every discourse , in the centre of the college students ' discussions , in the centre of any restaurant you went in . And I think what 's happened in India , India is really leading the way for the world . It 's really broken through . They are actually fast @-@ tracking laws . They are looking at sexual education . They are looking at the bases of patriarchy and masculinity and how all that leads to sexual violence .
= = Results of protests = =
In view of the widespread protests , governments at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women . The Government of Karnataka announced the launch of a 24 / 7 dedicated helpline ( 1091 ) to be operated by the state police to register sexual abuse complaints from women . It also is checking the possibility of setting up fast @-@ track courts to dispose of pending cases pertaining to crimes against women . The Government of Tamil Nadu also announced a 13 @-@ point action plan to ensure safety of women in Tamil Nadu and said that incidents of sexual assault would be treated as a grave crime , and probes would be entrusted to top police officials . The chief minister also said that daily hearings would be conducted in all sexual abuse cases in the state for speedy trials at specially constituted fast @-@ track courts , and women prosecutors would be appointed as government counsels . The Jammu and Kashmir government also announced plans to change the state 's laws against sexual offences and gender crimes . The Government of Himachal Pradesh decided to set up state and district @-@ level committees to review progress of all cases of crimes against women .
= = = Justice Verma Committee and changes in law = = =
On 22 December 2012 , a judicial committee headed by J. S. Verma , a former Chief Justice of India and one of India 's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists , was appointed by the Central government to submit a report within 30 days to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with sexual assault cases . The committee urged the public in general and particularly eminent jurists , legal professionals , NGOs , women 's groups and civil society to share " their views , knowledge and experience suggesting possible amendments in the criminal and other relevant laws to provide for quicker investigation , prosecution and trial , and also enhanced punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault of an extreme nature against women . " . The Committee held its first meeting on 26 December 2012 ; it had received more than 6000 emails with suggestions by then . The Justice Verma Committee report was submitted after 29 days , after considering 80 @,@ 000 suggestions received during the period . The report indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women . Suggestions in the report included the need to review the Armed Forces ( Special Powers ) Act , 1958 ( AFSPA ) in conflict areas , and setting the maximum punishment for rape as life imprisonment rather than the death penalty . The committee did not favour lowering the age of a juvenile from 18 to 16 .
On 26 December 2012 , a Commission of Inquiry headed by former Delhi High Court judge Usha Mehra was set up to identify lapses , determine responsibility in relation to the incident , and suggest measures to make Delhi and the wider National Capital Region safer for women . On 1 January 2013 , a task force headed by the Union Home Secretary was established to look into women 's safety issues in Delhi and review the functioning of the city police force on a regular basis .
On 3 February 2013 , the Criminal Law ( Amendment ) Ordinance , 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee . It provides for amendment of the Indian Penal Code , Indian Evidence Act , and Code of Criminal Procedure , 1973 , on laws related to sexual offences . The ordinance provides for the death penalty in cases of rape . According to Minister of Law and Justice Ashwani Kumar , 90 percent of the suggestions given by the Verma Committee Report were incorporated into the Ordinance . However , critics state that many key suggestions of the commission have been ignored , including the criminalisation of marital rape and trying military personnel accused of sexual offences under criminal law .
In a December 2013 interview , Nirbhaya 's parents , Badri Nath Singh and Asha Devi , said they were trying to get the juvenile law changed in such crimes as the rape and murder of their daughter . They petitioned the Supreme Court to try the juvenile , just short of 18 when he committed the crime , in a criminal court instead of a Juvenile Justice court .
In a March 2015 interview with The Tribune , Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi said that Government is going ahead with a law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes .
On 22 December 2015 , Rajya Sabha passed the Juvenile Justice Bill , which proposed that the accused who are above 16 years of age will be treated as an adult in the court of law .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Anniversary memorials = = =
On 16 December 2013 , the anniversary of the attack , activists held memorials throughout New Delhi in memory of the victim widely known as Nirbhaya , meaning " fearless " . Members of women 's organisations lit candles in her memory and protested against exploitation of women . University students and others organised a candlelight march at the bus stand in South Delhi where Nirbhaya and her friend , Pandey , boarded the bus in which the rape and beatings took place . At a commemorative prayer meeting political leaders resolved to increase efforts to improve women 's security . Speaking with the victim 's mother , former chief minister Sheila Dikshit said that Delhi 's society and the various authorities will work together to build a permanent legacy to her daughter : " ... whatever you will want in her memory , we will try to fulfill . And we will try with a conviction that such an incident is not repeated with anybody else in the future " . The victim 's parents spoke at a memorial saying that they were proud of the courage that their daughter showed , which they believe " has spurred more women to speak out instead of hiding the crimes committed against them " .
In December 2014 , the two @-@ year anniversary of the attack , referring to a woman who was raped in an Uber cab , the parents remarked to the press that not much had changed : " Nothing in India has changed since December 16 , 2012 . All promises and statements made by our leaders and ministers have turned out to be shallow . Our suffering gives them their moment in limelight . My daughter asks me what I have done to get her justice . She asks what am I doing so that many more like her get justice and I wake up to realise how helpless and trivial I am ... "
" Nirbhaya Chetna Diwas " , a public event organised by women 's and citizens groups , candle light vigils , prayer meetings , and other events were held on 16 December 2015 at the Jantar Mantar to pay homage to Jyoti on the third anniversary of her death . In what was called " a brave homage to her daughter " , Jyoti 's mother , Asha Devi , said , " My daughter 's name was Jyoti Singh and I am not ashamed to name her . Those who commit heinous crimes like rape , their heads should hang in shame , not the victims or their families . " Devi spoke out against the upcoming release of the juvenile and put forth four demands for justice :
On the third death anniversary of our death , we are seeing the release of the juvenile convict . Where is justice in that ? I do not know whether he is 16 or 18 . I only know that he has committed a brutal crime and there should be no age limit for punishment ; [ ... ] the juvenile convict should be sentenced to death , fast @-@ track courts be set up in all the courts to offer speedy justice to sexual assault victims , amendments to the Juveniles Justice Act be passed and utilisation of Nirbhaya Fund for setting up high quality forensic labs in all states .
= = = Improvements to the legal system = = =
The outpouring of anger and grief following the rape and murder gave rise to hopes for change in India . The government responded with the passage of several new sexual assault laws , including a mandatory minimum sentence of 20 years for gang rape , and six new fast @-@ track courts created solely for rape prosecutions . As an indicator of the scope of the problem of rape prosecution , the " Nirbhaya " case was the only conviction obtained among the 706 rape cases filed in New Delhi in 2012 . Between 16 December 2012 and 4 January 2013 , Delhi police recorded 501 allegations of harassment and 64 of rape , but only four inquiries were launched . However , it appears that the " Nirbhaya " case has had an effect on the willingness of rape or molestation victims to report the crime ; police records show that during the final nine months of 2013 almost twice as many rape victims filed a police report and four times as many allegations of molestation were made . A recent report released by the National Crime Records Bureau shows that 95 percent of the cases brought to the police were classified as a crime . However , there is a large backlog of cases with fewer than 15 percent of those charged tried in 2012 , leaving 85 percent waiting to come to trial .
On 16 December 2013 , the one @-@ year anniversary of the rape was commemorated in London with a public memorial to honor the victim . Speakers included Meera Syal , whose parents are from New Delhi . Speaking of the anger that was expressed at the time of the rape , she said , " We need to hold onto that anger and demand that the Indian Government enforces all the promised changes of its recent Criminal Law Amendment Act , which changed laws to expand the definition of rape and incorporated new offences including acid attack , sexual harassment , voyeurism and stalking " . She also said that activists need to act in solidarity with other organisations to stop violence against women and girls around the world .
Following the incident the government set up the Nirbhaya Fund to address violence against women . The Fund is administered by Department of Economic Affairs of the finance ministry . However , as of March 2015 , very little of the funds have been spent to ensure women 's safety .
= = = Public discussions about violence against women = = =
Observers agree that Pandey 's ordeal has brought a change to public conversations about women 's issues , with men joining in the discussions as well . A young woman who had taken part in the protests at the time of the rape said a year later , " A welcome change is that the taboo on discussing rape and sexual violence has been broken . The protests brought debates and discussions to our homes . " She also said that since the rape and protests the media is now providing coverage of sexual violence . However , she saw " absolutely no change in the rape culture and related brutality . The streets are not safe . Teasing [ Eve teasing ] and catcalling or worse are to be found everywhere . Sexual harassment in public places as well as inside the home is still rampant . " She added , " I do acknowledge , however , that a year is too less to undo what patriarchy has done over centuries . It is too embedded in our homes , our institutions and in our laws . The police may be a little more receptive , but it is not out of a sense of duty but out of the fear of censure " .
= = = Nirbhaya Trust = = =
In December 2013 the family of the victim established the Nirbhaya Trust , an institute formed to assist women who have experienced violence to find shelter and legal assistance . Due to the fact that Indian laws do not allow the publishing of a rape victim 's name , it was named Nirbhaya which means fearless in Hindi , after the name used by the media . The victim 's father stated , " So many people supported us , so ... we want [ to ] help those girls who have no one . "
= = = BBC Storyville : India 's Daughter = = =
India 's Daughter ( 2015 ) is a documentary film directed and produced by Leslee Udwin , and is part of the BBC 's ongoing Storyville series . It was scheduled to be broadcast on International Women 's Day , 8 March 2015 , in India on NDTV 24x7 and in UK on BBC Four . On 1 March , it was revealed that the filmmakers had interviewed one of the rapists while he was being held in the Tihar jail . Soon , the news was picked up by Indian media outlets . The Indian government blocked its broadcast in India by obtaining a court order on 4 March . The BBC said it would comply with the order and did not broadcast the film in India . In the UK however , the BBC moved the transmission forward to 4 March , and it was shown on that date . The film was also uploaded on YouTube and soon went viral with various shares on social media . On 5 March , the Indian government directed YouTube to block the video in India and YouTube complied with the order . The film has generated a great deal of controversy in both India and worldwide .
Because India does not permit a rape victim 's name to be published the victim was called " Nirbhaya " , which means fearless , because of her efforts to fight off her rapists and her insistence on making a detailed statement to the police before she died . However , following the death of their daughter , the parents were quoted in several media articles as saying they had no objections to using their daughter 's name . In the film the father states he is " happy " to reveal her name , Jyoti Singh Pandey , and on 5 March the father was quoted as saying he thought " everyone should watch the documentary , which showed ' the bitter truth ' about attitudes to women in India " . Even still , on 6 March , the news outlet The Hindu ran an article " Father objects to revealing gangrape victim ’ s name in ' India 's Daughter ' " in which they quoted the father as saying that he planned to take legal action because her name was used .
The film 's director and producer Leslee Udwin said that it was the courage and bravery shown by the unprecedented numbers of men and women who protested the rape and murder that inspired her to make the film . Speaking in an interview , Udwin said :
Courageous and impassioned ordinary men and women of India braved the December freeze to protest in unprecedented numbers , withstanding an onslaught of teargas shells , lathi charges [ baton charges ] and water canons , to make their cry of ‘ enough is enough ’ heard . In this regard , India led the world by example . In my lifetime , I can ’ t recall any other country standing up with such commitment and determination for women ’ s rights .
Speaking of the film , Pandey 's father , Badrinath Singh , said that the film " holds up a mirror to society " and that the showing of the film is important " so that the struggle that my daughter was part of continues . " Singh said that since the death of their daughter " every girl on the street is like a daughter " to him and his wife and that people need to understand that sons need to be taught to respect women . Speaking on 5 March , Singh said :
My wife and I brought up our children with the sole intention of making them good citizens . I can proudly say that we have achieved that . Our daughter has shown society its true face . She has changed the lives of many young girls . She remains an inspiration even after her death . She fought back those devils . We are proud of our daughter .
= = = Literary works = = =
Motivated by Jyoti 's rape and murder , Ram Devineni , Lina Srivastava , and Dan Goldman released the comic book Priya 's Shakti . The storyline of the comic focuses on Priya , a human woman and ardent devotee of the Goddess Parvati , who has experienced a brutal rape and the social stigma and isolation resulting from it . Inspired by the goddess , Priya fights against gender @-@ based sexual violence in India and around the world , supporting the movement against patriarchy and misogyny .
A book on the Nirbhaya case titled Courting Injustice : The Nirbhaya Case and its Aftermath was authored by Rajesh Talwar , and published by Hay House in 2013
On 5 September 2014 , Bandaru Dattareya , a member of Parliament and BJP National Vice President , inaugurated " Wo Desh Ki Beti " ( Nation 's Daughter ) , a social event at Hyderabad showcasing a collection of sixteen poems authored by Sunil Kumar Verma which depicted the pain of a nation at the gang rape of its daughters .
= = = General = = =
= = = Rape cases = = =
= = = Other related cases = = =
Bwizamani Singh - a journalist shot by law enforcement as he covered the protests in Manipur
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= Boden Fortress =
Boden Fortress ( Swedish : Bodens fästning ) is a modern fortress consisting of several major and minor forts and fortifications surrounding the city of Boden , Norrbotten , in northern Sweden . The fortress was originally intended to stop or delay attacks from the east or coastal assaults , which at the time of construction meant Russian attacks launched from Finland . It was primarily the expansion of the railway net in Norrland , which in turn was a consequence of the rising importance of the northern iron ore fields , that led to the increased strategic value of northern Sweden and the construction of the fortress . Although the main forts were finished in 1908 , many of the supporting fortifications were not completed until the start of the First World War . Improvements were also continuously made during , and between , both World Wars .
Boden Fortress is made up of five primary self @-@ supporting forts excavated out of the bedrock in five of the mountains surrounding Boden : Degerberget , Mjösjöberget , Gammelängsberget , Södra Åberget and Rödberget . Eight fortified secondary artillery positions were constructed between the forts to give flanking support and to cover areas not in range of the main forts ' artillery . In addition , 40 bunkers for infantry , along with dugouts and other fortifications , were built to cover even more terrain . During the Second World War anti @-@ tank gun emplacements and additional bunkers and shelters were built , and tens of kilometres of dragon 's teeth were placed around the fortress and the city itself . Owing to the end of the Cold War and the reduction of the threat from the Soviet Union , Boden Fortress became less important to the defence of Sweden , and began to be decommissioned . The last fort of the complex was decommissioned on 31 December 1998 , and is now used as a tourist attraction . All five forts as well as some of the supporting structures have been declared historic buildings , to be preserved for the future , by the Swedish government .
= = Background = =
= = = Central and peripheral defence = = =
The two dominating theories of how to use fortifications in the operational perspective during the 18th and 19th century were the central fortress system ( centrala fästningssystemet ) and the peripheral fortress system ( perifera fästningssystemet ) , the latter also called the cordon system . The two systems were also known as central defence and peripheral defence . The peripheral defence theory was based on building smaller fortifications in advance positions to meet the enemy at an early stage , while the central defence theory was meant to weaken the enemy step by step in minor skirmishes and ambushes carried out by forces supplied and supported by central fortresses not located in the front line . In short , one theory advocated many minor fortifications built to directly engage the enemy , while the other advocated only a few major fortifications built not to directly engage the enemy , but to support the troops that engaged the enemy .
In the beginning of the 19th century the peripheral system — at least in Sweden — was deemed unmodern , due to the extremely long border and coastline of the country , which required a lot of personnel to maintain and support , leading to high costs and a neglectance of the more mobile armed forces . The peripheral system was also meant to contain the enemy to a specific area , the coast and borders , but as time went and new tactics were taken into practice , the thin line of fortifications would be easily penetrated by the enemy forces , and when the enemy had advanced through the peripheral line , there would not be enough troops in the hinterland to stop the attacker . The central fortress system was better adjusted to defence in depth , it was not until the enemy attack had reached its culminating point that full counter @-@ attacks would be launched . The central defence had also proven effective in the Seven Years ' War — used by Frederick II of Prussia — and in Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia — used by the Russians . Carl von Clausewitz , in his military treatise On War , even mentioned Sweden 's good conditions for this kind of war of attrition :
The fourth principle , the Assistance of the Theatre of War , is naturally an advantage on the side of the defensive . [ ... ] the army on the defensive continues to keep up its connection with everything , that is , it enjoys the support of its fortresses , is not weakened in any way , and is near to its sources of supply . [ ... ] The campaign of 1812 , gives as it were in a magnifying glass a very clear illustration of the effect of the means specified under principles 3 and 4 . [ ... ] It is true that with the exception of Sweden there is no country in Europe which is situated like Russia , but the efficient principle is always the same , the only distinction being in the greater or less degree of its strength .
= = = Fortification of Sweden = = =
Sweden had just lost one third of its population , as Russia had conquered the eastern part and created the Grand Duchy of Finland out of it during the Finnish War in 1808 – 1809 . Shortly after , in 1814 , the west flank had been secured by the personal union with Norway , and after the Napoleonic Wars , the former main enemy of Sweden in the south , Denmark , was no longer any threat . The only threat left was Russia , which now stood just across the border in the north , and had possession of the Åland Islands less than 150 km from the Swedish capital Stockholm . The Swedish Navy was considered superior to the Russian in the Gulf of Bothnia , so a seaborne invasion against the coast of Norrland was not likely . And even though the Russians had invaded northern Sweden via Finland in the previous war , the general opinion was that in case of a new war , their main attack would be conducted towards Stockholm and southern Sweden .
This opinion led to the thought of finding a good rear defence area where the Estates and the Swedish government could move if the capital was in danger . This in turn naturally strengthened the central defence theory . The core land ( kärnlandet ) would be the place from where the main part of the field army would conduct its operations , supported by a few fortresses . The area between the two large lakes of Vänern and Vättern was the choice for this core land , with approximately the same border as Skaraborg County . Sweden above the province of Dalarna was not even considered to be included in this strategy . The realisation of the middle Sweden central defence system was finally made 5 February 1819 when King Charles XIV John decided that one main fortress , the central fortress , and two smaller " operational fortresses " were to be built . The central fortress became Karlsborg Fortress at Karlsborg , while the two operational fortresses meant to be located at either end of Vättern never were built due to lack of funds .
While Norrland was not supposed to be included in this main central defence strategy , studies on how to defend this major part of the country were still conducted . However , northern Sweden was generally considered of very limited military interest and unsuitable for larger military operations due to the bad state of most of the roads , the large uninhabited areas , the large rivers and the very limited economical gain that the lands provided . The first of these studies , laid down by the Fortification Committee of 1819 ( 1819 års befästningskommitté ) — which was largely influenced by the committee 's secretary Johan Peter Lefrén — led to nothing more than the opinion that the large rivers up north — especially the Ångerman River — would benefit the defence and that no major fortifications were to be built . In another study from 1824 , colonel — and much later Swedish Minister for War — Gustaf Oscar Peyron suggested that it would be better to fortify positions just south of Boden — along the more northern Lule River — for example at Sävast or Avan . However no major changes were made , partially due to the limited military interest , but also because of the large amounts of money that was spent on building Karlsborg Fortress and modernizing other older fortifications in southern Sweden .
= = = Railroads speed up planning = = =
It was not until fifteen years later , when yet another committee — the Coastal Fortification Committee of 1839 ( 1839 års kustbefästningskommitté ) — studied the defence of Norrland , that the Swedish Armed Forces started to focus a bit more on the northern provinces . This study however mainly presented plans for middle Norrland , and the provinces of Medelpad , Ångermanland and Jämtland . Those provinces had a more significant role as it was there that the main roads of Sweden started to intersect with the road network of Norway , which at the time was allied with Sweden . The road network north of this area consisted of the large coastal road — the only major north – south road — from Haparanda and all the way through Norrland down to Gävle . All the other major roads exclusively ran southeast – northwest — following the run of the large rivers — before ending in wilderness and thus did not provide any route further west into Norway and on to the Atlantic coast . The plans to strengthen Norrland by building a central fortress either on Frösön outside Östersund , or closer to the coast at Borgsjö outside Ånge , once again fell flat due to lack of money and lower priority compared to fortifications in southern Sweden .
By the 1860s , the first Swedish railway main lines ( stambanor ) were completed in the southern part of the country , and by 1881 the Northern Main Line had reached Ånge . This , and the opening of the railway line connecting Sundsvall – Östersund – Trondheim ( the Central and Meråker Lines ) a year later strengthened the plans for a defensive line in the middlemost provinces of Norrland . At the same time , on the other side of the Bothnian Gulf , the Finnish main railway to Oulu had almost been completed , and would soon be of great use for the Russians to transport military personnel and supplies towards the Swedish border in case of war . Combined with the planned Luleå – Boden – Gällivare – Kiruna – Narvik railway stretch ( the Iron Ore and Ofoten Lines ) , this would pose a great opportunity for the Russians to fulfill their latent wish to seize control of northern Scandinavia and the Atlantic ports on the Norwegian coast . At least according to some officers — both Swedish and Norwegian — which in the second half of the 1880s noticed the increased strategic importance of northern Scandinavia and Lapland as an effect of the construction of the railway lines in the area . This was also noticed by the Riksdag member Johan Erik Nyström from Norrbotten 's electoral district who — worried about the railway to Oulu — put forward a motion about strengthening the Upper Norrland defence in 1885 . The length of the railway lines started to affect strategic planning , and in some cases military decisions influenced the planning of new railway lines .
Even though the northernmost stretch of the Main Line Through Upper Norrland had long been planned , it was not until 1887 and the victory of the Lantmanna Party 's protectionist wing in that year 's election that the financial means — from increased trade tariff income — and the political will allowed the completion of the railway through Överluleå , which Boden was sometimes called . The " slumbering resources and the rapid expansion " in Upper Norrland were two reasons to build a railway to the sparsely populated area ; another factor that had a big part in the decision to complete the main line was the government 's takeover of the Luleå – Gällivare line , which had previously been in the hands of an English company . The stretch was very lucrative , as it considerably eased the transport of iron ore from the ore fields around Kiruna and Gällivare down to the coast for further transport by boat . Another English company had in the 1860s tried to construct a combination of a railway and a canal — the English Canal — for the stretch , but went bankrupt before their plans were completed . The company contracted for the new railway line experienced similar economic difficulties and the Swedish state decided to buy the nearly completed line to finish it in 1891 .
The decision to complete the railway through to Boden sparked interest in Norrbotten among the members of the Swedish General Staff , and the chief , Axel Rappe , conducted a survey trip to the region in 1887 . His report mentioned the changed strategic options due to the railway lines on both sides of the Gulf and a need for some kind of fortification in Boden , but he also toned down the earlier thoughts on the Russian interest in the Luleå – Narvik line . Rappe 's report directly affected the future stretch of the railway line in Norrbotten . His recommendations , largely based on his and the General Staff 's military planning , not to build the line along the coast , or build it all the way to the Swedish @-@ Finnish border at Haparanda were later followed . The subsequent report completed in 1890 by the Neutrality Committee of 1888 ( 1888 års neutralitetskommitté ) — with Axel Rappe as one of its members — suggested that a credible neutrality required an increased defence of the north @-@ eastern border and proposed a budget of 1 @.@ 3 million Swedish kronor , corresponding in today 's money to around US $ 11 million ( as of 2011 ) , for the construction of permanent fortifications in Boden .
= = Reason and decision = =
= = = Why Boden ? = = =
The following year , in 1891 , Rappe wrote a memorandum that explained in more detail the budget , which suddenly had risen to 4 @.@ 5 million kronor , and would finance the construction of two strongholds at Paglaberget and Åberget with a total of six long cannon , ten howitzers and eight quick @-@ firing cannon , all in armoured turrets , along with machine guns and bunkers , barracks and supply depots . The plan included a reserve battalion of 1 @,@ 000 men , an artillery battalion of 600 men , an engineer company of 120 men , and supply and depot personnel . Axel Rappe 's large study on the permanent fortifications of Sweden — a mandate given to him in 1882 — was published in 1892 and cemented the view that a central fortress was needed in Boden to support and supply troops gathering between the Lule River and the eastern border , alongside the strengthening of the coastal defences at Stockholm , Gothenburg and Karlskrona .
Although Rappe did not completely rule out the possibility of a German or British attack on southern Sweden if the opportunity arose , he felt that Russia was the most realistic threat . There were only two plausible scenarios for war with Russia : either Sweden would become involved in a war between Germany and Russia which would feature southern and central Sweden as the battleground — and Rappe made no attempt to hide which country the General Staff wanted Sweden to side with in that case — or Russia would make a limited attack on Norrbotten to reach northern Norway and the Atlantic , an attack that Rappe earlier said was not very likely . Rappe had played down the strategic importance of the Ofoten and Iron Ore Lines and played up the importance of the main railway line to Boden , which was under discussion at that time , to speed up its completion . The railway to Boden was nearly finished by 1892 , negating the need for Rappe to play that political game any longer . A railway line to Boden was of utmost need to be able to bring up troops to Lule River — the main line of defence — and a future fortress there .
During the following years a fierce debate raged between the supporters of the army on one side and the navy on the other . The proposed expansion of Swedish fortifications nationwide , which in turn would see less money spent on the fleet , upset many naval proponents , amongst them Wilhelm Dyrssen — later Minister for Defence — and Fredrik von Otter — later Admiral and Prime Minister of Sweden . They argued that the theory of central defence would leave large swathes of Swedish land in the hands of the enemy , and instead suggested smaller fortifications at the border , along with a strengthened navy . The debate was inconclusive and a request for 500 @,@ 000 kronor to initiate construction of the fortress was not accepted by the government . Instead , they wanted a committee to further investigate all Swedish fortifications and possible new constructions of such . Thus the Fortification Committee of 1897 ( 1897 års fästningskommitté ) was formed . The committee , led by chairman Jesper Crusebjörn , discussed and examined the defence of Norrland thoroughly , and also travelled to Boden where they climbed most of the heights and mountains that were considered for the fortifications . The selection of Boden as the most suitable place for the fortification , according to the committee 's final report published 25 July 1898 , had numerous reasons :
The main rail line through Norrland crossed Lule River there .
The intersection of the main line and the Luleå – Narvik line was located there .
The most important road intersection in Norrbotten was located there .
The most suitable river crossing sites over Lule River were located there .
The distance to the coast was long enough to prevent a surprise attack by a naval landing force .
The topography of the area was suitable for a modern fortress .
= = = Final decision = = =
The report calculated the costs at 8 @.@ 7 million kronor which corresponds in today 's money to around $ 70 million ( as of 2011 ) , spent over a total construction schedule of one four @-@ year period and two three @-@ year periods . The cost was still considerably lower than that of many of the recently built or modernised fortifications on the continent ; Belgium had spent the equivalent of 62 million kronor on the fortified positions of Liège and Namur along the Meuse while Romania had spent 63 million kronor to strengthen the defence of Bucharest and 16 million kronor on fortifications along the Siret River . In 1899 , Rappe proposed to the Riksdag — in line with the plans of the Fortification Committee — that construction of already existing fortificatory works in Sweden would commence , while the question on Boden would be postponed to the next year . The plan gained support from the first chamber but not from the second chamber , but when put to a joint vote of both chambers , the proposition passed . Even though the result did not really mean anything concrete for the possible construction in Boden , it was considered a great success for that question as well . During the last years of the century , the Riksdag 's general attitude towards the army became more positive , most likely due to the increased Russification of Finland , increased tension in the Union between Sweden and Norway , and rumors that the Russian sawfilers that worked in Sweden also worked for the Okhrana , the secret Russian police .
Despite this progress , Axel Rappe left as Minister for War in 1899 , due to setbacks on other issues . He was replaced by Jesper Crusebjörn , who inherited the Boden fortification project . Crusebjörn followed in the footsteps of Rappe — described as " the spiritual father of Boden Fortress " thanks to his efforts — as he proposed , in accordance with the Committee 's plan , that the Riksdag should allocate an initial sum of 560 @,@ 000 kronor which would be used to initiate construction of Boden Fortress . Crusebjörn also maintained the belief of his predecessor , and of the committee in which he was chairman , that Boden Fortress when completed should act as the operational base for all troops attached for the defence of Norrbotten , that it should serve as a supply fortress for troops stationed between it and the front line , and that it also should serve as a blocking fortress in case of a Russian surprise attack . The 1897 committee also had set the goal to have Boden Fortress in a finished state when the Haparanda Line found its way through to the border against Finland .
The result of the votes — held 7 May 1900 , a date which can be seen as the birth of the fortress — in the first and second chambers were the same as the previous year . The first chamber was overwhelmingly for the proposal with the result 108 – 16 , but the proponents feared a defeat in the second chamber . During the debate both the Prime Minister of Sweden Erik Gustaf Boström and Jesper Crusebjörn threatened to resign from their posts if the proposal was not accepted , to exert pressure on the second chamber . Boström expressed the following that day :
For believe me gentlemen , I consider this question so important that in the same moment I get the definite answer that it is not embraced by the Swedish Riksdag , I will no longer stay in this place .
Even after this , the second chamber voted against the proposal , with a vote count of 73 – 130 . Neither Boström nor Crusebjörn resigned , since after further discussion and voting it was decided that the matter should be settled by a joint vote . The first chamber voted in favor , 125 – 14 , while the second chamber voted against , 87 – 135 , with a total outcome of 212 – 149 in favour of constructing Boden Fortress and allocating the funds needed to start construction . Funding for the purchase of the land that the fortifications were to be built on had largely been provided several years in advance by two voluntary organisations . The Organisation for the Fortified Defence of Upper Norrland ( Föreningen för Övre Norrlands fasta försvar ) and the Swedish Women 's Organisation ( Svenska Qvinnoföreningen ) had collected 71 @,@ 000 kronor out of the 131 @,@ 000 kronor needed for land purchase .
= = Construction = =
= = = Initial work = = =
The main inspiration for the design — in which the forts are blasted into the mountains rather than constructed on top of them — came from Vaberget Fortress near Karlsborg Fortress . Vaberget Fortress was built in the 1890s and its southern fort was the first fort in the world that fully used the protection provided by the bedrock itself by having all of its functions embedded in the mountain . Vaberget Fortress served as a prototype for Boden Fortress and many more future fortifications in Sweden , including the late 20th century fixed army and coastal artillery batteries that gave the Swedish Fortifications Agency world renown . Preparatory work was started in 1900 and consisted of a diverse number of tasks , ranging from purchase of beds for the construction workers , construction of a new loading site for the railway , building roads to the various construction sites and clearing the land of those sites . The plan for the Fortifications at Boden ( Befästningarna vid Boden ) — which was the term used until the First World War when the present name Boden Fortress came into widespread use — was largely based on the proposal laid forward by the Fortification Committee of 1897 , with only minor modifications .
Even before any construction work had started the cost of the forts had been estimated to exceed the previous calculations by fifty percent . In December 1901 , only few months after the first blasting work that had been done at Gammelängsberget in July 1901 , the cost for the four forts northeast of the river was expected to be sixty @-@ five percent more expensive than the initial calculation . The blueprints of the forts at Degerberget , Gammelängsberget and Södra Åberget were the first to be confirmed , which happened on 11 May 1901 . The fort at Mjösjöberget followed suit on 3 April 1902 and the last fort to get a confirmed blueprint was the fort at Rödberget , on 19 May 1903 . The last proposed fort , at Paglaberget , was deleted from the plans in 1906 — along with the batteries at Fällberget and Slumpberget as well as the fortifications at Avan and Svartbyträsket — before any work on the fort had started , due to the proposal of the new Fortification Committee of 1905 , which was formed following the reports of the large rise in costs . On 9 February 1906 , the current Minister for War Lars Tingsten calculated the total cost to end at 19 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 kronor , more than twice the cost reported by the 1897 committee .
All work on the large masses of bedrock was conducted by hand , without any help of powered machines , as the first power station in Boden was not constructed until almost ten years later in 1909 . The first work that was done at the site was to create a large ditch , 9 – 12 metres ( 30 – 39 ft ) wide and with a depth of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) or more , that would surround the core of the fort . Creating patrol trenches and placements for the turrets on the top of the forts was also work done early on . The teams of workers would first bore down in the bedrock using pinch bars and sledgehammers , then use black powder to blast the rock into manageable pieces which could be transported away from the site , using wheelbarrows , horse @-@ drawn carriages and in some cases Decauville railways . When the ditch , or parts of it , had been completed , work started on the inner part of the fort by boring horizontally from the bottom of the ditch into the mountain itself . This work was a lot harder — the cost for each cubic metre of blasted tunnel was five times the cost of a cubic metre of blasted ditch — both due to the confined space in the tunnels and the risk of damaging the bedrock . The use of black powder instead of dynamite reduced the risk of bedrock damage , but it also increased the time needed to complete the tunnels . All in all , the amount of bedrock bored , blasted , loaded and transported away from the forts has been estimated to be around 300 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
= = = Finishing touches = = =
When the ditches and tunnels were finished , concrete works started , including flooring , construction of joist systems in forts with second floors , staircases , partition walls and counterscarp galleries . Water wells were bored to a depth of up to 200 metres ( 660 ft ) to guarantee water supply , since the forts were supposed to be self @-@ supporting . However , the most demanding part of the project was the construction , transport and installation of the armoured turrets and the armament itself . Two companies had been previously contracted for the construction of other fortifications in Sweden , Swedish AB Bofors @-@ Gullspång and French Compagnie des Forges de Châtillon , offers from both companies existed already in 1901 , but it was not until after tests conducted in December 1902 that the Swedish company was contracted and given royal approval on 26 May 1903 . The order was for the 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) and 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) pieces that was to be mounted on the first three forts . The following two forts at Rödberget and Mjösjöberget were to have 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) pieces , an order Bofors would get as well , but due to the time factor a few of those were actually delivered by the French company .
The cost of a single armoured turret for a 12 cm piece was almost 100 @,@ 000 kronor — around $ 800 @,@ 000 ( as of 2011 ) in today 's money — and it could weigh as much as 100 tonnes ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) . It was delivered in parts to simplify transport , but the heaviest part still had a weight of 26 tonnes ( 57 @,@ 000 lb ) . The parts were delivered by rail up to Boden and unloaded with the help of gantry cranes . As the roads of the time could not handle the weight during summer , transport had to wait until winter when the frost had hardened the ground . The turret parts were lifted onto sleighs drawn by 16 – 30 horses depending on the situation . The toughest stretch , up the mountain , was handled with the help of block and tackle , the ditch was crossed on temporarily built sturdy wooden bridges and the mounting of the turret was finished with cranes . A major part of the mounts for the turrets were completed by the end of 1905 , despite the harsh winter working conditions , with temperatures falling below − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) at times . The peak workforce amounted to around 900 men , but their numbers fluctuated , with the lowest number of active workers during the winter months . The first artillery test firing was conducted on 15 January 1907 when the guns at Gammelängsberget fired their first rounds , and all five forts " were in a defensible state " by 1908 .
= = = Other fortificatory works = = =
Apart from the forts , the garrison itself was heavily expanded during the initial construction years and became the largest garrison in Sweden , taking an exceptional position in Swedish military history of the 20th century ; even at the start of the 21st century , Boden was the largest garrison city in the Swedish Army . Still , no other fortifications than the forts themselves were finished by 1908 , and work now started to fill the holes in between them . It was realised that prepared positions were needed for the mobile batteries , and apart from those , three larger battery positions ( sometimes called fästen , strongholds ) were also constructed at Leåkersberget , Norra Åberget and Svedjeberget . These works were started in 1911 and were finished during the First World War . The last of the three strongholds was positioned in the mountain itself with embrasures in the mountain side , and Leåkersberget had parts of the battery position inside the mountain , but the gun emplacements outside — the other positions were concrete fortifications above the ground , some inside a bunker and others behind a parapet .
The main fortifications for infantry consisted of 44 concrete bunkers , 23 dugouts and 26 fortified observation posts . The concrete bunkers ( infanteriskansar , redoubts ) were long and narrow . The longest , Abramsskansen , was 155 metres ( 509 ft ) long and had room for 160 men and four machine guns , but most had room for less than 80 men — usually a rifle platoon reinforced with a machine gun section and an anti @-@ tank section . Due to their length , their curved shapes following the mountain sides , and other characteristics , the bunkers were popularly referred to as " sausages " ( korvar ) . The construction of these started in 1911 . Many officers still considered the fortress to have inadequate and too few fortifications for the infantry , and one officer compared the fortress to " a shoe , which is too large for the foot . " One million kronor was allocated in 1915 to fix that problem , and many minor fortifications were built during the First World War .
Blockhouses were also built by the railway bridge at Trångforsen and the road bridge Hedenbron ( built from 1911 to 1912 ) , located just 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) southeast of the Trångforsen bridge . The later was built to accommodate easier access to Rödberget Fort and the military training area on the southwestern shore of Lule River and was at the time of completion the longest single span road bridge in Sweden .
Both internal and external communication systems as well as means of reconnaissance were needed , both directed by the commandant located in the headquarters building . The building — finished in 1910 — had three floors , the upper two functioned as home and workplace for the commandant and the chief of staff , while the ground floor had extra thick walls and functioned as the command post for the fortress . A large field telephone network was built , connecting all forts with the headquarters . Liaison with higher commands was at first maintained by regular post , telegraph and telephone . The fortress ' radio station was finished by 1914 , originally for the Swedish Navy , and was located south of Degerberget on a bog now known as the " Radio Mire " ( Radiomyren ) . The first Swedish radio broadcasts were sent from this building . The fortress also had homing pigeons for sending messages . At the end of the Second World War , around 280 such pigeons were stationed in Boden . The pigeons were part of the balloon department whose main task was to operate the balloon of the garrison . For this , the Balloon Hangar with inner measurements of 35 × 10 × 10 metres ( 115 × 33 × 33 ft ) was built near the radio station . More than fifty men were attached to the department , of whom two could follow the balloon up to its maximum height of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , limited by the length of the wire connecting it to the ground . The hydrogen @-@ filled balloon itself was of German make and measured 27 metres ( 89 ft ) in length , had a diameter of around 7 metres ( 23 ft ) and a total volume of 750 cubic metres ( 26 @,@ 000 cu ft ) .
= = In operation = =
= = = Two World Wars = = =
Most parts of the fortress were finished during the First World War , and many minor works were started and completed during the course of the war . Even though Sweden remained neutral during the First and Second World War , the start and outcome of both had large impact on the fortress . Finland 's independence during the First World War created a buffer state between Sweden and Imperial Russia 's successor state , the Soviet Union , which radically changed the strategic value of northern Sweden , put the usefulness of Boden Fortress into question . Only the most basic needs were satisfied during the interwar period ; even apparent needs — based on the experiences from the war — such as better air defence and fortifications to halt or temporarily impede attacks by armoured forces were neglected . Thanks to local commanders , construction of new fortifications and improvements to already existing ones were done with the help of garrisoned troops . Engineer companies built new shelters and trenches as training , and the telephone network was improved and completed by the garrisoned telegraph company . This cut the cost drastically as the only expenditure was the needed material .
Only a few necessary projects were funded , including an underground headquarters bunker , improvement of the garrison hospital and new training areas . It was not until the increased tension in Europe following Adolf Hitler 's rise to power , Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome and the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War that focus once again was put on military readiness and prepared fortifications . Improvements were made to fortifications in many parts of Sweden during the last years of the 1930s following the German annexation of Austria and occupation of Czechoslovakia . In Boden , this included building underground storage rooms for ammunition and food , replenishing already existing stocks , increasing protection for other important supply functions — such as the waterworks — as well as further military planning and also preparations for destruction of — for an advancing enemy — important bridges and roads .
When the Second World War broke out , only limited resources where allotted to the defence of Northern Sweden , but following the Soviet attack on Finland a few months later and the German Operation Weserübung against Norway and Denmark the next year , major work on improving and extending the defensive lives was commenced . Bunkers , bomb shelters , gun emplacements — particularly for anti @-@ tank guns — were built by the units that had been mobilised and stationed in the vicinity of Boden . The Finnish experiences gained from meeting superior armoured forces during the Winter War were adopted in Sweden , and triple rows of large stones or blocks of reinforced concrete , dragon 's teeth , soon formed a continuous line — defended by anti @-@ tank guns in concrete bunkers and machine @-@ gun nests — around the fortress and city . As the war continued and advances in most fields of warfare were made , Boden Fortress was continually improved to meet new or increased threats such as air , armoured or gas attacks . The command , supply and intelligence services were improved as well .
As Sweden has remained neutral since 1816 , Boden Fortress was never put to the test . Nonetheless , there are a few indications on how Boden , the garrison , the fortress and its crew would have come through a wartime attack . Already in 1904 , Lars Tingsten — commander of Norrbotten Regiment , later Minister for War and first commander of Boden Fortress — expressed worries over the low number of soldiers that were planned to garrison the town . The 1892 army war plans had two infantry battalions stationed in the area , and allowed for three or four more to be transferred there , while Tingsten reported that the battalions should number at least 24 and perhaps even 33 . The lack of personnel , and even more the lack of organisation , was shown when the fortress was tested against a coup de main during a military exercise in April 1913 . Led by its commander Bror Munck , the cavalry regiment Crown Prince 's Hussar Regiment managed to seize control of the railway station , the railway bridge , the ordnance depot , the electric works and the waterworks in the matter of a day . When the unit reached the headquarters building , Tingsten , now commandant of the fortress , saw his earlier worries come true . Despite this , the wartime infantry garrison was no more than four battalions in 1937 . But as the Second World War came to its end , the fortress had been given a new role . From 1943 on it was no longer meant to stand on its own against a besieging enemy , and instead became only one piece in a larger network of fortifications . The wartime strength was never more than 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 men , while calculations talked about at least 25 @,@ 000 men , up to 40 @,@ 000 men , were needed to withstand a siege .
= = = Espionage = = =
Strict secrecy surrounded the fortress for a very long time , and there were several attempts made by foreign powers to gain knowledge of various kinds of information . One early possible attempt at espionage were the Russian sawfilers who travelled through Sweden , mostly in Norrland during the last years of the 19th century and the years leading up to World War I. A large part of the Swedish population believed that the sawfilers , no more than 300 in total in Sweden , were spies hired by the Okhrana , the Russian secret police . Some sources are of the belief that the sawfilers were never sent out on specific missions but instead acted as unknowing spies , only having contact with the Okhrana who interrogated them regarding their experiences when they returned to Russia . Other sources claim that at least some of the sawfilers that the Okhrana found most useful were educated in the art of espionage , and were in fact given specific missions , as well as being paid 300 rouble per season for their work . Another form of this kind of legal espionage is believed to have been conducted by the German Wandervogel movement during the late interwar period .
The first known attempt of purposeful espionage against the fortress was conducted in 1913 – 14 . A former lieutenant in the Danish coastal artillery , A. B. Fredrikssen , was enlisted in Copenhagen by the Russian military attaché in Stockholm , colonel Assanovitch . Fredrikssen was sent to Boden with the task to explore the fortress and its surroundings . He and his wife stayed at a boarding house in the city , and had regular correspondence with his employer who stayed in Copenhagen . It was also the correspondence that exposed the attempt , which was not very successful in terms of information gained by the Russians . They had better luck in late 1914 with two brothers named Hiukka , who both served with one of the artillery regiments in Boden , Norrland Artillery Regiment . They were discovered due to their extravagant living , and it was found out that one of the brothers — despite his employment in the army — had Finnish @-@ Russian citizenship . They had provided intelligence to Russia , but the full extent of the affair was never disclosed . A minor case of German espionage was exposed during the Second World War . The first permanently stationed German officer in Luleå , a Hauptmann Schultz , was caught photographing parts of the fortifications and was deported . It is probable that his espionage was not ordered from any higher command but was an act on own initiative .
Two extensive espionage cases in Sweden during the Cold War involved Boden Fortress , both exposed in 1951 . The Enbom case involved Fritiof Enbom , a former worker at the Swedish State Railways in Boden , and later the local editor for the communist newspaper Norrskensflamman . He was exposed by his own careless talk — often under the influence of alcohol — to the owners of the house in Stockholm where he had lodged since he moved there from Boden . The family told the Swedish Security Service after the Christmas holidays of 1951 , and Enbom was arrested on 16 February 1952 . During interrogation , he confessed that he — from February 1943 to April 1951 — had met with Soviet employers around 25 times . Enbom had provided a large variety of intelligence , most of it from public sources , but also secrets , of which the armament of one of the forts in the fortress was one of the pieces of information that concerned Boden Fortress and nearby fortifications . He was sentenced to lifetime hard labour , but was released after ten years . The other case involved Ernst Hilding Andersson , who was arrested on 21 September 1951 . He had carried out seven missions for the Soviets and had provided them primarily with information regarding the Swedish Navy , but also information on the fortifications along the Norrland coast , and an initiated report about Boden Fortress and the airforce unit located in Boden and Luleå , Norrbottens flygbaskår . Andersson was , like Fritjof Enbom , sentenced to hard labour for life .
= = End and aftermath = =
= = = Cold War and decommission = = =
The fortress was gradually modernised in the decades following the Second World War , including newer main artillery for some of the forts and newer secondary artillery for all forts as well as other improvements . But the development of new weapons and the evolution of warfare during the Cold War gradually decreased the importance of the fortifications . Weapons such as cruise missiles and smart bombs made large static fortifications such as Boden Fortress obsolete when they demonstrated their worth during the Gulf War in 1991 . Mjösjöberget Fort had been decommissioned and removed from the wartime organisation twelve years earlier in 1979 , and less than ten years after the Gulf War and the collapse of the Soviet Union , the four other forts followed suit . The last shot was fired from Rödberget on 14 : 11 local time on 31 December 1997 , and exactly one year later , on 31 December 1998 , that last fort was decommissioned after 90 years in service .
All five forts and three battery positions — Leåkersberget , Norra Åberget and Södra Slumpberget — were declared historic buildings in the summer of 1998 and are to be preserved for the future . The balloon hangar , the only of its kind in Sweden , was declared a historic building three years later in 2001 . Two forts , Rödberget and Södra Åberget , are held in operation , and the former is used as a tourist attraction with guided tours , and there is also a possibility for companies to hold smaller conferences inside the fort . Over 10 @,@ 000 visitors were expected to visit Rödberget Fort in 2002 , averaging 300 a day during the summer . Boden Fortress is also still one of the salute batteries of Sweden , which fire a 21 @-@ gun salute at special occasions such as the National holiday of Sweden and birthdays of some members of the Swedish Royal Family . The fortress was made a salute battery on 2 June 1931 , but since the forts have been decommissioned , the salute is now fired with four cannon located at Kvarnängen in central Boden .
= = = Myths and impact = = =
Due to the strict security surrounding the garrison , many rumors circulated during the fortress ' lifetime . Some were later dismissed as myths or as disinformation , but others were confirmed . One common rumor was that the artillery of the main forts had a range of fire that made it possible to shoot at the important Luleå harbour more than 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away , but in reality , the maximum range of the farthest shooting pieces was less than half of that . Another widespread myth was that all the forts were connected to each other with a complex system of tunnels beneath the city . One rumor , on the other hand , has been confirmed , that the forts were used as storage for a large part of the Swedish gold reserve . Around a third of the total Swedish gold holdings of 280 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ozt ) was kept in Degerberget Fort from 1941 — transported there disguised as boxes of ammunition — until the last ingots were brought from the fort by six armoured cars in 1982 as the fort no longer was to have around @-@ the @-@ clock surveillance .
The total construction cost of Boden Fortress — somewhere around 20 million kronor at the time — would correspond to almost 1 billion kronor ( as of 2011 ) according to the consumer price index which the government agency Statistics Sweden uses . Despite this , the cost has been claimed to correspond to 4 billion kronor of today , and it has also been claimed that the project was more expensive than the JAS 39 Gripen project , which cost 106 billion kronor in total , each aircraft costing between 300 and 500 million kronor depending on what to include in the calculation . No matter what the actual cost was , opinions on Boden Fortress differ markedly , from being called a boastful project and the " JAS project of the turn of the century " to one of the reasons that kept Sweden out of two World Wars . The fortress also had a psychological aspect , in that its mere existence kept a firm grip of peoples ' minds — essentially functioning as a morale booster — during times when Sweden was in the shadow of war .
= = Forts = =
= = = Degerberget = = =
Degerberget Fort ( Degerbergsfortet ) was planned and constructed on Degerberget Mountain , north of Boden and west of the lake Buddbyträsket , between 1900 and 1908 . It was the only fort in the northern fort group as defined in the 1914 defensive plans for Boden Fortress . The main artillery consisted of four 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) kanon m / 99 , backed up by another four 8 @.@ 4 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 which were replaced by 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 47 in the early 1950s . Surrounded by a caponier ditch on all sides , the fort area also features one observation post , two searchlight sites and two larger bunkers . Part of the Swedish gold reserve was kept here from 1941 to 1982 . Degerberget Fort was decommissioned in 1992 together with Gammelängsberget Fort .
= = = Mjösjöberget = = =
Mjösjöberget Fort ( Mjösjöfortet ) was planned and constructed between 1900 and 1908 . A part of the eastern fort group together with Gammelängsberget Fort , it was situated on Mjösjöberget Mountain to the east of Boden . As Rödberget Fort it was fitted with the 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) fästningshaubits m / 06 as main artillery , together with the standard secondary 8 @.@ 4 cm cannon and tertiary 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) caponier cannon . Since Rödberget Fort was refitted with new main artillery in the 1970s , Mjösjöberget Fort is the only to still feature 15 cm main artillery as it was decommissioned in 1979 , some 20 years earlier than the other forts . Like the other two forts northeast of Boden , it is surrounded on all sides by a ditch . The fort also has a large bunker and two searchlight sites close by .
= = = Gammelängsberget = = =
Planned and constructed between 1900 and 1908 , Gammelängsberget Fort ( Gammelängsfortet ) situated on Gammelängsberget Mountain east of Boden was the first of the five forts to be finished and the first to fire any guns when a test firing was conducted in 1907 . It was part of the eastern fort group — together with the close by Mjösjöberget Fort — in the 1914 defensive plans . Just as on the other forts , the original secondary guns , 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 , were replaced by 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 47 between 1950 and 1952 . The main artillery , 12 cm kanon m / 99 , and the caponier artillery , 57 mm kaponjärkanon m / 07 , served with the fort until it was closed down in 1992 . Gammelängsberget Fort is surrounded by a caponier ditch on all sides , and a large concrete bunker is located in proximity of the fort .
= = = Södra Åberget = = =
The only fort not to feature four distinct sides , Södra Åberget Fort ( Södra Åbergsfortet ) instead features the triangular design that was originally planned for all the forts , and the southwestern side is formed by the mountain scarp rather than a caponier ditch . The fort — planned and constructed on Södra Åberget Mountain south of Boden between 1902 and 1908 — was together with Rödberget Fort part of the southern fort group . Södra Åberget Fort had the standard armament in the form of 12 cm kanon m / 99 , 8 @.@ 4 cm kanon m / 94 @-@ 04 and 57 mm kaponjärkanon m / 07 . The 8 @.@ 4 cm artillery was modernised between 1950 and 1952 . Just like the neighbour Rödberget Fort on the other side of Lule River , Södra Åberget Fort has four bunkers , two observation posts and two searchlight sites in its surroundings .
= = = Rödberget = = =
Perhaps the best known of the five forts , Rödberget Fort ( Rödbergsfortet ) , situated on Rödberget Mountain southwest of Boden , was the last in line for construction , which started in 1903 . The fort was finished in 1908 and originally featured four 15 cm fästningshaubits m / 06 which in 1976 were replaced by four 12 cm kanon m / 24 taken from scrapped Swedish Navy destroyers . At the same time , another two 12 cm cannon were fitted on a newly constructed small satellite fortification to the north of the fort . Rödberget Fort was part of the southern fort group together with Södra Åberget Fort on the other side of Lule River . These two forts — unlike the other forts — do not have a caponier ditch on all sides , as the western side of Rödberget Fort is protected by the natural scarp of the mountain . The surroundings feature four large bunkers , two observation posts and two searchlight sites . Today , Rödberget Fort is the only larger fortification of Boden Fortress that is open to the public .
= = Commandants = =
During the first years in existence , the position was simply titled Commandant in Boden ( Kommendant i Boden ) , but from 1928 on , the officer in charge was Commandant in Boden Fortress ( Kommendant i Bodens fästning ) , and later on had additional commands connected to the position :
= = In media = =
Boden Fortress is mentioned in Tage Danielsson 's Sagan om Karl @-@ Bertil Jonssons Julafton ; the story was made into a short film in 1975 and has been shown on Swedish television every Christmas Eve since that year . Karl @-@ Bertil Jonsson , the young boy of the story , works extra at the post office where he steals Christmas gifts addressed to rich people and instead gives them to the poor , Robin Hood @-@ style . One of all the gifts he steals is a matchstick picture ( tändstickstavla ) of the fortress . When telling the intended receiver of the gift , senior administrative officer H. K. Bergdahl , what he had done Bergdahl answers " Thank you , my lad , for saving us from Boden Fortress ! "
The fortress also plays a part in Operation Garbo , a three @-@ volume novel written by Harry Winter , a pseudonym for an undisclosed number of people . The techno @-@ thriller novel is about a Soviet invasion of Sweden , and while Boden Fortress is not a main part of the story , one chapter in the first volume briefly mentions Södra Åberget Fort , and two chapters in the second volume are devoted to events at and around the forts , Södra Åberget and Mjösjöberget Forts are mentioned by name while Rödberget Fort is described more in detail .
A 30 @-@ minute episode of the Swedish public broadcaster SVT 's series Hemliga svenska rum ( " Secret Swedish spaces " ) covered Boden Fortress and its secrets , lesser known facts and myths . The programme brought up the use of Degerberget Fort as storage for the gold reserve and other pieces of information from 100 years of Swedish military history about " one of Sweden 's most peculiar and perhaps mightiest constructions " .
= = = Reference notes = = =
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= Jeff Hardy =
Jeffrey Nero " Jeff " Hardy ( born August 31 , 1977 ) is a professional wrestler , singer @-@ songwriter , painter and musician currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . He is best known for his work with World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( WWF / E ) .
Before gaining prominence in WWE , Hardy performed for the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , a promotion he ran with his brother Matt . After being signed by WWE , the brothers worked as jobbers , before gaining notoriety in the tag team division , partly due to their participation in Tables , Ladders , and Chairs matches . With the addition of Lita , the team became known as Team Xtreme and continued to rise in popularity . As a tag team wrestler , Hardy is an eight @-@ time world tag team champion ( six World Tag Team Championships , one WCW Tag Team Championship , and one TNA World Tag Team Championship ) – all with his brother Matt .
As a singles wrestler , Hardy is a six @-@ time world champion , having held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship three times , the WWE Championship once and WWE 's World Heavyweight Championship twice . Within WWE , he also held the Intercontinental Championship four times , the Light Heavyweight and European Championships once each and the Hardcore Championship three times , making him the eighteenth Triple Crown Champion and the tenth Grand Slam Champion in company history . Between WWE and TNA , Hardy has won 23 total championships .
Hardy is involved in motocross , music , painting , and other artistic endeavors . He is currently a member of the band Peroxwhy ? gen , with whom he has released two studio albums .
= = Early life = =
Jeff Hardy is the son of Gilbert and Ruby Moore Hardy , and the younger brother of Matt Hardy . Their mother died of brain cancer in 1986 , when Hardy was nine . He developed an interest in motocross aged 12 and got his first bike , a Yamaha YZ @-@ 80 , at age 13 . He had his first race when he was in ninth grade . Hardy played baseball as a child , but had to stop after he crashed during a motocross race , injuring his arm . He also played football during high school as a fullback and linebacker . He briefly competed in amateur wrestling in high school . He had to stop playing football in high school , after he was ordered to pick between professional wrestling and football , and he chose wrestling . Hardy 's favorite subjects in school were U.S. history and art , which he did for extra credit .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early Career ( 1991 − 1994 ) = = =
Hardy , along with his brother Matt and friends , started their own federation , the Trampoline Wrestling Federation ( TWF ) and mimicked the moves they saw on television . Later on , the TWF went under several different names , eventually being integrated into a county fair in North Carolina . The brothers and their friends then began to work for other independent companies . They drove all over the East Coast of the United States , working for companies such as ACW and other small promotions .
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
= = = = Enhancement Talent ( 1994 − 1997 ) = = = =
Hardy cites Sting , The Ultimate Warrior , and Shawn Michaels as his childhood inspirations to wrestle . He started on World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) television as a jobber — a wrestler who consistently loses to make his opponents look stronger . His first WWF match was against Razor Ramon on May 23 , 1994 in Youngstown , Ohio , with Randy Savage mentioning on commentary , " Welcome to the big time " . His ringname that night , Keith Davis , was the name of Razor 's scheduled jobber , who backed out on short notice . Gary Sabaugh , who had brought Hardy in a group along with Davis , suggested him to agent Tony Garea , who agreed after Hardy claimed he was 18 ( he was in fact , only 16 ) . The next day , he wrestled under his real name against The 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid , and the match aired on the June 25 episode of Superstars . He occasionally wrestled as a jobber as late as 1997 ( including a match against Rob Van Dam during the ECW " invasion " storyline that had Hardy billed as being from Virginia instead of Cameron , North Carolina ) before beginning his first major run in 1998 .
= = = OMEGA Championship Wrestling ( 1997 − 1998 ) = = =
Before arriving in the WWF , Matt formed his own wrestling promotion , the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) with Thomas Simpson . The promotion was a more successful version of the original TWF and included talent such as both Hardy brothers , Shannon Moore , Gregory Helms , Joey Matthews , and Steve Corino , among others . In OMEGA , each of the brothers portrayed several different characters ; Hardy portrayed such characters as Willow the Wisp , Iceman , Mean Jimmy Jack Tomkins , and The Masked Mountain . While there , Hardy held the New Frontier Championship as a singles competitor and the Tag Team Championship with Matt . The promotion folded in April 1998 when they signed contracts with the WWF .
= = = Return to WWF / E = = =
= = = = The Hardy Boyz ( 1998 – 2002 ) = = = =
The Hardy brothers eventually caught the eyes of the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . After being signed to a contract in 1998 , they were trained by Dory Funk Jr. in his Funkin ' Dojo with other notable wrestlers such as Kurt Angle , Christian , Test , and A @-@ Train . When the team was finally brought up to WWF television , after months of " jobbing " and live events , they formed the acrobatic tag team called the Hardy Boyz . While feuding with The Brood in mid @-@ 1999 , they added Michael Hayes as their manager . On July 5 , they won their first WWF Tag Team Championship by defeating the Acolytes , but lost it back to them a month later . After the dissolution of the Brood , the Hardys joined forces with Gangrel as The New Brood and feuded with Edge and Christian . This stable did not last long , however , and on October 17 , 1999 at No Mercy , the Hardy Boyz won the managerial services of Terri Runnels in the finals of the Terri Invitational Tournament in the WWF 's first ever tag team ladder match against Edge and Christian . They competed in the first two TLC ( Tables , Ladders and Chairs ) matches ever , both against Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz .
In 2000 , the Hardy Boyz found a new manager in their real @-@ life friend Lita . Together , the three became known as " Team Xtreme " . They continued their feud with Edge and Christian throughout 2000 , defeating them for the WWF Tag Team Championship on two occasions . At SummerSlam , the Hardy Boyz competed in the first ever Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match ( TLC match ) , for the Tag Team Championship against the Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian , but were unsuccessful .
Hardy gained attention for his high risk stunts in the TLC matches , making a name for himself as one of the most seemingly reckless and unorthodox WWF performers of his time . In 2001 , Hardy received a push as a singles competitor , and he held the Intercontinental ( defeating Triple H ) , Light Heavyweight ( defeating Jerry Lynn ) and Hardcore Championships ( defeating Mike Awesome and Van Dam on two separate occasions ) . At the end of 2001 , the Hardys began a storyline in which they began to fight , which led to Matt demanding a match at Vengeance , with Lita as the special guest referee . After Jeff Hardy beat Matt by pinfall at Vengeance , while Matt 's foot was on the ropes , Hardy and Lita began feuding against Matt . In the middle of the feud , however , Hardy faced The Undertaker in a Hardcore Championship match and lost . After the match , The Undertaker was scripted to attack both Hardy and Lita , injuring them . On the next episode of SmackDown ! , The Undertaker attacked Matt as well , also injuring him , in storyline . The Hardys and Lita were not seen again until the Royal Rumble , because WWE did not have another storyline for their characters . The Hardys later came back as a team , and there was never any mention of their previous storyline split .
In early April 2002 , the Hardy Boyz began a feud with Brock Lesnar after Lesnar gave Matt an F @-@ 5 on the steel entrance ramp , which led to an angered Hardy seeking revenge on Lesnar . At Backlash , Hardy faced @-@ off against Lesnar in Lesnar 's first televised match . Lesnar dominated Hardy and won the match by knockout . Lesnar and the Hardys continued to feud over the next few weeks , with the Hardys coming out victorious only once by disqualification . At Judgment Day , Lesnar gained the upper hand on the Hardy Boyz before tagging his partner , Paul Heyman , in to claim the win for the team . In July 2002 , Hardy won his third Hardcore Championship by defeating Bradshaw .
= = = = Singles competition and departure ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
After years in the tag team division , Hardy took on The Undertaker in a ladder match for the Undisputed WWE Championship . Hardy came up short in the intense match , but earned The Undertaker 's respect when he displayed courage by attempting to rise to his feet after the bout and challenge The Undertaker to continue . Hardy competed for singles titles on several occasions and defeated William Regal for the European Championship . Hardy was defeated a few weeks later by Rob Van Dam in a ladder match to unify the European Championship and the Intercontinental Championship , and the European Championship was retired . Finally , the Hardy Boyz split apart , as Hardy continued to pursue his singles ambitions on Raw and his brother , Matt left Raw for his own singles pursuits signing with Stephanie McMahon 's SmackDown ! brand . On Raw , Hardy would compete in WWE 's Hardcore division until the title 's unification with the Intercontinental Championship .
In late 2002 , Hardy had been teaming with Rob Van Dam and Bubba Ray Dudley . He along with Bubba Ray and Spike Dudley defeated 3 @-@ Minute Warning at Survivor Series in a six @-@ man tag team elimination tables match .
In January 2003 , Hardy briefly turned into a heel ( villain ) after he attacked Van Dam and Shawn Michaels . It ended a month later when he saved Stacy Keibler from an attack by then @-@ villain , Christian . In February , he had a brief program with Michaels , which saw the two team up . Then , in storyline , Hardy began dating Trish Stratus after saving her from Steven Richards and Victoria in March . Hardy and Stratus had a brief on @-@ screen relationship that saw the duo talking backstage and teaming together in matches . Hardy competed in his final match ( his first departure ) against The Rock and lost . Hardy , however , was released from WWE on April 22 , 2003 . The reasons given for the release were Hardy 's erratic behavior , drug use , refusal to go to rehab , deteriorating ring performance , as well as constant tardiness and no @-@ showing events . Hardy also cites " burn out " and the need for time off as reasons for leaving WWE .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2003 ) = = =
Hardy made his first wrestling appearance after being released from WWE at an OMEGA show , on May 24 . Using his old gimmick , " Willow the Wisp " , Hardy challenged Krazy K for the OMEGA Cruiserweight Championship , but lost the match .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2003 ) = = =
Hardy performed with the Ring of Honor ( ROH ) promotion on one occasion . Hardy appeared at ROH 's 2003 show , Death Before Dishonor , under his " Willow the Wisp " gimmick , wearing a mask and trench coat . Hardy was quickly unmasked and lost his jacket , wearing attire similar to that he wore in WWE . Hardy was booed and heckled before , during , and after the match by the ROH audience , who chanted " We want Matt ! " and " You got fired ! " during his match with Joey Matthews and Krazy K , which Hardy won . Hardy then took a whole year off of wrestling to concentrate on motocross and finish his motocross track .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =
Hardy debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on June 23 , 2004 , at the Second Anniversary Show , in a match against A.J. Styles , for the TNA X Division Championship . He also debuted his new entrance theme " Modest " , a song performed by Hardy himself , and a new nickname , " The Charismatic Enigma " . The match ended in a no contest when Kid Kash and Dallas interfered . Hardy returned to TNA on July 21 and was awarded a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy challenged for the title on September 8 , losing to NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarrett . In October 2004 , he won a tournament , earning a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship on November 7 at Victory Road , TNA 's first monthly pay @-@ per @-@ view . Hardy was defeated by Jarrett once again in a ladder match at Victory Road following interference from Kevin Nash and Scott Hall .
One month later at Turning Point , Hardy , Styles and Randy Savage defeated Jarrett , Hall and Nash ( collectively known as the Kings of Wrestling ) . Hardy went on to defeat Hall in a singles match , substituting for Héctor Garza at Final Resolution on January 16 , 2005 .
At Against All Odds in February 2005 , Hardy lost to Abyss in a " Full Metal Mayhem " match for the number one contendership to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy returned the favor by defeating Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match at Destination X in March . On March 15 , 2005 , Hardy teamed with Shocker defeating David Young and Lex Lovett . Hardy then went on to feud with Raven , Hardy defeated Raven in a Six sides of steel match at Lockdown in April . Hardy was suspended from TNA after no @-@ showing his " Clockwork Orange House of Fun " rematch with Raven at Hard Justice on May 15 , allegedly due to travel difficulties . Hardy 's suspension was lifted on August 5 , and he returned at Sacrifice approximately a week later , attacking Jeff Jarrett .
He wrestled his first TNA match in four months at Unbreakable on September 11 , losing to Bobby Roode following interference from Jarrett . Throughout October 2005 , Hardy became embroiled in a feud with Abyss , Rhino and Sabu . The four way feud culminated in a Monster 's Ball match at Bound for Glory on October 23 , which Rhino won after delivering a second rope Rhino Driver to Hardy . In the course of the match , Hardy delivered a Swanton Bomb to Abyss from a height of approximately 22 ft 0 in ( 6 @.@ 71 m ) . Later that night , Hardy competed in a ten @-@ man battle royal for the number one contendership to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , which Rhino also won . At Genesis in November , Hardy lost to Monty Brown in another number one contender match .
Hardy was scheduled to wrestle on the pre @-@ show of Turning Point in December 2005 , but once again no @-@ showed the event , again citing traveling problems . Hardy was suspended as a result and did not appear on TNA television again . In March , April , and May 2006 , Hardy appeared on several live events promoted by TNA in conjunction with Dave Hebner and the United Wrestling Federation . Hardy was later released from his TNA contract in June 2006 .
= = = Second return to WWE = = =
= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
On August 4 , 2006 , WWE announced that Hardy had re @-@ signed with the company . In the following weeks , vignettes aired hyping his return on the August 21 episode of Raw . On the day of his return , Hardy received a push and defeated then @-@ WWE Champion Edge by disqualification when Lita pulled Edge out of the ring . After failing to capture the Intercontinental Championship from Johnny Nitro over the next few weeks , including at Unforgiven , Hardy finally defeated Nitro to win his second Intercontinental Championship on the October 2 episode of Raw . On the November 6 episode of Raw , Hardy lost the Intercontinental Championship back to Nitro , after Nitro hit him with the Intercontinental Championship title belt . One week later , Hardy regained it on the November 13 episode of Raw , with a crucifix pin . This marked Hardy 's third reign as Intercontinental Champion .
On the November 21 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Hardy teamed with his brother , Matt , for the first time in almost five years to defeat The Full Blooded Italians . At Survivor Series , they both were a part of Team D @-@ Generation X , which gained the victory over Team Rated @-@ RKO with a clean sweep . The brothers then received their first opportunity since Hardy 's return to win a tag team championship at Armageddon . They competed in a four @-@ team ladder match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but they came up short in their attempt . In the course of the match , however , they inadvertently legitimately injured Joey Mercury 's face .
With Hardy still feuding with Johnny Nitro and the other members of MNM into 2007 , he was challenged once again by Nitro at New Year 's Revolution in a steel cage match for the Intercontinental Championship . Hardy once again defeated Nitro . Hardy then teamed with Matt to defeat MNM at both the Royal Rumble and No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ views . The next night on Raw , February 19 , Hardy was defeated for the Intercontinental Championship by Umaga . In April 2007 , Hardy competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 . During the match , Matt threw Edge onto a ladder and encouraged Hardy , who was close to the winning briefcase , to finish him off . Hardy then leaped off the 20 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) ladder , drove Edge through the ladder with a leg drop , seemingly injuring both Edge and himself . The two were unable to continue the match and were removed from ringside on stretchers .
The next night on Raw , April 2 , the Hardys competed in a 10 @-@ team battle royal for the World Tag Team Championship . They won the titles from then WWE Champion John Cena and Shawn Michaels by last eliminating Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . They then began a feud with Cade and Murdoch , with the Hardys retaining the Championship in their first title defense against them at Backlash and again at Judgment Day . The Hardys , however , dropped the titles to Cade and Murdoch on June 4 on Raw . The Hardys earned a rematch at Vengeance : Night of Champions but were defeated .
= = = = Championship reigns and pursuits ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
In the midst of feuding with Umaga , who defeated Hardy at The Great American Bash to retain the Intercontinental Championship in late July , Hardy was abruptly taken off WWE programming . He posted on his own website and in the forums of TheHardyShow.com that it was time off to heal , stemming from a bad fall taken in a match against Mr. Kennedy on the July 23 episode of Raw . He made his return on the August 27 episode of Raw beating Kennedy by disqualification after Umaga interfered . The following week , on September 3 , Hardy successfully captured his fourth Intercontinental Championship by defeating Umaga for the title .
This was the start of a push for Hardy , and at Survivor Series , Hardy and Triple H were the last two standing to win the traditional elimination match . Hardy began an on and off tag team with Triple H , which eventually led to a respectful feud between the two . The rivalry continued at Armageddon , when Hardy defeated Triple H to become the number one contender for the WWE Championship . In the weeks leading up to the Royal Rumble , Hardy and Randy Orton engaged in a personal feud , which began when Orton kicked Hardy 's brother , Matt , in the head in the storyline . Hardy , in retaliation , performed a Swanton Bomb on Orton from the top of the Raw set and seemed to have all the momentum after coming out on top in their encounters . Hardy , however , lost the title match at the Royal Rumble , but was named as one of six men to compete in an Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out , where he survived to the final two before being eliminated by the eventual winner , Triple H.
During the March 3 episode of Raw , Hardy appeared on Chris Jericho 's " Highlight Reel " segment as a special guest , but ended up attacking Jericho . This led to an Intercontinental title match on the following Raw where Hardy dropped the title to Jericho . Off @-@ screen , Hardy dropped the title after he was suspended for sixty days , as of March 11 , for his second violation of the company 's Substance Abuse and Drug Testing Policy . Hardy was also removed from the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXIV in which he was booked to win after the suspension was announced . Hardy returned on the May 12 episode of Raw , defeating Umaga . This reignited the rivalry between the two , and they met in a Falls Count Anywhere match at One Night Stand , which Hardy won .
On June 23 , 2008 , Hardy was drafted from the Raw brand to the SmackDown brand , as a part of the 2008 WWE draft . Hardy made his SmackDown debut on the July 4 episode , defeating John Morrison . Hardy participated in the WWE Championship Scramble match at Unforgiven and also challenged for the Championship at No Mercy and Cyber Sunday , but failed to win each time . He was originally scheduled to be in the WWE Championship match at Survivor Series , but , in storyline , was found unconscious in his hotel , allowing the returning Edge to replace him in the match and win the title . At Armageddon in December 2008 , Hardy defeated the defending champion Edge and Triple H in a triple threat match to capture the WWE Championship , his first world championship .
In January 2009 , Hardy 's next storyline led to his involvement in scripted accidents , including a hit @-@ and @-@ run automobile accident and an accident involving his ring entrance pyrotechnics . At the 2009 Royal Rumble , Hardy lost his WWE Championship to Edge after Hardy 's brother , Matt , interfered on Edge 's behalf and hit Hardy with a steel chair . The buildup to this feud involved Matt implying that he was responsible for all of Hardy 's accidents over the past few months , and at WrestleMania XXV , Matt defeated Jeff in an Extreme Rules match . In a rematch at Backlash , however , Hardy defeated Matt in an " I Quit " match .
= = = = Feud with CM Punk and departure ( 2009 ) = = = =
At Extreme Rules , Hardy defeated Edge to win the World Heavyweight Championship in a ladder match . Immediately after the match , CM Punk cashed in his second Money in the Bank briefcase , which gave him a guaranteed world championship match at any time he wanted , and defeated Hardy to win the championship . Hardy received his rematch at The Bash , and won the match via disqualification after Punk kicked the ref in the back of the head while feigning an eye injury with Punk still retaining the title . At Night of Champions , however , Hardy won the championship for the second time , by defeating Punk . At the SummerSlam pay @-@ per @-@ view in August , Hardy lost the title back to Punk in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match . On the August 28 episode of SmackDown , Punk Beat Jeff Hardy in a steel cage rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship , resulting in Hardy leaving WWE , in storyline , per the pre @-@ match stipulation . This storyline was put in place to allow Hardy to leave WWE to heal his injuries , including a neck injury . Hardy also had two herniated discs in his lower back and was suffering from restless legs syndrome .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Immortal ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On TNA 's first live Monday episode of Impact ! on January 4 , 2010 , Hardy made his return to TNA , along with Shannon Moore . He was attacked by Homicide after emerging from the crowd , but hit Homicide with a steel chair and performed the Twist of Fate on the Impact ! Zone ramp . He later appeared in backstage segments throughout the evening . The following day , it was reported that Hardy had signed a new contract with TNA . Hardy would make his next appearance for the company on the March 8 episode of Impact ! , saving D 'Angelo Dinero , Abyss and Hulk Hogan from A.J. Styles , Ric Flair and Desmond Wolfe . The following week , Hardy defeated then TNA World Heavyweight Champion A.J. Styles in a non @-@ title match .
On the April 5 episode of Impact ! , Hardy was introduced as a member of Team Hogan for the annual Lethal Lockdown match , where they would face Team Flair . One week later , however , Hardy was injured when James Storm spewed a volatile liquid against a flame from his lighter , forming a fireball that singed most of Hardy 's face . At Lockdown , Team Hogan ( Hardy , Abyss , Jeff Jarrett and Rob Van Dam ) defeated Team Flair ( Sting , Desmond Wolfe , Robert Roode and James Storm ) . At Sacrifice , Hardy defeated Mr. Anderson . After the event , Anderson turned face and eventually managed to convince the skeptical Hardy that he really had changed , after which the two went on to form a tag team . At Slammiversary VIII , Hardy and Anderson , now known as Enigmatic Assholes , defeated Beer Money , Inc . ( Robert Roode and James Storm ) in a tag team match .
On the August 19 episode of Impact ! , the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated after Rob Van Dam was injured by The Monster Abyss and Hardy was entered into an eight @-@ man tournament for the championship , defeating Rob Terry in his first round match . At the semi @-@ finals at No Surrender , Hardy first wrestled Kurt Angle to a twenty @-@ minute time @-@ limit draw , after which Eric Bischoff ordered a five @-@ minute period of extra time . After that and a second five @-@ minute extra time period also ended in draws , it was ruled that Angle was unable to continue and the match ended in a no contest . After wrestling a draw on the September 16 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that both Hardy and Angle would advance to the finals at Bound for Glory , where they would compete with Mr. Anderson in a three – way match .
At Bound for Glory , Hardy turned heel with Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff and with their help defeated Angle and Anderson to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . They were then joined by Jeff Jarrett and Abyss , revealing the group that Abyss had been referring to as " they " for several months . On the following episode of Impact ! , the stable was named Immortal , as it formed an alliance with Ric Flair 's Fortune . Meanwhile , Hardy debuted a new dark character , using cryptic messages as he explained the reasons behind his turn . At Turning Point , Hardy retained his title in a defense against Matt Morgan , a replacement for Mr. Anderson , who was sidelined after suffering a concussion during an attack by Hardy . On the following episode of Impact ! , Hogan presented Hardy with a new design of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which he dubbed the TNA Immortal Championship . At Final Resolution in December , Hardy successfully defended the championship in a rematch against Morgan after incapacitating the special guest referee Mr. Anderson and having a replacement referee count the pinfall . On January 4 , 2011 , Hardy made his debut for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) at Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome , where he successfully defended the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against Tetsuya Naito .
On January 9 at Genesis , Hardy 's brother , Matt , made his TNA debut as a surprise member of Immortal and defeated Rob Van Dam to prevent him from receiving a match at Hardy 's championship . That same night , Hardy gave Anderson a match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , immediately following Anderson 's victory in a number one contender 's match . Despite Matt , Flair , and Bischoff interfering in an attempt to help Hardy , Anderson defeated Hardy for the championship . On the January 13 episode of Impact ! , the Hardy Boyz reunited and defeated Anderson and Van Dam in a tag team match , following interference from Beer Money , Inc . On the February 3 episode of Impact ! , Hardy received his rematch for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . The rest of Immortal interfered in the match , but were stopped by Fortune , which led to Anderson retaining the championship . On February 13 at Against All Odds , Hardy defeated Anderson in a ladder match to regain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy held the championship for less than two weeks , defending it once against Rob Van Dam , before losing it to the returning Sting on February 24 , at the tapings of the March 3 episode of Impact ! . On March 13 at Victory Road , Hardy received a rematch for the title under No Disqualification rules , but was defeated in ninety seconds . TNA had made the decision to cut the match short after deeming that Hardy was too intoxicated to wrestle . The following day it was reported that TNA had sent Hardy home from the week 's Impact ! tapings . On the March 17 episode of Impact ! , Immortal severed their ties with Hardy .
= = = = Road To Redemption ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On August 23 , 2011 , TNA announced that Hardy would be making his return to the promotion at the Impact Wrestling tapings on August 25 in Huntsville , Alabama . The return would take place only five days after Matt Hardy was released from his TNA contract . In his return , which was taped for the September 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy spoke to the audience , acknowledging that he had hit rock bottom at Victory Road in March , before asking the fans for " one more shot " . Hardy wrestled his first match in six months on September 15 at a live event in York , Pennsylvania , defeating Jeff Jarrett . Hardy then began feuding with his former stable Immortal , attacking Eric Bischoff on the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling and engaging in brawls with Jeff Jarrett at Bound for Glory and on the October 20 episode of Impact Wrestling . Hardy wrestled his first televised match since his return on the October 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Immortal member Bully Ray . On November 13 at Turning Point , Hardy defeated Jeff Jarrett three times , first in six seconds , the second in six minutes , and the third in ten seconds . On December 11 at Final Resolution , Hardy defeated Jarrett in a steel cage match to become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
On January 8 , 2012 , at Genesis , Hardy defeated TNA World Heavyweight Champion Bobby Roode via disqualification ; as a result , the title remained with Roode . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , a rematch between Hardy and Roode ended in a no contest , following interference from Bully Ray . The following week , Hardy was entered into a number one contender 's match against James Storm , which ended in a no contest following interference from Ray and Roode . On February 12 at Against All Odds , Hardy was unable to capture the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Roode in a four @-@ way match , which also included Bully Ray and James Storm . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy lost his shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , following interference from the returning Kurt Angle . On March 18 at Victory Road , Hardy was defeated by Angle in a singles match . On April 15 at Lockdown , Hardy defeated Angle in a rematch , contested inside a steel cage . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy and Mr. Anderson were defeated by Rob Van Dam in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . During the first " Open Fight Night " the following week , Hardy teamed up with Anderson to unsuccessfully challenge Magnus and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On May 13 at Sacrifice , Hardy was defeated by Anderson in a singles match . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Anderson in a rematch . On the live May 31 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy won a fan voting to become the number one contender to the TNA Television Championship . However , his title match with Devon ended in a no contest , following interference from Robbie E and Robbie T. On June 10 at Slammiversary , Hardy was defeated by Mr. Anderson in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match , also involving Rob Van Dam .
On the June 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy entered the 2012 Bound for Glory Series , taking part in the opening gauntlet match , from which he was the first man eliminated by Bully Ray . Hardy wrestled his final group stage match of the tournament on the September 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Samoa Joe via submission , thus finishing fourth and advancing to the semi @-@ finals . Three days later at No Surrender , Hardy defeated Joe in a rematch to advance to the finals of the tournament . Before the finals took place , Hardy suffered a storyline injury after taking part in a brawl between the TNA locker room and the Aces & Eights stable . Despite the injury , Hardy defeated Bully Ray in the finals to win the 2012 Bound for Glory Series and become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Ray in a rematch to reaffirm his status as the number one contender .
On October 14 at Bound for Glory , Hardy defeated Austin Aries to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the third time , and , according to TNA , completing his " road to redemption " following the events of March 2011 . Hardy made his first televised title defense on the October 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Kurt Angle to retain his title . On November 11 at Turning Point , Hardy defeated Austin Aries in a ladder match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the December 6 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy was attacked by the Aces & Eights who were revealed to be paid off by his number one contender Bobby Roode . Three days later at Final Resolution , Hardy defeated Roode to retain the World Heavyweight Championship , after which , both men were attacked by the Aces & Eights . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Aces & Eights member Devon revealed Austin Aries as the man who outpaid Roode for the Aces & Eights to interfere in their match , which led to Hardy issuing Aries a title challenge . The following week , Hardy was successful in retaining his title against Aries , following interference from Bobby Roode . The rivalry culminated in a three @-@ way elimination match on January 13 , 2013 , at Genesis , where Hardy defeated both Aries and Roode to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the January 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy successfully defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Christopher Daniels . Afterwards , Hardy was jumped by a masked member of Aces & Eights who then injured Hardy 's left leg with a ball @-@ peen hammer . This was done to write Hardy out of the tapings in the United Kingdom , as the UK would not allow him to make appearances due to his criminal convictions . Hardy made his in @-@ ring return on the February 28 episode of Impact Wrestling , teaming with his new number one contender Bully Ray to defeat Bad Influence ( Christopher Daniels and Kazarian ) . On March 10 at Lockdown , Hardy lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Ray in a steel cage match , following interference from the Aces & Eights , ending his reign at 147 days . On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Kurt Angle , Magnus , and Samoa Joe in a four @-@ way match to become number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy received his title opportunity on the April 11 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Bully Ray in a Full Metal Mayhem match .
Hardy returned to TNA on June 2 at Slammiversary XI , teaming with Magnus and Samoa Joe in a winning effort against Aces & Eights ( Garett Bischoff , Mr. Anderson , and Wes Brisco ) . As a result of previously winning the Bound for Glory Series , Hardy and Bobby Roode were entered into the 2013 Bound for Glory Series on the June 13 episode of Impact Wrestling . The following week , Hardy defeated Roode in his first BFG series match via pinfall to earn seven points in the tournament . Hardy 's participation in the Bound for Glory series ended on the September 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , when he was eliminated from a twenty @-@ point battle royal by Kazarian .
On the September 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated X Division Champion Manik in a non @-@ title match . On the October 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy teamed with Manik defeating Kenny King and Chris Sabin which led to the announcement of the Ultimate X match for the X Division Championship at Bound for Glory . On October 20 , 2013 at Bound for Glory , Hardy debuted a new theme song and competed in his first Ultimate X match for the TNA X Division Championship but was unsuccessful as Chris Sabin won the match after an interference from Velvet Sky .
On November 7 , Hardy did battle with Sabin to determine who would qualify to the quarter @-@ finals of the TNA World Title tournament in a Full Metal Mayhem Match . Hardy defeated Sabin after leaping over the top of a ladder . Hardy made it to the finals of the World Title Tournament and was close to winning his fourth TNA World Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated by Magnus due to the interference of Rockstar Spud . The following week on Impact , Jeff Hardy teamed up with Sting to face The BroMans , Ethan Carter III and Rockstar Spud . Hardy made a leave of absence due to dispute with the management . On February 11 , TNA investor MVP made a phone call to Jeff Hardy and announced that Hardy would return at the Lockdown pay @-@ per @-@ view .
= = = = Willow ( 2014 ) = = = =
In mid @-@ February 2014 strange vignettes began airing advertising Hardy 's return to TNA under his OMEGA character , Willow . He made his TNA return at Lockdown , in the Lethal Lockdown match as part of Team MVP . He then appeared on the following episode of Impact Wrestling , facing Rockstar Spud . In the following weeks , he would continue to feud with Spud and Ethan Carter III , leading to a tag @-@ team match between them ( with Kurt Angle as Willow 's partner ) at Sacrifice on April 27 . Willow and Angle would go on to win that match . On May 1 , Willow defeated James Storm by disqualification when Storm shoved the referee and as Storm made his way up the ramp , Mr. Anderson appeared and hit Storm with the Mic check . On May 8 , Willow 's match against Magnus ended in a DQ when Bram interfered and handcuffed Willow to the bottom rope and started to hit him with a metal turnbuckle . On May 15 , Willow defeated both Magnus and Bram in a two on One handicap match . On the May 22 episode of Impact , Willow defeated Magnus in a Falls Count Anywhere match . On the June 5 episode of Impact , Willow won his match against Bram by DQ when Magnus came to the ring and attacked him with a Steel Pry Bar .
= = = = The Hardys reunion ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the July 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Director of Wrestling Operations Kurt Angle asked Willow to bring Jeff Hardy back for a 20 @-@ man over the top rope battle royal later that night . Hardy competed in the match as himself and won , earning a match with Lashley for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship the following week , which Hardy lost .
On the July 24 Impact Wrestling , Hardy told the audience that we had not seen the last of Willow and then brought out Matt Hardy , his brother , to reform The Hardys . The Wolves joined them in the ring and challenged them to a match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship at Impact Wrestling : Destination X , which the Hardys agreed to . At Destination X , the Hardys lost against the Wolves , but shook hands after the match . On October 22 , 2014 , The Hardys entered a number one contenders tournament for the TNA World Tag Team Championships defeating The BroMans ( Jessie Godderz and DJ Z ) in the first round of the tournament . On October 29 , episode of Impact Wrestling , The Hardys defeated Team Dixie ( EC3 and Tyrus ) in the semifinals to advance to the finals of the tournament where they defeated Samoa Joe and Low Ki to become number one contenders for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the January 7 episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy along with his brother Matt were at ringside for The Wolves vs. James Storm and Abyss ; during the match , The Great Sanada and Manik attempted to interfere in the match , but then ended up receiving a Side Effect from Matt Hardy , and a Twist of Fate from Jeff Hardy . Despite that , it distracted Eddie Edwards , who then received a Last Call super kick from Storm . At the Lockdown episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy suffered a minor concussion which was set as a storyline injury when he fell on the door of the cage ; James Storm hit Hardy off the door onto the steel steps below with a cowbell . The falling off the cage spot was covered in mainstream media such as USA Today and TMZ .
Hardy returned after TNA United Kingdom tour . In March , The Hardys participated in a tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship . On March 16 , 2015 , The Hardys won an Ultimate X match for the belts for the first time as a team and individually . On May 8 , 2015 , the Hardys were forced to vacate the TNA World Tag Team Championship due to Jeff suffering a broken leg in a legitimate dirt bike accident .
Hardy returned from injury on the July 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , making an announcement that his brother , Matt , would face TNA World Heavyweight Champion Ethan Carter III in a Full Metal Mayhem match , in which Matt was unsuccessful . After a brief hiatus , Hardy returned on the August 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , where he and Matt made an agreement that if Matt would his second match against Carter for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , then Jeff would become his personal assistant . Matt was unsuccessful , and Jeff was forced to be Carter 's assistant . On the September 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , after refusing to hit Spud , then hitting Carter with a Twist of Fate , Hardy quit as Carter 's personal assistant , therefore also ( storyline ) quitting TNA . On the September 30 episode of Impact Wrestling , TNA President Dixie Carter announced that Hardy would be the special guest referee in the three @-@ way dance TNA World Heavyweight Championship match between Carter , his brother Matt , and Drew Galloway at Bound for Glory . At the event , Hardy turned on Carter by hitting him with a steel chair with Matt hitting the Twist of Fate , thus giving Matt his first TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
Hardy made an appearance on January 5 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling on its live Pop TV debut backstage and ringside to support his brother Matt in the semi @-@ finals and finals of the TNA World Title Series , which Matt had later lost .
= = = = Feud with Matt Hardy ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On the January 12 , 2016 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy made his official in @-@ ring return in a segment that involved Ethan Carter III denying Hardy an opportunity at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , instead bringing out Shynron to face Hardy , won the match . On the January 26 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy issued a challenge to his brother Matt for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , as the match was set to begin he was attacked by Eric Young and Bram . Hardy was later piledriven through a table by Young and sent to a hospital . On January 26 , 2016 , it was announced that Jeff Hardy had re @-@ signed a new contract with TNA Wrestling , which will go on for the rest of the year . Jeff Hardy made his return on March 15 , confronting Eric Young in a winning effort in a match to determine the third challenger for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in the main @-@ event of the show which included Matt Hardy And EC3 , but lost it after interference from Eric Young along with Bram . On the next week 's Impact , Jeff won a gauntlet match after last eliminating his brother , Matt , to determine the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Jeff faced TNA World Champion Drew Galloway in a losing effort on the March 29 edition of Impact . On the next Impact , Jeff defeated Eric Young in a steel cage match , after hitting the Swanton Bomb onto Young from the top of the cage .
At the April 12 tapings , Jeff confronted his brother Matt , after Matt declared that Jeff was not worthy of the Hardy name . Matt would then challenge Jeff to an I Quit match to take place on the next week 's Impact while Jeff demanded a Full Metal Mayhem match . In the main event , Jeff Hardy and Drew Galloway would face Matt Hardy and Tyrus in a tag team match with the stipulation that the winning Hardy would receive their match type on the next week 's Impact . Hardy and Galloway went on to lose the match after Jeff received a Twist of Fate from Matt and , as per match stipulations , on the next week 's Impact , Jeff would face Matt in an I Quit match , which resulted in a no contest after neither man could continue following Jeff hitting a Swanton Bomb from a 30 foot high stairwell in the Impact Zone . A week later , Hardy began pursuing the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and was put into a Four Way match to determine a number one contender , which was won by Lashley . On the May 10 episode of Impact , Hardy was James Storm 's tag team partner in a rematch for the TNA World Tag Team Championships against Decay in a losing effort after an imposter Willow distracted Hardy . This would give Abyss the advantage to Black Hole Slam Hardy and pick up the victory . After the match , Jeff searched backstage for the imposter Willow and would end up being attacked by three different people dressed as Willow . On the May 17 Slammiversary edition of Impact , Hardy would face one of the imposter Willows in a winning effort , to ultimately be attacked by another Willow while trying to unmask the one he had just defeated . Both imposter Willows would then bring out the leader of the imposter Willows , who would be revealed to be a vengeful Matt Hardy . Matt would later attack Jeff while he was going for a Swanton Bomb on Mike Bennett . On the May 24 episode of Impact , Jeff won a 2 @-@ on @-@ 1 Handicap Ladder match to secure a Full Metal Mayhem match against Matt at Slammiversary . At the event , Jeff defeated Matt . Matt then challenged Jeff to one final match on the July 5th episode of IMPACT Wrestling , set at the Hardy household , where the loser was banned from using the Hardy name . That match , " The Final Deletion , " was won by " Broken " Matt Hardy , forcing Jeff to drop the Hardy name .
= = Other media = =
Hardy appeared on the February 7 , 1999 episode of That ' 70s Show entitled " That Wrestling Show " , along with Matt , as an uncredited wrestler . Hardy and Matt also appeared on Tough Enough in early 2001 , talking to and wrestling the contestants . He appeared on the February 25 , 2002 episode of Fear Factor competing against five other World Wrestling Federation wrestlers . He was eliminated in the first round . Hardy also appears on The Hardy Show , an internet web show which features the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends . In September 2009 , Hardy signed a deal with Fox 21 studios to appear in a reality television show .
In 2001 , Hardy , Matt and Lita appeared in Rolling Stone magazine 's 2001 Sports Hall of Fame issue . In 2003 , Hardy and Matt , with the help of Michael Krugman , wrote and published their autobiography The Hardy Boyz : Exist 2 Inspire .
As part of WWE , Hardy has appeared in several of their DVDs , including The Hardy Boyz : Leap of Faith ( 2001 ) and The Ladder Match ( 2007 ) . He is also featured in the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling release Enigma : The Best of Jeff Hardy ( 2005 ) and Pro Wrestling 's Ultimate Insiders : Hardy Boys – From the Backyard to the Big Time ( 2005 ) . On April 29 , 2008 , WWE released " Twist of Fate : The Matt and Jeff Hardy Story " . The DVD features footage of the brothers in OMEGA and WWE , and also briefly mentions Hardy 's first run with TNA . In December 2009 , WWE released a DVD about Hardy entitled Jeff Hardy : My Life , My Rules .
= = Artistic pursuits = =
Hardy has an eclectic set of interests outside of wrestling . He calls his artistic side " The Imag @-@ I @-@ Nation " . At one stage , Hardy constructed a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) statue of an " aluminummy " named " Neroameee " out of tin foil outside of his recording studio ( a spray painted trailer ) . On another occasion , he created an artificial volcano in his front yard , which he then jumped over on his motocross dirtbike . On another occasion Hardy created a large sculpture of his brother Matt 's hand signal " V1 " , which was seen on " The Hardy Show " , an Internet web show which features both the Hardys , Shannon Moore and many of their friends . Hardy is also an artist and poet .
Hardy taught himself how to play guitar and later purchased a drum kit . In 2003 , Hardy formed a band , Peroxwhy ? gen , with members of the band Burnside 6 and Moore , who later left . He also converted a trailer into a recording studio . Their first album ( marketed as a Jeff Hardy solo album ) Plurality of Worlds was released through TNA Music on November 7 , 2013 . Peroxwhy ? Gen released their second album Within the Cygnus Rift on July 27 , 2015 .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Jeff Hardy
Similar Creatures - EP ( 2012 )
Plurality of Worlds ( 2013 )
PeroxWhy ? Gen
Within The Cygnus Rift ( 2015 )
= = Personal life = =
He has a tattoo of roots that starts on his head , behind his ear , and finishes at his hand . He also has a few other signature designed tattoos , one of which , a dragon , he hid from his father . It was also the first tattoo he got in 1998 . He later got tattoos of the Chinese symbols for " Peace " and " Health " , as well as tattoos of fire and a wave . Hardy regards his tattoos as his " artistic impulses " . Hardy is very good friends with Shannon Moore , whom he has known since around 1987 . He is also good friends with Marty Garner , Jason Arhndt and John Morrison . He regards Vanilla Ice as a big influence on him , and he was even nicknamed " Ice " by Scott Hall .
Hardy met his girlfriend Beth Britt in 1999 , shortly after the Hardy Boyz had won the WWF Tag Team Championship for the first time . Hardy and his brother Matt went to a club in Southern Pines , North Carolina , where Hardy met her . On March 15 , 2008 , it was reported that Hardy 's house had burned to the ground in a fire . Hardy and his girlfriend were not home at the time , but his dog , Jack , was killed in the fire . It is believed that the fire was started by faulty electrical wiring . In October 2008 , Hardy was building a new home in the same area , which was expected to be completed by early 2009 . In August 2010 , Hardy announced that Britt was pregnant with the couple 's first child , a daughter named Ruby Claire , who was born on October 19 , 2010 . The pair 's second child , a daughter , Nera Quinn Hardy , was born on December 31 , 2015 . Hardy married Britt on March 9 , 2011 .
On September 17 , 2008 , Hardy was involved in an incident at the Nashville International Airport 's Southwest gate . A Southwest Airline employee reported that Hardy appeared to be intoxicated and therefore , he was not allowed to board the flight . He was not , however , arrested as he was said to be " calm " and " co @-@ operative " , and he made other arrangements to get home .
On September 11 , 2009 Hardy was arrested on charges of trafficking in controlled prescription pills and possession of anabolic steroids , after a search of his house yielded 262 Vicodin prescription pills , 180 Soma prescription pills , 555 milliliters of anabolic steroids , a residual amount of powder cocaine , and drug paraphernalia . Over a year later , the district attorney announced that Hardy would plead guilty to the charges . On September 8 , 2011 , Hardy was sentenced to ten days in jail , 30 months of probation and a fine of $ 100 @,@ 000 . Hardy served his jail sentence from October 3 to 13 , 2011 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Swanton Bomb / The Swanton ( High @-@ angle senton bomb )
Twist of Fate ( WWE / TNA ) / Twist of Hate ( TNA ) ( Front facelock dropped into either a cutter ( WWE / TNA ) or a stunner ( TNA ) - usually used as a signature move
Signature moves
450 ° splash – 1999 – 2000
Baseball slide
Diving clothesline , sometimes from the barricade
Double leg drop to an opponent 's midsection
Handspring Stinger splash
Hardyac Arrest ( Rope @-@ aided corner dropkick )
Mule kick
One @-@ man Poetry in Motion
Plancha
Positions himself at the top rope or on another ladder and then performs a diving leg drop or a splash after leapfrogging over the ladder
Reverse Twist of Fate ( Inverted facelock neckbreaker slam ) – rarely used
Sitout inverted suplex slam
Sitout jawbreaker
Slingshot Arabian press – 1999 – 2003
Spine Line ( Arm trap cloverleaf ) – OMEGA ; used as a regular move in TNA / WWE
Split leg pin
Standing somersault leg drop
Whisper in the Wind ( Turnbuckle climb into a rebounded corkscrew senton to a standing opponent )
Managers
Gangrel
Lita
Michael Hayes
Terri
Trish Stratus
Nicknames
The Anti @-@ Christ of Professional Wrestling ( TNA )
The Artist ( TNA )
" The Best Wrestler on Planet Earth " ( TNA )
The Charismatic / Extreme Enigma ( WWE / TNA )
The Legend Thriller ( WWE )
The Rainbow @-@ Haired Warrior ( WWE )
" Brother Nero " ( TNA , coined by Matt Hardy )
Entrance themes
OMEGA Championship Wrestling
" Dead And Bloated " by Stone Temple Pilots ( 1997 – 1998 )
World Wrestling Entertainment
" Loaded " by Zack Tempest ( 1999 – 2003 , 2006 – 2008 , 2009 , 2013 – 2015 ; WWE / independent circuit ; used while teaming with his brother Matt )
" No More Words " by Endeverafter ( May 12 , 2008 – August 28 , 2009 )
Ring of Honor
" Tourniquet " by Marilyn Manson ( 2003 )
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
" Modest " by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( 2004 – 2006 )
" Modest " ( 2010 Remix ) by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( 2010 , 2011 )
" Another Me " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( 2010 – 2011 )
" Immortal Theme " by Dale Oliver ( 2010 – 2011 ; used as a member of Immortal )
" Resurrected " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( 2011 – 2012 )
" Similar Creatures " by PeroxWhy ? Gen and Dale Oliver ( 2012 – 2013 )
" Time & Fate " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( October 20 , 2013 – November 21 , 2013 ; July 10 , 2014 – February 1 , 2015 )
" Willow 's Way " by Jeff Hardy and Dale Oliver ( March 9 , 2014 – July 10 , 2014 ; used as Willow )
" Reptillian " by PeroxWhy ? Gen and Dale Oliver ( July 31 , 2014 – September 25 , 2014 ; with Creatures Intro , October 2 , 2014 – September 23 , 2015 ; used as a member of The Hardys )
" Placate " by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( October 4 , 2015 – June 28 , 2016 )
" Obsolete " ( Acapella loop ) by PeroxWhy ? Gen ( July 21 , 2016 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
National Championship Wrestling
NCW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 4 times )
New Dimension Wrestling
NDW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
New Frontier Wrestling Association
NFWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
North East Wrestling
NEW Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA 2000
NWA 2000 Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
OMEGA Championship Wrestling
OMEGA New Frontiers Championship ( 1 time )
OMEGA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Comeback of the Year ( 2007 , 2012 )
Match of the Year ( 2000 ) with Matt Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Triangle Ladder match at WrestleMania 2000
Match of the Year ( 2001 ) with Matt Hardy vs. The Dudley Boyz and Edge and Christian in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 2000 ) with Matt Hardy
Ranked # 7 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2013
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
TNA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
NWA World Heavyweight Championship # 1 Contender Tournament ( 2004 )
Bound for Glory Series ( 2012 )
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2015 ) – with Gunner , Davey Richards , Rockstar Spud , Crazzy Steve and Gail Kim
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2016 ) – with Eddie Edwards , Jessie Godderz , Robbie E and Jade
TNA World Tag Team Championship # 1 Contender Tournament ( 2014 ) – with Matt Hardy
Universal Wrestling Association
UWA World Middleweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
WWE Championship ( 1 time )
World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
WWF / E Intercontinental Championship ( 4 times )
WWF / E Hardcore Championship ( 3 times )
WWF Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE European Championship ( 1 time )
World Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Matt Hardy
WCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Matt Hardy
Eighteenth Triple Crown Champion
Tenth Grand Slam Champion
Slammy Awards ( 2 times )
Extreme Moment of the Year ( 2008 , 2009 ) giving Randy Orton a Swanton Bomb from the top of the Raw set , jumping from a ladder onto CM Punk through the Spanish announce table at SummerSlam
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Flying Wrestler ( 2000 )
Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. CM Punk
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. Sting at Victory Road
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
|
= Wagiman language =
Wagiman ( also spelled Wageman , Wakiman , Wogeman , Wakaman ) is a near @-@ extinct indigenous Australian language spoken by fewer than 10 people in and around Pine Creek , in the Katherine Region of the Northern Territory .
The Wagiman language is notable within linguistics for its complex system of verbal morphology , which remains under @-@ investigated , its possession of a cross @-@ linguistically rare part of speech called a coverb , its complex predicates and for its ability to productively verbalise coverbs .
Wagiman is expected to become extinct within the first half of the century , as the youngest generation of Wagiman people speak no Wagiman at all , and understand very little .
= = Language and speakers = =
Wagiman is a language isolate . It was once assumed to be a member of the adjacent Gunwinyguan family that stretches from Arnhem Land , throughout Kakadu National Park and South to Katherine ; however , there was considerable debate about the status of Wagiman within the Gunwinyguan family .
Wagiman is the ancestral language of the Wagiman people , Aboriginal Australians whose traditional land , before colonisation , extended for hundreds of square kilometres from the Stuart Highway , throughout the Mid @-@ Daly Basin , and across the Daly River . The land is highly fertile and well @-@ watered , and contains a number of cattle stations , on which many members of the ethnic group used to work . These stations include Claravale , Dorisvale , Jindare , Oolloo and Douglas .
The language region borders Waray to the north , Mayali ( Gunwinygu ) and Jawoyn on the east , Wardaman and Jaminjung on the south , and Murrinh @-@ Patha , Ngan 'giwumirri and Malak Malak on the west . Before colonisation , the lands surrounding Pine Creek , extending north to Brock 's Creek , were traditionally associated with another language group that is now extinct , believed to have been Wulwulam .
= = = Current situation = = =
The dominant language of the region is Mayali , a dialect of Bininj Gun @-@ Wok traditionally associated with the region surrounding Maningrida , in Western Arnhem Land . As it is a strong language with hundreds of speakers and a high rate of child acquisition , members of the Wagiman ethnic group gradually ceased teaching the Wagiman language to their children . As a result , many Wagiman people speak Mayali , while only a handful of elders , possibly no more than six , speak Wagiman .
The adults in the community are considered semi @-@ speakers as they have a passive understanding of Wagiman and generally only know a few basic words . Their children , the grandchildren of the elders , understand very little Wagiman and speak none . Apart from Mayali , Kriol , a creole language based on the vocabulary of English , is the lingua franca of the area . All members of the Wagiman ethnic group , as well as all other ethnic groups represented in the area , are native speakers of a moderate grade of Kriol .
The small number of Wagiman speakers are also partial speakers of a number of other languages besides Mayali , including Jaminjung , Wardaman and Dagoman .
= = = Dialects = = =
Wagiman speakers are conscious of a distinction between two dialects of Wagiman , which they refer to as matjjin no @-@ roh @-@ ma ' light language ' and matjjin gu @-@ nawutj @-@ jan ' heavy language ' . The differences are minor and speakers have no difficulty understanding one another .
= = Wagiman grammar = =
All grammatical information from Wilson , S. ( 1999 ) unless otherwise noted .
= = = Parts of speech = = =
The three most important parts of speech in Wagiman are verbs , coverbs and nominals . Apart from these , there are a multitude of verbal and nominal affixes , interjections and other particles . Pronouns class with nominals .
= = = = Nominals = = = =
Like many Australian languages , Wagiman does not categorially distinguish nouns from adjectives . These form one word class that is called nominals . Wagiman nominals take case suffixes ( see below ) that denote their grammatical or semantic role in the sentence . The grammatical cases are ergative and absolutive , and the semantic cases include instrumental ( using ) , allative ( towards ) , ablative ( from ) , locative ( at ) , comitative ( with , having ) , privative ( without , lacking ) , temporal ( at the time of ) and semblative ( resembling ) . The dative case can be either grammatical or semantic , depending on the syntactic requirements of the verb .
Demonstratives are similarly considered nominals in Wagiman , and take the same case suffixes depending on their semantic and syntactic roles ; their function within the sentence . That is , the demonstrative mahan ' this ' , or ' here ' ( root : mayh- ) , may take case just like any other nominal .
mayh @-@ yi this @-@ ERG ' this one ( did it ) '
mayh @-@ ga this @-@ ALL ' to here'
= = = = = Examples of nominals = = = = =
guda ' fire ' , ' wood ' [ ɡʊda ]
wirin ' tree ' , ' stick ' [ wɪɻɪn ]
lagiban ' man ' [ laɡɪban ]
gordal ' head ' [ ɡɔɖaɫ ]
lagiriny ' tail ' [ laɡɪɻɪɲ ]
manyngardal ' tongue ' [ maɲŋaɖaɫ ]
= = = = Pronouns = = = =
Pronouns are typologically nominals also , yet their morphosyntactic alignment is nominative – accusative rather than ergative – absolutive .
The 3rd person singular and plural nominative forms , ngonggega and bogo , are labeled ' rare ' because they are gradually becoming disused . Speakers prefer to use non @-@ personal pronouns such as gayh- ' that ' or gayh @-@ gorden ' those ' . Moreover , since the person and number of the subject is contained in the prefix of the verb , nominative free pronouns are often dropped .
= = = = = Tripartite alignment = = = = =
While the nominal case system distinguishes the ergative case from absolutive , the free pronouns distinguish nominative from accusative , as shown above . However , they inflect for ergative case as well , resulting in a tripartite case system , as in the following :
ngagun @-@ yi ngonggo ngany @-@ bu @-@ ng
1sg.NOM @-@ ERG 2sg.ACC 1sgA.2sgO @-@ hit @-@ PRF
'I hit you'
The nominative pronoun root in this instance , ngagun ' I ' , takes the ergative case suffix -yi to denote the fact that it is the agent of a transitive clause . Conversely , the same pronoun does not take the ergative case when acting as the argument of an intransitive clause :
ngagun maman nga @-@ yu
1sg.NOM good 1sg @-@ be.PRS
'I am good'
The accusative pronouns on the other hand , may be accusative or dative , depending on the syntactic requirements of the verb . In the traditional terminology , these pronouns can be either direct or indirect objects .
ngagun @-@ yi nga @-@ nanda @-@ yi nung
1sg.NOM @-@ ERG 1sgA.3sgO @-@ see @-@ PST 3sg.ACC
'I saw him / her'
nga @-@ nawu @-@ ndi wahan nung
1sgA.3sgO @-@ give @-@ PST water 3sg.ACC
'I gave the water to him / her'
For these reasons , the pronouns are also labeled base for nominative – ergative pronouns , and oblique for accusative – dative pronouns .
= = = = = Genitive pronouns = = = = =
In the table above , genitive pronouns all end with -gin , which is separated orthographically by a hyphen that normally divides morphemes . The -gin form here is not a separate morpheme and cannot be lexically segmented ; there is no such word as nganing that would be formed by removing -gin from nganing @-@ gin ' my / mine ' . The fact that the genitive forms have regular endings across the entire pronoun paradigm may have been a historical accident .
This cannot be a nominal suffix like those listed above , since it may not attach to other nominals ( * warren @-@ gin lari ' the child 's hand ' ) . Furthermore , the genitive pronouns may take a further case suffix , as in the example :
gorun nganing @-@ gin @-@ ba
house my @-@ ALL
'to my house'
This would be prohibited by the restriction against case stacking in Wagiman if the genitive -gin were a case suffix .
= = = = Verbs = = = =
Verbs are a class of word in Wagiman which contains fewer than 50 members . As it is a closed class , no more verbs are possible . They are often monosyllabic verb roots and all are vowel @-@ final . Wagiman verbs obligatorily inflect for person and number of core arguments , and for the tense and aspect of the clause . A small set of verbs may take a non @-@ finite suffix -yh , in which it may not be further inflected for person or tense . That non @-@ finite verb must then co @-@ occur with another auxiliary verb .
= = = = = Examples of verbs = = = = =
Each verb is listed with its past tense marker , which is the second morpheme . Pronunciation given where appropriate .
bu @-@ ni ' hit'
di @-@ nya ' come'
ra @-@ ndi ' throw'
rinyi @-@ ra ' fall'
nanda @-@ yi ' see ' [ nandaɪ ]
yu @-@ nginy ' be ' [ jʊŋɪɲ ]
= = = = Coverbs = = = =
There are so far over 500 recorded coverbs in Wagiman , and more are discovered with continuing research . Compared with verbs , coverbs are far more numerous and far more semantically rich . Verbs express simple , broad meanings such as yu- ' be ' , ya- ' go ' and di- ' come ' , while coverbs convey more specific , semantically narrow meanings such as barnhbarn @-@ na ' make footprints ' , lerdongh @-@ nga ' play ( a didjeridu ) ' or murr @-@ ma ' wade through shallow water using your feet to search for something ' .
Coverbs however , cannot inflect for person and cannot , in themselves , head finite clauses . If they are to act as the head of a clause , they must combine with a verb , thereby forming a bipartite verbal compound , commonly called a complex predicate .
= = = = = Examples of coverbs = = = = =
Each is listed with the -ma suffix ( or its allomorph ) , which signals aspectual unmarkedness .
liri @-@ ma ' swim ' [ lɪɻɪma ]
dabale @-@ ma ' ( go ) around ) ' [ dabalema ]
gorrh @-@ ma ' fish ' [ ɡɔrʔma ]
dippart @-@ ta ' jump ' [ dɪbˑaɖˑa ]
wirrnh @-@ na ' whistle ' [ wɪrʔna ]
= = = Phonology and orthography = = =
The Wagiman phonemic inventory is quite typical for a northern Australian language . It has six places of articulation with a stop and a nasal in each . There are also a number of laterals and approximants , a trill and a phonemic glottal stop ( represented in the orthography by ' h ' ) . Wagiman also has a vowel inventory that is standard for the north of Australia , with a system of 5 vowels .
= = = = Consonants = = = =
Stops that are fortis ( or ' strong ' ) are differentiated from those that are lenis ( or ' weak ' ) on the basis of length of closure , as opposed to the voice onset time ( VOT ) , the period after the release of the stop before the commencement of vocal fold activity ( or voice ) which normally differentiates fortis and lenis stops in English and most other languages .
Lenis stops in Wagiman sound like English voiced stops and are therefore written using the Roman alphabet letters b , d and g . Fortis stops , however , sound more like voiceless stops in English , but are slightly longer than lenis stops . They are written with two voiceless letters , pp , tt and kk when they occur between two vowels .
Since the length of closure is defined in terms of time between the closure of the vocal tract after the preceding vowel , and the release before the following vowel , stops at the beginning or end of a word do not have a fortis @-@ lenis contrast . Orthographically in Wagiman , word @-@ initial stops are written using the voiced Roman letters ( b , d and g ) , but at the end of a word , voiceless letters ( p , t and k ) are used instead .
= = = = Vowels = = = =
As with many languages of the top @-@ end , Wagiman has a standard five @-@ vowel system . However , a system of vowel harmony indicates that two sets of vowels are closely associated with each other . [ ɛ ] aligns closely with [ ɪ ] and similarly , [ ɔ ] merges with [ ʊ ] .
In this respect , it is possible to analyse Wagiman 's vowel inventory as historically deriving from a three @-@ vowel system common among the languages from further south , but with the phonetic influence of a typically northern five @-@ vowel system .
= = = = Phonotactics = = = =
Each syllable of Wagiman contains an onset , a nucleus and an optional coda . This may be generalised to the syllable template CV ( C ) . The coda may consist of any single consonant , a continuant and a glottal stop , or an approximant and any stop .
At the word level , Wagiman has a bimoraic minimum , meaning that if a word consists of a single syllable , it must have either a long vowel or a coda . Examples of monosyllabic words in Wagiman include yow [ jɒʊ ] ' yes ' , or jamh [ ɟʌmʔ ] ' eat.PERF ' .
The retroflex approximant ' r ' [ ɻ ] is not permitted word @-@ initially and instead becomes a lateral ' l ' . This only affects verb roots , as they are the only part of speech that takes prefixes and are therefore the only possible part of speech for which word @-@ initial and word @-@ medial environmental effects can be observed .
The verb ra @-@ ndi ' throw ' , for instance , surfaces as la @-@ ndi when inflected for third @-@ person singular subjects ( he / she / it ) , which are realised by invisible , or null morphemes. but as nga @-@ ra @-@ ndi when inflected for a first @-@ person singular subject ( I ) . When preceded by a syllable with a coda , the ' r ' similarly moves to ' l ' , as in ngan @-@ la @-@ ndi ' he / she / it threw you ' . In short , the retroflex approximant ' r ' [ ɻ ] is only realised as ' r ' when it occurs between two vowels . Elsewhere , it becomes a lateral approximant ' l ' .
= = = = = Heterorganic clusters = = = = =
Consonant clusters across syllable boundaries do not assimilate for place in Wagiman as they do in many other languages . This means that a nasal in a syllable coda will not move to the position of the following syllable onset for ease of enunciation . In English and most other Indo @-@ European languages , this movement occurs regularly , such that the prefix -in , for example , changes to -im when it precedes either a p , a b or an m .
in + possible → impossible
in + balance → imbalance
in + material → immaterial
Wagiman does not do this . A nasal in a coda retains its position regardless of the following consonant :
manyngardal ' tongue ' [ maɲŋaɖaɫ ]
binkan ' bream ' ( fish spec . ) [ bɪnɡan ]
ngan @-@ bu @-@ ni ' s / he hit me ' [ ŋanbʊnɪ ]
If Wagiman constrained against heterorganic clusters and assimilated them for place , as English does , these words would surface as [ maŋŋaɖaɫ ] , [ bɪŋɡan ] , and [ ŋambʊnɪ ] .
= = = = = Vowel harmony = = = = =
High vowels assimilate in height to following mid vowels across syllable boundaries . That is , [ ɪ ] will become [ ɛ ] , and [ ʊ ] will become [ ɔ ] , when the following syllable contains a mid vowel ; either [ ɛ ] or [ ɔ ] .
mi- ( 2sg.IMP ) and -ge ( ' put ' ) , becomes mege ' you go and put it ' .
mu- ( 2pl.IMP ) and -yobe ( ' stay ' ) , becomes moyobe ' you lot stay ' .
Wagiman vowel harmony and other aspects of Wagiman phonotactics require further investigation . It is not known , for instance , whether vowel harmony equally affects unstressed syllables .
= = = Syntax = = =
Wagiman is a prefixing language , which , in the context of typology of Australian languages , may refer to its genealogical classification as well as its syntactic properties . Wagiman , along with other Gunwinyguan languages , inflects verbs for person and number of the subject obligatorily , and optionally for the object . In this respect Wagiman displays characteristics of a head @-@ marking language . However , Wagiman also behaves as a dependent @-@ marking language , in that nominals are case marked as to their grammatical or semantic roles , such as ergative ( the subject of a transitive clause ) or absolutive ( the object of a transitive clause or the subject of an intransitive clause ) .
= = = = Morphology = = = =
Wagiman is a morphologically rich language and each part of speech has its own set of associated bound morphemes , some of which are obligatory , while others are optional .
= = = = = Verbs = = = = =
The verbal prefix contains information about the person and number of the subject , sometimes also the person and number of the object , as well as obligatory information about the tense of the clause . Furthermore , a verbal suffix conveys further information regarding tense and aspect . While only a small number of tense and aspect affixes exist , the interplay between those in the verbal prefix and in the suffix , can generate more highly specified temporal and aspectual clauses .
Further to these affixes , verbs may be marked for the number of the subject , be it dual or plural , and also for clusivity ; whether the listener is included in the described event ( inclusive ) or is excluded from the event ( exclusive ) .
Verb morphology in Wagiman is highly irregular . Of the small inventory of inflecting verbs , many have their own unique tense suffixes , while other tense suffixes are common to several verbs , and while some rudimentary verb classes can be identified - stance verbs always take the past tense suffix -nginy / ŋɪɲ / , for instance - the tense suffixes must be learned for each individual verb .
The prefixes on the other hand , are regular for each verb , although the complete paradigm of verb prefixes is highly complex . They encode three variables : person , number and tense , and are not segmentable ; one prefix cannot be separated into the three parts . Ngani- for example , encodes second @-@ person singular agent ( ' you ' ) , first @-@ person singular patient / undergoer ( ' me ' ) as well as past tense .
ngani @-@ bu @-@ ng
2sgA.1sgO.PST @-@ hit @-@ PRF
'you hit me ' .
= = = = = Nominals = = = = =
Nominal morphology is significantly less complex than that of the verb . There are a number of case suffixes , denoting ergative , absolutive , dative , allative , locative , ablative , semblative , temporal , instrumental and so on .
Apart from the grammatical cases , ergative and absolutive , which are necessary to construct meaningful sentences , an entire range of semantic cases occur with very high frequency , even when their meaning can be expressed without using case . In the following examples , the former , in which no case is used , is far less common than the latter :
wuji nga @-@ nga @-@ gondo @-@ n garradin
NEG IRR @-@ 1sg @-@ have @-@ PRS money
'I don 't have any money'
garrad @-@ nehen nga @-@ yu
money @-@ PRIV 1sg.PRS @-@ be
'I am without money ' or ' I am penniless'
There are also some bound particles , which appear to function in much the same syntactic manner as cases , but which are not considered ' case ' , for theoretical reasons . -Binyju / bɪɲɟʊ / ' only ' is one of these nominal particles , as in :
gubiji @-@ binyju bula @-@ ndi
bone @-@ only 3sg.leave @-@ PST
's / he left only the bones ' .
Nominals are also marked for number with a suffix that adjoins directly to the root , inside the case suffix . -giwu ' two ' , for example , would attach to the nominal root before the case , as in :
lamarra @-@ giwu @-@ yi nganba @-@ badi @-@ na
dog @-@ two @-@ ERG 3plA.1sgO @-@ bite @-@ PST
'the two dogs bit me ' .
As cases cannot be stacked in Wagiman , these number suffixes cannot be called case suffixes , whereas the nominal suffixes discussed above ( such as -binyju ' only ' ) , show the same syntactic distribution - they occur in the same place - and therefore may be analysed as cases themselves .
= = = = = Coverbs = = = = =
Coverbs also have their own set of inflectional morphemes , such as aspect , but may also take semantic case suffixes ( all those listed above except for ergative and absolutive ) . For instance , a coverb may take the dative case to convey intention , or purpose , as in :
liri @-@ ma @-@ gu
swim @-@ ASP @-@ DAT
'for swimming ' .
Coverbs are categorially differentiated from nominals though , in that a nominal may not take the aspectual suffixes that a coverb obligatorily takes .
The morpheme that is glossed as aspect in the above example , referred to in the literature as the -ma suffix , denotes aspectual unmarkedness . Its absence signifies perfective aspect , and it may be further suffixed with -yan , producing -ma @-@ yan , to denote continuous or imperfective aspect .
The -ma suffix exhibits regular allomorphy ; it assimilates in place and manner of articulation to any preceding obstruent or nasal , but not to any preceding lateral , rhotic or approximant . That is , it remains -ma following vowels , or following the consonants [ r ] , [ l ] , [ w ] and [ j ] , but when it follows [ p ] , for instance , it assimilates in manner and place , and becomes / -pa / , as in dup @-@ pa ' sit ' .
liri + ma → liri @-@ ma
wal + ma → wal @-@ ma
bey + ma → bey @-@ ma
yorony + ma → yorony @-@ nya
datj + ma → datj @-@ ja
The inclusion of the glottal stop in certain words , is ineffective to the surface realisation of the -ma suffix ; it will change , or remain unchanged , according to whichever segment precedes the glottal stop , as in :
wunh + ma → wunh @-@ na
gayh + ma → gayh @-@ ma
Cross @-@ linguistically , the @-@ ma suffix may be related to a coverbial suffix in Jaminjung , a language in which coverb roots occur without any aspect markers , but are then suffixed with -mayan , which marks continuous aspect . This coverb suffix bears a striking resemblance to the sum of the Wagiman -ma suffix and the continuous aspect suffix -yan , which always occur in tandem on coverbs . Together , -ma and -yan perform the same semantic function as Jaminjung -mayan . Precisely what the relationship holds between these suffixes ; whether one language borrowed from the other , or whether each language inherited them from earlier languages , is not at all clear .
= = = = Reduplication = = = =
Further to derivational and inflectional morphemes , Wagiman coverbs and nominals often undergo reduplication , whereby a part , or often the entirety of the root , is repeated . Reduplication can convey a multitude of meanings . When coverbs are reduplicated , the resulting derived coverb may involve added meaning components such as iterativity , duration or habituality .
dabulp @-@ pa ga @-@ ya nu @-@ naw @-@ ma
smoke @-@ ASP 3sg.PRS.go lots
's / he smokes lots'
dabuldabulp ga @-@ ya
smoke.RDP 3sg.PRS.go
's / he smokes all the time'
When nominals are derived by reduplication , the added meaning is usually one of plurality . However , since both a dual and a plural nominal suffix exist , -giwu and -guju respectively , nominal reduplication is rare .
= = = = Complex predicates = = = =
A complex predicate is the combination of more than one element , more than one individual word , to convey the information involved in a single event . For instance , the event swim is conveyed in Wagiman using a combination of a verb ya- ' go ' and a coverb liri @-@ ma ' swimming ' . There is no verb in Wagiman that , on its own , conveys the event of swimming .
Bipartite verbal compounds such as these are not peculiar to any language in particular . They are in fact very common , and may even occur in every language , albeit with varying frequency . English has a number of complex predicates , include go sightseeing , have breakfast and take ( a ) bath . The event described by go sightseeing is unable to be described using a single verb sightsee ; inflections like sightsaw and sightseen are ungrammatical . An event like take ( a ) bath , however , may be described by a single verb bathe , but it arguably has a slightly different meaning . Take ( a ) bath , in any case , is far more common .
= = = = Verbalisation = = = =
Wagiman is differentiated from other Australian languages in that it has a regular and productive process of verbalisation , whereby coverbs can become verbs and act as the independent head of a clause . Despite being fully productive , meaning that all coverbs may undergo verbalisation , in practice only a handful of coverbs are commonly verbalised . The process appears to be unique to Wagiman within Australian languages .
Verbalisation involves re @-@ analysing the entire coverb - including its suffix -ma , which serves merely to indicate that it is unmarked for aspect - as a verb root , and then to apply the usual obligatory verbal inflection affixes for person , number and tense . As there is no discrete morpheme that serves as a ' verbaliser ' , the process is one of conversion .
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= The Garden of Words =
The Garden of Words ( Japanese : 言の葉の庭 , Hepburn : Kotonoha no Niwa ) is a 2013 Japanese anime drama film written , directed and edited by Makoto Shinkai , animated by CoMix Wave Films and distributed by Toho . It stars Miyu Irino and Kana Hanazawa , and featured music by Daisuke Kashiwa instead of Tenmon , who had composed the music for many of Shinkai 's previous films . The theme song , " Rain " , was originally written and performed by Senri Oe in 1988 , but was remade for the film and was sung by Motohiro Hata . It was adapted to a manga with illustrations by Midori Motohashi and later novelized by Shinkai , both in the same year as the film .
The film focuses on Takao Akizuki , an aspiring 15 @-@ year @-@ old shoemaker , and Yukari Yukino , a mysterious 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman he keeps meeting at Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden on rainy mornings . While Takao is skipping his morning class to design shoes , Yukino is avoiding work due to personal problems in her professional life . Yukino tells Takao nothing about herself , including her name , while Takao opens up to her , sharing his passion for shoes by offering to make a pair for her . When Takao learns Yukino 's identity , emotions come to a head as both learn that they have been teaching each other " how to walk " . Shinkai wrote the story as a tale of " lonely sadness " , based on the meaning of the traditional Japanese word for " love " , and uses shoes as a metaphor for life . The story 's motifs include rain , Man 'yōshū poetry , and the Japanese garden . The age difference between the two main characters and their character traits demonstrate how awkwardly and disjointedly people mature , where even adults sometimes feel no more mature than teenagers , according to Shinkai .
The Garden of Words premiered at the Gold Coast Film Festival in Australia on April 28 , 2013 and had its general release on May 31 , 2013 in Japan . For the Japanese premiere , the film was screened with an animated short called Dareka no Manazashi ( だれかのまなざし , lit . Someone 's Gaze ) , also directed by Shinkai . The Garden of Words had an unusual release schedule since it was released digitally on iTunes the same day as the Japanese theatrical premier , and its DVD and Blu @-@ ray were released while the film was still in theaters , on June 21 . The film has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks in North America , Anime Limited in the UK , and Madman Entertainment in Australia . The film performed well in theaters for an extended period of time and was hosted at many local and international film events . It ranked highly on iTunes Store during 2013 and was selected as the Year 's Best Animation in iTunes ' Best of 2013 . It won the 2013 Kobe Theatrical Film Award and awards at the Fantasia International Film Festival and the Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film . Online reviews were generally favorable with universal praise of the art , though opinions were mixed regarding the story 's length , plot and emotional climax .
= = Plot = =
The Garden of Words is considered a romance and drama film . It opens at the start of the rainy season in Tokyo with Takao Akizuki ( 秋月 孝雄 , Akizuki Takao ) , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old student and aspiring shoemaker , opting to skip his first class and sketch shoe designs in the garden at Shinjuku Gyoen . There he encounters Yukari Yukino ( 雪野 百香里 , Yukino Yukari ) , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman who is skipping work and enjoying beer and chocolate . When she notices the school crest on his uniform , Yukino bids him farewell with a tanka ( a form of Japanese poetry ) , leaving Takao puzzled as to its origin and meaning . The two continue to encounter each other and socialize in the park on rainy mornings , but never formally introduce themselves . After Yukino expresses an interest in Takao 's shoemaking , he decides to make a pair of shoes in her size . With the end of the rainy season , Takao stops visiting the park and focuses on his work .
Following summer break , Takao returns to school and spots Yukino . His friends inform him that she is a literature teacher and that she had been the target of gossip and bullying . Out of kindness and to avoid further confrontation , Yukino opted to avoid work and retreat to the park , hoping she would learn to overcome her fears and be able to " walk " again . However , Yukino quits her job and leaves the school . That afternoon , Takao meets Yukino at the park and greets her by reciting the 2,514th poem from the Man 'yōshū Japanese poetry collection , the correct response to her tanka , which he found in a classic Japanese literature textbook . After getting soaked by a sudden thunderstorm , both head to Yukino 's apartment and spend the afternoon together . When Takao confesses his love following dinner , Yukino is visibly moved , but then reminds him that she is a teacher and tells him that she is moving back to her home town on Shikoku . After Takao abruptly excuses himself , Yukino realizes her mistake and runs after him , finding him in the stairwell . Still upset , Takao angrily takes back what he had said and criticizes her for being so secretive and never opening up to him . Yukino embraces him and the two cry while she explains that their time together in the park had saved her .
The credits show Takao barely passing his final exams , but still working towards his goals , while Yukino moves back to Shikoku and resumes her teaching career . In a post @-@ credits scene , Takao revisits the park that winter , reads a letter from Yukino , places her finished shoes on the bench and then vows that he will find her after he has made progress with his career .
In the manga illustrated by Midori Motohashi , scenes were either added or slightly modified from the anime version . For example , after the conclusion of the rainy season , Takao was unable to visit the park during the only rainy morning that summer because he had scheduled to visit the footwear college he wanted to attend , disappointing Yukino who had hoped to see him in the park . Also , at the conclusion of the story , Yukino is seen wearing the shoes Takao had made for her .
= = Characters = =
Takao Akizuki ( 秋月 孝雄 , Akizuki Takao )
Takao Akizuki is a mature , hard @-@ working 15 @-@ year @-@ old first year high school student who hopes to become a shoemaker . On rainy mornings , he skips school to design shoes in the park . He is voiced by Miyu Irino in Japanese and Patrick Poole in English . In a scene depicting his childhood , he is voiced by Wataru Sekine in Japanese and Blake Shepard in English .
Yukari Yukino ( 雪野 百香里 ( " 雪野 由香里 " in the manga ) , Yukino Yukari )
Yukari Yukino is the mysterious 27 @-@ year @-@ old woman Takao meets in the park on rainy mornings . Takao later learns that she is a teacher at his high school , and that she , too , is skipping , but due to bullying by his upperclassmen . She is voiced by Kana Hanazawa in Japanese and Maggie Flecknoe in English .
Takao 's mother
Takao 's 47 @-@ year @-@ old mother is divorced from Takao 's father , and is focused more on her love life than her family life . She is voiced by Fumi Hirano in Japanese and Shelley Calene @-@ Black in English .
Takao 's brother
Takao 's 26 @-@ year @-@ old brother , who leaves home to live with his girlfriend , dismisses Takao 's shoe @-@ making as a whimsical . He is voiced by Takeshi Maeda in Japanese and Crash Buist in English .
Brother 's girlfriend
Takao 's brother 's 24 @-@ year @-@ old girlfriend is friendly with Takao and fascinated by his shoe @-@ making . She is voiced by Yuka Terasaki in Japanese and Brittney Karbowski in English .
Matsumoto ( 松本 )
Matsumoto is Takao 's classmate and friend , as well as Satō 's boyfriend . He is voiced by Suguru Inoue in Japanese and Mike Yager in English .
Satō ( 佐藤 )
Satō is a second year student in Takao 's high school and friend . She is voiced by Megumi Han in Japanese and Alison Sumrall in English .
Aizawa ( 相沢 )
Always surrounded by her friends , Aizawa is a third year student in Takao 's high school and the source of Yukino 's problems at school . She is voiced by Mikako Komatsu in Japanese and Hilary Haag in English .
= = Production = =
The Garden of Words was directed by Makoto Shinkai , who also wrote the original story and screenplay . He was responsible for the storyboards , animation composite , key animation , and editing . According to Shinkai , his numerous roles in the production of his works is due to the small size of the company , and in this film , it allowed him to tailor many elements of the film to more accurately portray his ideas .
The animated film was produced by Shinkai Creative , CoMix Wave Films , and the producer was Noritaka Kawaguchi . Kenichi Tsuchiya was the animation director and was responsible for character design , while Hiroshi Takiguchi was the art director . Planning for the film began in the spring of 2012 and was announced on December 24 of that year . The Japanese release was initially slated for the first half of 2013 . Production took only six months , starting with location scouting by Shinkai around Shinjuku . Production officially started after he had created storyboards based on the photos he took .
Shinkai was approached in early 2013 about adapting the material into a manga , which was then done by Midori Motohashi . In April , Shinkai stated that he was not contributing to the adaptation , leaving the work entirely to the manga artist . However , he did express interest in seeing the finished product .
= = = Inspirations , motifs , and metaphors = = =
According to Shinkai 's announcement of the film early during its production , The Garden of Words was his first attempt at making a love story using the traditional Japanese meaning of " love " . During the era of the Man 'yōshū , the native Japanese words today known as yamato kotoba ( 大和言葉 , lit . " Japanese words " ) were starting to be written using kanji , and the word for " love " , koi ( today written 恋 ) was written as 孤悲 , or " lonely sadness " . As noted by Shinkai , a more modern concept of " romance " , represented by ren 'ai ( 恋愛 ) , came about by Western influence . The Garden of Words emphasizes the original meaning of koi — a " longing for someone in solitude " — but in a modern setting . Loneliness is the central element of the film , according to Shinkai . In an interview , he said the he created the film with the hope of cheering up people who feel lonely or incomplete in their social relations . However , he made a point that " this movie doesn 't treat loneliness as something that must be fixed . "
Although the story 's central theme is loneliness , it uses shoes and rain as motifs , along with Man 'yōshū poetry and the Japanese garden in which it is set . Although rain is typically seen as sad and gloomy , in The Garden of Words it makes the world more vivid and protects the two main characters from the reality of their lives and the limitations imposed by society . Shinkai also noted a parallel between love and rain — that neither can be controlled or stopped .
According to Shinkai , shoes were a metaphor for life as Yukino learned to walk again , while Takao 's shoe @-@ making typified their relationship . Similarly , Yukino 's choice of food and beverages — initially beer and chocolate , due to a stress @-@ induced taste disorder — was a metaphor for her emotional health .
In many of Shinkai 's films , sad endings resulting from misunderstandings and unrequited feelings are common . According to Shinkai , his stories are intended to encourage teenagers as they learn to cope with these commonplace experiences . In an interview , he admitted that he had been accustomed to being turned down by women , and felt that his stories were encouraging because his characters continue to try , despite being unsuccessful at love . The Garden of Words also illustrated how people do not mature as linearly or elegantly as we often assume . Shinkai himself could relate with Yukino in not feeling as smart or mature at age 27 , stating , " We 're all still just children at age 27 , " a point that voice actress Kana Hanazawa also agreed with .
The original idea for The Garden of Words came from Shinkai 's desire to capture the beauty of the daily scenery in modern Tokyo and showcase it in a film . Having lived for ten years in Shinjuku , he selected it as the location of the film and set about taking thousands of photos , upon which he created his storyboards . Wanting to share the peace and harmony of his favorite locations in Japan with the hope that it would encourage people to visit , Shinkai modeled the garden in the film to match Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden in Tokyo . Following the earthquake in March 2011 , he was worried that it could be destroyed and wanted to preserve it in an animated film .
= = = Animation = = =
Like other Japanese anime , The Garden of Words was created using a combination of hand @-@ drawn animation , rotoscoping and computer animation ( CGI ) , with the latter facilitating the realistic appearance of the film 's rain sequences . Shinkai made half of the film 's backgrounds by using his photographs as a base and then drawing over the top with Adobe Photoshop , while the other half were fictional settings created with traditional animation and computer graphics . As with his other films , the backgrounds are vivid and meticulously drawn scenery while the characters are drawn with less detail , though they are still convincing and realistic .
For the rainy scenes at the park , the color palette was toned down , and pale green shading was used to match the gloomy , rainy weather , thereby increasing the detail and defining the characters . Matching the tones to the background and lighting helped highlight the characters ' faces . According to Shinkai , a novel coloring method was chosen from other coloring methods following careful testing . The method involved integrating the coloring for each character with the background , a " new innovation of sorts " that mimics the refraction of light on the skin as seen in nature . This was accomplished by coloring the outline of the character , including the lines drawn for the separation of lit and shadowed surfaces , and then incorporating the background color onto the surface . Shinkai felt that this coloring method made the anime stand out from others .
= = = Character design and casting = = =
Shinkai originally envisioned Takao as a boy who wants to help people , but also felt that he should have a passion for making something , since creative work can be rewarding and fulfilling . On a list he made of potential crafts , he picked out the word " shoes " . After testing it out with his initial plans for the story , he found that it worked out , and in hindsight , he realized that shoemakers also assist people with walking .
When first presenting the original story to the rest of his team , Shinkai learned that Yukino had unintentionally come across as selfish . To remedy this , he gave her character nervous traits and personality flaws , such as letting her emotions spill over during mildly upsetting events . Shinkai later realized that some of these personality quirks and temporary professional challenges seen in Yukino were present in a former girlfriend , for whom he had written his short film She and Her Cat . In addition to making Yukino 's character more convincing , these character flaws also made it more difficult to plan since she had to be both flawed and attractive to a young boy . One aspect of her character that Shinkai focused on was her appearance . He felt that she had to be dressed in nice clothes , and particularly nice shoes . In order to balance realism with fashion , he researched shoemaking , worked with a clothing coordinator and stylist , and held weekly fashion meetings with his staff .
One of the " complicated realistic elements " of Yukino 's character was her sense of purity that only her voice could convey . Though it took days of listening to the audition tapes , Shinkai finally chose Kana Hanazawa , who had a very low natural voice , despite typically playing the roles of high @-@ pitched younger girls . One of the things that impressed Shinkai about Hanazawa 's voice was her ability to cover such a broad range of expression .
It was the final scene of the film that made Shinkai glad he had cast Hanazawa . He knew that when Yukino cried , it had to be something impressive in order to emphasize an intense release of emotion . According to Shinkai , music alone could not produce the needed effect , and Hanazawa performed perfectly and without instruction . In an interview , he said , " I believe that Ms. Hanazawa 's acting on that crying scene alone completes the film . " This final scene , which was recorded perfectly on the first take , played a pivotal role in the casting decision for Takao 's character . Though many Japanese voice actors could portray a naïve 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Shinkai immediately recognized that only Miyu Irino could produce the intense emotion needed for the closing scene . Irino had also played Shun and Shin in Shinkai 's Children Who Chase Lost Voices .
In regards to the English dub , Shinkai did not feel that he could judge the quality of the voice acting since he could not speak English natively . He felt that it was good due to the feedback he had received and because he could feel the emotion in the characters ' voices . However , he noted that the experience would be different for viewers and that the final judgment could only be made by English @-@ speaking audiences .
= = = Length = = =
The Garden of Words is short , lasting approximately 46 minutes in length , a trend also seen among Shinkai 's earlier works . Although he had stated in an interview with Anime News Network that he does like making shorter films , Shinkai noted that he did not originally plan for the film to be played in theaters . Instead , he intended for people to casually view the film on tablets , computers , and in home theaters . A target length was never specified from the outset , instead the relationship between Takao and Yukino was emphasized , although it was known from early in the production that the film would be short .
Shinkai acknowledged that it is difficult to sell 46 @-@ minute films in theaters ; however , many individuals in the industry had requested to show the film in theaters and conventions . During an interview at Anime Expo 2013 , a representative from Toho , the film 's distribution company , emphasized that the quality of the story and the reputation of its director played a key role in the decision to bring it to theaters .
= = = Music = = =
In Shinkai 's previous films , the music was produced by Tenmon ; however , The Garden of Words features music by Daisuke Kashiwa . Kashiwa had been a fan of Shinkai 's 5 Centimeters Per Second and had sent him several of his albums . Shinkai listened to these albums while writing the screenplay and then elected to base the film 's music off of the songs from one of the albums . In an interview , Shinkai said that the music was primarily responsible for making the movie seem " unlike other anime " .
The theme song , " Rain " , was written and composed by Senri Oe , and was originally a popular Japanese song in 1988 . Shinkai enjoyed listening to Oe 's song regularly while attending university , and since one of the film 's themes was rain , it was the first song that came to mind while he worked on the production . He particularly liked the song because its lyrics reflected daily life , much like the film . The song was remade for the film in 2013 , and sung by Motohiro Hata . Shinkai met Hata on several occasions and noted a similarity between Hata 's passion as an artisan and that of the character Takao . Shinkai also felt that Hata 's voice was perfect because to him it carried an " underlying loneliness " and " sounded a little like an anxious young man " .
= = Themes = =
Two common themes among Shinkai 's films , including The Garden of Words , are subtle romances and lingering emotions . However , this film 's focus on " lonely sadness " ( koi ) was interpreted in a couple of ways . According to Cynthia Webb of The Jakarta Post , the loneliness is seen at the end of the film , when Takao learns to cope with Yukino 's move to Shikoku . Luke Carroll at Anime News Network felt the end of the rainy season and the resulting separation created the sense of koi .
Kaze of Beneath The Tangles , however , disagreed with these interpretations of koi and the notion that the story was a " bittersweet romance " or " another love story " , and instead felt that the theme was unrecognized . Focusing instead on the human need for companionship and understanding , Kaze noted that both Takao and Yukino lacked meaningful connections with their peers and friends , a view shared by reviewer Bradly Storm at Hardcore Gamer . Together through their conversations — in their " garden of words " — they found companionship : Takao finding someone he can share his passion with , and Yukino finding someone who treats her as a person . However , because of the age difference , this discovery varied between the characters . For Yukino , an older and more experienced individual , her hopeless feelings of lonely sadness disappeared when she learned she could connect with Takao , a revelation that she saw as her salvation . For Takao , a boy with an unsupportive family and friends who seemed more like acquaintances , he did not realize his lack of companionship until he discovered it with Yukino , a new feeling he mistook for romantic love but only realized its true nature after she had moved away . According to Kaze , " romantic love could potentially bloom from such feelings , but that is not what the story is about " . Instead , the love they shared was more basic , making the age difference immaterial . At the end of film , both characters maintained their friendship through letters , but otherwise began growing as people by moving on with their lives and presumably finding new relationships with other people . The hope was that one day they could reunite and renew their companionship " without needing to cling to each other " . However , neither could " learn to walk again " if they continued to isolate themselves from the rest of the world and take shelter with each other in the garden at Shinjuku Gyoen .
Another one of the themes discussed by the film 's reviewers was rain or water . According to Cynthia Webb , the rain represented " unfulfilled longing " , while Bradly Storm saw water as a third main character to the story , acting to both bring Takao and Yukino together and to symbolize the renewal of life . Kaze felt that the rain symbolized their lonely states , though also acknowledging Shinkai 's statement that the rain symbolized uncontrollable love . Following the reasoning that rain symbolized their lonely states , Kaze noted that the tanka had not only romantic intentions , but was also a " simple plea " by Yukino for someone to stay with her , even when she 's no longer lonely , and not just out of pity .
= = Media = =
= = = Anime = = =
The anime film was announced in Japan on December 24 , 2012 , with the release scheduled for the first half of 2013 and news updates available on its Facebook page . On February 20 , 2013 , the film 's production company , CoMix Wave Films , released a trailer with subtitles in multiple languages on YouTube and announced that it would be released in Japan on May 31 , 2013 .
In early April , it was announced that the world premiere of the film would be held at Gold Coast Film Festival ( GCFF ) in Broadbeach , Queensland , Australia . Scheduled for the end of the festival at 4 : 00 PM on April 28 , 2013 , the film was part of the ' Cool Japan ' Gold Coast lineup and included a guest appearance and discussion with Shinkai . The film 's premiere was hosted in Australia as a way of showing appreciation to Australians for their support . According to the GCFF 's director , the film sold out in advance and was relocated to a larger theater . Despite feeling nervous about the world premiere , Shinkai provided a discussion of the film and asked everyone to not share the plot and story until after the Japanese release the following month . Shinkai was scheduled for an hour @-@ long movie poster signing , but ended up staying two and a half hours to accommodate the high turnout .
Following the world premiere , but ahead of the Japanese premiere on May 31 , the first five minutes of the film were previewed on TV Tokyo and NTV on May 12 . On May 22 , it was announced on Shinkai 's official Twitter account that the film would play in Japan , Hong Kong , and Taiwan at the same time and that the film would be available on iTunes on the day of the release . Additionally , the Japanese premiere would include a screening of Shinkai 's short film , Dareka no Manazashi , which was released earlier that same year . By October , it was reported that many theaters in Japan had extended screening of the film .
The official English language premiere of The Garden of Words was next shown in the United States at the Los Angeles Convention Center on July 6 and 7 as part of Anime Expo 2013 . Sentai Filmworks hosted the film , and Shinkai was the Special Guest of Honor for the expo . The Canadian premiere was held at Montreal 's 2013 Fantasia International Film Festival , where the film was screened on July 22 and 25 . The film then returned to Australia when it screened alongside Ghost in the Shell : Arise at Madman Entertainment 's Reel Anime 2013 .
The Garden of Words was shown in Moscow on September 27 , 2013 , after which Shinkai made an appearance to answer questions . He also attended the UK premiere , which took place during Scotland Loves Anime 2013 in mid @-@ October , where it was played in conjunction with Shinkai 's earlier work , The Place Promised in Our Early Days . By late February 2014 , the film had been shown in 11 countries . In 2014 , it was showcased at Amsterdam 's Imagine Film Festival in mid @-@ April , at the Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film in late @-@ April , with Dareka no Manazashi on May 21 in Italian theaters as part of the Nexo Anime project , and at the Japan Film Festival of San Francisco ( JFFSF ) in late @-@ July .
= = = = DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and digital = = = =
The film was released in digital format on iTunes on the same day as the theatrical release , which was very unusual for a film . Furthermore , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray were made available while the film was still playing in theaters . With the Japanese premiere on May 31 , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray editions were released in Japan less than a month later , on June 21 . The DVD came with a 16 @-@ page booklet and approximately 30 minutes bonus features , including a short version of some interviews with Shinkai and the cast . The Blu @-@ ray had similar features , except it contained 90 minutes of bonus features , including a long version of the interviews .
On April 24 , 2013 , the video distribution company Section23 and the licensing company Sentai Filmworks announced their acquisition of the license and plans to release a digital version and the North American bilingual DVD and Blu @-@ ray later in the year . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray were both were released on August 6 , 2013 . The Blu @-@ ray used 1080p AVC ( Advanced Video Coding ) with an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 Widescreen and audio encoded with the lossless DTS @-@ HD Master Audio codec . Its packaging did not include inserts or a reversible cover .
The DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases for the UK were licensed by Anime Limited , which was announced on October 18 , 2013 . During the 2013 Lucca Comics & Games convention , the Italian publisher Dynit announced that it had acquired the rights to distribute the film . Australian distributor Madman Entertainment released the DVD on February 19 , 2014 . The French publishing company Kazé released a German and Japanese dubbed DVD on March 28 , 2014 , which also included the short film Dareka no Manazashi .
= = = Manga and novel = = =
A manga adaptation of the story with art by Midori Motohashi was serialized in the June to December 2013 issues of the monthly seinen manga magazine Afternoon . It was bundled into a single volume released by Kodansha on November 22 , 2013 . In February 2014 , North American publisher Vertical announced at the Katsucon anime convention that it had licensed Motohashi 's manga ; the English translation was released on October 28 , 2014 .
With editing by Media Factory , Shinkai himself created a novelization of the story , which drew many responses on Twitter following serialization . It was released in monthly installments in the September 2013 to April 2014 issues of Da Vinci magazine . The full novel , which contained new scenes not present in the film or serialized novel chapters , was published by Kadokawa Shoten on April 11 , 2014 @,@
= = Reception = =
Like many of Shinkai 's other films , The Garden of Words was considered most appropriate for teenage and adult audiences due to its more intense and personal mood . The film performed strongly at the box office , with many theaters offering extended screenings . Because of its theatrical success , the film has been considered Shinkai 's biggest hit . Shinkai considered it one of his best films , and reviews of the story in each media form were equally favorable . The digital version ranked 7th on the iTunes store for Western and Japanese films by the end of 2013 . In the year following its initial release , it continued to be a popular at local and international film events . The news and review site , ICv2 , listed the DVD under " The Best of 2013 : Anime " .
= = = Reviews = = =
At Anime News Network , Luke Carroll praised the film , calling it a " visual treat " , but was disappointed in the short length and found Shinkai 's new coloring method to be distracting . Jon Hayward was impressed by the " almost photo realistic " quality of the scenery , particularly in Shinjuku Gyoen . The Managing Editor , Bamboo Dong , described it as " beautifully designed and tenderly animated , it is nature eye candy at its finest . " She was impressed by the film 's unrushed yet thorough story despite its short length and praised both the music and art . In particular , she noted the beauty of the light reflections , rain scenes , and camera angles .
At UK Anime Network , Andy Hanley gave it a score of 10 / 10 , calling it " visually beautiful with a touching story to match " . He praised the natural progression of their relationship , despite the age gap , and enjoyed the emotional climax of the film . Hanley felt that The Garden of Words had a " tighter focus " than Children Who Chase Lost Voices and a better ending than 5 Centimeters Per Second , concluding it was Shinkai 's best work yet . Dan Rhodes called the film " a real return to form for Makoto Shinkai " following Children Who Chase Lost Voices , which he felt had been an attempt by Shinkai to live up to the common expectation of being the " next Hayao Miyazaki . " He praised the film for its beauty , romance , pacing , and subtlety . Although he felt that the film 's ending was an improvement over the ending to 5 Centimeters Per Second , he described it as rushed and overly emotional . However , he was very critical of the English dub , which he felt adversely affected both content and mood .
Bradly Storm at Hardcore Gamer gave it a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , describing it as " painfully intimate and touchingly sentimental " and " the single most beautiful animated film ever created " . Despite the film 's length , Storm was impressed that Shinkai was able to connect his audience with his characters faster and more effectively than full @-@ length films . He worried that some viewers might miss the subtle message of the film and view it as a " by @-@ the @-@ books love story that can feel cliche or even trite " . Curtis Stone of Geekenstein gave it a 5 out of 5 and rated it # 1 in his top five list of anime for 2013 . He praised not only the art and music , but especially the voice acting , which he felt was perfect for the final scene . Lindsay Nelson at Midnight Eye compared the film to Whisper of the Heart by Studio Ghibli for its poetic use of " seemingly bland and uninteresting locations " . She was impressed with both the sound and art , and particularly the sweeping view of the Docomo tower with the sunset in the background . However , she criticized it for its " tearfully over @-@ the @-@ top climax " , " treacly " pop theme song , and lack of reflective silence .
Andrew Hamlin at Northwest Asian Weekly gave it a 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , applauding its poetic use of nature while criticizing the film 's brevity . Trung Rwo at Twitch Film also praised the artwork and felt the film displayed " honest and fresh emotions " . He described it as " clean and cute , a little bit cheesy " due to the highly emotional ending . Sam at Otaku 's Study gave the film an A- , describing it as an " immersive love story " and complimenting the Japanese voice acting and music . Allen Moody of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews praised the artwork and claimed it overshadowed the film 's flaws , which he felt were its short length and underdeveloped story . Chris Beveridge at The Fandom Post praised the artwork , but felt that the story was weak , noting the simplicity of the plot , the abrupt ending , and the awkwardness of the age difference between the two main characters . Amy Wong , the editor at Yam , called it " a story of solitude and heartache that comes before love . " She praised the animation as its best feature , but also enjoyed its pace , though she saw the climax as overblown . Akumetsu at Anime e Manga thought the film could have been a masterpiece , but felt the plot was too straightforward , the film was too short , and the conclusion came too dramatically .
Chris Beveridge at The Fandom Post reviewed the Blu @-@ ray release , noting that the dialogue was " clean and clear " throughout the entire playback and described the high definition video as something worth showing off . He also felt the disc included a fair amount of extras given the quick release . Matt Hinrichs at DVD Talk felt the video made a clean transfer from digital to Blu @-@ ray , the atmospheric sound effects were " carefully crafted " , and that the dialog in the center channel was clear . Dan Rhodes at UK Anime Network gave the DVD by Anime Limited a 9 out of 10 , calling it a " barebones release " , though praising its reversible insert .
= = = Awards and other recognition = = =
Not only did the iTunes Store staff recommend The Garden of Words , it was selected as the Year 's Best Animation in iTunes ' Best of 2013 . In addition to the high acclaim on iTunes , The Garden of Words won the 2013 Kobe Theatrical Film Award . At the 2013 Fantasia International Film Festival , it shared the Satoshi Kon Award for Achievement in Animation with Berserk : Golden Age Arc III – Descent while winning the Audience Award for Best Animation Feature . At the 2014 Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film , it won the AniMovie Award for feature films .
Storyboards , original art , and other material from The Garden of Words were exhibited between June 28 and October 19 , 2014 at the Ooka Makoto Kotoba Museum in Mishima , Shizuoka Prefecture . The museum , run by Z @-@ Kai Co . , also featured Shinkai 's commercial Cross Road ( made for Z @-@ Kai Co . ) , along with She and Her Cat and 5 Centimeters Per Second . In addition to the display materials and film viewings for each of the works , a replica of the shoes designed by Takao was also on display .
= = = Media cited = = =
Anonymous . " Man 'yōshū " . Japanese Text Initiative ( in Japanese ) . University of Virginia Library . Archived from the original on November 18 , 2014 . Retrieved November 11 , 2014 .
The Garden of Words ( Blu @-@ ray ) ( in Japanese and English ) . Sentai Filmworks . 2013 . ASIN B00CJ7Y19I .
Ryang , S. ( 2006 ) . Love in Modern Japan : Its Estrangement from Self , Sex and Society . Routledge . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 .
Shinkai , M. ( 2013 ) . The Garden of Words . Illustrated by M. Motohashi . Vertical . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 939130 @-@ 83 @-@ 9 . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 .
Shinkai , M. ( 2014 ) . 言の葉の庭 [ The Garden of Words ] ( in Japanese ) . Kadokawa . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 04 @-@ 066399 @-@ 9 . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 .
Shinkai , M. ; Hanazawa , Kana ; Irino , Miyu ( 2013 ) . " Director and Cast Interview ( long ver . ) " . The Garden of Words ( Blu @-@ ray ) ( in Japanese and English ) . Sentai Filmworks . ASIN B00CJ7Y19I .
" The Works of Makoto Shinkai " . The Garden of Words ( Blu @-@ ray ) ( in Japanese and English ) . Sentai Filmworks . 2013 . ASIN B00CJ7Y19I .
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= Polio vaccine =
Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis ( polio ) . One type uses inactivated poliovirus and is given by injection ( IPV ) , while the other type uses weakened poliovirus and is given by mouth ( OPV ) . The World Health Organization recommends all children be vaccinated against polio . The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world , and reduced the number of cases each year from an estimated 350 @,@ 000 in 1988 to 359 in 2014 .
The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe . Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection . Oral polio vaccines result in vaccine @-@ associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses . Both are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV / AIDS but are otherwise well .
The first polio vaccine was the inactivated polio vaccine . It was developed by Jonas Salk and came into use in 1955 . The oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961 . They are on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most important medication needed in a basic health system . The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0 @.@ 25 USD per dose for the oral form as of 2014 . In the United States it costs between 25 and 50 USD for the inactivated form .
= = Medical uses = =
Interruption of person @-@ to @-@ person transmission of the virus by vaccination is important in the global polio eradication , since there is no long term carrier state for poliovirus in individuals with normal immune function , polio viruses have no non @-@ primate reservoir in nature , and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote .
= = = Inactivated = = =
When the current formulation of IPV is used , 90 % or more of individuals develop protective antibody to all three serotypes of polio virus after two doses of inactivated polio vaccine ( IPV ) , and at least 99 % are immune to polio virus following three doses . The duration of immunity induced by IPV is not known with certainty , although a complete series is thought to provide protection for many years .
= = = Attenuated = = =
OPV also proved to be superior in administration , eliminating the need for sterile syringes and making the vaccine more suitable for mass vaccination campaigns . OPV also provided longer lasting immunity than the Salk vaccine .
One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in approximately 50 % of recipients . Three doses of live @-@ attenuated OPV produce protective antibodies to all three poliovirus types in more than 95 % of recipients . OPV produces excellent immunity in the intestine , the primary site of wild poliovirus entry , which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where the virus is endemic . The live virus used in the vaccine is shed in the stool and can be spread to others within a community . The live virus also has stringent requirements for transport and storage , which are a problem in some hot or remote areas . As with other live @-@ virus vaccines , immunity initiated by OPV is probably lifelong .
The trivalent ( against wild type 1 , 2 and 3 ) OPV has been used and nearly eradicated polio infection worldwide . Spearheaded by The Global Polio Eradication Initiative , 155 countries switched to use the bivalent ( against wild type 1 and 3 ) between 17 April and 1 May 2016 . The bivalent OPV is at least 30 % more effective than the trivalent one .
= = = Schedule = = =
The World Health Organization recommends three or four doses starting at two months of age . It can be begun earlier but then additional doses are needed .
= = Side effects = =
The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe . Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection . Oral polio vaccine results in vaccine @-@ associated paralytic poliomyelitis in about three per million doses . They are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV / AIDS but are otherwise well .
= = = Vaccine @-@ induced polio = = =
A potential , but rare , adverse effect of the oral polio vaccine ( OPV ) is its known ability to recombine to a form that may cause neurological infection and cause paralysis . Clinical disease , including paralysis , caused by vaccine @-@ derived poliovirus ( VDPV ) is indistinguishable from that caused by wild polioviruses . This is believed to be a rare event , but outbreaks of vaccine @-@ associated paralytic poliomyelitis ( VAPP ) , caused by a circulating vaccine @-@ derived poliovirus ( cVDPV ) , have been reported , and tend to occur in areas of low coverage by OPV , presumably because the OPV is itself protective against the related outbreak strain .
= = = Contamination concerns = = =
In 1960 , it was determined that the rhesus monkey kidney cells used to prepare the poliovirus vaccines were infected with the SV40 virus ( Simian Virus @-@ 40 ) . SV40 was also discovered in 1960 and is a naturally occurring virus that infects monkeys . In 1961 , SV40 was found to cause tumors in rodents . More recently , the virus was found in certain forms of cancer in humans , for instance brain and bone tumors , pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma , and some types of non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma . However , it has not been determined that SV40 causes these cancers .
SV40 was found to be present in stocks of the injected form of the polio vaccine ( IPV ) in use between 1955 and 1963 . It is not found in the OPV form . Over 98 million Americans received one or more doses of polio vaccine between 1955 and 1963 when a proportion of vaccine was contaminated with SV40 ; it has been estimated that 10 – 30 million Americans may have received a dose of vaccine contaminated with SV40 . Later analysis suggested that vaccines produced by the former Soviet bloc countries until 1980 , and used in the USSR , China , Japan , and several African countries , may have been contaminated ; meaning hundreds of millions more may have been exposed to SV40 .
In 1998 , the National Cancer Institute undertook a large study , using cancer case information from the Institute 's SEER database . The published findings from the study revealed that there was no increased incidence of cancer in persons who may have received vaccine containing SV40 . Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700 @,@ 000 individuals who had received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957 ; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not . The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial however , and the development of improved assays for detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy .
During the race to develop an oral polio vaccine several large scale human trials were undertaken . By 1958 , the National Institutes of Health had determined that OPV produced using the Sabin strains were the safest . Between 1957 and 1960 , however , Hilary Koprowski continued to administer his vaccine around the world . In Africa , the vaccines were administered to roughly one million people in the Belgian territories , now the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Rwanda and Burundi . The results of these human trials have been controversial , and unfounded accusations in the 1990s arose that the vaccine had created the conditions necessary for transmission of SIV from chimpanzees to humans , causing HIV / AIDS . These hypotheses have , however , been conclusively refuted . By 2004 , cases of poliomyelitis in Africa had been reduced to just a small number of isolated regions in the western portion of the continent , with sporadic cases elsewhere . However , recent local opposition to vaccination campaigns has evolved , often relating to fears that the vaccine might induce sterility . The disease has since resurged in Nigeria and in several other African nations , which epidemiologists believe is due to refusals by certain local populations to allow their children to receive the polio vaccine .
= = Manufacture = =
= = = Inactivated = = =
The Salk vaccine , or inactivated poliovirus vaccine ( IPV ) , is based on three wild , virulent reference strains , Mahoney ( type 1 poliovirus ) , MEF @-@ 1 ( type 2 poliovirus ) , and Saukett ( type 3 poliovirus ) , grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture ( Vero cell line ) , which are then inactivated with formalin . The injected Salk vaccine confers IgG @-@ mediated immunity in the bloodstream , which prevents polio infection from progressing to viremia and protects the motor neurons , thus eliminating the risk of bulbar polio and post @-@ polio syndrome .
In the United States , vaccine is administered along with the diphtheria , tetanus , and acellular pertussis vaccines ( DTaP ) and a pediatric dose of hepatitis B vaccine . In the UK , IPV is combined with tetanus , diphtheria , pertussis , and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines .
= = = Attenuated = = =
Oral polio vaccine ( OPV ) is an attenuated vaccine , produced by the passage of the virus through non @-@ human cells at a sub @-@ physiological temperature , which produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome . Oral polio vaccines were developed by several groups , one of which was led by Albert Sabin . Other groups , led by Hilary Koprowski and H.R. Cox , developed their own attenuated vaccine strains . In 1958 , the National Institutes of Health created a special committee on live polio vaccines . The various vaccines were carefully evaluated for their ability to induce immunity to polio , while retaining a low incidence of neuropathogenicity in monkeys . Large @-@ scale clinical trials performed in the Soviet Union in late 1950s to early 1960s by Mikhail Chumakov and his colleagues demonstrated safety and high efficacy of the vaccine . Based on these results , the Sabin strains were chosen for worldwide distribution . There are 57 nucleotide substitutions which distinguish the attenuated Sabin 1 strain from its virulent parent ( the Mahoney serotype ) , two nucleotide substitutions attenuate the Sabin 2 strain , and 10 substitutions are involved in attenuating the Sabin 3 strain . The primary attenuating factor common to all three Sabin vaccines is a mutation located in the virus 's internal ribosome entry site ( IRES ) which alters stem @-@ loop structures , and reduces the ability of poliovirus to translate its RNA template within the host cell . The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut , the primary site of infection and replication , but is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue . In 1961 , type 1 and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine ( MOPV ) was licensed , and in 1962 , type 3 MOPV was licensed . In 1963 , trivalent OPV ( TOPV ) was licensed , and became the vaccine of choice in the United States and most other countries of the world , largely replacing the inactivated polio vaccine . A second wave of mass immunizations led to a further dramatic decline in the number of polio cases . Between 1962 and 1965 about 100 million Americans ( roughly 56 % of the population at that time ) received the Sabin vaccine . The result was a substantial reduction in the number of poliomyelitis cases , even from the much reduced levels following the introduction of the Salk vaccine .
OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10 – 20 doses of vaccine . A single dose of oral polio vaccine ( usually two drops ) contains 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 infectious units of Sabin 1 ( effective against PV1 ) , 100 @,@ 000 infectious units of the Sabin 2 strain , and 600 @,@ 000 infectious units of Sabin 3 . The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics — neomycin and streptomycin — but does not contain preservatives .
= = History = =
In generic sense , vaccination works by priming the immune system with an ' immunogen ' . Stimulating immune response , via use of an infectious agent , is known as immunization . The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person @-@ to @-@ person transmission of wild poliovirus , thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community .
The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass inoculations . The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979 , with an outbreak among the Amish in several Midwest states .
= = = 1936 = = =
In 1936 , Maurice Brodie , a research assistant at New York University , attempted to produce a formaldehyde @-@ killed polio vaccine from ground @-@ up monkey spinal cords . His initial attempts were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining enough virus . Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants . He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children . Many of these children developed allergic reactions , but none developed immunity to polio . Philadelphia pathologist John Kolmer also claimed to have developed a vaccine that same year , but it too produced no immunity and was blamed for causing cases of paralytic polio , nine of them fatal .
= = = 1948 = = =
A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by John Enders at the Children 's Hospital Boston successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue in the laboratory . This group had recently successfully grown mumps in cell culture . In March 1948 Thomas H. Weller was attempting to grow varicella virus in embryonic lung tissue . He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes . He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes , on the off chance that the virus might grow . The varicella cultures failed to grow but the polio cultures were successful . This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio . Enders and his colleagues , Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins , were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were : the identification of three poliovirus serotypes ( Poliovirus type 1 — PV1 , or Mahoney ; PV2 , Lansing ; and PV3 , Leon ) ; the finding that prior to paralysis , the virus must be present in the blood ; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of gamma globulin protects against paralytic polio .
= = = 1952 – 1953 = = =
The U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58 @,@ 000 and 35 @,@ 000 polio cases , respectively , up from a typical number of some 20 @,@ 000 a year . Amid this U.S. polio epidemic , millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests , including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of H. R. Cox . Also working at Lederle was Polish @-@ born virologist and immunologist Hilary Koprowski , who claims to have created the first successful polio vaccine , in 1950 . His vaccine , however , being a live attenuated virus taken orally , was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk 's polio vaccine ( a dead @-@ virus injectable vaccine ) had reached the market . Koprowski 's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice . By the seventh passage , the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis . After one to three further passages on rats , the vaccine was deemed safe for human use . On 27 February 1950 , Koprowski 's live , attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy living at Letchworth Village , an institution for the physically and mentally disabled located in New York . After the child suffered no side effects , Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children .
= = = Jonas Salk = = =
The first effective polio vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk and a team at the University of Pittsburgh that included Julius Youngner , Byron Bennett , L. James Lewis , and Lorraine Friedman , but it required years of subsequent testing . To encourage patience , Salk went on CBS radio to report a successful test on a small group of adults and children on 26 March 1953 ; two days later the results were published in JAMA . Beginning 23 February 1954 , the vaccine was tested at Arsenal Elementary School and the Watson Home for Children in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Salk 's vaccine was then used in a test called the Francis Field Trial , led by Thomas Francis ; the largest medical experiment in history . The test began with some 4 @,@ 000 children at Franklin Sherman Elementary School in McLean , Virginia , and would eventually involve 1 @.@ 8 million children , in 44 states from Maine to California . By the conclusion of the study , roughly 440 @,@ 000 received one or more injections of the vaccine , about 210 @,@ 000 children received a placebo , consisting of harmless culture media , and 1 @.@ 2 million children received no vaccination and served as a control group , who would then be observed to see if any contracted polio . The results of the field trial were announced 12 April 1955 ( the tenth anniversary of the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , whose paralysis was generally believed to have been caused by polio ) . The Salk vaccine had been 60 – 70 % effective against PV1 ( poliovirus type 1 ) , over 90 % effective against PV2 and PV3 , and 94 % effective against the development of bulbar polio . Soon after Salk 's vaccine was licensed in 1955 , children 's vaccination campaigns were launched . In the U.S , following a mass immunization campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell from 35 @,@ 000 in 1953 to 5 @,@ 600 by 1957 . By 1961 only 161 cases were recorded in the United States .
= = = 1987 = = =
An enhanced @-@ potency IPV ( inactivated polio vaccine ) was licensed in the United States in November 1987 , and is currently the vaccine of choice in the United States . The first dose of polio vaccine is given shortly after birth , usually between 1 and 2 months of age , a second dose is given at 4 months of age . The timing of the third dose depends on the vaccine formulation but should be given between 6 and 18 months of age . A booster vaccination is given at 4 to 6 years of age , for a total of four doses at or before school entry . In some countries , a fifth vaccination is given during adolescence . Routine vaccination of adults ( 18 years of age and older ) in developed countries is neither necessary nor recommended because most adults are already immune and have a very small risk of exposure to wild poliovirus in their home countries . In 2002 , a pentavalent ( five @-@ component ) combination vaccine ( called Pediarix ) containing IPV was approved for use in the United States .
= = = 1988 = = =
A global effort to eradicate polio , led by the World Health Organization , UNICEF , and The Rotary Foundation , began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by Albert Sabin and Mikhail Chumakov ( Sabin @-@ Chumakov vaccine ) .
= = = Post @-@ 1990 = = =
Polio was eliminated in the Americas by 1994 . The disease was officially eliminated in 36 Western Pacific countries , including China and Australia in 2000 . Europe was declared polio @-@ free in 2002 . Since January 2011 , there were no reported cases of the disease in India , and hence in February 2012 , the country was taken off the WHO list of polio endemic countries . If there are no cases of polio in the country for two more years , it will be declared as a polio @-@ free country . As of 2016 , polio remains actively spreading in only two countries : Pakistan , and Afghanistan . Although poliovirus transmission has been interrupted in much of the world , transmission of wild poliovirus does continue and creates an ongoing risk for the importation of wild poliovirus into previously polio @-@ free regions . If importations of poliovirus occur , outbreaks of poliomyelitis may develop , especially in areas with low vaccination coverage and poor sanitation . As a result , high levels of vaccination coverage must be maintained . In November 2013 , the World Health Organization announced a polio outbreak in Syria . In response , the Armenian government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine . As of 2014 , polio virus has spread out to ten countries mainly in Africa , Asia and the Middle East with Pakistan , Syria and Cameroon advising vaccinations to outbound travelers . In 2015 , the World Health Organization announced a deal with the Taliban to encourage them to distribute the vaccine in areas they control .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Cost = = =
The wholesale cost is about 0 @.@ 25 USD per dose for the oral form as of 2014 . The inactivated vaccine is available to GAVI @-@ supported countries for as little as EUR 0 @.@ 75 per dose ( approximately USD 1 @.@ 00 per dose at current exchange rates ) in ten @-@ dose vials .
In the United States it costs between 25 and 50 USD for the inactivated form .
= = = Misconceptions = = =
A widespread misconception has arisen in Pakistan that polio vaccine contained Haram ingredients and could cause impotence and infertility in male children , leading some less @-@ educated parents not to have their children vaccinated . This belief is most prevalent in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the FATA region , where people are likely to be influenced by conservative teachings . There also have been attacks on polio vaccination teams . This is hampering international efforts to eradicate polio in Pakistan and globally since the virus can be carried by travelers .
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= Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga =
The Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga was a series of military operations by Continental Army forces and New York militia against the Iroquois towns of Unadilla and Onaquaga in what is now upstate New York . In early October 1778 , more than 250 men under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Butler of the 4th Pennsylvania Regiment descended on the two towns ( which had been abandoned because of their advance ) and destroyed them , razing most of the buildings and taking or destroying provisions . The raid was executed in retaliation for a series of raids on frontier communities led by Mohawk chief Joseph Brant and British @-@ supported Loyalists during the spring and summer of 1778 . Unadilla was located in what is now the Village of Unadilla , Town of Unadilla , Otsego County , and Onaquaga was located in what is now the Town of Windsor , Broome County .
= = Background = =
With the failure of British General John Burgoyne 's campaign to the Hudson after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 , the American Revolutionary War in upstate New York became a frontier war . British leaders in the Province of Quebec supported Loyalist and Native American partisan fighters with supplies and armaments . During the winter of 1777 – 78 Mohawk leader Joseph Brant and other British @-@ allied Indians developed plans to attack frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania . In February 1778 Brant established a base of operations at Onaquaga ( present @-@ day Windsor , New York ) . He recruited a mix of Iroquois and Loyalists estimated to number between two and three hundred by the time he began his campaign in May . One of his objectives was to acquire provisions for his forces and those of John Butler , who was planning operations in the Susquehanna River valley . Brant began his campaign in late May with a raid on Cobleskill , and raided other frontier communities throughout the summer .
The frontier settlers ' response to the raids was generally with impotence . The local militia were supported by some Continental Army regiments stationed in the area , but these forces generally could not muster in time to catch the raiders before they disappeared . New York Governor George Clinton and militia commander Abraham Ten Broeck considered operations against the principal bases in the Iroquois territory used by the raiders , Onaquaga and Unadilla , early in the campaign , but it was not until an attack by Brant on the settlement of German Flatts ( present @-@ day Herkimer ) on September 17 that an expedition was organized .
In response to calls from Governor Clinton , General George Washington authorized the use of Continental Army forces , assigning the operation to Lieutenant Colonel William Butler ( no relation to the Loyalist Butlers ) of the 4th Pennsylvania Regiment . On September 20 Butler sent scouts to investigate conditions at the two towns . They returned with reports that Unadilla had a population of 300 and Onaquaga 400 .
= = Expedition = =
On October 2 Butler led a force of 267 men ( 214 Continentals and 53 state militia ) from Fort Schoharie up the Schoharie valley toward the two villages . Late in the day on October 6 the force reached the Unadilla area . Butler sent scouting parties out to take prisoners from outlying farms . As the force cautiously advanced toward the town , one of the scouts returned with a prisoner who reported that the community had been abandoned , with most of the inhabitants fleeing to Onaquaga . Butler detached some of his men to destroy the town while he marched with the rest toward Onaquaga . They reached the town late on October 8 , and found it abandoned also , apparently in great haste .
Butler and his men spent the next two days destroying the towns . Butler described Unadilla as " the finest Indian town I ever saw ; on the both sides of the River there was about 40 good houses , Square logs , Shingles & stone Chimneys , good Floors , glass windows & c . " All the homes were burned , as was the town 's saw and grist mill , which was the only one in the area . Butler reported taking 49 horses and 52 head of cattle , and destroyed 4 @,@ 000 bushels of grain . Operations were complicated by heavy rains that raised the water levels of the Susquehanna ; Butler 's men had to build rafts to cross some of the river 's tributaries to reach parts of the town . By October 16 the expedition returned to Schoharie .
= = Aftermath = =
While the raid was taking place , Brant and his force had been raiding frontier settlements in the upper Delaware River valley . The Indians in his force were especially upset at the destruction of the two towns , a sentiment echoed by Seneca warriors who joined with Brant in the ruins of Unadilla a few days later . This anger contributed to the severity of the actions when a joint British @-@ Seneca @-@ Mohawk force attacked Cherry Valley , and were reported to massacre 30 noncombatants .
The severity of the frontier war in 1778 led to calls by the Continental Congress for a response . In 1779 General Washington organized a major Continental Army expedition into the Iroquois lands . Led by Generals John Sullivan and James Clinton , the Sullivan Expedition destroyed villages and crops , driving most of the British @-@ supporting Iroquois out of their lands . Despite its apparent success , the frontier war continued with renewed vigor in the following years .
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= Salford , Greater Manchester =
Salford ( / ˈsɒlfərd / ) is a town lying at the heart of the City of Salford , a metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester , in North West England . Salford is sited in a meander of the River Irwell , which forms in part its boundary with the city of Manchester to the east . The Salford wards of Broughton and Kersal are on the other side of the river . Together with its neighbouring towns to the west , Salford forms the local government district of the City of Salford , which is administered from Swinton . The former County Borough of Salford , which included Broughton , Pendleton and Kersal , was granted honorific city status in 1926 ; it has a resident population of 103 @,@ 886 and occupies an area of 8 @.@ 1 square miles ( 21 km2 ) . The wider City of Salford district has a population of 219 @,@ 200 .
Historically in Lancashire , Salford 's early history is marked by its status as a Royal caput and the judicial seat of the ancient hundred of Salfordshire , to which it lent its name . It was granted a charter by Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester , in about 1230 , making Salford a free borough . During the early stages of its growth , Salford was of greater cultural and commercial importance than its neighbour Manchester , although most contemporary sources agree that since the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries that position has been reversed .
Salford became a major factory town and inland port during the 18th and 19th centuries . Cotton and silk spinning and weaving in local mills attracted an influx of families and provided Salford with a strong economy . Salford Docks was a principal dockyard of the Manchester Ship Canal . By the end of the 19th century Salford had an enlarged working class community and suffered from chronic overpopulation . Industrial activities declined during the 20th century however , causing a local economic depression . Salford subsequently became one of contrasts , with regenerated inner @-@ city areas like Salford Quays next to some of the most socially deprived and violent areas in England .
Salford has become a centre of higher education , home to the University of Salford , and has seen several firsts , including the world 's first unconditionally free public library , and the first street in the world to be lit by gas , Chapel Street in 1806 . Salford 's MediaCityUK became the headquarters of CBBC and BBC Sport in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name of Salford derives from the Old English word Sealhford , meaning a ford by the willow trees . It referred to the willows ( Latin : salix ) or sallows that grew alongside the banks of the River Irwell . The ford was about where Victoria Bridge is today . Willow trees are still found in Lower Broughton . Salford appears in the pipe roll of 1169 as " Sauford " and in the Lancashire Inquisitions of 1226 as " Sainford " .
= = = Early history = = =
The earliest known evidence of human activity in what is now Salford is provided by the Neolithic flint arrow @-@ heads and workings discovered on Kersal Moor and the River Irwell , suggesting that the area was inhabited 7 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The raw material for such tools was scarce and unsuitable for working , and as a result they are not of the quality found elsewhere . Other finds include a neolithic axe @-@ hammer found near Mode Wheel , during the excavation of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1890 , and a Bronze Age cremation urn during the construction of a road on the Broughton Hall estate in 1873 .
The Brigantes were the major Celtic tribe in what is now Northern England . With a stronghold at the sandstone outcrop on which Manchester Cathedral now stands , opposite Salford 's original centre , their territory extended across the fertile lowland by the River Irwell that is now Salford and Stretford . Following the Roman conquest of Britain , General Agricola ordered the construction of a Roman fort named Mamucium ( Manchester ) to protect the routes to Deva Victrix ( Chester ) and Eboracum ( York ) from the Brigantes . The fort was completed in AD 79 , and for over 300 years the Pax Romana brought peace to the area . Both the main Roman road to the north , from Mamucium to Ribchester , and a second road to the west , ran through what is now Salford , but few Roman artefacts have been found in the area . The withdrawal of the Romans in AD 410 left the inhabitants at the mercy of the Saxons . The Danes later conquered the area and absorbed what was left of the Brigantes . Angles settled in the region during the Early Middle Ages and gave the locality the name Sealhford , meaning " ford by the willows " . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Sealhford was part of the Kingdom of Northumbria until it was conquered in 923 by Edward the Elder .
Following the emergence of the united Kingdom of England , Salford became a caput or central manor within a broad rural area in part held by the Kings of England , including Edward the Confessor . The area between the rivers Mersey and Ribble was divided into six smaller districts , referred to as " wapentakes " , or hundreds . The south east district became known as the Hundred of Salford , a division of land administered from Salford for military and judicial purposes . It contained nine large parishes , smaller parts of two others , and the township of Aspull in the parish of Wigan .
After the defeat of the Harold II during the Norman conquest of England , William I granted the Hundred of Salford to Roger the Poitevin , and in the Domesday Book of 1086 the Hundred of Salford was recorded as covering an area of 350 square miles ( 906 km2 ) with a population of 35 @,@ 000 . Poitevin created the subordinate Manor of Manchester out of the hundred , which has since in local government been separate from Salford . Poitevin forfeited the manor in 1102 when he was defeated in a failed rebellion attempt against Henry I. In around 1115 , for their support during the rebellion , Henry I placed the Hundred of Salford under the control of the Earldom of Lancaster , and it is from this exchange that the Hundred of Salford became a royal manor . The Lord of the Manor was either the English monarch , or a feudal land owner who administered the manor for the king . During the reign of Henry II the Royal Manor of Salford passed to Ranulf de Gernon , 4th Earl of Chester .
Salford began to emerge as a small town early in the 13th century . In 1228 , Henry III granted the caput of Salford the right to hold a market and an annual fair . The fairs were important to the town ; a 17th @-@ century order forced each burgess – a freeman of the borough – to attend , but the fairs were abolished during the 19th century . The Earls of Chester aided the development of the caput , and in 1230 Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester made Salford a burgage , or free borough . The charter gave its burgesses certain commercial rights , privileges and advantages over traders living outside Salford ; one of the 26 clauses of the charter stated that no one could work in the Hundred of Salford unless they also lived in the borough . Salford 's status as a burgage encouraged an influx of distinguished families , and by the Late Middle Ages Salford was " rich in its manor houses " , with over 30 within a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) radius of Ordsall . These included Ordsall Hall ( owned by the Radclyffe family ) and Broughton Hall , owned by the Earls of Derby .
During the Civil War of 1640 – 49 , Salford supported the Royalist cause , in contrast to Manchester just across the Irwell which declared in favour of the Parliamentarians . Royalist forces mounted a siege of Manchester across what is now the site of Victoria Bridge , which although short @-@ lived , " did little to improve relations between the two towns " . A century later , in 1745 , Salford was staunchly in support of Bonnie Prince Charlie , in his attempt to seize the Throne of England . He entered the town at the head of his army and was blessed by the Reverend John Clayton before leaving " in high spirits " to march on London ; he returned to Salford in defeat just nine days later .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Salford has a history of textile processing that pre @-@ dates the Industrial Revolution , and as an old town had been developing for about 700 years . Before the introduction of cotton there was a considerable trade in woollen goods and fustians . Other cottage industries prevalent at this time included clogging , cobbling , weaving and brewing . The changes to textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution had a profound effect on both on population and urbanisation , as well as the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of Salford .
The well @-@ established textile processing and trading infrastructure , and the ready supply of water from the River Irwell and its tributaries , attracted entrepreneurs who built cotton mills along the banks of the river in Pendleton and Ordsall . Although Salford followed a similar pattern of industrial development to Manchester , most businesses preferred to build their premises on the Manchester side of the Irwell , and consequently Salford did not develop as a commercial centre in the same way as its neighbour . Many of these earlier mills had been based on Arkwright @-@ type designs . These relied on strong falls of water , but Salford is on a meander of the Irwell with only a slight gradient and thus mills tended to be built upstream , at Kersal and Pendleton . With the introduction of the steam engine in the late 18th century however , merchants began to construct mills closer to the centres of Salford and Manchester , where supplies of labour and coal were more readily available ( the first steam @-@ powered mill was built in Manchester in 1780 ) . One of the first factories to be built was Philip 's and Lee 's Twist Mill in Salford , completed in 1801 , the second iron @-@ framed multi @-@ story building to be erected in Britain . The large Salford Engine Twist Company mill was built to the west of Salford , between Chapel Street and the Irwell , and in 1806 was the first large cotton mill to use gas lighting . It was however outnumbered by the numerous smaller factories and mills throughout the area , including Nathan Gough 's steam @-@ driven mule spinning mill , near Oldfield Road , where a serious accident occurred on 13 October 1824 ( see illustration ) .
Canal building provided a further stimulus for Salford 's industrial development . The opening of the Bridgewater Canal in 1761 improved the transport of fuel and raw materials , reducing the price of coal by about 50 % . The later Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal ( which terminated at Salford ) brought more cheap coal from pits at Pendleton , Agecroft Colliery and beyond . By 1818 Manchester , Salford and Eccles had about 80 mills , but it was the completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 which triggered Salford 's development as a major inland port . Salford Docks , a major dockland on the Ship Canal 35 miles ( 56 km ) east of the Irish Sea , brought employment to over 3 @,@ 000 labourers . By 1914 the Port of Manchester , most of whose docks were in Salford , had become one of the largest port authorities in the world , handling 5 % of the UK 's imports and 4 @.@ 4 % of its exports . Commodities handled included cotton , grain , wool , textile machinery and steam locomotives .
For centuries , textiles and related trades were the main source of employment in the town . Bleaching was a widely distributed finishing trade in Salford , carried over from the earlier woollen industry . In the 18th century , before the introduction of chemical bleaching , bleaching fields were commonplace , some very close to the town . In 1773 there were 25 bleachers around Salford , most to the west of the township . Printing was another source of trade ; the earliest recorded in the region was a calique printer in the Manchester Parish Register of 1763 . These industries became more important as Salford faced increasing competition from the nearby towns of Bolton and Oldham . As its cotton spinning industries faltered its economy turned increasingly to other textiles and to the finishing trades , including rexine and silk dyeing , and fulling and bleaching , at a string of works in Salford .
Both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels spent time in Salford , studying the plight of the British working class . In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , Engels described Salford as " really one large working @-@ class quarter ... [ a ] very unhealthy , dirty and dilapidated district which , while other industries were almost always textile related is situated opposite the ' Old Church ' of Manchester " .
Salford developed several civic institutions ; in 1806 , Chapel Street became the first street in the world to be lit by gas ( supplied by Phillips and Lee 's cotton mill ) . In 1850 , under the terms of the Museums Act 1845 , the municipal borough council established the Royal Museum and Public Library , said to have been the first unconditional free public library in England , preceding the Public Libraries Act 1850 .
The effect on Salford of the Industrial Revolution has been described as " phenomenal " . The area expanded from a small market town into a major industrial metropolis ; factories replaced cottage industries , and the population rose from 12 @,@ 000 in 1812 to 70 @,@ 244 within 30 years . By the end of the 19th century it had increased to 220 @,@ 000 . Large @-@ scale building of low quality Victorian terraced housing did not stop overcrowding , which itself lead to chronic social deprivation . The density of housing was as high as 80 homes per acre . Private roads were built for the use of the middle classes moving to the outskirts of Salford . The entrances to such roads , which included Elleray Road in Irlams o ' th ' Height , were often gated , and patrolled .
= = = Post @-@ industrial decline = = =
During the early 20th century , improvements in regional transport infrastructure precipitated the decline of Salford 's existing industries , including those at the Salford Docks . Increased foreign competition began to undermine the competitiveness of local textile processing businesses . Rising unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1920s and ' 30s , and a significant economic decline in the decades following the Second World War contributed toward a fall in Salford 's population . By 1939 local coal mining had almost stopped , and cotton spinning had by 1971 ceased completely . Between 1921 and 1939 , the population of Salford decreased by 29 % , from 234 @,@ 045 to 166 @,@ 386 , far greater than the rate of decline within the whole of North West England .
A survey in 1931 concluded that parts of Salford contained some of the worst slums in the country . Many houses were infested by rats and lacked elementary amenities . Inspectors found that of 950 houses surveyed , 257 were in a state of bad repair with leaking roofs , broken flooring and rotten woodwork . The inspectors were " struck by the courage and perseverance with which the greater number of tenants kept their houses clean and respectable under most adverse conditions " . By 1933 slum clearance projects were under way , and by the end of 1956 over a thousand families had been rehoused in overspill estates at Little Hulton . These clearances have , for some , changed the character of the area to such an extent that " observers in search of the typical Salford may have to look in Eccles and Swinton , for much of the community and townscape ... has gone from Salford , replaced by tall blocks of flats " . Large areas of the city were redeveloped in the 1960s and 1970s , with Victorian era terraced housing estates that inspired painter L. S. Lowry and soap opera Coronation Street giving way to concrete tower blocks and austere architecture . Life in Salford during the early 20th century was described by Robert Roberts , in his study The Classic Slum .
Despite extensive redevelopment , throughout the 1980s and 1990s the area experienced chronic poverty , deprivation and unemployment . This social deprivation led to increased levels of gang crime linked to illegal narcotics , firearms and robberies . Organised crime in Salford , particularly in Ordsall and Pendleton , " began to have a disturbing effect on grass roots democracy . Both the Liberal Democrats and the Conservatives announced they would not contest certain Salford wards " because they regarded them as " unsafe " and would put their " party workers at risk " . Salford 's social amenities and the night @-@ time economy folded amid criminal " intimidation " , " drug use , fights and demands for money " . In early 2005 , the Government of Latvia appealed to the European Union to advise people against travelling to Salford after a Latvian people man was stabbed in the head in Lower Broughton . However , a crackdown by Greater Manchester Police coupled with investment in , and structural changes to the housing stock , began the change in Salford 's fortunes ; population decline has slowed , and Salford 's city councillors have insisted it is a safe place to visit . In August 2005 , a survey by Channel 4 television rated the city as the 9th worst place to live in the United Kingdom , based on criteria of crime , education , environment , lifestyle and employment .
= = = Regeneration = = =
Salford has suffered from high levels of unemployment and housing and social problems since around the 1960s , although there are regeneration schemes to reverse its fortunes . Many of the high @-@ rise housing blocks from the 1960s and 1970s were demolished during the 1990s , " a sign that the great social engineering schemes ( from that period ) had failed " . However , the high @-@ rises that remain are a striking feature of Salford 's landscape . Work was scheduled to begin on the £ 180 million redevelopment of the Greengate area of Salford in January 2007 . The plans include the construction of what will be the two tallest tower blocks in Salford . Plans also include a five @-@ star hotel , a new public square and park , restaurants , cafes and 403 apartments . Work is ongoing to regenerate the area known as Middlewood Locks , with the restored Salford terminus of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal forming the centrepiece of a brand new residential development . As part of the Pathfinder initiative , Salford was identified in 2002 as one of nine areas in specific need of investment for new homes . Between 2003 and 2006 £ 115M was invested in the Manchester and City of Salford housing markets , £ 44M of which was invested in central Salford . Rows of terraces in neighbourhoods such as Seedley and Langworthy – once used for the title sequence of Coronation Street – are being compulsorily purchased , demolished and replaced by " modern sustainable accommodation " . Other schemes such as the Charlestown and Lower Kersal New deal for Communities , have concentrated on renovating existing terraced housing stock by block improvement and alleygating , as well as demolishing unsuitable properties and building new facilities , in consultation with the local community .
Salford now has many tourist attractions , such as Ordsall Hall , the Bridgewater Canal and the Lowry Centre , an award @-@ winning theatre and art gallery complex , consisting of two theatres and three art galleries . The centre is named after the artist L. S. Lowry , who attended Salford School of Art and lived in nearby Pendlebury for 40 years . Many of his paintings of Salford and Manchester mill scenes , populated with small matchstick @-@ like figures , are on display .
The waterfront development at MediaCityUK will make Salford a major centre of UK media production . The development houses BBC departments including CBBC , BBC Sport and Radio 5 Live which moved in 2011 and Breakfast moved from London in spring 2012 .
= = Governance = =
Salford was anciently part of the Manchester parish of the Salford Hundred , an area much larger than the present @-@ day city of Salford , within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire . A stroke of a Norman baron 's pen is said to have divorced Manchester and Salford , although it was not Salford that became separated from Manchester , but Manchester , with its humbler line of lords , that was separated from Salford . Salford received its town charter from Ranulf de Blondeville , 6th Earl of Chester , then Lord of the Manor , in 1230 . From then until 1791 , when police commissioners were appointed , it was governed by a reeve , a medieval administrator and law enforcement official . It was not recognised as a borough in the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , but was granted borough status in 1844 ; the new Salford borough was made up of the township of Salford and part of Broughton . The remainder of Broughton , and a part of Pendlebury , were added in 1853 .
When the administrative county of Lancashire was created by the Local Government Act 1888 , Salford was elevated to become the County Borough of Salford and was , in modern terms , a unitary authority area exempt from the administration of Lancashire County Council . Following a campaign supported by William Joynson @-@ Hicks , Home Secretary and MP for a neighbouring constituency of Manchester , city status was granted to the county borough by letters patent dated 21 April 1926 . This was in spite of the opposition of civil servants in the Home Office who dismissed the borough as " merely a scratch collection of 240 @,@ 000 people cut off from Manchester by the river " . In 1961 , a small part of the Municipal Borough of Eccles was added to the city , and in 1966 , Salford was twinned with Clermont @-@ Ferrand in France .
In 1974 the City and County Borough of Salford was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972 , and was replaced by the metropolitan borough of City of Salford , a local government district of the new metropolitan county of Greater Manchester , with triple the territory of the former City of Salford , taking in neighbouring Eccles , Swinton and Pendlebury , and Worsley and Irlam . Both Salford and the wider City of Salford are unparished areas .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
Salford was enfranchised as a parliamentary borough returning a single Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the Great Reform Act of 1832 . From 1868 it returned two MPs to the House of Commons until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 , when the constituency was split into three single @-@ member divisions : Salford North , Salford South and Salford West . Boundaries changed again under the provisions of the Representation of the People Act 1948 when the constituencies were reorganised into Salford East and Salford West . Since 1997 , Salford has lain within the reconstituted Salford parliamentary constituency . Hazel Blears – a member of the Labour Party – has been the MP for the constituency since 1997 . From the general election of 2010 Salford will be part of the new constituency of Salford and Eccles . The wards of Broughton and Kersal , however , are to be part of the cross boundary constituency of Blackley and Broughton .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 28 ′ 59 ″ N 2 ° 17 ′ 35 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 483 ° , − 2 @.@ 2931 ° ) , and 205 miles ( 330 km ) northwest of central London , Salford stands about 177 feet ( 54 m ) above sea level , on relatively flat ground to the west of a meander of the River Irwell – the city 's main topographical feature . In 1904 Salford was recorded as " within a great loop of the River Irwell ... roughly three @-@ quarters of a mile from north to south and one mile from east to west " . Salford is contiguous with Manchester , and has been described " in participation of its trade , and for all other practical purposes , an integral part of it ; presents a near resemblance to it in streets and edifices ; contains several public buildings and a great public park , which belong fully more to Manchester than to itself " . Greengate , the original centre of Salford , is located at a fording point on the river opposite Manchester Cathedral . In 1969 Nikolaus Pevsner wrote :
That [ neighbouring ] Stretford and Salford are not administratively one with Manchester is one of the most curious anomalies of England .
The Irwell , sourced at Cliviger in Lancashire , flows from the north and for a distance forms the statutory boundary between Salford and Manchester . Flooding has historically been a problem and the Irwell has seen much modification along its course in Salford with some bends being removed , channelisation , and the construction of levees and bank reinforcements . Salford has expanded along the river valley to the north and south and on to higher ground on the valley sides at Irlams o ' th ' Height and Higher Broughton . Unconsolidated glacial deposits along the riverbank at Broughton have caused several landslides along the riverbank . The City Engineer 's Department of the City of Salford recorded one such incident near Great Clowes Street in February 1882 , and others in 1886 , 1887 and 1888 . In 1892 the road was propped with timber supports . The tram service along the road was discontinued in 1925 , and the road closed to mechanically propelled vehicles in January 1926 . Further slips saw the road closed completely in July 1933 , and although no substantial movements have been recorded since 1948 slow subsidence around the Cliff continues to this day .
Salford 's built environment is made up of a range of building stock . Some inner @-@ city areas are noted for chronic urban decay . Salford 's housing stock is characterised by an oversupply of older , smaller terraced housing and flatted accommodation that declined in value during the late 20th century . As demand fell , it left many owners in negative equity and often without the means to maintain their homes in reasonable condition . As a result , much of the built environment is poor .
Land use in Salford is overwhelmingly urban , with a number of green spaces . The largest is Kersal Dale Country Park , which covers about 32 hectares ( 0 @.@ 32 km2 ) . Others include Kersal Moor in Higher Kersal , The Meadow , Peel Park and the adjacent David Lewis Recreation Ground close to the University of Salford , and Albert Park and Clowes Park in Broughton . The territory of Salford is contiguous with other towns on all sides , and as defined by the Office for National Statistics forms the sixth @-@ largest settlement in the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's second @-@ largest conurbation . The M602 motorway enters Salford from Eccles to the west . The A580 " East Lancashire Road " terminates at Salford , entering the area from Pendlebury . Heavy rail @-@ lines pass through Salford .
= = Demography = =
As of the 2001 UK census , Salford had a population of 72 @,@ 750 . The 2001 population density was 9 @,@ 151 per mi ² ( 3 @,@ 533 per km ² ) , with a 100 to 98 @.@ 4 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio . Of those over 16 years age , 44 @.@ 0 % were single ( never married ) and 36 @.@ 7 % married . Salford 's 32 @,@ 576 households included 44 @.@ 1 % one @-@ person , 22 @.@ 0 % married couples living together , 7 @.@ 6 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 13 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 37 @.@ 3 % had no academic qualifications , similar to that of 35 @.@ 5 % in all of the City of Salford but significantly higher than 28 @.@ 9 % in all of England . 15 @.@ 9 % of Salford 's residents aged 16 – 74 had an educational qualification such as first degree , higher degree , qualified teacher status , qualified medical doctor , qualified dentist , qualified nurse , midwife , health visitor , etc. compared to 20 % nationwide .
As a result of 19th @-@ century industrialisation , Salford has had " a special place in the history of the British working class " ; together with Manchester it had the world 's " first fully formed industrial working class " . Salford has not , in general , attracted the same minority ethnic and cosmopolitan communities as in other parts of Greater Manchester , although it did attract significant numbers of Irish in the mid @-@ 19th century . Many migrated to Salford because of the Great Hunger in Ireland combined with Salford 's reputation as a hub for employment in its factories and docks . In 1848 , Salford Roman Catholic Cathedral opened , reflecting the large Irish @-@ born community in Salford at that time .
In the decades following the Second World War , Salford experienced significant population decline , as residents followed employment opportunities to other locations in Greater Manchester , taking advantage of a greater choice in the type and location of housing .
In 2011 , Salford had a population of 103 @,@ 886 , which is about the same size as Rochdale . The population increased from 72 @,@ 750 in the previous census , mainly due to boundary changes .
In 2011 , 22 @.@ 7 % of the population in the Salford USD ( Urban Subdivision ) were non white British compared with 15 @.@ 6 % for the surrounding borough . The USD had a slightly larger percentage of Asian and black people . Salford has become a lot more ethnically diverse since the previous census , probably due to the relocation of many BBC establishments from London between 2011 and 2012 . This has created lots of jobs and encouraged migration to the area , which was previously very deprived since the loss of many traditional industries in the 20th century .
= = Economy = =
For decades Salford 's economy was heavily dependent on manufacturing industry , especially textiles and engineering . Since the Second World War however , Salford has experienced decades of growing unemployment as these sectors diminished and new sectors chose to locate in out of town locations with better transport links . Between 1965 and 1991 the city lost over 49 @,@ 000 jobs , or more than 32 % of its employment base . Several factors contributed to this decline , not least changes in the national and international economies , the introduction of new technology and the concentration of investment in London and South East England . The biggest job losses were experienced in Salford 's traditional industries and although the service sector expanded during this period , it was unable to compensate for the decline in manufacturing .
The inner city 's main shopping area is Salford Shopping City , Pendleton – colloquially referred to as " Salford Precinct " – close to the University of Salford . However this area suffers from extreme deprivation and is dominated by the central business district that is Manchester city centre . This is planned to change in the next few years with the implementation of the Pendleton Area Action Plan and the development of the pedestrianised and boulevarded A6 corridor . Salford Quays has been shortlisted as the new possible city centre by 2020 .
The Lowry Hotel , the first five @-@ star hotel to be built in Greater Manchester , is on the Salford side of the River Irwell .
Salford is credited as the birthplace of the Bush Roller Chain . Hans Renold , a Swiss @-@ born engineer , came to Salford in the late 19th century . In 1879 he purchased a small textile @-@ chain making business in Ordsall from James Slater and founded the Hans Renold Company , what is now Renold , a firm which still produces chains . Renold invented the bush roller chain shortly after and began producing it . It is the type of chain most commonly used for transmission of mechanical power on bicycles , motorbikes , to industrial and agricultural machinery to uses as varied as rollercoasters and escalators .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of Salford 's residents aged 16 – 74 was 18 @.@ 0 % retail and wholesale , 14 @.@ 4 % property and business services , 12 @.@ 3 % manufacturing , 11 @.@ 7 % health and social work , 8 @.@ 6 % education , 7 @.@ 3 % transport and communications , 6 @.@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 5 @.@ 8 % construction , 4 @.@ 4 % finance , 4 @.@ 2 % public administration , 0 @.@ 6 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 3 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 5 @.@ 7 % other . Compared with national figures , Salford had a relatively low percentage of residents working in agriculture . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 4 @.@ 4 % students were with jobs , 9 @.@ 1 % students without jobs , 6 @.@ 3 % looking after home or family , 11 @.@ 2 % permanently sick or disabled , and 4 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The proportion of students economically active in Salford was higher than the City of Salford and England averages ( 3 @.@ 0 % and 2 @.@ 6 % respectively ) ; the same is true for economically inactive students ( 5 @.@ 1 % in City of Salford and 4 @.@ 7 % in England ) . The rest of the figures were roughly inline with national trends .
= = Landmarks = =
Although Salford lacks the number of Grade II * ( and above ) listed buildings accorded to its neighbour ( Manchester ) , it does possess a wide range of both classical and modern architecture , as well as some unique structures , including the 19th @-@ century Barton Swing Aqueduct . One of Salford 's oldest buildings is the Grade I listed Ordsall Hall , a Tudor mansion and former stately home in nearby Ordsall . It dates back over 750 years , although the oldest surviving parts of the present hall were built in the 15th century . Kersal Cell is a Grade II * listed 16th @-@ century timber @-@ framed manor house , currently in use as a private residence . Closer to the centre of the settlement , the tower of the Church of the Sacred Trinity dates from 1635 , the main building from 1752 . It was restored between 1871 and 1874 , and is now used as a library and office space . Another Grade II * listed building , Salford Cathedral , is a decorated neo @-@ Gothic Roman Catholic church built between 1844 and 1848 .
Salford is linked to Manchester by a series of bridges , including the Grade II listed Blackfriars Bridge , completed in 1820 . The settlement is dominated by the several railway viaducts built in the 19th century . Salford ( Old ) Town Hall , situated in Bexley Square off Chapel Street , is a Neo @-@ classical brick building dressed in stone , designed by Richard Lane . Public swimming baths were provided , on Blackfriars Road . Now in commercial use , the two @-@ storey building was constructed in about 1890 from brick , with terracotta dressings and a part @-@ glazed roof . The Salford University Campus , visible partly from the Crescent , contains a number of interesting buildings including the Royal Art Gallery and the Peel Building .
Salford Lads Club is a recreational club established in 1903 and located in Ordsall . It is a listed building and gained international fame in 1986 when the pop band The Smiths posed in front of it for the inside cover of their album The Queen Is Dead . A report by English Heritage said " The building is thought to be the most complete example of this rare form of social provision to survive in England . " In 2007 , the Manchester Evening News reported that the club was third in a nationwide hunt to find the most iconic buildings in the country .
= = Transport = =
One of the earliest transport schemes in Salford was constructed by the Salford to Wigan Turnpike trust , by an Act of Parliament of 1753 . Turnpike roads had a huge impact on the nature of business transport around the region . Packhorses were superseded by wagons , and merchants would no longer accompany their caravans to markets and fairs , instead sending agents with samples , and despatching the goods at a later date . Road transport was not without its problems however and in 1808 the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal was connected to the River Irwell . In the main a coal @-@ carrying canal , it provided a valuable boost to the economies of Salford and Manchester , with a large number of wharves at its terminus in Salford . Sixteen years later John Greenwood started the first bus operation from Pendleton to Market Street , Manchester .
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway – the world 's first steam driven inter @-@ city passenger railway – opened through Salford on 15 September 1830 . The railway was primarily built to provide faster transport of materials and goods between the Port of Liverpool and mills in Manchester and surrounding towns , and stopped along the route at Ordsall Lane railway station . Almost eight years later the Manchester and Bolton Railway was opened , terminating at Salford Central railway station .
By 1801 the population of both Manchester and Salford was about 94 @,@ 000 . By 1861 this had risen to about 460 @,@ 000 , and so in the same year John Greenwood Jr. made an application to Salford Borough Council and to the Pendleton Turnpike Trust , to build a tramway from Pendleton to Albert Bridge in Salford . The system was innovative in that the rails were designed to be ' flush ' with the road surface , with a third central rail to accommodate a perambulator wheel attached to the front axle of the omnibus . Approval was granted and work commenced immediately , with the horse @-@ pulled tramway finished in September 1861 . It remained in use for a further eleven years when the condition of the track had deteriorated such that the council ordered it removed . The Tramways Act 1870 allowed councils to construct their own tramways , and on 17 May 1877 the ' Manchester and Salford Tramways ' opened for business . The network of lines was largely complete by September 1880 , the company changed its name to the Manchester Carriage and Tramways Company , and the system reached its peak in the 1890s . A steam tramway was opened on 12 April 1883 from Bury to Higher Broughton . The vehicles provoked letters of complaints from residents about the associated noise , dirt , and grease , and by 1888 the route was eventually curtailed to Besses o ' th ' Barn .
Electric trams were a common sight in early 20th century Salford , and had from 1901 replaced the earlier horse @-@ drawn vehicles . A network of lines crossed the region , with coordinated services running through Salford , Manchester and the surrounding areas . Many served the new suburban housing and industrial developments built at the time , but in 1947 they were withdrawn in favour of more practical services – buses . The city is served by a complex road infrastructure , with connections from the M602 motorway to several major motorways , and A @-@ roads including the A57 Regent Road and the A6042 Trinity Way . Salford City Council has also created both advisory and mandatory cycle lanes across the city .
Public transport in Salford is now co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) , a county @-@ wide public body with direct operational responsibilities such as supporting ( and in some cases running ) local bus services , and managing integrated ticketing in Greater Manchester . Salford City Council is responsible for the administration and maintenance of public roads and footpaths throughout the city . The city is served by two railway stations , Salford Central and Salford Crescent . Most train services are provided by Northern , although Salford Crescent is also served by TransPennine Express as part of its TransPennine North West network . Buses run to destinations throughout Salford , the City of Salford , across Greater Manchester and further afield : Pendleton is served by a route to Preston and Blackpool .
The Eccles line of the Manchester Metrolink runs through Salford , with stations at Exchange Quay , Salford Quays , Anchorage , Harbour City , Broadway , Langworthy , Weaste and more recently MediaCityUK . The line was opened in two stages , in 1999 and 2000 , as Phase 2 of the system 's development .
= = Education = =
Despite the rapid progress made during the Industrial Revolution , by 1851 education in Salford was judged " inadequate to the wants of the population " , and for those children who did get schooling " order and cleanliness were little regarded ... [ they ] were for the most part crowded in close and dirty rooms " .
Salford has thirty @-@ two primary schools , and five secondary schools . Until recently there were three main 6th form and FE colleges : Pendleton College , Eccles College and Salford College . They merged to create Salford City College in January 2009 .
The University of Salford , a plate glass university , is one of four in Greater Manchester . It has its origins in the former Royal Technical College , which was granted the status of a College of Advanced Technology ( CAT ) , on 2 November 1956 . In November 1963 the Robbins Report recommended that the CATs should become technological universities ; and on 4 April 1967 a Charter was established creating the University of Salford . The university is undergoing £ 150M of redevelopment through investment in new facilities , including a £ 10M law school and a £ 22M building for health and social care , which were opened in 2006 .
The University of Salford has over 19 @,@ 000 students , and was ranked 81st in the UK by The Times newspaper . In 2007 , the university received nearly 17 @,@ 000 applications for 3 @,@ 660 places , and the drop @-@ out rate from the university was 25 % . Of the students graduating , 50 % gained first class or 2 : 1 degrees , below the national average of about 55 % . The level of student satisfaction in the 2009 survey ranged from 62 % to 94 % , depending on subject .
= = Religion = =
From the formation of the Hundred of Salford , the entire area was within the Diocese of Lichfield . This diocese was divided in 1541 , upon the creation of the See of Chester .
Early worship took place at the parish church of Manchester , however a small chantry chapel existed in 1368 on the only bridge linking the two settlements . In the 16th century , it was converted into a dungeon , and was later demolished in 1779 . In 1634 – 35 , Humphrey Booth , a wealthy local merchant , opened a chapel of ease , which a year later was consecrated as the Chapel of Sacred Trinity ( the parish of Sacred Trinity was created in 1650 ) . John Wesley preached in the building , before his break with the Anglican Church . Upon his return in 1747 however he preached in the open , at Salford Cross . The chapel was rebuilt in about 1752 – 53 , although the tower probably belonged to the original building . It was restored in 1871 – 74 by the architect J. P. Holden and a chapel was added to the south @-@ east in 1934 . It is now a Grade II * listed building .
Salford Cathedral is one of the largest Catholic cathedrals in Northern England . It was built between 1844 and 1848 , and was listed as a Grade II * building in 1980 . It is at the centre of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford , which was founded in 1850 as one of the first post @-@ Reformation Catholic dioceses in Britain . Its current boundaries encompass Manchester and a large part of North West England . The Bishop of Salford 's official residence is at Wardley Hall .
Salford Deanery is in the Salford Archdeaconry of the Church of England . The sixteen churches in the deanery include the Parish Church of Saint Paul the Apostle in Paddington , St. Thomas ' in Pendleton , St Philip with St Stephen in Salford and St Clement 's in Ordsall .
The Greek Orthodox Church of the Annunciation was founded in 1861 , in Broughton . It was established by the local Greek immigrant community , who had arrived in the area soon after the Greek War of Independence in the early 19th century . It replaced an earlier place of worship on Cheetham Hill Road , and an earlier chapel on Wellington Street . It is the oldest purpose @-@ built Orthodox church in the country .
= = Sports = =
Salford has a notable history in sports , which includes hosting some of the events in the 2002 Commonwealth Games : rugby league , speedway , and horse racing . Salford had a venue for horse racing since the 17th century ; the earliest record of racing at Kersal Moor dates from 1687 .
Salford Red Devils is the city 's rugby league club and has been based in Salford since 1873 . They participate in the European Super League . Salford now play all home games at the AJ Bell Stadium . Junior rugby league is also played within Salford 's boundaries , with Langworthy Reds , Folly Lane and Salford City Roosters amongst other clubs providing playing personnel to the senior club .
The Premiership side Sale Sharks play their home games at the AJ Bell Stadium since the start of the 2012 – 13 season
Salford Quays has been used as a major international triathlon site , but a 2009 aquathlon was cancelled because of a lack of competitors .
During the early part of the 20th century speedway was staged at Albion Stadium .
The city is one of the largest settlements in the UK without a professional football team ; in the formative years of the sport the region 's football heartland was in east Manchester , with few teams to the west . Non @-@ league Salford City of the Northern Premier League are the city 's only representatives in the football pyramid .
= = Culture = =
Salford Museum and Art Gallery opened in November 1850 as the Royal Museum and Public Library . It was built on the site of Lark Hill estate and Mansion , which was purchased by public subscription . The park was named Peel Park after Robert Peel who contributed to the subscription fund . The library was the first unconditionally free public library in the country .
Harold Brighouse 's play Hobson 's Choice takes place in the Salford of 1880 , and the 1954 film version was shot in the town . Walter Greenwood 's 1933 novel Love on the Dole was set in a fictional area known as Hanky Park , said in the novel to be near Salford , but in reality based on Salford itself . A more modern fictional setting influenced by the area is Coronation Street 's Weatherfield . The Salford of the 1970s was the setting for the BAFTA award winning East is East . Salford was featured in the second series of the Channel 4 programme The Secret Millionaire , screened in 2007 .
The folk song " Dirty Old Town " , written by native Ewan MacColl , is the origin of Salford 's nickname . Local band Doves released a song on their 2005 album Some Cities called " Shadows of Salford " . One of the most famous photographs of band The Smiths shows them standing outside the Salford Lads Club , and was featured in the artwork for their album The Queen Is Dead . The videos for the Timbaland song " The Way I Are " , and the Justin Timberlake song " Lovestoned " were filmed in Salford .
= = Public services = =
Under the requirements of the Municipal Corporations Act , 1835 , the County Borough of Salford was obliged to appoint a Watch Committee to establish a police force and appoint a chief constable . On 1 June 1968 the Manchester and Salford city constabularies formed the Manchester and Salford Police . Since 1974 , Home Office policing in Salford has been provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( F ) Division " has its headquarters for policing the City of Salford at Swinton , with further police stations in Little Hulton , Higher Broughton and Salford . The Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , whose headquarters are on Bolton Road in nearby Pendlebury .
Salford Royal Hospital dated back to 1830 and was extended in 1911 . It was closed and converted into flats . The modern Salford Royal , at Hope , near the boundary with Eccles , was opened in 1882 as the Salford Union Infirmary . Later renamed Hope Hospital and then again as Salford Royal , it is a large NHS hospital administrated by Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust . In a 2006 – 07 review of all 394 NHS Trusts in England by the Healthcare Commission , Salford Royal was one of 19 to be rated excellent in its quality of services and its use of resources . The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport . Other forms of health care are provided for locally by several small clinics and surgeries .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Salford 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities ; there are no power stations in the city . United Utilities also manages Salford 's drinking and waste water .
= = Notable people = =
People from Salford are called Salfordians , and the city has been the birthplace and home to notable people of national and international acclaim . Amongst the most notable persons of historic significance with a connection to Salford are Emmeline Pankhurst , one of the founders of the British suffragette movement , who lived in Salford , and the scientist James Prescott Joule , who was born and raised in Salford . The novelist Walter Greenwood ( Love on the Dole ) and the dramatist Shelagh Delaney ( A Taste of Honey ) were both born in , and wrote about , Salford . Musicians Bernard Sumner and Peter Hook , who were members of Joy Division – which later reformed as New Order – are both from Salford . Notable Salfordian sportspeople include former England football international and Manchester United F.C. midfielder Paul Scholes , Olympic Javelin Thrower Shelley Holroyd , English former snooker player Mick Price was born in the area and Great Britain and England rugby league international and current Warrington Wolves front @-@ rower Adrian Morley . Salford was also the former hometown of The Smiths frontman , singer @-@ songwriter Morrissey and the band Happy Mondays . Composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies , who was appointed Master of the Queen 's Music in 2004 , was born in Salford . Actors Albert Finney and Robert Powell were both born and raised in Salford . Another notable resident of Salford is Eddie Colman , the youngest of the Manchester United players to die in the Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 , when only 21 . Born at Archie Street in November 1936 , he lived in the area all his life and is buried at Weaste Cemetery . His former home was demolished in the early 1970s . Journalist Alistair Cooke who wrote and broadcast " Letter from America " for decades on the BBC was born in Salford .
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= Bærum Tunnel =
The Bærum Tunnel ( Norwegian : Bærumstunnelen ) is a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long double track railway tunnel in Bærum , Norway . Running between Marstranderveien and Engervannet , it will make up most of the 6 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) long section of the Asker Line between Lysaker Station and Sandvika Station , which was taken into use on 26 August 2011 . The tunnel was constructed from 2007 using the drilling and blasting method with three crosscuts . The tunnel will have double track , be electrified and allow for maximum speeds of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) . The whole section between the stations is estimated to cost 2 @.@ 7 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The tunnel will accelerate intercity and regional traffic west of Oslo and free up capacity for the Oslo Commuter Rail .
= = Specifications = =
The Bærum Tunnel is 5 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) long and is part of the 6 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) long section of the Asker Line between Lysaker and Sandvika . At Engervannet , at the Sandvika end , the tunnel mouths out with two 400 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) long arms , one on each side of the Drammen Line , allowing trains to connect to the correct direction of traffic through Sandvika . The excavated cross @-@ section is 110 square meters ( 1 @,@ 200 sq ft ) . At the Lysaker end , the tunnel has an end @-@ piece which consists of a 150 @-@ meter ( 490 ft ) long culvert and the Drammen Line branches off on both sides of the tunnel . The three crosscuts , at Blommenholm , Fossveien and Skallum , will be used as emergency exits . In addition , there are three additional exits , to allow for an emergency exit every 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , located at Ballerud , Engerjordet and Njålveien . Each consists of a spiral staircase up to 55 meters ( 180 ft ) deep . These are primarily intended to allow access for emergency personnel , rather than as an escape route for passengers . Each staircase ends in a smoke @-@ tight room . The line will have double track , be electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC and allow for maximum speeds of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) .
= = History = =
The Asker Line runs from Lysaker Station via Sandvika Station to Asker Station , in the municipalities of Bærum and Asker . The line is built to increase the traffic on the west corridor . The only railway west of Oslo has been the Drammen Line , which has limited capacity , and a mix of local , regional , intercity and freight trains . This has caused many delays and poor utilization of tracks , as some trains make many stops and others only a few . The Asker Line allows regional and intercity trains to by @-@ pass the local stations east of Asker , by running local trains and freight trains on the Drammen Line , while faster trains run on the new track . The Asker Line was built in two stages : the first from Asker to Sandvika was built from 2001 to 2005 , and the second stage , from Sandvika to Lysaker , between 2007 and 2011 . The other two tunnels on the Asker Line are the 3 @,@ 790 @-@ meter ( 12 @,@ 430 ft ) long Skaugum Tunnel and the 3 @,@ 590 @-@ meter ( 11 @,@ 780 ft ) long Tanum Tunnel .
There were four main contracts for building the line issued after public tenders . Three of these involved part of the tunnel , and were awarded to Skanska , Veidekke and NCC . Mesta , Mika , Bestonmast and Spesialprosjekt bid , but failed to win any contracts . Work was done from 06 : 00 through 02 : 00 , and noisy work was avoided before 07 : 00 or after 22 : 00 . Any work outside the tunnels was only done between 07 : 00 to 18 : 00 , and from 08 : 00 to 16 : 00 on Saturdays . The tunnel is built using the drilling and blasting method , which involved blasting sections of 5 meters ( 16 ft ) of rock at a time , with a progress of 15 meters ( 49 ft ) per week per team . Blasting started on 26 June 2007 . Construction is done from three crosscuts , a 60 @-@ meter ( 200 ft ) long section at Engervannet , a 250 @-@ meter ( 820 ft ) long section at Fossveien , and a 420 meters ( 1 @,@ 380 ft ) long section at Skallum . At Skallum , a rinsing system for the water using in the tunneling was established , allowing the water to be recycled .
The tunneling resulted in 800 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork , most of which was used for the expansion of the Port of Drammen . It was transported away from the tunnel with up to 12 truckloads per hour . The first breakthrough took place on 5 June 2008 . On 19 October 2008 , there was a ground failure at a storage area of earthwork . This caused a land slip which pressed up earthwork nearby at Gjønnes Station on the Kolsås Line of the Oslo Metro ; a 50 meters ( 160 ft ) long section of one platform and track was pressed up 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , resulting in the other track lying on its side . Because of changes to European Union regulations after planning of the project , three extra emergency staircases had to be installed in late 2009 . The final breakthrough in the tunnel occurred on 26 July 2009 . The tunneling took place under the groundwater level . To avoid similar problems which occurred during the construction of the Romerike Tunnel , where massive leaks took a year to fix , several test bores were made in the area to measure the groundwater level . Any indications of a change would immediately be automatically communicated to the on @-@ site geologists , who would be able to act accordingly . The system also automatically pumped water into the affected areas to compensate for any leaks until they could be fixed .
To make the tunnel water and frost tight , the walls were covered with polyethylene mats . Because they are highly inflammable , they were then covered in a layer of gunite . Also installed were fire water pipes and ventilation systems to remove smoke . To sound @-@ insulate the tunnel and avoid vibrations spreading to nearby housing , the entire tunnel was covered in a layer of rock wool . By December 2010 , the ballast had been laid , and in January 2011 laying of the tracks and ties started . The work to build the tracks and overhead wires has been contracted to Baneservice . The contract for the electro @-@ technical installations was awarded to YIT Building Systems for NOK 120 million . As of 2006 , the whole section from Lysaker to Sandvika was estimated to cost NOK 2 @.@ 7 billion .
Freight trains started using the tunnel on 26 August 2011 , and passenger trains on 28 August . The official opening took place on 2 September . Along with several other projects west of Oslo , including a new Lysaker Station and Høvik Station , and an upgrade to the Drammen Line between Lysaker and Etterstad , the completion of the Asker Line will allow higher service frequency , higher regularity and faster trains west of Oslo . A new high @-@ frequency schedule , named Route Plan 2012 , was planned for introduction in early 2013 following delivery of new Stadler FLIRT trains . This will also allow for more trains that stop at all stations on the Drammen Line and introduce three hourly trains to Vestfold and six hourly trains stopping at the main stations west of Oslo .
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= HMS Fame ( H78 ) =
HMS Fame was an F @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . Although assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion , the ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 – 36 during the Abyssinia Crisis . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , she spent time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Fame served in the Norwegian Campaign in 1940 before she was severely damaged when she ran aground in October . The ship was refloated several months later and spent a year and a half under repair . Fame was converted into an escort destroyer while under repair and was assigned to escort duties in the North Atlantic when the repairs were completed in mid @-@ 1942 .
She sank two German submarines before she was transferred back to British coastal waters in May 1944 to protect the build @-@ up for Operation Overlord . Together with two other destroyers , she sank another German submarine that month and was reassigned to escort duties off the west coast of Scotland in July , where she remained until the war ended in May 1945 . Fame remained on active duty until mid @-@ 1947 when she was paid off . The ship was recommissioned a year later and was then sold to the Dominican Republic in 1949 . She was scrapped in 1968 .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Fame carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 38 shortly after the war began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Fame had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun while under repair in mid @-@ 1940 . After running aground in October , she was converted into an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and stowage for a total of 70 depth charges meant that ' Y ' gun had to be removed to compensate for the weight . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted and a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge , replacing the director @-@ control tower and rangefinder . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast . Her short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and another pair were added on the quarterdeck . By June 1943 , the .50 @-@ calibre machine guns had been replaced by a pair of Oerlikons , ' A ' gun was reinstalled , and the Hedgehog mounted there was converted to a split installation . Later , her single mounts on the bridge wings were probably replaced by twin mounts .
= = Construction and career = =
Fame was ordered on 17 March 1933 from Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company , although her hull was sub @-@ contracted to Vickers Armstrongs . She was laid down at their Walker , Newcastle upon Tyne shipyard on 5 July , launched on 28 June 1934 , the same day as her sister ship , HMS Firedrake , and completed on 26 April 1935 . The ship cost 244 @,@ 216 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Fame was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , although she had to have her ammunition hoists modified at Devonport Royal Dockyard from 23 July to 28 August . The ship was then sent to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet during the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War . Fame was refitted at Devonport from 20 July to 10 November 1936 before she began to enforce the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee until January 1937 . She visited Aarhus , Denmark in July before returning to Spanish waters in August – September . The ship then returned home and spent the next two years with the 6th DF . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the start of World War II . Fame remained assigned to it until July 1940 , escorting the larger ships of the fleet .
In the Norwegian Campaign , she supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . She continued to provide fire support during the battle for the rest of the month . During the nights of 30 and 31 May , the ship helped to evacuate troops from Bodø to Harstad and Borkenes to await further evacuation . Fame was one of the ships that escorted the troop ships evacuating the troops from the Narvik area on 7 and 8 June .
While searching for the damaged submarine Shark on 6 July , she was badly damaged by bomb splinters and was under repair until 10 October . A week later , she ran aground , together with the destroyer Ashanti , on the Northumberland coast while escorting the battleship King George V. The ship was severely damaged and could not be refloated until 1 December . Fame received temporary repairs at Sunderland before she was towed to Chatham Royal Dockyard on 2 February 1941 . Heavily overworked , the dockyard took nearly 18 months to repair the ship , although the decision to convert her into an escort destroyer during this time contributed to the time required .
In September 1942 , Fame finished her repairs and she was assigned to Escort Group B6 with her captain , Commander R. Heathcote , as the Group 's senior officer . Her first Atlantic convoy action was with SC 104 , a major convoy battle that saw the loss of 8 ships , with 2 warships damaged , and 2 U @-@ boats destroyed , with 2 more damaged and forced to retire . Fame 's ASDIC located German submarine U @-@ 353 on 16 October and a shallow @-@ set pattern of 10 depth charges forced her to the surface where she was rammed and sunk by Fame . The impact badly damaged the destroyer and she was forced to leave the convoy for repairs after rescuing 39 survivors . Her repairs were completed in December , and , while escorting Convoy ON 155 , was dispatched to the aid of Convoy ON 154 , which was under heavy attack . Heathcote was ordered to take command of the escort after the commander of Escort Group C1 collapsed from exhaustion after a five @-@ day battle , during which ON 154 had lost 14 ships for one U @-@ boat destroyed .
In February 1943 , Escort Group B6 was escorting Convoy ONS 165 , which lost two ships for two U @-@ boats destroyed . Fame sank one of these , U @-@ 69 , on 17 February . Fame was reassigned to patrol duty in the South @-@ Western Approaches in May 1944 as part of the Normandy landings and became the senior ship of the 14th Escort Group . During this time , Fame participated in the sinking of U @-@ 767 , together with the destroyers Inconstant and Havelock on 18 June . The following month , Fame was transferred to the west coast of Scotland , continuing there until the end of the war .
= = = Post war = = =
Fame began a refit at Leith in May 1945 that lasted until August . Unlike most of the prewar destroyers , she remained on active duty and was assigned to the Rosyth Escort Force until October when she was transferred to the Londonderry Training Flotilla . A month later , Fame became the senior officer 's ship for the 3rd Flotilla at Londonderry Port . The ship was reduced to reserve in May 1947 , but was reactivated a year later and refitted in June 1948 . Together with the destroyer Hotspur , she was sold on 4 February 1949 to the Dominican Republic for £ 190 @,@ 000 for both ships , plus an additional £ 40 @,@ 000 to refit each ship . By this time the ship carried a Type 291 air @-@ warning radar and an American SG @-@ 1 surface @-@ search radar . She was armed with three 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , four 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors light AA guns , one quadruple 21 @-@ inch torpedo mount , four depth charge throwers and two rails for 70 depth charges . Fame was renamed Generalisimo , but , after the death of Rafael Trujillo , the ship was renamed Sanchez in 1962 . The ship was scrapped in 1968 .
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= Indiana Governor 's Residence =
The Indiana Governor 's Residence is the official home of the family of the Governor of Indiana and is located in Indianapolis , Indiana . In use since 1973 , it is the sixth official residence of Indiana 's governors .
= = Current residence = =
The Indiana Governor 's Residence is located in the historic district surrounding North Meridian Street in Indianapolis , Indiana . It sits on an estate of 6 @.@ 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 6 ha ) at 4750 North Meridian Street . Designed by Scott Wadley , with the firm of Rabush and Hunter serving as architects , the English Tudor home was built in 1928 . It was acquired by the state of Indiana in 1973 from attorney C. Severin Buschman for US $ 242 @,@ 000 . The home was then renovated for approximately $ 800 @,@ 000 , including $ 125 @,@ 000 in funds from a Lilly Endowment grant . Renovation included the installation of air conditioning and modern wiring .
Approximately 10 @,@ 500 sq ft ( 980 m2 ) , with twenty @-@ three rooms , eleven of them bathrooms , it is considered a typical size for an English Tudor home and resembles many of the other homes in the neighborhood that were built in the same time period . Although the appearance is similar to the other homes , it is structurally unique because its support and foundation are made of concrete , whereas typical Tudor homes are entirely wooden . The home 's lower floor is open to the public and tours are offered regularly to visitors . The rooms available for viewing include the foyer , a library , the formal living room , formal and informal dining room , a sun porch , a kitchen , a butler 's pantry , and event space . The second floor is reserved for the first family as a living area and is off limits to the public . The home receives approximately 10 @,@ 000 visitors annually .
= = Previous governors ' residences = =
Before Indiana became a state , the Indiana Territory had two governors . William Henry Harrison , the first governor , built a plantation @-@ style home in Vincennes , and named it Grouseland for its many birds . Built in 1804 , it was one of the first brick buildings in the territory . The home is still preserved and is a National Historic Landmark . Thomas Posey , the territory 's second governor , had a home built in Corydon , but lived there only briefly before moving to Jeffersonville where he rented a room in a boarding house . The Posey House is preserved as part of a National Historic District .
There have been six official residences of Indiana 's governors since Indiana became a state , but only five were actually inhabited by the first family . There were four other unofficial residences that governors also lived in while no other accommodations were available . The first residence of a state governor was in Corydon on a small hill overlooking the first statehouse ; Governor Jonathan Jennings and his wife Anne lived in it from 1816 until 1822 . The home was visited by United States Presidents Andrew Jackson and James Monroe . The building is no longer standing but a new home has been built upon its original foundation and uses its cellar as a basement . Governor William Hendricks also lived in Corydon at Governor Hendricks Headquarters , an unofficial residence purchased by Hendricks from Davis Floyd and located on the same block as Jennings ' home . Floyd had built the home for himself , but lost it after the Panic of 1819 . Hendricks lived there during his term as governor , from 1822 – 1825 , and later sold it .
The second official residence for the state 's governor was built in the center of Indianapolis where the Indiana Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument now stands . It was designed by Alexander Ralston , who also laid out most of the city . The mansion cost $ 6 @,@ 500 and was completed in 1827 during the term of Governor James B. Ray . Ray 's wife refused to live in the home because of its lack of privacy ; it was never used by a governor . It was inhabited by Indiana Chief Justice Isaac Blackford from around 1830 until the 1850s . It was demolished in the 1870s .
Without an acceptable home for the governor , the state purchased the house of Dr. John H. Sanders to serve as a residence for the Governor in 1837 . The location , on the corner of Market and Illinois Streets in Indianapolis , proved to be damp and unhealthy because of the wetland conditions of the area during that time . Governor James Whitcomb blamed the conditions for his wife 's death . The home was abandoned in 1861 during the term of Oliver Morton , who briefly lived in the house but refused to stay . The house was sold during his term and eventually destroyed .
The governors remained without an official residence until 1919 when the state purchased a home located at 101 East 27th St. , Indianapolis , for $ 65 @,@ 000 and furnished it for an additional $ 20 @,@ 000 . It was built by Henry Kahn in 1908 and had the design of an English country house . The home had a Gothic interior with high , beamed ceilings and luxurious Wilton carpeting . After a brief renovation , the home was inhabited by the governor starting in 1919 and remained so until 1945 . The building was sold by the state to the Marott Hotel , which intended to turn it into a clubhouse , but eventually demolished it in 1962 to clear land for a parking lot .
The fifth home for the governor was purchased in 1945 and located at 4343 N. Meridian St. The home was built in 1924 by Harry Lane , an auditor for the Indianapolis Stockyards . Three stories high with slated roofs and 12 rooms , it was famed for its golden bathroom fixtures and its high gilt @-@ tipped iron fence . It was purchased from his widow for $ 72 @,@ 000 . It served as residence for the governor from 1945 until the present mansion was purchased in 1973 . The home was sold at an auction in 1973 to Robert L. Dawson , who in turn sold it to Dr. John C. Klein in 1978 .
After the building was auctioned , there was a brief period while the current residence was in renovation . During that period , governors Edgar Whitcomb and Otis Bowen took up residence in Riley Towers located at 650 N. Alabama St. The state leased the penthouse for their residence at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 150 per month .
= = Gallery = =
= = Governor 's Residence Commission = =
The governor 's residence is maintained by a trust managed by the Governor 's Residence Commission and is part of the Indiana Public Building Foundation located at 4750 N. Meridian St. , Indianapolis . The commission was authorized in 1975 , charged with overseeing the renovation and maintenance of the home as well as event planning . In 2008 , the commission 's members included Linda Goad , Sara Barclay , David Collins , Jim Baker , Mike Bosway , Judy Warren , and Shannon Rezek . The commission is partly funded by private donations . The members are appointed by the Governor and serve at term lengths of his choosing . The commission meets monthly and officially reports to the Office of First Lady . The commission serves without pay , but is reimbursed for expenses .
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= Smokers v Non @-@ Smokers =
Two first @-@ class cricket matches billed as " Smokers v Non @-@ Smokers " were played during the 1880s . Featuring players from Australia and England , each match occurred during a tour of one of those countries by the other 's national team . The first match was won by the Non @-@ Smokers , while in the second , which was drawn , the Non @-@ Smokers scored a then @-@ record 803 runs in the first innings .
The first match was played at the end of the Australian tour of England in 1884 , and was held at Lord 's in aid of the Cricketers ' Fund Friendly Society . Eight of the tourists took part ; four on each side . The Non @-@ Smokers batted first , and then forced their opponents to follow on , aided by a strong batting performance from George Bonnor . The Smokers , batting twice , only finished thirteen runs ahead , a total which was chased down without the need for the scheduled third day of the contest .
In the second match , held in Australia two and a half years later , the contest once again featured a combination of Australian and English players . Aided by a Arthur Shrewsbury double century , the Non @-@ Smokers set a new record for the highest innings in first @-@ class cricket , accumulating 803 runs . As in the original match , the Smokers had to follow on , and when the match finished as a draw they were still almost 500 runs behind .
= = First match , 1884 = =
The Australia national cricket team toured England in 1884 , playing an itinerary of 32 matches , including three designated as Tests . At the end of the tour , an additional fixture was arranged by V. E. Walker , who went on to become president of both the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and Middlesex County Cricket Club . The match , which was described in The South Australian Advertiser as being " novel and interesting " , combined Australian and English players into two teams ; those who smoked and those who did not . The match was played to raise money for the Cricketers ' Fund Friendly Society , in which it was considered very successful , raising in excess of £ 561 . Walker also wanted the British public to have an opportunity to see members of the Australian touring party play against each other , to which end Alick Bannerman , George Bonnor , Billy Murdoch and Tup Scott represented the Non @-@ Smokers , while George Giffen , Percy McDonnell , Eugene Palmer and Frederick Spofforth played for the Smokers . The reporter from The South Australian Advertiser judged that the Smokers had the stronger batsmen , while the Non @-@ Smokers had the better bowlers .
Lord Harris captained the Smokers , and called the toss wrong ; the captain of the Non @-@ Smokers , W. G. Grace , opted for his side to bat first . The Smokers team amused the crowd by walking out to field smoking cigarettes . The first three wickets fell for the addition of 38 runs ; Grace scored 10 , Murdoch got 4 and Bannerman had 22 , bringing together Bonnor and Dick Barlow . The pair added 152 runs together , with the Lancashire professional Barlow playing a supporting role to the Australian Bonnor . The latter scored 124 runs , and according to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , he batted against Spofforth " with such astonishing freedom . " Bonnor hit a six and 16 fours during his innings , which was the only score over 50 in the match . Barlow continued to bat carefully , but was eventually dismissed for 39 by the left @-@ arm spinner Edmund Peate , who claimed six of the final seven wickets to finish with figures of six for 30 , and end the Non @-@ Smokers innings on 250 .
The Smokers began their innings late on the first day . By that stage , the pitch had deteriorated and light was poor , making batting more difficult . By the end of the day 's play forty minutes later , they had lost four wickets and only scored 25 runs . They fared better the following morning , but only three batsmen reached double figures — Billy Gunn , 18 , Monty Bowden , 29 , and Charles Clarke , 20 not out — as they were bowled out for 111 just before the lunch break . W. G. Grace was the pick of the bowlers , taking five wickets for 29 runs . A first @-@ innings deficit of 139 runs meant that the Smokers were forced to follow on .
Beginning their second innings after lunch , there was a little improvement for the Smokers , though six of the team were dismissed without reaching double figures . Gunn top @-@ scored for his side , remaining 43 not out at the end of the innings , while Charles Thornton and George Giffen both scored quickly , making 27 and 15 respectively . Despite these scores , the Smokers only reached 152 , leaving the Non @-@ Smokers needing 14 runs to win the match . Grace collected three further wickets in this second innings , but he was bettered by Barlow , who took five for 24 . Although the match was past half past five in the evening with poor light , the decision was made that the match should not continue into the following day , and so the Non @-@ Smokers came out to bat and hit the runs they required , reaching the total shortly after six o 'clock . The match was played at Lord 's in good weather on both days , and was well attended on the first day , with between six and seven thousand spectators at the ground .
= = Second match , 1887 = =
Two and a half years later , another first @-@ class contest with the same title was held at East Melbourne Cricket Ground in Australia . The game was played as the penultimate match of the English tour of Australia in 1886 – 87 , led by Alfred Shaw . Once again the two teams contained a mix of Australian and English players , including three who had taken part in the previous match ; Barlow and Palmer each appeared for the same team as previously , but Gunn , who had played for the Smokers in 1884 , switched teams and was on the side of the Non @-@ Smokers in 1887 . The touring side had been due to face a " Combined Australia " team , but as such a team would be missing those players from New South Wales , it was decided to split the teams as in 1884 . The match was sponsored by four companies , with prizes of 500 cigars each for the best batsman and bowler for the Smokers , 250 cigars for the best aggregate batting score for the Smokers , another 250 cigars for the best individual score from either side , and 200 cigars for the best bowling for the Non @-@ Smokers .
The match began in similar fashion to the earlier contest ; the Non @-@ Smokers won the toss , and their captain Arthur Shrewsbury chose to bat first . The Smokers , led by the Australian Harry Boyle , walked onto the pitch smoking cigars . Despite the strong bowling attack boasted by the Smokers , which included Johnny Briggs and George Lohmann , the Non @-@ Smokers took advantage of a good batting wicket and accrued 196 runs before the first wicket fell , that of William Bruce for 131 . Billy Bates was dismissed shortly thereafter for four , bringing in Billy Gunn . Shrewsbury and Gunn batted together for the rest of the day , and the following morning , building a partnership of 310 runs ; Shrewsbury was eventually caught off the bowling of Briggs for 236 , while Gunn was bowled by Boyle for 150 . Fifties from Richard Houston , Harry Musgrove and Jack Worrall in the middle @-@ order boosted the score to 803 , a new record for the highest innings total in first @-@ class cricket . The previous record , 775 runs , had also been set in Australia , by New South Wales . The score fell some way short of the highest innings score in any cricket , which was believed to have been the 920 scored by Orleans Club against Rickling Green in 1882 . The score has since been surpassed over twenty times .
The Smokers began their response on the third morning of the match , and after losing Maurice Read for 30 , Eugene Palmer and Briggs put together a partnership of 160 , but both were dismissed before the close of play that day , Palmer for 113 and Briggs for 86 . Nevertheless , with the score at 302 for three , it was considered likely that the match would end in a draw . The following morning , wickets fell rapidly ; Bates finished the innings with figures of six for 73 , and the Smokers , who were all out for 356 , were asked to follow on . Briggs recorded a second fifty in the match , but otherwise no player made a significant impact , and the game pestered towards the expected draw . The last ball of the match resulted in a situation described by Gerald Brodribb as " most unusual " . William Scotton faced the final delivery of the contest . Eager to claim the ball as a souvenir of the high @-@ scoring match , he defended the delivery and picked the ball up . The fielders — who also wanted the souvenir — appealed , and Scotton was ruled out , having handled the ball . The match was drawn , with the Smokers still trailing by 491 runs .
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= Masked shrike =
The masked shrike ( Lanius nubicus ) is a bird in the shrike family , Laniidae . It breeds in southeastern Europe and at the eastern end of the Mediterranean , with a separate population in eastern Iraq and western Iran . It is migratory , wintering mainly in northeast Africa . Although it is a short @-@ range migrant , vagrants have occurred widely elsewhere , including northern and western Europe . It is the smallest member of its genus , long @-@ tailed and with a hooked bill . The male has mainly black upperparts , with white on its crown , forehead and supercilium and large white patches on the shoulders and wings . The throat , neck sides and underparts are white , with orange flanks and breast . The female is a duller version of the male , with brownish black upperparts and a grey or buff tone to the shoulders and underparts . The juvenile has grey @-@ brown upperparts with a paler forehead and barring from the head to rump , barred off @-@ white underparts and brown wings аpart from the white primary patches . The species ' calls are short and grating , but the song has melodic warbler @-@ like components .
The masked shrike 's preferred habitat is open woodland with bushes and some large trees . It is less conspicuous than its relatives , avoiding very open country and often perching in less exposed locations . The nest is a neat cup built in a tree by both adults , and the clutch is normally 4 – 6 eggs , which are incubated by the female for 14 – 16 days until hatching . The chicks are fed by both parents until they fledge 18 – 20 days later , and remain dependent on the adults for about 3 – 4 weeks after leaving the nest . The masked shrike eats mainly large insects , occasionally small vertebrates ; it sometimes impales its prey on thorns or barbed wire . Populations are decreasing in parts of the European range , but not rapidly enough to raise serious conservation concerns , and the species is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The shrikes are a family of slender , long @-@ tailed passerines , most of its members being in the genus Lanius , the typical shrikes . They are short @-@ necked birds with rounded wings and a hooked tip to the bill . Most occur in open habitats . The affiliations of the masked shrike with other members of the genus are uncertain ; the " brown " shrikes ( brown , red @-@ backed and isabelline shrikes ) and tropical species like the Somali fiscal have both been suggested as possible relatives . The masked shrike has no subspecies .
The masked shrike was described by German explorer and naturalist Martin Lichtenstein in 1823 under its current scientific name . Lanius is the Latin for a butcher , and comes from the shrikes ' habit of impaling prey , reminiscent of a butcher hanging carcasses , and nubicus means " Nubian " ( from northeast Africa ) . The bird was independently described by Dutch zoologist Coenraad Temminck in 1824 as Lanius personatus , from the Latin personatus " masked " , referring , as does the English name , to the bird 's appearance , but the older name takes precedence . A later synonym from 1844 was L. leucometopon from the Greek leukos , " white " , and metopon , " forehead " , describing a feature of the distinctive head pattern . " Shrike " , first recorded in 1545 , derives from the shrill cries given by this family , and the traditional common name " butcher @-@ bird " again refers to the characteristic prey storage , and has been in use since at least 1668 .
= = Description = =
The masked shrike is the smallest of its genus , a slender bird which usually weighs 20 – 23 g ( 0 @.@ 71 – 0 @.@ 81 oz ) , measuring 17 – 18 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 3 in ) long with a 24 – 26 @.@ 5 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 – 10 @.@ 4 in ) wingspan . It has a long tail and relatively small bill , on each side of which is a tomial tooth ; the upper mandible bears a triangular ridge which fits a corresponding notch in the lower mandible . This adaptation is otherwise only found in falcons .
The male has mainly black upperparts , a white crown , forehead and supercilium . There are large white patches on the shoulders and primaries , and the outermost tail feathers are also white . The throat , neck sides and underparts are white , with orange on the flanks and breast . The iris is brown , the bill is black and the legs are dark brown or black . The female is a duller version of the male , with brownish @-@ black upperparts and a grey or buff tinge to the white shoulder patches and underparts . The juvenile has grey @-@ brown upperparts with darker bars from the head to rump , a paler grey forehead , barred off @-@ white underparts and brown wings with white primary patches .
Masked shrikes are most similar in appearance to woodchat shrikes , but are smaller , more slender and longer @-@ tailed . Adults of the two species are easily distinguished , since the masked shrike has white on its head and a dark rump , whereas the woodchat shrike has a black crown , rusty nape and white rump . Juveniles are more similar , but the masked shrike has a longer tail , paler face , and grey back and rump , whereas the woodchat shrike has a sandy back and pale grey rump .
Juveniles moult their head , body and some wing feathers a few weeks after fledging , and adults have a complete moult after breeding . In both cases , if the process is not complete by the time of migration it is suspended and completed on the wintering grounds .
= = = Voice = = =
The masked shrike gives the harsh calls typical of this family , with repeated tsr , tzr or shek notes and some whistles , and when alarmed produces a rattling krrrr . The bill may be snapped when the bird is agitated . The song , up to a minute long , is soft for a shrike , with chattering sounds interspersed with rich warbles . It resembles the songs of Hippolais species , particularly the olive @-@ tree warbler . On rare occasions , males may sing in flight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The masked shrike breeds in the Balkans , northeast Greece and some of the Greek islands , Turkey , Cyprus and from Syria south to Israel . It also nests in eastern Iraq and western Iran . The range in the east is uncertain , and may include Afghanistan and northern Saudi Arabia . It is migratory , wintering south of the Sahara , mainly in Chad , Sudan and Ethiopia . Smaller numbers are found west to eastern Mali and Nigeria , and in northern Kenya and southern Saudi Arabia . Most birds leave the breeding areas in late August and September , and return north in February and March .
This species is seen in Egypt , Jordan and Israel much more often in spring than autumn , suggesting that the southern movement may be concentrated further east . Birds will hold small territories on about 0 @.@ 5 hectares ( 1 @.@ 2 acres ) on migration , and , unlike other shrikes , may congregate in significant numbers . More than 100 have been seen in one locality in Israel , with five in a single bush . This shrike has occurred as a vagrant in Algeria , Finland , Kenya , Libya , Spain , Sweden , Mauritania and Turkmenistan . At least three individuals have been documented in Great Britain , and two individuals in Armenia .
The masked shrike 's preferred habitat is open woodland with bushes and some large trees . Unlike its relatives , it avoids very open , lightly vegetated country . Orchards and other cultivated land with suitable old trees or large hedges are also used by this species . It is normally found in more wooded areas than sympatric shrikes . It occurs in lowlands and in hills up to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . In some areas breeding occurs at greater altitudes , up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . It may occur in gardens and resorts on migration , and in winter again prefers open country with thorny bushes and large trees like acacia or introduced eucalyptus .
= = Behaviour = =
The masked shrike is a solitary species except when on migration . It maintains a breeding territory of 2 – 5 ha ( 5 – 12 acres ) and is also territorial on the wintering grounds , defending an area of about 3 ha ( 7 acres ) . Although unafraid of humans , it is aggressive to its own species and other birds which infringe on its territory . Most other shrikes use high , exposed branches throughout the year , but the masked shrike only uses conspicuous locations at the start of the breeding season , otherwise choosing lower , more sheltered spots . It perches upright , frequently cocking its tail , and has an easy , agile flight . A masked shrike has been recorded as feigning injury when trapped , only to return to normal when the threat receded .
= = = Breeding = = =
Male masked shrikes sing from perches in their territories from early April , sometimes chasing or competing vocally with neighbouring males . The male 's courtship display , usually accompanied by singing , starts with the bird perching erect and shivering its wings on an exposed perch , and is followed by the shrike stepping down its branch and bowing , either on the move or while temporarily halted . The male may also give a fluttering , zigzagging flight display . The female is sometimes fed by her mate while she crouches with spread wings and gives begging calls . Elements of the display are shared with other shrikes , but stepping @-@ down and bowing on the move appear to be confined to this species .
The nest , built by both sexes , is a small , neat cup of rootlets , stems and twigs , lined with wool or hair , and adorned with lichen externally . It is constructed in a tree 1 @.@ 5 – 10 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 32 @.@ 8 ft ) above the ground and averages 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide and 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deep , with the cup 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) across and a 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) in depth . Eggs are laid from April to June , mainly in May in the lowlands and about a month later in the mountains . Replacement clutches are laid in June or July if the nest fails , and second broods appear to be common in at least some areas . The first nest is destroyed by the pair to provide material for a replacement breeding attempt . The eggs average 20 mm × 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in × 0 @.@ 63 in ) in size and are variable in colour , with a background of grey , cream or yellow , diffuse grey blotches , and a ring of brown markings . The normal clutch is 4 – 6 eggs , which are incubated by the female for 14 – 16 days until hatching . The altricial downy chicks are fed by both parents until they fledge 18 – 20 days later . They are dependent on the adults for about 3 – 4 weeks after leaving the nest . The masked shrike breeds in its first year , but its average life span is unknown .
Vertebrate predators of young birds include cats and crows . This species may also be infected by parasites , such as an eyeworm , a tick , Hyalomma marginatum , and at least two species of Haemoproteus blood parasites .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like its relatives , the masked shrike hunts from a perch , typically 3 – 8 m ( 10 – 26 ft ) high , although usually in less exposed locations than those favoured by most other shrikes . Prey is usually taken from the ground , but occasionally picked off foliage or caught in the air with an agile flycatcher @-@ like flight . The kill may be impaled on thorns or barbed wire as a " larder " for immediate or later consumption . Because passerines have relatively weak legs , impalement holds the corpse while it is dismembered . It was once thought that this behaviour was shown mainly by male shrikes in the breeding season , but this is not the case . Masked shrikes of both sexes are known to impale in winter and on migration . Individual birds may be very tame , following a gardener or feeding close to an observer .
The masked shrike feeds mainly on large insects , although other arthropods and small vertebrates are also caught . Shrikes fatten up before migration , but to a lesser extent than other passerines because they can feed on the way , sometimes taking other tired migrants . Despite its relatively small size , the masked shrike has been recorded as killing species such as lesser whitethroat and little swift . Vertebrates are killed by bill blows to the back of the head , and the tomial teeth are then used to separate the neck bones .
= = Status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) estimates the European population of the masked shrike to be between 105 @,@ 000 – 300 @,@ 000 individuals , suggesting a global total of 142 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 birds . Although the population appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger the IUCN vulnerability criteria . The large numbers and extensive breeding range of about 353 @,@ 000 km2 ( 136 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , mean that this shrike is classified by the IUCN as being of least concern .
Numbers have declined in recent decades in Europe , although Bulgaria , Greece and Cyprus still have several thousand breeding pairs . Turkey is a stronghold with up to 90 @,@ 000 pairs . The species is declining in Greece and Turkey because of habitat loss , and a large decrease in Israel is thought to be due to pesticides . In Somalia this bird is now rare . Migrating birds are shot in the countries around the eastern Mediterranean , despite legal protection in most countries , and there is some persecution of breeding birds in Greece and Syria , where this species is considered to be unlucky . There are indications that this shrike is adapting to plantations instead of natural woodlands , which could help populations in the longer term .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
Alarm call at Xeno @-@ canto
Song at Xeno @-@ canto
= = = Further information = = =
Lanius nubicus in the Flickr : Field Guide Birds of the World
Lanius nubicus on Avibase
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= Space Science Fiction Magazine =
Space Science Fiction Magazine was a US science fiction magazine published by Republic Features Syndicate , Inc. as part of a package of radio shows and related genre magazines . Two issues appeared , both in 1957 . It published short stories by well @-@ known writers , including Arthur C. Clarke and Jack Vance , but it was not successful , and the magazine ceased publication late in 1957 .
= = Publication history and bibliographic data = =
Science fiction was one of the staple genres of American pulp magazine publishing , beginning in 1926 with Amazing Stories . A brief boom in the late 1930s was cut short by World War II , but the field expanded again in the late 1940s . By 1957 the boom had reached its height ; 24 science fiction magazines published at least one issue that year . One of the most prominent of these magazines , Galaxy Science Fiction , had a successful association with two radio shows , Dimension X and X Minus One . This sparked imitators , and during 1956 Lyle Kenyon Engel of Republic Features Syndicate put together a package of two radio shows and four magazines . The shows were American Agent , a spy drama , and The Frightened , to be narrated by Boris Karloff . The magazine package included a spy magazine and a horror magazine to tie in with the radio shows , and two additional titles : Private Investigator Detective Magazine and Space Science Fiction Magazine . Private Investigator 's first issue was published in 1956 , but problems with the radio schedules delayed the launch of the other magazines until 1957 .
Space SF 's first issue was dated Spring 1957 , although its masthead indicated that it would be a bimonthly . It was published by Republic Features Syndicate , Inc . , of New York , and edited by Michael Avallone , who was not credited on the masthead . The second issue was dated August 1957 ; this proved to be the final issue , as shortly thereafter Republic Features Syndicate went out of business . The liquidation of American News Company earlier that year , a major distributor , had led to the extinction of many magazines , as they had to scramble to find new distributors , but it is not known if Space SF was one of the victims .
Both issues were digest @-@ sized , with 132 pages , and were priced at 35 cents . The issues were numbered as a single volume with two issues .
= = Contents = =
Engel obtained stories from moderately well @-@ known science fiction names for both issues , including John Jakes , Mack Reynolds , Jack Vance , and Raymond F. Jones , but many of the stories were " barrel @-@ scrapings " from the Scott Meredith Literary Agency , in the words of one historian ; most had already been rejected at the other active science fiction markets . Space SF also published Arthur C. Clarke 's " Critical Mass " , one of the popular " White Hart " stories . It had already appeared in a 1949 edition of a British magazine , Lilliput , but Clarke revised it for this publication . Overall , in the words of Mike Ashley , " ... [ it ] carried stories by noted sf writers , [ but ] they read like rejects from better magazines , and there was nothing of lasting value " . Ashley comments that the best story was Jakes 's " The Devil Spins a Sun @-@ Dream " , which was atmospheric if poorly plotted ; the protagonist , a human prospector on Mars , finds a fabulous city , but an ancient booby @-@ trap destroys it before his eyes .
Almost every story was illustrated , with Bruce Minney as artist . Both issues ' covers were by Tom Ryan . There were no editorials , review columns , or any other contents other than fiction , and advertisements , all of which were for radio shows , including American Agent and The Frightened .
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= 2007 Pacific hurricane season =
The 2007 Pacific hurricane season was a below @-@ average Pacific hurricane season , featuring one major hurricane . The season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and on June 1 in the central Pacific , and ended on November 30 ; these dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the region . The first tropical cyclone of the season , Alvin , developed on May 27 , while the final system of the year , Kiko , dissipated on October 23 . Due to unusually strong wind shear , activity fell short of the long @-@ term average , with a total of 11 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 1 major hurricane . At the time , 2007 featured the second @-@ lowest value of the Accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) index since reliable records began in 1971 . Two tropical cyclones – Cosme and Flossie – crossed into the central Pacific basin during the year , activity below the average of 4 to 5 systems .
Impact during the season was relatively minimal . In early June , Tropical Storm Barbara moved ashore just northwest of the Mexico – Guatemala border , causing $ 55 million ( 2007 USD ) in damage and 4 deaths . In late July , Cosme passed south of the island of Hawaii as a weakening tropical depression ; light rain and increased surf resulted . A few days later , Dalila passed offshore the coastline of southwestern Mexico , killing 11 and causing minimal damage . Hurricane Flossie followed a similar track to Cosme in mid @-@ August , producing gusty winds and light precipitation in Hawaii . Hurricane Henriette in early September produced torrential rainfall in southwestern Mexico , killing 6 and causing $ 25 million in damage . Baja California received moderate rains from Hurricane Ivo in mid @-@ September , though no damage nor fatalities were reported . In mid @-@ October , Tropical Storm Kiko passed just offshore the coastline of southwestern Mexico . Though no deaths were reported on the Mexico mainland , the storm capsized a ship with 30 people on board , 15 of whom were recovered dead , and 9 of whom were reported missing . Overall , the season ended with $ 80 million in damage and 49 deaths .
= = Seasonal summary = =
= = = Preseason forecast = = =
On May 21 , 2007 , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Central Pacific Hurricane Center released its outlook for the 2007 Central Pacific hurricane season , predicting a total of 2 – 3 tropical cyclones to form or cross into the basin ; in a typical season , 4 – 5 systems cross or form in the Central Pacific . A day later , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Climate Prediction Center released its seasonal prediction for the 2007 East Pacific hurricane season , predicting a total of 11 – 16 named storms , 6 – 9 hurricanes , and 2 – 4 major hurricanes . Below @-@ average activity was expected as a result of either ENSO @-@ Neutral or La Niña conditions , as well as the continuation of the reduction in activity beginning in 1995 .
= = = Seasonal activity = = =
Tropical cyclone activity totaled to 11 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 1 major hurricane within the 2007 Pacific hurricane season ; all three of these values fall below the 1971 – 2006 long @-@ term average of 15 named storms , 9 hurricanes , and 4 major hurricanes . The main contributing factor to below @-@ average activity was much above @-@ average wind shear across the Pacific basin . Overall energy output was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) index of 52 units , well below the 1981 – 2010 average of 113 @.@ 3 units , and at the time the second @-@ lowest value observed since reliable records began in 1971 . In May 2007 , two tropical storms – Alvin and Barbara – developed , marking at the time the third such instance of more than one tropical storm developing within the month since official records began in 1949 . In June 2007 , only one tropical depression developed in the East Pacific basin , making 2007 one of only four years in which a tropical storm did not form in the month . By the following month , in terms of ACE , 2007 was considered the third quietest year @-@ to @-@ date since the satellite era began in 1966 ; in September , the season fell to the second quietest year @-@ to @-@ date . Below @-@ average activity continued for the remainder of the year .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alvin = = =
The genesis of Alvin can be attributed to a tropical wave that crossed Dakar , Africa on May 9 . The wave remained poorly organized as it moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea through mid @-@ May . On May 20 , the disturbance crossed Central America and emerged into the eastern Pacific Ocean , where convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — gradually began to increase over the well @-@ defined center ; this led to the formation of a tropical depression by 0000 UTC on May 27 , approximately 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . Following designation , the depression was slow to organize as a result of moderate easterly shear ; by 0000 UTC on May 29 , however , the system had gained enough organization to be considered a tropical storm . After attaining its peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1003 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 62 inHg ) , increasingly stable air and higher wind shear caused Alvin to begin a weakening trend . At 0600 UTC on May 30 , it weakened to a tropical depression , and by 0000 UTC on June 1 , Alvin degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low . The remnant low continued generally westward until dissipation six days later .
= = = Tropical Storm Barbara = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on May 14 . After emerging into the eastern Pacific on May 25 , the system acquired enough organization to be considered a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on May 29 , about 115 mi ( 185 km ) south @-@ southeast of Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca . Within an environment of weak steering currents , the storm became better organized as evidenced by an improving satellite appearance , with the formation of a curved band in the southeast quadrant . At 1200 UTC on May 30 , the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm ; by 0000 UTC on June 1 , however , increased northerly wind shear caused Barbara to weaken back to a tropical depression . After re @-@ intensifying into a tropical storm for a second time six hours later , Barbara attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1000 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) at 1800 UTC . Drifting northeast , the storm maintained this intensity until landfall just northwest of the Mexico @-@ Guatemala border at 1300 UTC on June 2 . Rapid weakening ensued thereafter , with the system weakening to a tropical depression at 1800 UTC . The low @-@ level circulation dissipated six hours later , marking the dissipation of Barbara .
Heavy rainfall exceeding 4 in ( 100 mm ) caused many rivers to swell . An unspecified island was separated from the Mexico mainland after the bridge connecting the two was washed away , stranding dozens of families . In El Salvador , significant flooding killed four people . Gusts peaked at 58 mph ( 85 km / h ) at an automated weather station in Puerto Madero , Chiapas . Across the affected regions , these winds caused damage limited to house roofs and trees . Barbara caused severe crop damage totaling to 200 million pesos ( 2007 MXN ; $ 55 million ) . About a hundred residents were forced to evacuate after the storm destroyed a dozen palm huts in Guatemala .
= = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = =
On May 24 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . The wave entered the eastern Pacific around June 6 and shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase shortly thereafter . A broad area of low pressure formed a few hundred miles south of Acapulco , Mexico two days later . Following satellite evidence of a well @-@ defined circulation and organized convective activity , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on June 11 . After attaining winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1004 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) , the depression began to traverse cooler waters and much more stable air . This caused all associated convection to fade away , and the depression degenerated to a non @-@ convective remnant low at 0000 UTC on June 13 . The remnant low continued northwest until dissipation by 0600 UTC on June 15 .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on June 23 . It reached the eastern Pacific on July 3 , where associated convection began to increase three days later . Continued slow development occurred thereafter , and following satellite trends , the disturbance was upgraded to Tropical Depression Four @-@ E at 1800 UTC on July 9 . Tracking westward , the depression began to move across waters too cool to support a tropical cyclone and into an environment of moderate shear . The low @-@ level circulation became ill @-@ defined and exposed , leading to degeneration to a remnant low at 0600 UTC on July 11 about 910 mi ( 1465 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . The low continued northwest until dissipation at 0000 UTC the following day .
= = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E = = =
On June 21 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . It entered the eastern Pacific on July 10 , and shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase a day later as a result . Tracking westward , the wave gradually became better organized ; by 1200 UTC on July 14 , the disturbance acquired enough organization to be upgraded to a tropical depression . Within an environment of moderate wind shear , the low @-@ level center quickly became poorly defined as convection dissipated . Turning west @-@ northwest on July 15 , the depression entered cooler waters and an increasingly stable airmass , causing the system to degenerate into a remnant low by 0000 UTC the following day . The remnant low dissipated a few hours later .
= = = Hurricane Cosme = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on June 27 and tracked westward to reach the eastern Pacific on July 8 . There , the system steadily gained organization and was declared a tropical depression by 1200 UTC on July 14 . Moving slowly northwest , a low wind shear and warm sea surface temperature environment allowed the system to strengthen to a tropical storm at 1800 UTC on July 15 . Following the development of a curved convection band and appearance of an eye on satellite , Cosme was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane at 1800 UTC the next day ; it is at this time that the system attained its peak with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 987 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) . Cosme tracked over ever cooler waters beginning at that time , causing the system to weaken quickly back to tropical storm strength . It turned west as a result of an intensifying ridge of high pressure to its north while continuing to deteriorate in organization . At 1800 UTC on July 18 , Cosme weakened to a tropical depression after crossing into the central Pacific , and by 1800 UTC on July 22 , no longer sustained enough organization to be considered a tropical cyclone . The remnant low continued generally westward until dissipation early on July 25 .
Cosme was initially forecast to pass over Hawaii at tropical storm strength . Instead , a strong ridge of high pressure kept the system well south of the island . Outer rainbands produced several inches of rainfall , leading to minor flooding while simultaneously alleviating drought conditions . Winds gusts briefly reached tropical storm strength , though no damage was reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Dalila = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the eastern Pacific on July 17 . Tracking west @-@ northwest , the system acquired enough organization to be upgraded to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on July 22 , while positioned 460 mi ( 740 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . Following formation , moderate northeasterly shear inhibited significant development , causing the system to remain a tropical depression for 48 hours . A mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico caused the system to turn northwest as shear began to decrease ; at 0000 UTC on July 24 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dalila . After attaining its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 995 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) a day later , the storm tracked over progressively cool waters , causing it to weaken . At 0600 UTC on July 27 , Dalila weakened to a tropical storm , and by 1800 UTC , the system no longer retained enough organization to be considered a tropical cyclone . The remnant low tracked west , southwest , and eventually south prior to dissipation at 1200 UTC on July 30 .
Though the center of the storm remained offshore , outer rainbands led to heavy rainfall that triggered substantial flooding . In Michoacán , Dalila flooded ten municipalities with at least 15 in ( 380 mm ) of precipitation , destroying dozens of wooden structures . Heavy rains in Jalisco killed eleven , many of whom occurred in automobile crashes . Flood waters covered numerous roads , causing many accidents , while approximately 50 homes were damaged . Rough seas and heavy rain affected Baja California Sur , though no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on July 16 . Tracking westward , intermittent bursts of deep convection occurred as it crossed the Leeward Islands on July 22 , but associated activity remained disorganized . The wave crossed Central America three days later , emerging into the eastern Pacific Ocean shortly thereafter . On July 28 , a broad area of low pressure formed along the wave axis ; easterly shear , however , prevented thunderstorms from developing over the center . Convective activity increased by July 31 , leading to the formation of a tropical depression at 1200 UTC that day . Despite the unfavorable environment , satellite intensity estimates increased to tropical storm intensity , prompting the National Hurricane Center to upgrade the depression to such . After attained a peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1004 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 1 , continued wind shear caused Erick to weaken to a tropical depression . The low @-@ level center became lost organization as it became elongated northeast to southwest on August 2 , leading to degeneration into a tropical wave by 0600 UTC . The remnants of the system dissipated six hours later .
= = = Hurricane Flossie = = =
An ill @-@ defined tropical wave entered the eastern Pacific on August 1 and steadily organized to attain tropical depression intensity eight days later . Within an environment of light shear , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Flossie at 0000 UTC on August 9 and continued to organize to attain Category 1 hurricane intensity by 1200 UTC the following day as an eye became apparent on satellite . Continuing westward and crossing into the central Pacific basin , the system began a period of rapid intensification that brought it to its peak intensity with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 949 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 03 inHg ) at 0000 UTC on September 12 , while positioned roughly 980 mi ( 1575 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Big Island . Increased wind shear the next day caused Flossie to begin a slow weakening trend thereafter ; at 1200 UTC on September 14 , the system weakened to a Category 2 hurricane , and by 0600 UTC on September 15 , the cyclone was barely a Category 1 hurricane . Six hours later , it weakened to a tropical storm as the low @-@ level center became exposed on satellite . Flossie weakened to a tropical depression early on September 16 and dissipated by 1800 UTC .
In preparation for the cyclone , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for the Big Island . A tropical storm warning was subsequently issued for the same location , The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) sent 20 transportation , public works , and health experts to the region . Many schools were closed , including the University of Hawaii at Hilo and Hawaii Community College ; as a result , an estimated 26 @,@ 000 college students were sent home . As a weakening cyclone , Flossie produced light precipitation on the island of Hawaii . Large waves impacted south @-@ facing beaches while the maximum sustained wind observed reached 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) at South Point . No fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Gil = = =
A vigorous tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 16 . Characterized with abundant deep convection , the wave remained organization until it interacted with an upper @-@ level trough across the eastern Caribbean Sea a few days later . On August 26 , the wave split in two , with the northern portion leading the formation of a weak low in the Bay of Campeche and the southern portion continuing westward into the eastern Pacific . After the formation of deep convection over the center and associated convective bands , the disturbance was upgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 29 . Though the circulation remained positioned on the northeast side of most thunderstorm activity , satellite intensity estimates supported tropical storm strength and it was upgraded to such accordingly . At 1200 UTC on August 30 , Gil attained its peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1001 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures caused the system to steadily weaken ; at 0000 UTC on September 1 , the system deteriorated into a tropical depression , and by 1800 UTC the following afternoon , the system no longer displayed enough organization to be considered a cyclone . The remnant low continued westward and dissipated twelve hours later .
Heavy rainfall was reported throughout the state of Sinaloa . A total of 26 neighborhoods were flooded with up to 4 @.@ 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of water in the town of Culiacán , while a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy was swept away by a swollen river .
= = = Hurricane Henriette = = =
A poorly organized tropical wave moved into the eastern Pacific on August 29 and quickly developed into a tropical depression by 0600 UTC the following day . Within an environment of low wind shear , the depression intensified into a tropical storm , acquiring the name Henriette , at 1200 UTC on August 31 . Moving west @-@ northwest around a ridge positioned over inland Mexico , the center passed narrowly offshore after producing squally weather along the coastline . The system moved westward while continuing to intensify , becoming a Category 1 hurricane at 0600 UTC on September 4 and subsequently attaining its peak intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) six hours later . An approaching upper @-@ level trough caused Henriette to turn northwest later that day , moving it ashore near San Jose del Cabo , Mexico at 2100 UTC as a minimal hurricane . After crossing Baja California Sur , Henriette weakened to a tropical storm and made a second landfall near Guaymas , Mexico . The system moved inland and quickly weakened , dissipating by 1200 UTC on September 6 .
The hardest hit city by Henriette was Acapulco , where heavy rains led to rockslides and mudslides that killed six . In Sonora , the hurricane damaged thousands of structures and killed four , two of whom off the coast . Farther northwest , a woman died while attempting to surf waves off the coast of Baja California Sur . Heavy rains stranded many cars while causing rivers to overflow , flooding communities . Damage totaled to $ 275 million ( 2007 MXN ; $ 25 million ) .
= = = Hurricane Ivo = = =
A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on September 1 and continued westward until reaching the eastern Pacific fifteen days later . A broad area of low pressure formed along the wave axis on September 16 as convective activity organized , and by 0600 UTC on September 18 , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression . Convective bands began to form near the center a few hours later , leading to an improved satellite presentation overall . Tracking west @-@ northwestward as a result of the mid @-@ level ridge , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Ivo at 0000 UTC on September 19 . Turning northwest , a well @-@ defined eye became visible on satellite , prompting the NHC to upgrade the system to a Category 1 hurricane 24 hours later . With an area of deep convection near the center , the hurricane attained its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 984 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) at 0000 UTC on September 21 . Westerly flow associated with a large upper @-@ level low began to undercut the outflow of Ivo , and it weakened to a tropical storm by the afternoon hours . The convective pattern rapidly deteriorated due to southeasterly wind shear , and despite a brief burst of convection , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression to the west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California at 0000 UTC on September 23 . Associated deep convection dissipated later that day as Ivo turned eastward , and the system degenerated into a remnant low accordingly . The remnant low dissipated two days later as it continued in the same direction .
Initially , some forecasts predicted the storm would strike the Baja California Peninsula as a tropical storm ; a tropical storm watch was briefly issued from Sante Fe to Cabo San Lucas accordingly . Over 100 shelters were opened in the municipalities of Los Cabos , La Paz and Comondú , respectively . In all , Ivo contributed to heavy rainfall across Baja California Sur ; however , damage was not reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 27 and reached the eastern Pacific on September 7 . Tracking westward , little development occurred until September 18 , when associated shower and thunderstorm activity began to increase . Following visible satellite trends , the National Hurricane Center deemed the disturbance organized enough to be declared a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 19 , while located about 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1930 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . In an environment of cool ocean temperatures and stable air , the depression failed to organize as it turned west @-@ northwest . Associated deep convection dissipated , leading to degeneration into a remnant low by 0000 UTC on September 20 . Performing a slow counter @-@ clockwise loop , the remnant low dissipated five days later .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliette = = =
The formation of Tropical Storm Juliette can be traced back to a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa on September 12 . After interacting with a secondary wave over the central Atlantic a few days later , it entered the eastern Caribbean , becoming steadily better defined . Convective activity was enhanced as the wave passed into the West Caribbean on September 22 and it moved inland over Central American shortly thereafter . A broad area of low pressure formed along the wave axis on September 27 and convection steadily increased ; around 0000 UTC on September 19 , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression . Twelve hours later , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Juliette . Turning northwest as a result of an upper @-@ level trough , the system attained its peak with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 997 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) at 1200 UTC on September 30 . Strong wind shear began to affect the storm thereafter , causing it to steadily weaken to tropical depression strength by 0000 UTC on October 2 . Twelve hours later , the system degenerated into a remnant low . The low meandered several hundred miles off the coast of Baja California before degenerating into a trough on October 5 .
= = = Tropical Storm Kiko = = =
A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa and moved westward across the Atlantic before entering the eastern Pacific on October 8 . Despite strong easterly wind shear , the system acquired enough organization to be deemed a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 15 . Within a broad cyclonic gyre , the system moved erratically , first drifting south then east @-@ northeast and eventually northwest . Early on October 16 , the system briefly intensified into a tropical storm as a convective band wrapped around the circulation , but continued strong shear caused associated convection to dissipate and the system weakened to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC . After intensifying back to a tropical storm the following day , a brief reprieve in harsh upper @-@ level winds allowed Kiko to reach its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 991 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) . An increase in southerly shear and entrance into a more stable airmass caused the system to weaken to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 23 ; the system degenerated into a remnant low 24 hours later . The remnant low tracked west before turning north and eventually dissipated early on October 27 .
Beginning early on October 18 , Kiko was forecast to strike Mexico at tropical storm intensity and cyclone advisories were issued accordingly . However , a building mid @-@ level ridge of high pressure over inland Mexico was then forecast to cause the center of circulation to pass just offshore . Though no damage was reported in association with the cyclone , rough seas created by Kiko capsized a ship with thirty people on @-@ board ; two were found still alive , fifteen bodies were recovered , and nine were reported missing .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for tropical storms that formed in the northeast Pacific Ocean in 2007 . There were no names retired during this year ; thus , the same list was used again in the 2013 season . This is the same list used in 2001 with the exception of Alvin , which replaced Adolph . For this reason , the name Alvin was used for the first time this year . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
The following table lists all of the storms that have formed in the 2007 Pacific hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) ( in parentheses ) , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2007 USD .
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= Vengeance ( 2006 ) =
Vengeance ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on June 25 , 2006 , at the Charlotte Bobcats Arena in Charlotte , North Carolina . It was the sixth annual Vengeance event . Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw brand : a storyline expansion of the promotion where employees are assigned to a wrestling brand under the WWE banner .
The card featured eight televised matches , including two main events which resulted in Rob Van Dam defeating Edge to retain the WWE Championship and D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) defeating Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky , and Mikey ) in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 Handicap match . One bout was featured on the undercard . In which John Cena defeated Sabu in an Extreme lumberjack match , which featured superstars from the Raw and ECW brands at ringside .
Vengeance grossed over $ 400 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 6 @,@ 800 and received 320 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 21 @.@ 6 million compared to the previous year . When the event was released on DVD , it reached the number one position on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event a 6 @.@ 5 out 10 stars , higher than the 2005 event rating of 6 out 10 .
= = Background = =
The event featured eight professional wrestling matches with different wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other two being SmackDown ! and ECW .
The main rivalry heading into Vengeance was between WWE Champion and ECW World Champion Rob Van Dam who defending the WWE Championship against Edge in a singles match . The buildup to the match began on the television premiere of ECW on Sci Fi , in which Van Dam was awarded the ECW World Heavyweight Championship ( which later become simply known as ECW World Championship ) by Paul Heyman , thus making Van Dam a double champion , by holding both the ECW and WWE Championships . Van Dam 's celebration was then interrupted by Edge and his girlfriend Lita . Edge , who was number one contender for the title , informed Van Dam that they both had a lot in common , referring to them being both Money in the Bank winners and successfully becoming WWE Champions . Edge concluded with giving Van Dam some kind words , in which afterwards he performed a Spear on Van Dam . On the June 19 episode of Raw , in retaliation Van Dam attacked Edge , moments after winning a match against Ric Flair . On June 20 episode of ECW , Rob Van Dam and Kurt Angle defeated Edge and Randy Orton in a tag team match when Van Dam pinned Edge after Five Star Frog Splash .
Another predominant rivalry scripted into Vengeance was between D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) Triple H and Shawn Michaels versus the Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky , and Mikey ) in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 Handicap match consisting of one team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as five against two . The buildup to the match began after Backlash , Raw 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , where The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) defeated Michaels and " God " in a tag team match , with help from the Spirit Squad in a no disqualification match , a match where neither wrestler can be disqualified , allowing for weapons and outside interference . Throughout the weeks on Raw , Michaels got revenge on both Vince McMahon and the Spirit Squad , until the May 22 episode of Raw , where the Spirit Squad were scripted to injure Michaels ' left knee . Then , by orders of McMahon , Triple H was to " break Michaels ' skull " , with a sledgehammer . Triple H failed to do what McMahon ordered and instead attacked the Spirit Squad , thus turning into a fan favorite . Two weeks later , McMahon booked Triple H in a gauntlet match , consisting of two wrestlers beginning the match , and replacing whenever one is eliminated , with the last person standing being named the winner , against the Spirit Squad . In the match , Kenny grabbed a steel chair and inserted the chair on Triple H 's left knee , similar to what the group did to Michaels . Mitch , who was the only member not participating in the match , was thrown out from the backstage curtain by Michaels . Following this , he joined Triple H in the ring as they began to beat down the four members of the group . This saw Michaels and Triple H reform D @-@ Generation X since their teased reunion in 2002 . That same night , McMahon scheduled the Spirit Squad and D @-@ Generation X in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap tag team match . On the June 19 episode of Raw , DX marked their return , when the duo humiliated the Spirit Squad as DX dumped green slime onto the group and embarrassed the team afterwards , by beating them .
One of the featured matches was between John Cena versus Sabu in an Extreme lumberjack match , a standard match with the exception that the ring is surrounded by a group of wrestlers not directly involved in it and competed under hardcore rules . On the television debut of ECW on Sci Fi on June 13 , a brawl broke out between Rob Van Dam and Edge . Edge , who stormed through the ECW crowd , was attacked by Cena , who cost Cena the WWE Championship at ECW 's One Night Stand , and written into the storyline , sought revenge against Edge . Following the attack , Cena went to ringside where he knocked ECW Representative Paul Heyman unconscious , after Heyman awarded the pinfall win to Van Dam at One Night Stand . Following the attack , Heyman announced that all ECW superstars would be at Raw the following week . The following week on Raw , Heyman appeared alongside ECW superstar , Balls Mahoney , who was booked to face Cena in a singles match . The match was won by Cena after he made Mahoney submit . After the match , Cena was attacked by ECW superstar Sabu , who in the premiere of ECW on Sci Fi won a 10 @-@ man Extreme Battle Royal , a multi @-@ competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until one is left and declared winner , where the winner would face Cena at Vengeance in a singles match . Sabu assaulted Cena in which he performed a leg drop on Cena , diving onto him and putting Cena through the Raw announcers ' table . The following night on an episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Cena showed up in the ECW locker room , where he challenged Sabu to an Extreme lumberjack match , for which Sabu accepted .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Val Venis defeated Rob Conway in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first televised match was a standard wrestling match between Randy Orton and Kurt Angle . In the early stages both competitors took the advantage over one another . Angle controlled most of the match , as Orton tried to avoid Angle 's assaults . Angle tried to perform a suplex on Orton off the ring apron , but did not perform the move . This was followed by Angle performing a belly to back suplex on Orton on the outside ring floor . Mid @-@ way in the match , Orton attempted to perform an RKO by jumping and grabbing Angle 's head to drive it over his shoulders , but he countered by pushing Orton to the turnbuckle . Orton took the padding off the turnbuckle , leaving it exposed . Following this , Angle began performing a series of belly to back waist lock suplexes on Orton . Angle then applied the ankle lock hold . Orton , however , flipped over and sent Angle face @-@ first into the exposed turnbuckle . As he turned around , Orton performed the RKO , and covered Angle to gain the pinfall victory .
The next match was between Umaga and Eugene . Before the match got underway , Eugene invited Jim Duggan , Doink the Clown , and Kamala down to ringside . Umaga , who stood at 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) and weighed 350 pounds ( 160 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Eugene . The match concluded with Umaga performing the Samoan Spike , a high speed thumb thrust to the throat of Eugene . Umaga pinned Eugene to win the match . After the match , Umaga attacked Jim Duggan and Doink the Clown .
The next match that followed was a Two out of three falls match , a match where not one , but two , decisions have to be won by a wrestler before the match is officially over , between Mick Foley and Ric Flair . Foley gained the advantage after he bended Flair forward and hooked each arm behind Flair 's back , tucked his head under one of Foley 's arms , and then fell back to pull Flair down flat on his face . Foley then began to taunt Flair and took out Mr. Socko , a dirty sock puppet , dressed like Flair . Foley controlled most of the match , until he attempted to apply the figure four leglock , a signature move of Flair 's , but Flair countered it with an inside cradle over Foley to win the first fall . The second match began , frustrated in losing the first match , Foley grabbed a trash can from under the ring and brought it to the ring to hit Flair with it . But , Flair avoided being hit , as he tripped Foley to apply the figure four leglock . The result of the match , saw Foley get disqualified when he hit Flair with the trash can . The referee awarded the win to Flair . After the match , Foley attacked Flair with a barb @-@ wired bat , leaving Flair busted open .
The fourth match was a standard match involving three wrestlers , termed as a Triple Threat match , for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , in which champion Shelton Benjamin defended the title against Carlito and Johnny Nitro . The match began with Carlito performing a springboard moonsault from the ring apron hitting both Nitro and Benjamin in the process . A spot in the match saw Carlito set up Nitro in a Tree of Woe , a move in which a wrestler suspends his opponent upside down on a turnbuckle , with the opponent 's back being up against it , Carlito stood on the turnbuckle , in which Benjamin followed by jumping up with Carlito . Nitro lifted Benjamin on his shoulders and threw him down , while Benjamin dropped Carlito , making both men hit the mat . Later in the match , Carlito performed a backcracker on Benjamin . Nitro , who was thrown out of the ring , returned and removed Carlito from making the cover on Benjamin . He instead covered Benjamin for the pinfall victory , thus becoming the new Intercontinental champion .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The first main match was for the WWE Championship , in which champion Rob Van Dam defended the title against Edge accompanied with Lita . In the beginning of the match , Edge performed a sunset flip powerbomb on Van Dam outside the ring . Van Dam , however , managed to execute a crossbody on Edge inside the ring , resulting in the two landing on the outside of the ring floor . Both men took the upper hand in the match , until Van Dam was scripted to knock the referee unconscious . Edge took advantage , as Lita gave him the title . Edge tried to hit Van Dam with the title , but Van Dam dodged the hit as he performed a spinning kick on the title , resulting in hitting Edge 's face . Edge , however , got the advantage as he attempted to perform a shoulder block takedown on Van Dam , while Lita propped a chair on a ring corner . Edge went for the shoulder block takedown , but Van Dam moved out of the way , resulting in Edge to crash head @-@ first onto the chair . Capitalizing on the situation , Van Dam then performed a body splash from the top turnbuckle on Edge , which he followed with a cover and a pinfall , thus retaining the WWE Championship .
The sixth match was a singles match between Kane versus Impostor Kane . The match began with Impostor Kane executing a sidewalk slam on Kane , a move in which a wrestler stands side @-@ to @-@ side and slightly behind with the opponent , and reaches around the opponent 's torso with his near arm across the opponent 's chest and under both arms and places the other arm under the victim 's legs . The Impostor tried to grab and lift Kane by the throat and slam him down into the mat , termed as a chokeslam , but Kane countered with driving Impostor Kane 's head onto the wrestling mat . The match concluded with Impostor Kane performing a chokeslam on Kane and pinning him for the pinfall victory .
The seventh match was the Extreme lumberjack match between Sabu and John Cena . Before the match began , the ECW and Raw superstars made their way to ringside to take their place as lumberjacks . The match quickly began with Cena throwing Sabu out of the ring onto the Raw lumberjacks , in which they assaulted Sabu and threw him back in the ring . Sabu would later get the upper hand and throw Cena out onto the ECW lumberjacks , at ringside . Throughout the match , Sabu took the advantage over Cena as he performed a somersault leg drop , driving a steel chair onto Cena 's face . Cena got the upper hand when he was able to counter a flying crossbody attempt by Sabu . Mid @-@ way in the match , the ECW and Raw lumberjacks started brawling at ringside . At ringside , the ECW lumberjacks began their assault on Cena , after he was hit with a steel chair by Sabu . They laid his head on a table , in which Sabu attempted to perform a high @-@ flying maneuver . The Raw superstars , however , gave Cena the upper hand to hit Sabu with a kendo stick in mid @-@ air . Back in the ring , Cena lifted Sabu over his shoulders and threw him down on a table that was at ringside to execute the FU . Following this , Sabu was thrown back into the ring where Cena applied the STFU , a move in which the wrestler wraps his arm around the neck of the opponent in a sleeper hold instead of pulling back on the head of the opponent , in which Sabu submitted to and giving Cena the win .
The last match on the card was the five @-@ on @-@ two handicap match between D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) versus the Spirit Squad . During the beginning of the match , Michaels quickly took control of Mitch , before tagging in Triple H. Johnny was tagged in the match , after encouragement from his team , to face off against Triple H. The match was then controlled by the Spirit Squad , after Johnny performed an enzuigiri on Michaels . Nicky , who was tagged in , distracted the referee , allowing the other squad members to pull Michaels out of the ring and hit Michaels with a steel chair . Back in the ring , the assault continued , as each member took the upper hand over him . Michaels came back after countering a double team maneuver and drove both Nicky and Mikey 's heads to the mat . Michaels then tagged Triple H into the match . The match concluded with Triple H performing a Pedigree and Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music . Both Triple H and Michaels got the pinfall victory respectively over the Spirit Squad . After the match , the three remaining members tried to attack DX , but were unsuccessful in doing so .
= = Aftermath = =
On the July 3 episode of Raw , a triple threat match was booked between Rob Van Dam , Edge , and John Cena for the WWE title , after Van Dam made the stipulation . Edge , as part of scripted events , defeated both Van Dam and Cena to become the new WWE champion , after pinning Van Dam . The following night on ECW on Sci Fi , Van Dam lost the ECW title to The Big Show , after the Big Show received assistance from Paul Heyman , who declined to make the three @-@ count for Van Dam , but instead gave the pinfall to the Big Show . Later on WWE 's official website , it was announced that Heyman suspended Van Dam for 30 days without giving a reason . This angle was written after WWE suspended Van Dam for his recent drug possession arrest .
The following month at Saturday Night 's Main Event , a title match was scheduled between Edge and Cena . Cena won the match by disqualification , after Lita interfered on behalf of Edge . A singles match was booked between Edge and Cena for the WWE title at Summerslam , with the stipulation that if Edge disqualified himself , he would have lost the WWE title . At SummerSlam , Edge retained the title after he hit Cena with a pair of brass knuckles , this occurred when the referee was not looking .
In a July episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , DX defeated the Spirit Squad in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 Elimination match . The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) continued their feud with DX , as they became frustrated with DX 's antics . McMahon scheduled a tag team match , where he would team up with Shane to take on DX at SummerSlam in August . Before the match got underway at SummerSlam , the Spirit Squad , Mr. Kennedy , William Regal , Finlay , and The Big Show all interfered on behalf of the McMahons . DX , however , won the match .
= = = Reception = = =
The Charlotte Bobcats Arena usually can accommodate 20 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for the event . This event grossed over $ 400 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 6 @,@ 800 – the maximum allowed . It also received 320 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . Vengeance helped WWE earn $ 21 @.@ 6 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 19 @.@ 9 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon , the CEO of WWE , on August 31 , 2006 in a quarterly result . The event received positive reviews . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The rating was higher than the Vengeance 2005 event which was rated 6 out 10 . The WWE title , Intercontinental title , and 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match were all rated an 8 out of 10 . Additionally , the singles match between Kane and Impostor Kane was rated a 3 out 10 .
The event was released on DVD on July 25 , 2006 . The DVD was distributed by the label Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD ranked number one on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of August 19 , 2006 , although falling thereafter . It remained in the chart for three months , until the week of November 4 , 2006 , when it ranked 17th .
= = Results = =
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= Red @-@ headed myzomela =
The red @-@ headed myzomela or red @-@ headed honeyeater ( Myzomela erythrocephala ) is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae , found in Australia , Indonesia , and Papua New Guinea . Three subspecies are recognised , with the nominate race M. erythrocephala erythrocephala distributed around the tropical coastline of Australia .
At 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , it is a small honeyeater with a short tail and relatively long down @-@ curved bill . It is sexually dimorphic and the male has a glossy red head and brown upperparts and paler grey @-@ brown underparts while the female has predominantly grey @-@ brown plumage . Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical mangrove forests . It is very active when feeding in the tree canopy , darting from flower to flower and sallying for insects . It calls constantly as it feeds . While little has been documented on the red @-@ headed myzomela ’ s breeding behaviour , it is recorded as building a small cup @-@ shaped nest in the mangroves and laying two or three oval , white eggs with small red blotches .
The red @-@ headed myzomela is widely distributed across the northern coastlines of Australia , though it is not abundant within this range . While the IUCN lists one sub @-@ species as being near threatened , as a whole the widespread range means that its conservation is of least concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
Myzomela erythrocephala was first described by John Gould in 1840 , from specimens located in King Sound , north Western Australia . As well as the nominate race M. erythrocephala erythrocephala , two additional subspecies are recognised : M. erythrocephala infuscata named by William Alexander Forbes in 1879 , and M. erythrocephala dammermani described by Friederich Wilhelm Sieber in 1928 . Some taxonomic authorities recognize M. erythrocephala dammermani as a separate species , the Sumba myzomela ( Myzomela dammermani ) .
It is a member of the genus Myzomela which includes two other Australian species , the scarlet myzomela of eastern Australia , and the dusky myzomela of northern Australia . It belongs to the honeyeater family Meliphagidae . A 2004 genetic study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of honeyeaters found it to be the next closest relative to a smaller group consisting of the scarlet and cardinal myzomelas , although only five of the thirty members of the genus Myzomela were analysed . Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily . Because the red @-@ headed honeyeater occurs on many offshore islands and appears to be an effective water @-@ crosser , it has been hypothesised that north @-@ western Australia was the primary centre of origin for the Myzomela erythrocephala subspecies .
The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek words myzo " to suckle " and meli " honey " , and refers to the bird 's nectivorous habits , while erythrocephala is from the Greek erythros " red " and a combining form of the Greek kephale " head " . Other common names are mangrove red @-@ headed honeyeater , mangrove redhead , and blood bird .
= = Description = =
The red @-@ headed myzomela is a distinctive small honeyeater with a compact body , short tail and relatively long down @-@ curved bill . It averages 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , with a wingspan of 17 – 19 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) and a weight of 8 grams ( 0 @.@ 28 oz ) . The birds exhibit sexual dimorphism , with males being slightly larger and much more brightly coloured than the females .
The adult male has a dark red head , neck , lower back and rump ; the red is glossy , reflecting bright light . The rest of the upper body is a blackish @-@ brown , and the upper breast and under @-@ body a light brownish @-@ grey . The bill is black or blackish @-@ brown , and there is a distinct black loral stripe that extends to become a narrow eye ring . The adult female 's head and neck are grey @-@ brown with a pink @-@ red tint to the forehead and chin . The rest of the female 's upper body is grey @-@ brown with darker shades on the wings and lighter shades on the breast and under @-@ body . One study suggested a connection between the female 's bill colour and breeding status , with birds that had a horn @-@ coloured ( grey ) bill also having well @-@ developed brood patches . Juveniles are similar to females though with an obvious pale yellow edge to the lower mandible . It seems that males keep their juvenile plumage for up to three months , and take a similar period to come into full colour . The subspecies are similar in appearance to the nominate race however M. e. dammermani is slightly smaller than the other subspecies and has darker upper parts and a broad black pectoral band and M. e. infuscata has red extending from the rump onto the back .
The red @-@ headed myzomela has a range of contact calls and songs that are primarily metallic or scratchy . Its song is an abrupt tchwip @-@ tchwip @-@ tchwip @-@ tchwip with a slightly softer swip @-@ swip @-@ swip @-@ swip contact call and a scolding charrk @-@ charrk .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ headed myzomela in Australia is distributed across the tropical coastlines of Western Australia , the Northern Territory and Queensland . It inhabits coastal areas of the Kimberley and various offshore islands in Western Australia , and is similarly distributed in the Northern Territory , including Melville Island and the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands . It is widespread around the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape York Peninsula . M. e. dammermani is found on the island of Sumba in the eastern Indonesian Lesser Sunda Islands , and M. e. infuscata at scattered sites in West Papua and in south Papua New Guinea .
Although the red @-@ headed myzomela is widely distributed , it is not abundant within its range . The largest recorded population was 5 @.@ 5 birds per hectare or 2 @.@ 2 per acre at Palmerston in the Northern Territory . The peak abundance of the species in the mangroves around Darwin Harbour during the mid @-@ dry and early wet season coincided with the production of young and the flowering of Ceriops australis .
The species ' movements are poorly understood , variously described as resident , nomadic or migratory . Population numbers have been reported as fluctuating in some areas with local movements possibly related to the flowering of preferred mangrove and Melaleuca food trees , and there is some indication that the birds can travel more widely . A single bird was recaptured after being banded nearly five years earlier , 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) from the original banding site , and the species ' occupation of a large number of offshore islands suggests that the red @-@ headed honeyeater is effective at crossing distances over water .
The red @-@ headed myzomela mostly inhabits mangroves in monsoonal coastal areas , especially thickets of Rhizophora , Bruguiera and Avicennia bordering islands or in river deltas , but it often also occurs in paperbark thickets fringing the mangroves such as those of the cajeput ( Melaleuca leucadendra ) . It is a mangrove specialist , an adaptation that probably occurred as northern Australia became more arid and the bird populations became dependent on mangroves as other types of forest disappeared . The mangroves provide nectar and insects as well as shelter and nesting sites , and they supply the majority of the species ' needs for most of the year .
In Australia , mangrove vegetation forms a narrow discontinuous strip along thousands of kilometres of coastline , accommodating birds specialized for the habitat . Eighty Mile Beach in Western Australia has no mangroves and no fringing Melaleuca forests , reducing its potential for successful colonization by nectarivores , and it marks the southern limit of the red @-@ headed myzomela in Western Australia .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Feeding = = =
The red @-@ headed myzomela is arboreal , feeding at flowers and among the outer foliage in the crowns of mangroves and other flowering trees . It is very active when feeding , darting from flower to flower and sallying for insects . It probes flowers for nectar with its long curved bill , catches insects on the wing and gleans insects from leaves . It predominately feeds on mangrove species , and in north western Australia is the major pollinator of Bruguiera exaristata , however it also feeds in paperbarks and other coastal forests and has been recorded feeding in cultivated bottlebrush and Grevillea in Darwin gardens .
= = = Social behaviour = = =
While the social organisation of the red @-@ headed honeyeater is relatively unknown , it is reported as being usually solitary or found in pairs , though it has been described as forming loose associations with brown honeyeaters , and other mangrove @-@ feeding birds such as the northern fantail and yellow white @-@ eye . It is an inquisitive bird , and readily responds to pishing coming close to the caller to investigate the source of the sound and to warn off the intruder . It calls throughout the day when feeding , and males sing from exposed branches in the upper canopy of the food trees .
The red @-@ headed myzomela actively defends food trees , engaging in aggressive bill @-@ wiping both in response to a threat and after chasing intruders from a tree . It is very antagonistic even towards its own species ; the males fight by grappling in mid @-@ air and falling close to the ground before disengaging . It constantly chases brown honeyeaters through the canopy , though it has not been observed in grappling fights with other species .
= = = Breeding = = =
There are few scientific reports on the breeding behaviour of the red @-@ headed myzomela , and little detail is available on the breeding season . A study of populations in the west Kimberley reported that the birds hold territories through much of the dry season and then disperse . The nest is built in the foliage of the mangroves , suspended by a rim from a small horizontal fork about 6 – 10 metres ( 20 – 33 ft ) above the ground or water . The nest is small and cup @-@ shaped , and built from small pieces of bark , leaves , plant fibre and sometimes seaweed , bound together with spider web and lined with finer material . It is , on average , 5 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter and 3 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) deep .
Measuring 16 by 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 by 0 @.@ 47 in ) , the eggs are oval , smooth and lustreless white , with small spots or blotches of red on the larger end . Clutch size is reported to be two or three eggs . While there is no reliable information on incubation and feeding , it is believed that both parents are active in caring for the young .
= = Conservation status = =
M. e. erythrocephala is listed as being of least concern by the IUCN , because the population is widespread , however Myzomela erythrocephala infuscata is listed as near threatened . The Australian population of this subspecies is confined to three small islands with a combined area of about 100 square kilometres ( 39 sq mi ) . There is no immediate threat to the red @-@ headed myzomela except the risk posed to low islands by rising sea levels , however it has been recommended that community @-@ based ecotourism on the tropical coast be promoted , as it could lead to monitoring of sub @-@ populations and habitat by visiting birdwatchers and local rangers .
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= F.E.A.R. =
F.E.A.R. First Encounter Assault Recon is a survival horror first @-@ person shooter developed by Monolith Productions and published by Sierra Entertainment . It was released on October 17 , 2005 , for Microsoft Windows , and ported by Day 1 Studios to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Timegate Studios has released two expansion packs , F.E.A.R. Extraction Point in October 2006 , and F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate in November 2007 . A direct sequel titled F.E.A.R. 2 : Project Origin , was released in February 2009 , and a second sequel , F.3.A.R. , was released in June 2011 , though it was developed by Day 1 Studios ( now known as Wargaming Chicago @-@ Baltimore ) , not by Monolith Productions .
The game 's story revolves around a supernatural phenomenon , which F.E.A.R. — a fictional special forces team — is called to contain . The player assumes the role of F.E.A.R. ' s Point Man , who possesses superhuman reflexes , and must uncover the secrets of a paranormal menace in the form of a little girl .
F.E.A.R. was well received by critics , scoring 89 % on Game Rankings , and The New York Times calling it " as thrilling and involving as Half @-@ Life . " A " Director 's Edition " DVD version of the game was also released . The DVD included a " Making of " documentary , a director 's commentary , a short live @-@ action prequel and the exclusive first episode of the promotional P.A.N.I.C.S. machinima . A related Dark Horse comic book was also packaged with the DVD . Along with the Director 's Edition , F.E.A.R. Gold Edition was released . Gold Edition included the Director 's Edition and Extraction Point . F.E.A.R. Platinum Edition features the original game and two expansion packs .
= = Gameplay = =
F.E.A.R. simulates combat from a first person perspective . The protagonist 's body is fully present , allowing the player to see his or her character 's torso and feet while looking down . Within scripted sequences , when rising from a lying position or fast @-@ roping from a helicopter for example , or climbing ladders , the hands and legs of the protagonist can be seen performing the relevant actions .
A prominent gameplay element is " reflex time " , which slows down the game world while still allowing the player to aim and react at normal speeds . This effect is used to simulate the character 's superhuman reflexes . Reflex time is represented by stylized visual effects , such as bullets in flight that cause air distortion or interact with the game 's particle effects . F.E.A.R. lead designer Craig Hubbard stated that Monolith Productions ' primary goal was " to make combat as intense as the tea house shootout at the beginning of John Woo 's Hard @-@ Boiled . " He continued on to say that " defeat [ ing ] ... enemies ... with style " was crucial to this goal and that reflex time plays a large role in " mak [ ing ] the player feel like they are an action movie hero . "
The game contains weapons based on non @-@ fictional firearms , such as pistols , assault rifles , and submachine guns , as well as entirely fictional armaments like particle beam weapons . Each firearm differs in terms of ammunition type , accuracy , range , fire rate , damage , and bulkiness . The latter characteristic is crucial , as more powerful / specialized weapons tend to be more cumbersome and slow the player 's maneuvers . Unlike other games of the genre where lighter / smaller weapons tend to be useless , F.E.A.R. does not scale guns on a curve , so any firearm is potentially deadly in most situations . Monolith Productions stated that it aimed for " ... a balanced arsenal where each weapon serves a specific function " , rather than " ... just going with a bunch of real @-@ world submachine guns and assault rifles . " F.E.A.R. ' s heads @-@ up display crosshair 's size dynamically shows where shots will fall based on movement , aim , and the weapon in use . The player may carry only three firearms at a time ; thus , strategy is required when using and selecting weapons .
Compared to other shooters where melee is usually a last resort , F.E.A.R. ' s melee is a viable instant @-@ kill alternative for taking down enemies . The stocks of all firearms can be used in close combat . Lighter weapons , while being less powerful , allow the player to move around more quickly , increasing their chances of melee . Movement speed is maximized if a player holsters their weapon , which also allows them to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand attacks with maneuvers including punches , kicks , and slides .
F.E.A.R. ' s artificial intelligence allows computer @-@ controlled characters a large degree of action . Enemies can duck to travel under crawlspaces , jump through windows , vault over railings , climb ladders , and push over large objects to create cover . Various opponents may act as a team , taking back routes to surprise the player , using suppressive fire or taking cover if under fire . The game 's artificial intelligence is often cited as being highly advanced , using an architecture known as Goal Oriented Action Planning ( GOAP ) and its efficiency helped the game win GameSpot 's " 2005 Best AI Award " , and earn the # 2 ranking on AIGameDev 's " Most Influential AI Games " .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
F.E.A.R. ' s multiplayer component includes mainstay gameplay modes , such as deathmatch , team deathmatch , capture the flag , and last man standing . " Control " and " Conquer All " gametypes were later added through a patch . Some gametypes in F.E.A.R. ' s multiplayer use the " reflex time " effect : SlowMo deathmatch , SlowMo team deathmatch , and SlowMo capture the flag . Only one player can use / carry the reflex power @-@ up ; when fully charged they can activate it and give themselves ( and the rest of their team if applicable ) a speed advantage over opposing players . However , the one carrying the power @-@ up will have a bluish glow , and they will show up on a foe 's HUD .
On August 17 , 2006 , F.E.A.R. ' s multiplayer component was retitled F.E.A.R. Combat and made available for free download . Downloaders of F.E.A.R. Combat and owners of F.E.A.R. ' s retail edition may play together online . On December 19 , 2012 Gamespy Industries announced the end of its Gamespy Open Program , which ended F.E.A.R. Combat 's online multiplayer functionality .
The PC version of the game uses the PunkBuster program to prevent cheating . However , in December 2007 , Even Balance discontinued PunkBuster support for F.E.A.R. in favor of the second expansion , F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate . While PunkBuster @-@ enabled servers will still check for and protect against known cheats , the program will no longer automatically update . Because of this , many players with an outdated version of PunkBuster are unable to play in PunkBuster @-@ enabled servers without being automatically kicked from the game .
The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , just like the PC edition , only have online multiplayer . There is no split @-@ screen local play .
= = Atmosphere = =
A core element of F.E.A.R. is its horror theme , which is heavily inspired by Japanese horror . The design team attempted to keep " [ the ] psychology of the encounter " in the player 's mind at all times , in order to " get under [ the player 's ] skin " , as opposed to the " in your face ' monsters jumping out of closets ' approach " . Lead designer Craig Hubbard stated in an interview that " horror is extremely fragile ... you can kill it by spelling things out too clearly and you can undermine it with too much ambiguity " . He remarked that he attempted to strike a balance with the narrative elements of F.E.A.R. , to give players " enough clues so that [ they ] can form [ their ] own theories about what 's going on , but ideally [ they will ] be left with some uncertainty " . Lead level designer John Mulkey stated , " Creating expectation and then messing with that expectation is extremely important , predictability ruins a scary mood " .
The main source of the game 's horror is Alma , a ghostly little girl . Craig Hubbard remarked that " a guy in a mask chasing co @-@ eds with a meat cleaver can be scary , but on some level you 're thinking to yourself you could probably kick his ass if you got the drop on him ... but when a spooky little girl takes out an entire Delta Force squad , how are you supposed to deal with that ? " While Alma has been compared to the character Samara from The Ring , Craig Hubbard stated that she " ... was born out of a tradition of eerie , faceless female ghosts ... " and not " ... as an answer to any specific movie character . " Hubbard acknowledged that Alma " ... admittedly bears some visual resemblance to the ghosts in Dark Water or Séance " , but " ... creepy little girls have been freaking [ him ] out since The Shining . " Developers Dave Matthews and Nathan Hendrickson say the name ' Alma ' comes from the character Alma Mobley in Peter Straub 's novel Ghost Story .
F.E.A.R. ' s audio was designed in the style of Japanese horror films , with the sound engineers using inexpensive equipment to create sound effects , using methods including dragging metal across different surfaces and recording pump sounds . Monolith Productions commented , " The sound designers had to be concerned with avoiding predictability " , since " [ l ] isteners are smart ... they will recognize your formula quickly and then you won 't be able to scare them anymore . " Silence is present in order to " ... allow players to fill in the space , which lets their imagination create their own personal horror " .
Monolith Productions composed F.E.A.R. ' s music in reaction to scenes , instead of " ... creating a formula that would consistently produce music throughout the game " . The design team called F.E.A.R. ' s music structure " ... more cerebral and tailored to each individual event " , and continued that " ... sometimes the music is used to ratchet up the tension to toy with players ... [ it ] will build to a terrifying crescendo before cutting off without a corresponding event , only to later have the silence shattered by Alma , when players least expect it . "
F.E.A.R. ' s horror theme was praised by critics . Game Informer claimed that " ... the frequent spooky head trips that Monolith has so skillfully woven together make an experience that demands to be played . " IGN opined that " ... the environment has been so well @-@ crafted to keep you edgy and watchful ... [ that ] playing the game for a few hours straight can get a little draining . " GameSpot reacted similarly , calling F.E.A.R. ' s horror " ... exceedingly effective " , and agreeing that it " ... can leave you a bit emotionally exhausted after a while . "
= = Plot = =
= = = Story = = =
The game begins with a man named Paxton Fettel taking command of a battalion of telepathically controlled clone supersoldiers , seizing control of Armacham Technology Corporation ( ATC ) headquarters , and killing all its occupants .
The player then takes control of the Point Man , working for an organization known as F.E.A.R. ( First Encounter Assault Recon ) , attending a briefing held by Commissioner Rowdy Betters , in the company of his F.E.A.R. team @-@ mates Spen Jankowski and Jin Sun @-@ Kwon . The team 's mission is to eliminate Fettel , operating in conjunction with Delta Force .
Fettel is located by means of a satellite tracking device and hunted by F.E.A.R. and Delta Force over several locations . While the villain evades capture by the special forces , the player witnesses unexplained , and occasionally life @-@ threatening , paranormal phenomena , including hallucinations that frequently afflict him , all of which are centered on a red @-@ dressed little girl named Alma . Laptops found in the course of the mission , remotely hacked by Commissioner Betters , provide details regarding the background story ; the player learns how Fettel was raised to become a telepathic military commander , that he is the son of Alma , who is described as being a powerful psychic as part of Project Origin , . The files mention something called a " Synchronicity Event " , in which Alma telepathically linked with Fettel when he was ten years old , despite her being in a coma , and which is said to have resulted in several deaths . The files also mention the existence of another child of Alma , who was born before Fettel .
All clues lead F.E.A.R. to believe Fettel is being controlled by Alma , who was locked in the Origin facility when ATC closed down the project owing to the danger the woman posed ; Fettel is searching for that same facility to free his mother . The player takes the Point Man to the abandoned structure , fighting back both the clone soldiers and ATC guards , who have received orders to cover up the whole affair . When the protagonist comes to finally face Fettel , he is drawn into a hallucination where the player learns how the Point Man is Alma 's first son and is thereafter enabled to kill Fettel himself .
Alma is nonetheless freed when her storage chamber is opened by ATC researcher and leader of Project Origin , Harlan Wade , who felt guilty over the company 's treatment of Alma and who was actually her father . The player is then called to sabotage the structure 's reactor , running a gauntlet against Alma 's ghosts before the whole location explodes . In the aftermath of the detonation , a Delta Force Black Hawk helicopter extracts the Point Man from the rubble , rescuing him . While the player and the survivors of the F.E.A.R. team survey the results of the explosion from the helicopter , Jin wonders what happened to Alma . Just then , the helicopter loses power , and Alma is seen pulling herself up into the cabin : the destruction of the Origin facility has not stopped her quest to get closer to her son .
After the game 's credits , the player can listen to a phone call between a mysterious senator and ATC president Aristide , which offers some further explanation : the woman considers the project under control and deems the " first prototype " ( presumably a reference to the Point Man ) a success .
= = = Characters and organizations = = =
During the course of the game , the player interacts with a number of different characters from various organizations . Some of them are allies , such as the F.E.A.R. and Delta Force team members , while others are hostile , such as Fettel 's soldiers and some ATC personnel . The player 's character never speaks , and instead participates in one @-@ sided discussions with other characters . On occasion , the Point Man is required to hand a communicator to other characters , allowing them to speak over the F.E.A.R. team radio . No artificial intelligence @-@ controlled characters fight alongside the player in F.E.A.R. , except for some sequences in the expansions Extraction Point and Perseus Mandate .
= = Development = =
F.E.A.R. was announced at an E3 2004 pre @-@ show , though its existence as an untitled project was revealed prior to this announcement . The game 's first trailer later premiered at E3 2004 and was well received by critics . During the E3 2004 showing , F.E.A.R. ' s lead designer , Craig Hubbard , stated that the game " ... evolved out of a concept we started developing right after Shogo that we 've been dying to work on . " Monolith Productions ' director of technology , Kevin Stephens , later elaborated that this concept was " ... to make an action movie in a first @-@ person shooter , where you really feel like an action star . " To this effect , the team focused on immersing the player , using elements like a silent , nameless protagonist with an unknown background , and allowing the player to see the protagonist 's body when looking down or sideways .
During 2005 , F.E.A.R. made playable appearances at Consumer Electronics Show , Game Developers Conference and E3 , all of which were well received . Its showing at E3 garnered it the Game Critics Award for " Best Action Game " . After the release of a single @-@ player demo , Vivendi allowed gaming journalists to play through the first four levels of the game , which received even more positive reaction than before . F.E.A.R. eventually released on October 18 , 2005 . Alongside the basic CD @-@ ROM edition , a " Director 's Cut " DVD version of F.E.A.R. was released with a number of extra features . A Dark Horse Entertainment comic book and a series of live action vignettes help clarify a number of plot elements depicted in the game , while the " Making of F.E.A.R. " and " Developers ' commentary " documentaries offer several insights and trivia into the game 's development through interviews with employees of Monolith Productions and Vivendi . Also included is the exclusive first episode of the F.E.A.R. machinima , P.A.N.I.C.S. , created by " Rooster Teeth Productions " .
Over the course of the " Developer 's roundtable commentary " , producer Chris Hewitt reveals , " We had a whole level in the game where we had this car chase sequence [ ... ] we spent about two months on that thing .... " " [ B ] ut the car chase sequence didn 't work the way we hoped it would " , adds designer Craig Hubbard , commenting on the choice to remove that level from the game . Hewitt also comments that , " Actually we started off with two villains , and [ Fettel ] was one of them until we merged them together .... " Craig Hubbard also remarks that " ... his jacket actually used to belong to another villain we had in the game named Conrad Krieg , whom we combined with Fettel pretty literally . "
= = = Engine technology = = =
F.E.A.R. is the first game developed using the newest iteration of Monolith 's Lithtech engine . Codenamed " Jupiter EX " , the F.E.A.R. engine is driven by a DirectX 9 renderer and has seen major advancements from its direct precursor , " Jupiter " . The new engine includes both Havok physics and the Havok " Vehicle Kit " , which adds support for common vehicle behavior . The latter feature goes mostly unused in F.E.A.R. , as no vehicles appear outside of scripted sequences .
Graphically , F.E.A.R. uses normal mapping and parallax mapping to give textures a more realistic appearance ; the latter is used to give the appearance of depth to flat bullet hole sprites on walls . Volumetric lighting and lightmapping are included with the addition of a per @-@ pixel lighting model , allowing complex lighting effects to be developed . Vertex , pixel and high @-@ level shaders , including a host of additional special effects , are also featured in Jupiter EX .
= = Reception = =
Prior to release , F.E.A.R. generated large amounts of hype from computer game journalists . Upon release , F.E.A.R. received critical acclaim , with Computer Gaming World calling it " ... one of the year 's top single @-@ player shooters ... " and PC Gamer regarding it as " ... the first game to convincingly channel the kinetic exhilaration of ' John Woo violence ' in the FPS format . "
IGN claimed that " Monolith forges new shooter territory with some truly freaky elements , challenge , fun , and beauty . " GameSpy praised the game 's plot , later awarding it their " Best Story " Game of the Year award . The New York Times thought differently , stating " I was never quite clear on what was going on in the game . I knew my goal — track down a psychic , escort a corporate executive 's daughter out of danger — but I didn 't ever care who these people were nor did I understand their motives . " The game has also received criticism for its system requirements , which called for an extremely powerful PC for its time . The Xbox 360 port has also received positive reviews , almost as favorable as the PC version . The multiplayer and instant @-@ action mode were praised for better gameplay , but the control scheme was negatively viewed . Reviews have also stated that it lacked bonus features , despite the new mission included in the game . GameSpot gave the game 8 @.@ 6 @.@ while IGN rated it 9 @.@ 1
The PlayStation 3 port received less favorable reviews than the other two versions , but still had positive reviews overall . It contained a different longer bonus mission than the one included in the Xbox 360 port , but the chief complaints of the negative reviewers were downgraded graphics and long loading times . GameSpot has given the port a 7 @.@ 1 , making it the third lowest rating of the F.E.A.R. franchise in GameSpot .
= = Later developments = =
Monolith Productions announced a sequel to F.E.A.R. , which is titled F.E.A.R. 2 : Project Origin after Monolith and Warner Bros. regained the rights to the F.E.A.R. name . Prior to September 2008 , the sequel was not to be titled F.E.A.R. 2 due to Vivendi 's ownership of the F.E.A.R. name . The game was instead to be called Project Origin , which is a name derived from a contest to name the sequel . The sequel remains in the game 's existing universe , retaining the original storyline and characters , but centering on a different character . Monolith Productions published the game with Warner Brothers Interactive Entertainment , which purchased the studio in 2004 while development of F.E.A.R. was under way , after which Vivendi Universal was dropped as publisher . Vivendi Universal published the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 ports of the original game , developed by Day 1 Studios .
An expansion pack titled F.E.A.R. Extraction Point was released by TimeGate Studios on October 24 , 2006 . The second expansion pack , F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate , also from TimeGate Studios , was released in November 2007 . F.E.A.R. Files was released simultaneously for the Xbox 360 , consisting of both Extraction Point and Perseus Mandate .
= = P.A.N.I.C.S. = =
In 2005 , Rooster Teeth Productions created P.A.N.I.C.S. or PANICS , an acronym for People Acting Normal In Crazy @-@ Ass Situations , is a comic science fiction series based on F.E.A.R. The series was produced primarily by using the machinima technique of synchronizing video footage from video games to pre @-@ recorded dialogue and other audio . The series was produced at the request of Monolith Productions as a part of a tie @-@ in with the Director 's Edition of the F.E.A.R. , which the Rooster Teeth team used to produce the series . The mini @-@ series consists of five episodes . Four of these have been released on the Rooster Teeth website , and one — episode 0 , a prequel — originally shipped exclusively with the F.E.A.R. Director 's Edition DVD . It is also included with the game 's digital release on GOG.com.
The story centers on a newcomer to Bravo Team , a special military group formed to battle supernatural enemies . As the series begins , Bravo Team has been sent into a military facility at night to investigate the reports of paranormal activity from within . This is a parody of the main scenario used in F.E.A.R.
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= SM U @-@ 31 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 31 or U @-@ XXXI was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 31 , built by the Hungarian firm of Ganz Danubius at Fiume , was launched in March 1917 and commissioned in April .
U @-@ 31 had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
In October 1917 , U @-@ 31 sank while in port at Porto Bergudi and was out of service through April 1918 while she was raised and repaired . During her service career , U @-@ 31 sank two ships and damaged one warship , sending a combined tonnage of 4 @,@ 088 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 31 was at Cattaro at war 's end and was awarded to France as war reparation in 1920 , towed to Bizerta and scrapped there .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 31 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 31 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 31 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 27 was ordered from Ganz Danubius on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down on 4 July 1916 at Fiume and launched on 20 March 1917 .
= = Service career = =
After undergoing trials at Fiume during March , U @-@ 31 made a training voyage to Brioni in April . On 24 April 1917 , SM U @-@ 31 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Franz Nejebsy . Nejebsy , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old native of Teplitz @-@ Schönau , Bohemia ( present @-@ day Czech Republic ) , had previously served two stints as commander of U @-@ 1 . U @-@ 31 departed from Pola on 29 May to patrol along the Adriatic coast of Italy and returned on 5 June . U @-@ 31 departed for a patrol in the Mediterranean on 19 June . After a problem with a pump required a stop at Brioni , the U @-@ boat continued on . Nejebsy launched a torpedo attack on an armed yacht west of Strovathi on 25 June , but the torpedoes missed their mark . U @-@ 31 ended her patrol at Cattaro after ventilation problems kept the temperature in the engine room from falling below 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) .
After a month of repairs at Cattaro , U @-@ 31 headed out on another patrol on 6 August . On each of the next two days the U @-@ boat had to crash dive to avoid bombing attacks by French airplanes , the second day 's attack damaging the boat slightly . On 10 August , Nejebsy and U @-@ 31 scored their first kill with the sinking of am Italian cargo ship . The 4 @,@ 021 @-@ ton Lealta was carrying ammunition from Syracuse to Malta when U @-@ 31 intercepted her in the Ionian Sea east of Malta . An escorting destroyer dropped a pattern of ten depth charges over U @-@ 31 . The following day , Nejebsy was maneuvering U @-@ 31 into position to attack a convoy when the U @-@ boat was rammed from behind by a destroyer . U @-@ 31 's periscope was hit and twisted by the impact , forcing Nejebsy to end his attack and U @-@ 31 's patrol . On the way back to Cattaro , U @-@ 31 was attacked by an aircraft in the Straits of Otranto , but reached the safety of the port on 15 August .
U @-@ 31 was assigned to patrol the Austro @-@ Hungarian and Albanian coasts over the next six weeks . She headed to Fiume via Spalato on 16 October , reaching there three days later . On 26 October U @-@ 31 sank from an unknown cause in the harbor at Porto Bergudi . When raised from her resting depth of 8 metres ( 26 ft ) the next day , one crewman was found alive inside the boat . U @-@ 31 was taken first to the Danubius shipyard at nearby Fiume , and , later , on to Pola for repairs and trials .
In January , while U @-@ 31 's repairs were still ongoing , Nejebsy was reassigned , leaving the U @-@ boat without a commander for the next three months . On 11 March Linienschiffsleutnant Hermann Rigele was transferred from the helm of U @-@ 20 to assume command of U @-@ 31 . Rigele , who had been born in Sarajevo , was 26 years old and had also been in command of U @-@ 17 and , before that , U @-@ 10 at age 25 . Rigele and U @-@ 31 departed Pola on 30 April for a three @-@ day cruise to Cattaro via Sebenico . On 20 May , the boat left Cattaro for a Mediterranean patrol , but had to turn back with leaks after a day .
In June , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy planned an assault on the Otranto Barrage , similar to a May 1917 action that evolved into the Battle of Otranto Straits . U @-@ 31 was deployed from Cattaro on 9 June in advance of the attack . One of the seven separate groups participating in the attack — dreadnoughts Tegetthoff and Szent István — came under attack from Italian MAS torpedo boats in the early morning hours of 10 June . Szent István was hit and sank just after 06 : 00 , and the entire operation was called off . U @-@ 31 returned to Cattaro on 12 June .
On 16 June , Rigele and U @-@ 31 again set out for a Mediterranean patrol , but had to immediately return with clutch problems . Two days later , the U @-@ boat set out again for the Mediterranean . The next day , 19 June , Rigele had to take the boat to a depth of 40 metres ( 130 ft ) to avoid a depth charge attack . On 7 July , Rigele stopped the Italian sailing vessel Giuseppino Padre and , using explosive charges , sank the 67 @-@ ton ship . U @-@ 31 ended her patrol at Cattaro on 10 July . Over the next two months , the submarine operated in the Adriatic out of Cattaro and Pola , patrolling off Durazzo and the Albanian coast .
After the Armistice with Bulgaria on 29 September ended Bulgaria 's participation in the war , Durazzo gained importance to the remaining Central Powers as the main port for supplying their forces fighting in the Balkans . Anticipating this , the Allies put together a force to bombard Durazzo . While the second echelon of the attacking force got into position to shell the town , U @-@ 31 and sister boat U @-@ 29 , both patrolling off Durazzo , maneuvered to attack . Although U @-@ 29 was blocked by screening ships and experienced a heavy depth charge attack , U @-@ 31 was able to get in position to launch torpedoes at the British cruiser Weymouth . One of them hit its mark and blew the stern off of Weymouth , killing four sailors in the process . The other British cruisers involved in the attack took the damaged Weymouth under tow and departed . United States Navy submarine chasers were involved in the depth charge attacks on U @-@ 29 and U @-@ 31 and erroneously claimed that they had sunk both of the submarines . U @-@ 31 was able to make her way back to Cattaro on 6 October .
Over the next three weeks , U @-@ 31 patrolled between Cattaro and Antivari , Montenegro . After her arrival back at Cattaro on 26 October , she remained there until she was awarded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 31 was towed , along with sister boats U @-@ 29 and U @-@ 41 , from Cattaro for scrapping at Bizerta . In total , U @-@ 31 sank two ships with a combined tonnage of 4 @,@ 088 , and damaged one warship .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
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= Adelaide Anne Procter =
Adelaide Anne Procter ( 30 October 1825 – 2 February 1864 ) was an English poet and philanthropist . She worked prominently on behalf of unemployed women and the homeless , and was actively involved with feminist groups and journals . Procter never married . She became unhealthy , possibly due to her charity work , and died of tuberculosis at the age of 38 .
Procter 's literary career began when she was a teenager ; her poems were primarily published in Charles Dickens 's periodicals Household Words and All the Year Round and later published in book form . Her charity work and her conversion to Roman Catholicism appear to have strongly influenced her poetry , which deals most commonly with such subjects as homelessness , poverty , and fallen women .
Procter was the favourite poet of Queen Victoria . Her poetry went through numerous editions in the 19th century ; Coventry Patmore called her the most popular poet of the day , after Alfred , Lord Tennyson . Her poems were set to music and made into hymns , and were published in the United States and Germany as well as in England . Nonetheless , by the early 20th century her reputation had diminished , and few modern critics have given her work attention . Those who have , however , argue that Procter 's work is significant , in part for what it reveals about how Victorian women expressed otherwise repressed feelings .
= = Life = =
Adelaide Anne Procter was born at 25 Bedford Square in the Bloomsbury district of London , on 30 October 1825 to the poet Bryan Waller Procter and his wife Anne ( née Skepper ) . The family had strong literary ties : novelist Elizabeth Gaskell enjoyed her visits to the Procter household , and Procter 's father was friends with poet Leigh Hunt , essayist Charles Lamb , and novelist Charles Dickens , as well as being acquainted with poet William Wordsworth and critic William Hazlitt . Family friend Bessie Rayner Belloc wrote in 1895 that " everybody of any literary pretension whatever seemed to flow in and out of the house . The Kembles , the Macreadys , the Rossettis , the Dickens [ sic ] , the Thackerays , never seemed to be exactly visitors , but to belong to the place . " Author and actress Fanny Kemble wrote that young Procter " looks like a poet 's child , and a poet ... [ with ] a preter @-@ naturally [ sic ] thoughtful , mournful expression for such a little child " .
Dickens spoke highly of Procter 's quick intelligence . By his account , the young Procter mastered without difficulty the subjects to which she turned her attention :
When she was quite a young child , she learnt with facility several of the problems of Euclid . As she grew older , she acquired the French , Italian , and German languages ... piano @-@ forte ... [ and ] drawing . But , as soon as she had completely vanquished the difficulties of any one branch of study , it was her way to lose interest in it , and pass to another .
A voracious reader , Procter was largely self @-@ taught , though she studied at Queen 's College in Harley Street in 1850 . The college had been founded in 1848 by Frederick Maurice , a Christian Socialist ; the faculty included novelist Charles Kingsley , composer John Hullah , and writer Henry Morley .
Procter showed a love of poetry from an early age , carrying with her while still a young child a " tiny album ... into which her favourite passages were copied for her by her mother 's hand before she herself could write ... as another little girl might have carried a doll " . Procter published her first poem while still a teenager ; the poem , " Ministering Angels " , appeared in Heath 's Book of Beauty in 1843 . In 1853 she submitted work to Dickens 's Household Words under the name " Mary Berwick " , wishing that her work be judged on its own merits rather than in relation to Dickens 's friendship with her father ; Dickens did not learn " Berwick 's " identity till the following year . The poem 's publication began Proctor 's long association with Dickens 's periodicals ; in all , Procter published 73 poems in Household Words and 7 poems in All the Year Round , most of which were collected into her first two volumes of poetry , both entitled Legends and Lyrics . She was also published in Good Words and Cornhill . As well as writing poetry , Procter was the editor of the journal Victoria Regia , which became the showpiece of the Victoria Press , " an explicitly feminist publishing venture " .
In 1851 , Procter converted to Roman Catholicism . Following her conversion , Procter became extremely active in several charitable and feminist causes . She became a member of the Langham Place Group , which set out to improve conditions for women , and was friends with feminists Bessie Rayner Parkes ( later Bessie Rayner Belloc ) and Barbara Leigh Smith , later Barbara Bodichon . Procter helped found the English Woman 's Journal in 1858 and , in 1859 , the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women , both of which focused on expanding women 's economic and employment opportunities . Though on paper Proctor was merely one member among many , fellow @-@ member Jessie Boucherett considered her to be the " animating spirit " of the Society . Her third volume of poetry , A Chaplet of Verses ( 1861 ) , was published for the benefit of a Catholic Night Refuge for Women and Children that had been founded in 1860 at Providence Row in East London .
Procter became engaged in 1858 , according to a letter that her friend William Makepeace Thackeray wrote to his daughters that year . The identity of Procter 's fiancé remains unknown , and the proposed marriage never took place . According to her German biographer Ferdinand Janku , the engagement seems to have lasted several years before being broken off by Procter 's fiancé . Critic Gill Gregory suggests that Procter may have been a lesbian and in love with Matilda Hays , a fellow member of the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women ; other critics have called Procter 's relationship with Hays " emotionally intense . " Procter 's first volume of poetry , Legends and Lyrics ( 1858 ) was dedicated to Hays and that same year Procter wrote a poem titled " To M.M.H. " in which Procter " expresses love for Hays ... [ Hays was a ] novelist and translator of George Sand and a controversial figure ... [ who ] dressed in men 's clothes and had lived with the sculptor Harriet Hosmer in Rome earlier in the 1850s . " While several men showed interest in her , Procter never married .
Procter fell ill in 1862 ; Dickens and others have suggested that her illness was due to her extensive charity work , which " appears to have unduly taxed her strength " . An attempt to improve her health by taking a cure at Malvern failed . On 3 February 1864 , Procter died of tuberculosis , having been bed @-@ ridden for almost a year . Her death was described in the press as a " national calamity " . Procter was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery .
= = Literary career = =
Procter 's poetry was strongly influenced by her religious beliefs and charity work ; homelessness , poverty , and fallen women are frequent themes . Procter 's prefaces to her volumes of poetry stress the misery of the conditions under which the poor lived , as do poems such as " The Homeless Poor " :
In that very street , at that same hour ,
In the bitter air and drifting sleet ,
Crouching in a doorway was a mother ,
With her children shuddering at her feet .
She was silent – who would hear her pleading ?
Men and beasts were housed – but she must stay
Houseless in the great and pitiless city ,
Till the dawning of the winter day . ( 51 – 58 )
Procter 's Catholicism also influenced her choice of images and symbols ; Procter often uses references to the Virgin Mary , for example , to " introduce secular and Protestant readers to the possibility that a heavenly order critiques Victorian gender ideology 's power structure . "
Procter wrote several poems about war ( the majority of poems published on this topic in Household Words were by Procter ) , although she rarely deals directly with the topic , preferring to leave war " in the background , something to be inferred rather than stated . " Generally , these poems portray conflict as something " that might unite a nation that had been divided by class distinctions . "
According to critic Gill Gregory , Procter " does not overtly ponder the vexed question of the poet , particularly the woman poet and her accession to fame " , unlike many other women poets of the time , such as Felicia Hemans and Letitia Elizabeth Landon . Procter is instead primarily concerned with the working classes , particularly working @-@ class women , and with " emotions of women antagonists which have not fully found expression " . Procter 's work often embodies a Victorian aesthetic of sentimentality , but , according to Francis O 'Gorman , does so with " peculiar strength " ; Procter employs emotional affect without simplification , holding " emotional energy [ in tension ] ... against complications and nuances . " Procter 's language is simple ; she expressed to a friend a " morbid terror of being misunderstood and misinterpreted " , and her poetry is marked by " simplicity , directness , and clarity of expression " .
= = = Reputation = = =
Procter was " fabulously popular " in the mid @-@ 19th century ; she was Queen Victoria 's favourite poet and Coventry Patmore stated that the demand for her work was greater than that for any other poet , excepting Alfred , Lord Tennyson . Readers valued Procter 's poems for their plainness of expression , although they were considered " not so very original in thought ; [ their merit is that ] they are indeed the utterances ' of a believing heart ' , pouring out its fulness . " Procter herself expressed little ambition about her work : her friend Bessie Raynor Belloc thought that Procter was pained that her reputation as a poet had outstripped her father 's , and quoted Procter as saying that " Papa is a poet . I only write verses . "
Procter 's popularity continued after her death ; the first volume of Legends and Lyrics went through 19 editions by 1881 , and the second through 14 editions by the same year . Many of her poems were made into hymns or otherwise set to music . Among these was " The Lost Chord " , which Arthur Sullivan set to music in 1877 ; this song was the most commercially successful of the 1870s and 1880s in both Britain and the United States . Her work was also published in the United States and translated into German . By 1938 , Procter 's reputation had fallen so far that a textbook could mention her poems only to pronounce them " stupid , trivial and not worthy of the subject " . Critics such as Cheri Larsen Hoeckley , Kathleen Hickok , and Natalie Joy Woodall argue that the demise of Procter 's reputation is due at least in part to the way Charles Dickens characterized her as a " model middle @-@ class domestic angel " and a " fragile and modest saint " rather than as an " active feminist and strong poet . " Emma Mason argues that although Dickens 's portrayal of Procter " extinguished modern interest " in her , it also " has helped rescue Procter from the kind of endless conjecture about her private life that has confused studies of women like Letitia Landon . "
Modern critics have given Procter 's work little attention . The few critics who have examined Procter 's poetry generally find it important for the way that she overtly expresses conventional sentiments while covertly undermining them . According to Isobel Armstrong , Procter 's poetry , like that of many 19th @-@ century women poets , employs conventional ideas and modes of expression without necessarily espousing them in entirety . Francis O 'Gorman cites " A Legend of Provence " as an example of a poem with this kind of " double relationship with the structures of gender politics it seems to affirm . " Other critics since Armstrong agree that Procter 's poetry , while ladylike on the surface , shows signs of repressed emotions and desires . Kirstie Blair states that the suppression of emotion in Procter 's work makes the narrative poems all the more powerful , and Gill Gregory argues that Procter 's poetry often explores female sexuality in an unconventional way , while as often voicing anxiety about sexual desires . Elizabeth Gray criticizes the fact that the few discussions of Procter 's poetry that do exist focus primarily on gender , arguing that the " range and formal inventiveness of this illuminatingly representative Victorian poet have remained largely unexplored . "
= = List of works = =
A House to Let , a short story co @-@ written with Charles Dickens , Elizabeth Gaskell and Wilkie Collins
Legends and Lyrics , first series , 1858
Legends and Lyrics , second series , 1861
A Chaplet of Verses , 1862
The Haunted House , a short story co @-@ written with Charles Dickens , Elizabeth Gaskell , Wilkie Collins , George Sala and Hesba Stretton
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= Darius Morris =
Darius Aaron Morris ( born January 3 , 1991 ) is an American professional basketball player free agent who last played in the NBA for the Brooklyn Nets . Morris was selected as the 41st pick in the 2011 NBA draft by the Los Angeles Lakers and plays the point guard position . He has also played for the Brooklyn Nets , Philadelphia 76ers , Los Angeles Clippers and Memphis Grizzlies of the NBA as well as the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders and Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA D @-@ League . With the Vipers , he established a D @-@ League playoff single @-@ game assists record in 2014 .
Morris spent two seasons with the Michigan Wolverines basketball team . While playing for the 2010 – 11 team , he was the Big Ten assists leader and set the Michigan single @-@ season assist record ( since broken by Trey Burke ) . He earned third team All @-@ Big Ten honors his sophomore season .
Prior to attending Michigan , Morris led Windward School to the 2009 California state championship while earning the California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) Southern Section John Wooden High School Player of the Year Award . He was a 2010 – 11 All @-@ Big Ten 3rd team selection by the coaches and the media . The National Association of Basketball Coaches named him as a 2nd team All @-@ District selection for the district composed of Big Ten schools .
= = High school career = =
Morris was raised in Carson , California . In high school , Morris , the son of Dewayne Sr. and Robin Morris , attended Windward School . As a brash freshman , Morris promised the media that he would be able to dunk and lead Windward to a state championship before he graduated . Morris was invited to numerous All @-@ star basketball camps hosted by LeBron James , Steve Nash , the National Basketball Players Association and Nike . He was twice selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ State player in California . He was also named the MVP of numerous tournaments and invited to participate in numerous all @-@ star games , including the Academic All @-@ American Classic . Morris ' father worked for the United States Postal Service office in Venice .
As a senior , Morris led Windward High School to the California Division V state title , posting a game @-@ high 25 points , eight rebounds and four assists in the championship game . Darius Morris was named the MVP of Olympic League , CIF Division 5A Southern Section Player of Year , and CIF Division 5A State Player of Year . Also Darius was awarded a John Wooden High School Player of the Year Award , received by Jrue Holiday the year before . He was ranked as the 11th , 15th and 20th best high school basketball point guard in the nation by ESPN , Rivals.com and Scout.com , respectively . Rivals and ESPN included him on their lists of best overall basketball players at 77th and 100th , respectively .
= = College career = =
As a freshman with the 2009 – 10 team , Morris averaged 4 @.@ 4 points and 2 @.@ 6 assist per game on 24 @.@ 3 minutes of playing time per game . On November 14 , Morris began the season for # 15 ranked Wolverines in the starting lineup , posting 11 points and 5 assists against Northern Michigan . He had a season @-@ high 7 assists against Northwestern on January 10 , 2010 .
On December 23 , 2010 , Morris was one of three Wolverines to make 4 three point shots as the team set a school single @-@ game record by making 16 against Bryant University . He also had 12 assists on his way to a double @-@ double . On December 27 , 2010 , the Big Ten Conference named Morris player of the week . Ann Arbor media felt his omission from the 67 @-@ man 2011 Bob Cousy Award watchlist was a surpise . Morris repeated as ( co- ) player of the week on January 31 , 2011 sharing the award with Talor Battle , after becoming the third Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball player ( following Gary Grant and Manny Harris ) to record a triple double . On February 1 , 2011 , The Wall Street Journal calculated that Morris was by far the most valuable player to his team among major conference players because his combined assists and field goals account for over 53 % of his team 's points .
Morris established a new Michigan single @-@ season assists record during the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament ( 235 in 35 games ) . The previous highest single @-@ season assists totals in Michigan history were by Gary Grant ( 234 in 34 games , 1987 – 88 ) and Rumeal Robinson ( 233 in 37 games , 1988 – 89 ) . His average of 6 @.@ 71 assists per game led the Big Ten Conference . For the season , Morris also led the 2010 – 11 team in points per game and steals per game .
Following the 2010 – 11 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season , Darius Morris was selected as a third team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the conference 's coaches and the conference 's media . Morris was also a National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) Division I District 7 All ‐ District second team choice . Since the Big Ten Conference is its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Big Ten by the NABC .
Following the season , Morris sought the advice of the NBA 's undergraduate advisory committee to determine his draft prospects . On May 4 , Morris announced his final decision not to withdraw his name prior to the May 8 deadline and to enter the June 23 , 2011 NBA Draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2011 – 12 season = = =
ESPN 's Chad Ford described Morris at 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) as the biggest true point guard in the draft . Morris was selected by his hometown Los Angeles Lakers in the second round of the 2011 NBA Draft with the 41st overall selection . In the week prior to the beginning of the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Morris appeared along with teammates Derek Fisher , Steve Blake and Matt Barnes on the December 22 season 1 finale of The X Factor during a performance by 50 Cent . On January 11 , he played 13 minutes against Utah in his first game for the Lakers , contributing his first four points , his first two assists and first rebound . The game went to overtime and marked the Lakers ' first road victory of the season in four attempts . Morris began seeing action as Blake endured a costrochaondral fracture of the cartilage that connects the rib to the sternum in subsequent games . Morris stayed in the main rotation for seven games during Blake 's rib injury before returning to a limited role . On March 7 , 2012 , Morris was assigned to the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders of the NBA D @-@ League . Morris debuted for the Defenders with 21 points on March 10 . He was recalled by the Lakers on March 16 , 2012 . On April 26 , against the Sacramento Kings in the last game of the regular season , Morris tallied 9 points and 5 assists .
= = = 2012 – 13 season = = =
Morris agreed to re @-@ sign with the Lakers on July 2 , 2012 and was named to the Lakers team for the July 13 – 22 Las Vegas NBA Summer League . During the Summer League , Morris led the Lakers in scoring and assists . On November 9 , 2012 , Darius Morris recorded 10 points , a career @-@ high 5 rebounds , 5 assists , and 1 steal in a 101 – 77 Lakers win over the Golden State , backing up Blake , while Steve Nash was injured . On November 13 , with both Blake and Nash injured , Morris made his first career start against the San Antonio Spurs . As a starter , Morris posted career highs of 31 minutes and 6 assists on November 16 against the Phoenix Suns . On December 4 , Chris Duhon overtook Morris as the replacement starter . On December 16 , Morris posted a career @-@ high 15 points against the Philadelphia 76ers . A few nights later , Kobe Bryant praised him for his defensive effort . When Nash returned to the starting lineup on December 22 , Morris started in place of Metta World Peace , who came off the bench . This was part of a common strategy employed by Lakers head coach Mike D 'Antoni to play players out of position . While a starter , Morris ' responsibility was to defend against the opponents ' most dangerous perimeter player . On January 4 , World Peace returned to the starting lineup in Morris ' place . Then in late January , Jodie Meeks replaced Morris in the rotation as Blake also returned to the rotation .
On March 7 , 2013 , Morris was reassigned to the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders . He played for the D @-@ Fenders on March 9 , scoring 21 points and adding 6 rebounds , 2 assists and a steal . He was recalled on March 9 , 2013 . On April 3 , 2013 , the Lakers sent him to the D @-@ Fenders once again . He was recalled the next day . On April 26 in the 2013 NBA Playoffs against the San Antonio Spurs , with Bryant , Nash , Blake and Meeks sidelined , Morris had his best day as a pro , tallying 24 points and 6 assists in a starting role .
On June 28 , the Lakers decided that they would not make Morris the $ 1 @.@ 2 million qualifying offer prior to the July 1 deadline that would have been necessary to make him a restricted free agent . Although the team expressed interest in re @-@ signing Morris at a lower priced contract and having him represent the team again in the summer league , he would become an unrestricted free agent at the deadline because the qualifying offer was not made .
= = = 2013 – 14 season = = =
On September 27 , 2013 , Morris signed with the Philadelphia 76ers . As the September 28 training camp date approached , Morris was expected to battle with Tony Wroten for the backup point guard position behind Michael Carter @-@ Williams . When Carter @-@ Williams missed games , it was Wroten who moved into the starting lineup . On November 16 , 2013 he scored a NBA regular season career high 20 points along with 2 assists in a 135 – 98 @-@ point loss to the New Orleans Pelicans . On November 20 , 2013 , he was waived by the 76ers as part of roster moves that included signing Elliot Williams and Lorenzo Brown and waiving Kwame Brown . In December , he was one of several guards to work out with the Memphis Grizzlies . That month , he was also considered by the Los Angeles Lakers when Kobe Bryant was injured since point guards Blake , Nash and Jordan Farmar were all injured . The Lakers , however , decided to sign Kendall Marshall who was averageing 19 @.@ 4 points and 9 @.@ 6 assists in the D @-@ League at the time .
On January 6 , 2014 , Morris signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Los Angeles Clippers after Chris Paul suffered a separated shoulder . Later that same day , Morris played his first game for the Clippers , logging 8 minutes off the bench in a 101 @-@ 81 win over the Orlando Magic , as Morris scored his first point as a Clipper off of a free throw . On January 16 , Morris signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the Clippers . On January 26 , his second 10 @-@ day contract expired and the Clippers decided not to sign him for the rest of the season .
On February 3 , 2014 , Morris signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Memphis Grizzlies . Mike Conley , Jr. had been injured and Jerryd Bayless had been recently traded , leaving the team short at point guard . On February 13 , 2014 , the Grizzlies did not offer him a second 10 @-@ day contract after his first 10 @-@ day contract expired .
On March 17 , 2014 , Morris was acquired by the Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA D @-@ League . On March 20 , he posted his first professional double @-@ double with 21 points and 10 assists against the Bakersfield Jam . Morris posted 31 points on March 21 against the Austin Toros . On April 12 , Morris posted 51 points and 18 assists in an overtime playoff loss to the Iowa Energy . The performance established a D @-@ League single @-@ game playoff record for assists and was the second highest all @-@ time single @-@ game playoff point total .
= = = 2014 – 15 season = = =
In July 2014 , Morris joined the San Antonio Spurs for the 2014 NBA Summer League . On September 24 , 2014 , he signed with the Portland Trail Blazers . However , he was later waived by the Trail Blazers on October 25 , 2014 . On December 11 , 2014 , the Brooklyn Nets made a two @-@ for @-@ one trade clearing a space on their roster . Morris signed with the team that day and made his debut for them the next day , recording two points and one assist in the 88 @-@ 70 win over the Philadelphia 76ers . On June 29 , he was waived by the Nets .
= = = 2015 – 16 season = = =
On March 29 , 2016 , Morris was reacquired by the Rio Grande Valley Vipers . That night , he made his season debut in a 118 – 97 win over the Oklahoma City Blue , recording nine points , three rebounds , four assists and two steals in 24 minutes off the bench .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
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= Forza Motorsport 4 =
Forza Motorsport 4 is a racing video game developed by Turn 10 Studios and published by Microsoft Studios for the Xbox 360 . It is the fourth installment in the Forza series . It is the first title in the series to support the Kinect sensor alongside the traditional controller @-@ based gameplay . It is the last Forza Motorsport released for Xbox 360 ; 2012 's Forza Horizon and its 2014 sequel were the last two Forza games for the platform , while 2013 's Forza Motorsport 5 was released as an Xbox One exclusive .
New to the series is the Autovista mode , a mode in which players can view precise details such as engine parts and interior gauges on a select number of cars . It features a partnership with BBC 's Top Gear as well as its American counterpart . Jeremy Clarkson , presenter for Top Gear , provides commentary in the game 's Autovista mode . Other partnerships include a two @-@ year agreement with the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) . Over 500 cars and 26 tracks are included .
The game received universal acclaim from critics . Aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic report scores of 90 @.@ 50 % and 91 out of 100 , respectively . Metacritic also reports eight perfect scores from various media outlets . Critics praised the enhanced vehicle physics , updated visuals , and strong sound design . Several reviewers also gave high marks for the game 's Autovista mode . Some critics expressed frustration with Kinect features , and others also felt that the game was not enough of an innovation from its predecessor , Forza Motorsport 3 . These critics did , however , concede that the game was a vast improvement over Forza Motorsport 3 .
= = Gameplay = =
Forza Motorsport 4 is a racing video game , and the fourth in the Forza Motorsport series . Like Sony 's Gran Turismo franchise , Forza games are racing simulations ; heavy emphasis is placed on making the cars drive and look as realistic as possible . Races are conducted on closed circuit tracks . 500 cars are featured in the core game experience , ranging from road cars to race cars .
Players can utilize Kinect to look into a corner using a new head tracking feature . This allows them to look toward the apex of a corner or at nearby cars . The controller or steering wheel is used to control the car while Kinect is used independently for viewing around the driver . Players can also use Kinect as a game controller . In this setting the game automatically accelerates and decelerates the player 's vehicle utilizing a modified version of the feature known as Auto Brake in Forza Motorsport 3 . The steering is controlled by placing the players arms out as if controlling an invisible steering wheel . Kinect will allow the player to use voice commands to start races and navigate menus .
New to the Forza series is a feature known as Autovista . It is designed to allow players to walk around and explore inside cars . This feature allows players to view minute details such as brake pads , engine components , and interior details . The player can point at certain features , such as headlights , wheels and the engine for further information about them via audio recording . It can be controlled via Kinect or a game controller . Only 24 cars in the game support the Autovista feature , as it is primarily for sports cars , classic cars , and dream cars . The graphics used to create these cars are formed using image @-@ based lighting which allowed the developers to create perfect reflections , and would better immerse the car in the environment both when racing on a track or in the garage or Top Gear studio when viewing a car .
As in Forza Motorsport 3 , there is a career mode for players to complete , which sees players racing at multiple locations around the world . This is known as World Tour Mode in Forza Motorsport 4 , previously known as Season Play in Forza Motorsport 3 . However , one new feature that appears in Forza Motorsport 4 is the game 's ability to adapt the difficulty as the player progresses through the career , and collect a trend of data to see how well they perform . This allows AI drivers to change and upgrade their cars automatically to suit the player 's driving abilities . There are several types of races besides the standard format . Forza Motorsport 4 includes the original bumper @-@ to @-@ bumper races , but also has drift , autocross , and multiple @-@ heat races . Unlike in Forza Motorsport 3 where players had no choice over which car they received after leveling up , in Forza Motorsport 4 players are now able to choose one out of several cars as a prize , which are automatically upgraded to the high end of their class . Players are able to import their Forza Motorsport 3 profiles into Forza Motorsport 4 . This gives them the ability to transfer a certain amount of in @-@ game credits and gifted cars into their new garage . The amount allowed transferred is based on how long they have played the game and how many cars and credits they have . Players have the option to create car clubs and share cars in their garages within that club . Previous games in the series were limited to eight cars on the track , however Forza Motorsport 4 supports 16 player racing online , and two players offline .
Forza Motorsport 4 features 26 courses to compete on . These race courses are mix between circuits courses and point @-@ to @-@ point courses . 17 real @-@ world tracks and nine fictional locations are included . Each course features as reverse configuration , and many have multiple other configurations . Three additional real world race tracks and one fictional track have been added to the Forza franchise , Hockenheimring , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Infineon Raceway and the fictional Bernese Alps .
= = Development , marketing and release = =
A technology demo for Forza Motorsport 4 was first revealed at Microsoft 's E3 2010 press conference . The live demonstration showcased a passing challenge while driving the 2010 Ferrari 458 Italia . Using the Microsoft Kinect sensor the player steered the car to pass opponents . Forza Motorsport 4 was formally unveiled at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards . Turn 10 announced that the game would feature over 500 cars from 80 manufacturers , and confirmed that it will support Kinect as well as standard Xbox 360 controllers and racing wheels . Turn 10 officially partnered with the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) for two years from August 8 , 2011 . The partnership provides several in @-@ game ALMS themed events to complement the cars and tracks raced in the ALMS present in previous entries in the Forza Motorsport series . Unlike past games in the series , vehicles from the SCCA Pro Racing World Challenge were not present initially in Forza Motorsport 4 aside from a Mopar sponsored Dodge Viper . The Porsche download content pack added one World Challenge Porsche GT3 . More known content was leaked during IGN 's visit to E3 2011 , which revealed that there will be the option to create car clubs and share garages within that club , and that the game will support 16 player online racing . Hockenheimring , Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Infineon Raceway were added as three more real world tracks to the Forza series .
A Tesla Roadster was used to record the game 's tire sounds . The developers chose the Tesla due to its near @-@ silent electric motor which allowed them to record the sounds cleanly without engine or exhaust noise . Two microphones were mounted to the car and pointed at the tire for recording . Lance Hayes , the award winning composer for Forza Motorsport 3 , returned to score Forza Motorsport 4 , which features a combination of his music and other licensed artists . 15 songs were provided by Hayes for the user interface and some in @-@ race music . In speaking of the tone of the soundtrack , Hayes stated " The score has an increased cinematic feel as well as incorporating many of the styles ( downtempo , electronic , ambient ) that made the Forza Motorsport 3 OST a fan favorite . "
On August 26 , 2011 , at PAX Prime it was announced that Turn 10 would include the UNSC Warthog from Microsoft Studios ' Halo series in Forza Motorsport 4 's Autovista mode . The model of Warthog used in Forza Motorsport 4 is identical to the version in the then @-@ upcoming Halo 4 , although the vehicle is not drivable . Turn 10 has cited the vehicle 's exaggerated four wheel steering system , fictional futuristic technology and excessive height as reasons for its exclusion , stating " One , it 's got some technology that 's built into Halo that would have been a big investment for us to then build into the game only to support one vehicle . [ ... ] Technically we don 't support that because no real world cars in our game do . "
= = = Top Gear content = = =
Turn 10 has entered a multiple year partnership with the BBC 's Top Gear . The content provided by the BBC 's BAFTA award @-@ winning television show Top Gear , also includes narration from presenter Jeremy Clarkson during the virtual showroom ( Autovista ) navigation . The game features the Top Gear test track at Dunsfold Aerodrome , near the village of Cranleigh , UK . The first in @-@ game demo in Autovista was revealed at E3 2011 . An extra piece of content for Top Gear fans is the addition of two of the show 's three reasonably priced cars , the Kia Cee 'd , and the Suzuki Liana , while the TV show 's third such car , the Chevrolet Lacetti is not present . At E3 , players were able to complete laps of the Top Gear Test Track and record their own times . The Top Gear test track in Forza Motorsport 4 also features authentic camera angles during replays . The game features Top Gear " Car Football " ( only available online with Xbox Live ) and a Top Gear bowling mini game , both set on the official Top Gear test track .
The BBC Top Gear studio is part of the Home Space when viewing a car . The studio has the original TV series cars on plinths , such as the destroyed Toyota Hilux and Clarkson 's Fiat Coupé police car as seen in Series 11 , Episode 1 , and all of the original Top Gear logos , Stig posters , and lighting arrangements , that reflect off the paintwork of the car the player is viewing , similar to how they would on the real Top Gear show . A live action commercial was produced and contained a voice over track by Jeremy Clarkson . The commercial is set in a busy city in which a man merely wants to drive fast . As the man speeds through the city streets with police in pursuit Clarkson speaks of lovers of speed as an endangered species . He notes that places for these people to truly enjoy their cars are being taken away , then pitches the video game . The commercial was well received by the media . Jalopnik 's Ray Wert called the advert " epic " . The driving was performed by professional stunt driver Martin Ivanov .
Forza Motorsport 4 was featured in the U.S. version of Top Gear . At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards professional stunt driver and show co @-@ host Tanner Foust and Rutledge Wood , car expert and co @-@ host were featured in the unveiling of the game . Foust drove a 2010 Dodge Challenger while Wood rode as a passenger . The advertisement showed Foust drifting around the environment and ended with a top @-@ down shot of the pad . On the pavement the word Forza was spelled out in tire marks . Additionally in the final episode of the show 's second season Wood and co @-@ host Adam Ferrara challenged Foust to a timed race at Infineon Raceway , otherwise known as Sears Point ; Foust drove the Lexus LF @-@ A around the real course while Wood and Ferrara drove the course in Forza Motorsport 4 .
= = = Limited Collector 's Edition = = =
Players who buy the Limited Collector 's Edition get a polished Steelbook case , with the 2012 BMW M5 as the cover car . They receive a V.I.P. car pack , including the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport and Noble M600 ; a 10 @-@ car American Muscle Car Pack , including the Plymouth GTX 426 HEMI and Chevrolet Nova SS , ( also available on Xbox Live on launch day ) ; a pre @-@ order exclusive Ship Bonus Car Pack , including the Koenigsegg Agera and Tesla Roadster Sport ; a five @-@ car BMW Designer Car Pack featuring five BMWs with unique exterior designs , including a BMW M6 designed by an entrant into an M6 design competition . This pack was available on launch day , along with a free download of the 2012 BMW M5 and a BMW theme for the Xbox 360 dashboard . In addition to this , Collector 's Edition owners are given a 96 @-@ page volume entitled ' Cars of Forza Motorsport 4 Presented By Top Gear ' , written by the editors from Top Gear magazine . This volume gives detailed information about many of the exotic cars found within the game , as well as photos ( both in game and real life ) of them . The description of the cars is exactly the same that Jeremy Clarkson narrates while using the Top Gear section found within the Autovista feature .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Forza Motorsport 4 has received monthly downloadable content ( DLC ) packs since its release . Each month a number of new cars are bundled into a pack available for purchase . Players can also opt to purchase individual cars from a given pack should they not want all the vehicles presented that month . Players can purchase a Season Pass which entitles them to free downloads of the first six packs . The Top Gear Car Pack DLC was the first of the monthly packs to not be covered by the Season Pass . Unlike previous Forza titles which included Porsche cars through a sublicense from Electronic Arts , Forza Motorsport 4 did not initially include the Porsche marque . Instead , cars from Ruf Automobile , a German car manufacturer which builds their own models from bodies in white received from Porsche , were included . EA 's release of Shift 2 : Unleashed earlier in 2011 was regarded as an expansion into the simulation @-@ racing genre , and brought the Forza series into more direct competition with EA Games . On March 5 , 2012 it was announced there would be a downloadable car pack on May 22 that will feature 30 Porsche cars . The new 2013 SRT Viper GTS was included in Forza Motorsport 4 as free downloadable content on June 22 , 2012 . As a part of the June DLC pack , a 1940 Ford was added . This pack also includes an MG MGA , a Volkswagen Beetle , a BMW 507 , and a Maserati Ghibli . Sometime in late 2015 , all DLC packs were removed without warning , making it so anyone who has yet to purchase said DLC no longer has the chance , restricting the use of over 100 cars . This sparked cries of fury among many fans of the series , yet no plan to re @-@ instate the DLC has been considered , leaving its fate unknown ( although most likely gone ) .
= = = Music = = =
Forza Motorsport 4 features an original score by Lance Hayes , also known as DJ Drunken Master . Like Forza Motorsport 3 , the score consists mainly of ambient electronica music , although orchestral elements are incorporated into the music . Alongside the score , Forza Motorsport 4 contains a wide selection of licensed music from various artists . Although the game was released in 2011 , the score was not officially released until October 30 , 2013 on iTunes .
= = Reception = =
Forza Motorsport 4 was released to critical acclaim . It currently holds a score of 90 @.@ 66 % at GameRankings and 91 out of 100 at Metacritic , two video game review aggregate websites . It is ranked 36th in the top Xbox 360 games at GameRankings . It received eight perfect scores from reviews posted at Metacritic , with the lowest score being an 80 % approval rating . It also won the award for Most Anticipated E3 2011 game from Computer and Video Games . It ranked first in sales in the United Kingdom during the week of its release . As of April 30 , 2012 it ranked 23rd in sales in the UK .
Luke Reilly of IGN called the game " this generation 's premier racing simulator " . He praised the game 's Autovista mode , specifically mentioning the attention to detail given to even the smaller parts of the vehicles . He gave high marks for the commentary given by Jeremy Clarkson of the BBC 's Top Gear . He called Clarkson 's remarks " refreshingly candid " . Reilly did state , however that he wished the game offered evening races . Editor Martin Robinson of Eurogamer felt that the game was " easy to fall in love with . " Robinson noted that several cars benefit from the improved handling system , including the Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa . He contrasted the game to Gran Turismo 5 ( GT5 ) . He explained that GT5 emitted a " crazy love " from its developers and noted that Forza Motorsport 4 " often failed to embrace the emotion its subjects can inspire . " Official Xbox Magazine 's Ryan McCaffrey lauded the game 's 60 fps framerate and breathtaking views . He stated that this , along with excellent sound design , kept him " playing from the cockpit view the entire time . " He did note , however , that the game 's soundtrack felt out of place , and that he muted it during gameplay .
Jeff Gerstmann , co @-@ founder of Giant Bomb felt that while Forza Motorsport 4 was a " fantastic driving game " it merely felt like an incremental improvement on its predecessor . " I found myself getting a very ' annual sports game update ' vibe off of it , " stated Gerstmann . Justin Calvert of GameSpot agreed ; he said that Forza Motorsport 4 refines upon its predecessor , " but also feels just a little too familiar " . X @-@ Play 's Jason D 'Aprile also felt that Forza Motorsport 4 an improvement over Forza Motorsport 3 , " making it the absolute king of the road . " He cited the game 's audio and visuals , the amount of cars and tracks , the online play and variable skill level all as high points . However , D 'Aprile felt that the Kinect implementation was " a gimmick " and expressed disappointment that there was not more content involving Top Gear . Matthew Kato , reviewer for Game Informer was unimpressed by Forza 's Kinect integration as well . He felt that Kinect @-@ based racing " isn ’ t satisfying since your arms get tired and the game controls the gas and brake for you . "
1UP.com Associate Editor Jose Otero called Forza Motorsport 4 " the most accessible racer around . " He cited the new World Tour mode as a major improvement over Forza 3 ' Season Play . He noted that should a car in the player 's garage not be tuned correctly for an event the game can suggest the proper upgrades . For seasoned players this feature can be turned off . He felt that features like this , along with the returning Rewind feature which allows players to replay a poor section of their race , cater to all skill levels . The reviewer from Edge magazine compared Forza Motorsport 4 to its closest competitor , Gran Turismo 5 ( GT5 ) . He stated that though the Forza series " might be getting familiar , but it 's still a more exciting drive than [ GT5 ] . " The review stated that the improved handling dynamics , focus on the player and the game 's community , and strong accessibility made the game a " supercharged package . "
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= Super Mario 64 DS =
Super Mario 64 DS ( スーパーマリオ64DS , Sūpā Mario Rokujūyon Dī Esu ) is a platform video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . The game was a launch title for the Nintendo DS , released in North America and Japan in 2004 ; it was later released in Europe and Australia in 2005 .
Nintendo , who produced the original version of the game , first displayed the game as a multiplayer demonstration at the 2004 E3 titled Super Mario 64 × 4 . In addition to revised graphics , the remake includes new characters , a multiplayer mode , and several minigames independent of the main adventure . As with the original title , the plot of Super Mario 64 DS centers on rescuing Princess Peach from Bowser , with slight changes to accommodate the additional characters . Yoshi is the initial protagonist in this version , with Mario , Luigi , and Wario as unlockable characters .
Overall , the game was critically and commercially successful . It won video game awards , and received positive comments from the gaming press , that focused on elements of the single @-@ player mode . The multiplayer mode and lack of analog controls used in Super Mario 64 were common complaints among reviewers . The game sold well in territories , was ranked on best @-@ selling lists , and , as of September 30 , 2015 , has sold 11 @.@ 06 million copies worldwide .
= = Plot = =
The game begins with Mario receiving a letter from Princess Peach inviting him to come to her castle for a cake she has baked for him . Mario arrives at Peach 's castle , along with Luigi and Wario . The trio disappear as they enter the castle , and Lakitu , the game 's camera operator , informs Yoshi of the disappearance . Yoshi explores Peach 's castle to find Mario , Luigi , Wario and Peach .
Scattered throughout the castle are paintings and secret walls , which act as portals to other worlds where Bowser and his minions guard the Power Stars . After recovering most of the power stars and defeating Bowser 's minions , Yoshi acquires keys that access other areas of the castle , where he finds Mario and his friends captured .
First , Yoshi defeats Goomboss and frees Mario as they continue searching the castle to find more Power Stars . Second , Mario defeats King Boo and frees Luigi who uses " invisibility power " to get Wario 's key . Third , Luigi defeats Chief Chilly and frees Wario using the key . Mario and his friends then tackle three obstacle courses , with each ensuing a battle with Bowser . After defeating him twice , they received a key that opens even more levels of the castle .
After collecting 150 power stars , Mario and his friends reach the highest area of the castle , where they ensue a final battle against Bowser . Eventually , after Bowser 's defeat , Mario and his friends return to Peach 's castle , where they free Peach from a stained @-@ glass window above the entrance . As a reward for saving Peach , she kisses Mario on the nose and bakes the cake she had promised . The game ends when Mario , Luigi , Peach , Yoshi and Wario wave goodbye to the player as Lakitu films and then flies away . A photo with Peach 's cake then appears .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario 64 DS is a 3D platformer in which the player controls four different characters through numerous levels to collect 150 Power Stars , 30 more than the original game . Each level is an enclosed world in which the player is free to wander in all directions and discover the environment without time limits . The worlds are inhabited with enemies that attack the characters as well as friendly creatures that provide assistance , offer information , or ask for help . The player gathers stars in each course ; some stars only appear after completing certain tasks , often hinted at by the name of the course . These challenges include defeating a boss , solving puzzles , racing an opponent , and gathering coins . As the player collects stars , more areas of the castle become accessible .
Power @-@ ups in Super Mario 64 DS take the form of special hats resembling those worn by Mario , Luigi , and Wario ( voiced by Charles Martinet ) , and are available in some levels . Acquiring one such hat will change the player 's character into the corresponding character . The hats fall off if the character is hit , but can be reacquired . Yoshi is able to start a level wearing the hat of any of the available characters . Another power @-@ up item , the " Power Flower " , provides each character with a different ability : Mario is able to float , similar to Super Mario World 's balloon item ; Luigi becomes invisible and transparent , similar to the invisible hat in the Nintendo 64 version ; Wario becomes coated by metal , which makes him temporarily invincible to enemy attacks and sink underwater , similar to the metal hat in the original version ; and Yoshi is able to breathe fire . Each ability is necessary to complete specific areas in the game . Other items include the " Super Mushroom " , which increases the character 's size and strength , and the feather , that only Mario can get , and which allows the character to fly in the same fashion as in Super Mario 64 . However , in multiplayer VS . Mode , other characters can get wings , in Yoshi 's case , he grows wings out of his body like in Super Mario World .
The game uses both of the system 's screens to offer new options . The top screen displays the normal gameplay , while the bottom touchscreen can function as an overhead map and touch controls . The overhead map displays the current course the player traverses and displays item locations . The touch controls include virtual buttons , which rotate the top screen 's camera angle , and directional character controls , which can operate with either the DS stylus or the player 's thumb using the DS wrist strap . In addition to the single @-@ player adventure , the game includes 36 minigames and a multiplayer mode . Minigames are made accessible by catching rabbits in the main game . All minigames use the touchscreen to play , and are based on different themes : racing , card games , puzzles , and so forth . The multiplayer mode uses the wireless DS Download Play where up to four players compete against each other using Green , Red , Blue , and Yellow Yoshi ( voiced by Kazumi Totaka ) — character hats appear in the stage allowing players to transform into either Mario , Luigi , or Wario . Wario can stun opponents by picking them up , swinging them , and throwing them .
= = Development = =
Super Mario 64 DS was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS . It is a remake of the Nintendo 64 launch title Super Mario 64 , with the game 's 3D engine mirroring many visual effects used in the original game . Graphical changes include a higher polygon count for character models and the lack of texture filtering . Originally titled " Super Mario 64 × 4 " , it was first shown as a multiplayer demonstration at the 2004 E3 before the Nintendo DS was released . A few months later , Nintendo announced an actual game — along with many others — was in development . At the Nintendo DS conference on October 7 , 2004 , the game was on demonstration again and new information was revealed ; the name was changed to Super Mario 64 DS and four different characters ( Mario , Luigi , Yoshi , and Wario ) would be used in the main , single @-@ player adventure . The demonstration was a more complete version of the game than the E3 version — the game 's development was 90 % complete at this time — and highlighted the multiple characters in the single @-@ player mode and included minigames ; the multiplayer mode , however , was not present . Prior to the conference , the appearance of the box art on GameStop 's product page caused speculation the game would be a launch title . Nintendo confirmed the rumor by announcing at the conference that the game would be a launch title of the Nintendo DS in North America and Japan . As the game 's release approached , the release schedule of launch titles altered ; many titles were delayed , while others were announced to be released a few days before the Nintendo DS . Super Mario 64 DS was the only game scheduled to be released with the system . Koji Kondo provided the music for the game , while the voice actors from Super Mario 64 returned as well and this time , Kazumi Totaka joined the cast , playing the role of Yoshi .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Super Mario 64 DS has been commercially successful . Following its release in Japan , the game sold 241 @,@ 000 copies by December 19 , 2004 , and was the fifth best @-@ selling title on the weekly sales chart of that week . Sales continued to increase , and Super Mario 64 DS had sold 639 @,@ 000 units by February 20 , 2005 . The game frequently appeared on Amazon.com 's sales charts . In the first week of June 2006 , it was listed as the sixth best @-@ selling Nintendo DS title , and had risen to number three by the last week of the month . The game appeared again near the end of July 2006 as the eighth best @-@ selling title . At the beginning of 2008 , Amazon.com charts listed the game as the seventh best @-@ selling Nintendo DS title in the United States . By November 2006 , the game had sold over one million units in Europe , and , by the end 2007 , over two million copies in the United States . As of September 30 , 2015 , Super Mario 64 DS has sold 11 @.@ 06 million copies worldwide .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The game has won awards and met with overall positive reviews from video game journalists . Upon its release , IGN labeled it as an " Editor 's Choice " and awarded it " Game of the Month " for the Nintendo DS , citing the game as a " great achievement " of the system 's capability . In 2005 , the game won a Golden Joystick Award for best handheld game of year . Prior to the game 's release , Craig Harris of IGN reviewed the early demonstration . He commented on the accurate recreation of the original graphics , and stated that the small Nintendo DS screen helps hide any visual flaws . Harris criticized the game 's controls calling them a little " sluggish " and " clumsy " . Though he praised the graphics and new gameplay additions , Harris expressed disappointment that the Mario launch title for the new system was a remake instead of a full game . IGN 's Anoop Gantayat anticipated the game would be a big hit among American video game enthusiasts . In Japan , Famitsu ranked Super Mario 64 DS the 29th most wanted title .
Reviewers praised the game 's accurate recreation of the Nintendo 64 title , additional features , and upgrades . Phil Theobald of GameSpy lauded Super Mario 64 DS , calling it " fantastic " and complimenting the new features : minigames , use of a second screen , and extra stars . He also commented that the gameplay of the original game holds up ten years after its original release . Harris said the original feel of Super Mario 64 is retained , while the new challenges and features build upon it in a way that added to the game 's longevity . He complimented the graphics and audio , and considered the game a good demonstration of the Nintendo DS 's capabilities . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot also complimented the graphics , specifically the higher polygon count and smooth frame rate . He called Super Mario 64 DS a " great update of a classic game " , and felt the changes and additional features offered a new experience to fans of the original . In contrast , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish felt the game did not offer enough new content to warrant a purchase . He praised the inclusion of extra characters , calling them a " nice twist " , but concluded his review by calling the game a " poorly @-@ conceived port " that should be played on the original system .
Other criticism focused on the game 's controls and multiplayer mode . Theobald felt the lack of an analog stick made the controls more difficult than the original game and required a short period of adjustment . He further stated that the digital pad and touchscreen 's virtual analog control were " tricky " and required practice . Harris echoed similar comments and noted the touchscreen does not provide physical feedback like an analog stick . He added the game was never intended to be played without proper analog controls . Gerstmann referred to the multiplayer mode as " uneventful " and considered it lacking longevity , but commented that it was a good extra that demonstrated the system 's wireless multiplayer capabilities . Theobald agreed it was a nice addition , but considered it a " diversion " that players would tire of quickly .
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= Apogee Stadium =
Apogee Stadium is a college football stadium located at the junction of Interstate 35 East and West in Denton , Texas . Opened in 2011 , it is home to the University of North Texas ( UNT ) Mean Green football team , which competes in Conference USA . The facility replaced Fouts Field , where the school 's football program had been based since 1952 .
The stadium was proposed by the University of North Texas System Board of Regents after the 2002 New Orleans Bowl . Designed by HKS , Inc . , it was constructed at a cost of $ 78 million after a contentious student body election in 2008 . It was originally named " Mean Green Stadium " , but was renamed when ResNet provider Apogee purchased the naming rights in 2011 . The stadium hosted its first major event on September 10 , 2011 when the Mean Green lost 48 – 23 against the University of Houston Cougars . That game 's attendance of 28 @,@ 075 holds the record for the stadium ; the Mean Green have never sold out a home game in their five seasons at the venue . Official home attendance figures for the team 's first five seasons at Apogee Stadium averaged around 18 @,@ 492 per game , which is slightly under 60 % of its capacity of 30 @,@ 850 .
The facility includes various amenities , including a press box , luxury boxes , and an alumni pavilion . It also uses environmental technology ; it is the first newly built stadium to achieve Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Platinum certification . It can be reached by road , but because of limited parking and traffic congestion on game days , many attendees park on the northeast side of Interstate 35E and cross a pedestrian bridge to reach the stadium . Others use public transportation to reach the facility on game days .
= = History = =
= = = Early planning and finance = = =
In September 2002 , the University of North Texas purchased 19 acres ( 7 @.@ 7 ha ) on the opposite side of Interstate 35 from the main campus in Denton , Texas from Liberty Christian School for $ 5 @.@ 1 million . The university also owned an adjacent 158 @-@ acre ( 64 ha ) golf course . Following the football team 's victory at the 2002 New Orleans Bowl , school administrators announced their intent to build an assortment of new athletic facilities on the properties , now called the Mean Green Village . These plans included a new football stadium to replace Fouts Field , where the school 's football team had been based since 1952 . Richard Raefs , vice chancellor of administrative affairs at UNT , stated that that the project 's primary objective was the consolidation of academic facilities and that renovating Fouts Field would cost $ 8 million more than building an entirely new stadium .
The University of North Texas System Board of Regents released a long @-@ term campus master plan in 2005 that included a proposed new stadium with a capacity of 35 @,@ 000 and an estimated cost " in excess of $ 35 million " . UNT athletic director Rick Villareal stated that the university would use only private fundraising , rather than another increase in students ' fees , to pay for any new facilities , including a stadium . He projected that the new stadium would cost $ 40 million and seat 50 @,@ 000 spectators . The athletic department changed that capacity estimate in 2007 to 32 @,@ 000 with the possibility of later expansion to 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = Athletics fee referendum = = =
In 2008 , the athletic department tried again to increase the athletics fee to pay for the new stadium , which now had an estimated cost of $ 60 million . UNT Student Government Association ( SGA ) student senators voted to hold a student election on the referendum to approve the new fee , which amounted to a net increase of $ 7 per credit hour for each student , or approximately $ 840 per student over the course of four years . According to state law , students cannot pay for more than half the cost of a stadium .
The athletic department made a concerted effort to promote the higher fee to students , and supporters suggested hiring street preachers or troubadours to promote the election . Making the case for the fee prior to the election , athletic director Rick Villareal said that the stadium was " not some arms race for us " and that the fee 's objective was not just to keep up with other universities .
The referendum was held between October 13 – 17 , 2008 . Students voted for or against the proposal :
In order for the University of North Texas to have a better Athletic program , which in turn can lead to national exposure and increased recognition of UNT ; I agree to a dedicated Athletic Fee not to exceed $ 10 per semester credit hour , capped at 15 hours . Once the Athletic Fee is implemented , the Student Service Fee will be reduced by $ 3 per semester credit hour . The Athletic Fee shall not be implemented until the semester the new football stadium is complete , which is expected to be fall 2011 .
On October 21 , 2008 , the UNT SGA announced that in one of the largest turnouts in the school 's history , student voters approved a dedicated athletic fee to fund the new stadium . Almost 14 % of the student body voted , with 2 @,@ 829 students ( 58 @.@ 1 % ) voting for the increase and 2 @,@ 038 ( 41 @.@ 9 % ) voting against it . After the election , the cost estimate for the stadium 's construction increased by $ 18 million to $ 78 million , $ 38 million more than the 2005 estimate . At a press conference with head football coach Todd Dodge , Villarreal stated that " there 's an arms race going on with facilities . This one will put us up there with everybody else . " In February 2009 , the school 's chapter of Students for a Democratic Society unsuccessfully attempted to petition for a re @-@ vote on the referendum .
Following the election , Representative Myra Crownover and Senator Craig Estes submitted companion bills during the eighty @-@ first Texas Legislature to approve the fee increase . According to the report submitted by Crownover to the state 's Higher Education Committee , the fee would not begin until construction of the new stadium was complete . As a result of the fee , the athletics department would collect approximately $ 8 @.@ 7 million from students in 2012 , of which $ 3 @.@ 9 million would be put towards payment of the new stadium . Estes ' bill was approved by the Texas House and Senate , and was signed into law by Governor Rick Perry on May 23 , 2009 . Prior to the groundbreaking ceremony on November 21 , 2009 , President of UNT Gretchen Bataille said that of the approximately $ 78 million needed to pay for the new stadium , the department had raised $ 5 million . In 2015 , the eighty @-@ fourth Texas Legislature passed a bill allowing the Board of Regents to raise the fee by up to 10 % each year beyond the original limit of $ 10 . In September 2015 , the Board of Regents approved an increase in the fee , raising it to $ 11 per credit hour .
= = = Construction and naming rights = = =
In February 2008 , the school selected HKS , Inc. to provide architectural and design services for the proposed new stadium . The university hired Manhattan Construction Company in 2009 to provide pre @-@ construction and construction services . After leveling the area , Manhattan installed a steel @-@ reinforced concrete skeleton for the stands . Subsequently , the firm flattened the playing field area and installed artificial turf . In later phases , glass and brick were added to the facility 's luxury suites . Construction officially finished on July 20 , 2011 .
On August 11 , 2011 , UNT announced a deal with Austin @-@ based ResNet provider Apogee for the naming rights to the new stadium , and the name was changed to " Apogee Stadium " . According to the contract , Apogee will pay $ 11 @.@ 8 million of the $ 20 million deal in cash over 20 years , including graduated annual payments beginning at $ 312 @,@ 000 and ending in three payments of $ 1 million . The remaining $ 8 @.@ 29 million will be in the form of in @-@ kind services . As part of the contract , Apogee also received one luxury suite in the new stadium and premium tickets to other UNT events .
= = = Opening season = = =
The stadium hosted its first game on September 10 , 2011 , when the Mean Green football team lost 48 – 23 against the University of Houston Cougars . Despite the concerted efforts of the university and the athletic department , the first home game at the new stadium did not sell out , and the game attracted 28 @,@ 075 spectators , 2 @,@ 775 fewer than full capacity . Although attendees ' reception to the opening game was generally positive , attendance dropped to 21 @,@ 181 for the second home game against the Indiana University Hoosiers . By the third home game against the Florida Atlantic University Owls , attendance had dropped to a season @-@ low of 13 @,@ 142 . To promote the final home game of the season against the Middle Tennessee State University Blue Raiders , the university offered free tickets to some athletic booster club members , and head football coach Dan McCarney promoted the game with an op @-@ ed in the school 's student newspaper , the North Texas Daily . The official attendance for the final game was 15 @,@ 962 , bringing the total home attendance for the year to 113 @,@ 186 , a new record for the Mean Green . For the 2011 season , the stadium averaged 18 @,@ 864 spectators per home game , which is 61 @.@ 15 % of the facility 's capacity of 30 @,@ 850 . The team ended the season ranked 98th out of 120 Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) teams in average home attendance . It finished with five wins and seven losses , its best record since the 2004 season .
= = = Later events = = =
For the five home games of the 2012 season , average game attendance saw a slight increase to 18 @,@ 927 , giving the Mean Green the 103rd highest attendance out of 124 FBS teams . The venue hosted its first nationally televised game on October 16 , 2012 when the Mean Green defeated the Louisiana – Lafayette Ragin ' Cajuns 30 – 23 on ESPN2 . The broadcast had an estimated 366 @,@ 000 viewers , earning a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 3 . The 2013 season began with a home game celebrating 100 years of football at North Texas ; an announced crowd of 21 @,@ 975 watched the Mean Green defeat the Idaho Vandals 40 – 6 . For the six home games of the 2013 season , average game attendance at Apogee was 21 @,@ 030 . The venue averaged 19 @,@ 271 attendees per home game during the 2014 season and 13 @,@ 631 for the 2015 season .
= = = Other uses = = =
Other events at the stadium include an annual Independence Day fireworks show , hosted by the local Kiwanis organization . The stadium also hosted Bands of America regional marching band competitions in 2012 and 2014 The facility also hosts a number of high school football contests each year , including playoff games . The venue hosted a 5K run in 2016 , coinciding with that year 's spring game .
= = = Largest crowds = = =
= = Structure and facilities = =
Apogee Stadium occupies 426 @,@ 300 square feet ( 39 @,@ 600 m2 ) on 46 acres ( 19 ha ) of land . Stands on the north , east , and west sides of the stadium seat 30 @,@ 850 and form a horseshoe shape around a standard American football field . The field 's surface is PowerBlade HP + , a type of artificial turf comprising synthetic fibers with a rubber and sand infill . Unlike Fouts Field , Apogee Stadium does not have an all @-@ weather running track , and spectators are set approximately 33 feet ( 10 m ) closer to the field . A separate 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) pavilion for alumni is located just north of the stadium . Parts of the stadium 's exterior are covered with 48 @,@ 320 square feet ( 4 @,@ 489 m2 ) of recyclable silver aluminum composite panels , with an additional 1 @,@ 334 square feet ( 123 @.@ 9 m2 ) of green panels for accent .
The home side stands are located on the west side of the stadium . They include 21 luxury suites , which the athletic department sells for $ 20 @,@ 000 per year plus a " 6- or 7 @-@ figure gift to the Stadium Fund " , and 754 club seats , which can be purchased with a one @-@ time gift of $ 3 @,@ 125 to $ 12 @,@ 500 , in addition to an annual $ 500 donation to the athletic department and the cost of season tickets . The side also includes a press box , named the Bill Mercer Press Club , in honor of the school 's longtime play @-@ by @-@ play announcer . Barnes & Noble College Booksellers operates a Mean Green Gear Store , which is located underneath the stands at Gate 2 on the west side of the stadium .
The stands on the east side of the field are generally reserved for student seating ; behind them is a path @-@ defined tailgating area called " The Hill " . The seating behind the north end zone forms a distinctive " V " shape intended to resemble an eagle 's wings in flight . The tips of the " wings " reach 106 feet ( 32 m ) above the field . There is no seating behind the south end zone , but the area includes a 47 @-@ by @-@ 27 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 m × 8 @.@ 2 m ) scoreboard and a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) bronze bust of an eagle . The bust is named " Spiriki " , and was donated by members of the Geezles , the school 's first social fraternity . On game days , the area also includes a scale replica cannon named " Boomer " , which is fired each time the team scores .
= = = Environmental design = = =
In 2008 , president of UNT Gretchen Bataille signed the American College and University President 's Climate Commitment ( ACUPCC ) to achieve carbon neutrality by 2040 . As part of that process , all new university buildings and facilities are required to achieve a minimum of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Silver certification . While planning the stadium 's construction , the university consulted HKS , Inc. to design it to meet a number of green building standards and hired FocusEGD , an environmental graphic design firm , to design many of the stadium 's graphic elements . As a result , Apogee Stadium uses various forms of environmental technology . To reduce water consumption and urban runoff , the facility includes a 85 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 900 m2 ) water retention system , 338 @,@ 000 square feet ( 31 @,@ 400 m2 ) of permeable paving , and low @-@ flow plumbing systems . To minimize the human impact on the environment , developers took advantage of the landscape around the stadium whenever possible .
The facility also includes three Northern Power Systems 100 wind turbines , which were installed in February 2012 . To fund the turbine project , the Texas State Energy Conservation Office allocated $ 2 million in federal stimulus funds to the university . The 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) turbines each have three 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) blades and are expected to produce a combined 450 @,@ 000 kilowatt @-@ hours ( 1 @,@ 600 GJ ) of energy per year , which would account for roughly six percent of the athletics department 's power grid in the area . The turbines are also expected to offset 323 metric tons ( 323 @,@ 000 kg ) of carbon dioxide emissions .
The stadium 's sustainable design features have earned praise and awards from media outlets and industry groups . In 2011 , Apogee Stadium became the first newly built stadium to achieve LEED Platinum certification , the highest level awarded by the U.S. Green Building Council . The points @-@ based ratings system measures various environmental aspects including water efficiency , energy conservation , indoor air quality , and sustainability . Dallas Business Journal named the stadium the " Green Project Deal of the Year " in 2012 , and Engineering News @-@ Record named it the year 's " Best Green Project " . The stadium was named as one of the four finalists during the World Stadium Awards Congress for " most sustainable stadium design concept " , but lost to the London Olympic Stadium .
= = Transportation and location = =
Apogee Stadium is located on Bonnie Brae Street at the junction of Interstate 35 East and West in the southeast part of Denton , Texas . It is part of the Mean Green Village , a 175 @-@ acre ( 71 ha ) parcel of land located south of UNT 's main campus that includes various athletic department facilities . In February 2003 , the school conducted studies to identify potential traffic problems in the area . The results of the studies indicated that the intersection of Bonnie Brae Street and Airport Road northwest of the facility represented a potential major traffic hazard , since the two @-@ lane Bonnie Brae Street could not accommodate the additional game day traffic , and Airport Road would be needed for access to Denton Municipal Airport to the north . Initially , university officials planned to address some concerns by rerouting season ticket holders through the surrounding neighborhoods , but in 2009 , residents expressed concerns that the stadium could clog traffic systems in the area . Consequently , the City of Denton passed an ordinance to shut down the area streets on game days to anyone without a resident 's permit . The university began the process of transferring the right @-@ of @-@ way surrounding Bonnie Brae Street to the city in 2012 to allow for the road 's expansion from two lanes to four . The project is expected to improve the region 's transportation system between Interstate 35 East and U.S. Route 377 to the south .
To encourage the use of sustainable transportation , developers limited the quantity of parking spaces on site . The facility includes 1 @,@ 758 parking spaces adjacent to the stadium , but to access it on the day of an event , most attendees park at Fouts Field on the opposite side of Interstate 35E and walk across a pedestrian bridge , which leads to the stadium . The university announced plans to build the bridge in August 2011 to address another area of the concern from the 2002 studies . Construction on the $ 2 @.@ 5 million project , a joint venture between the university and the Texas Department of Transportation , began in February 2012 . Although originally expected to open for the football team 's first home game of the 2012 season , construction delays moved the opening date to October 16 for the third home game of the season .
In June 2016 , the Fort Worth Transportation Authority announced its intent to begin operating a commuter bus service on weekdays from Fort Worth Intermodal Transportation Center to the stadium parking lot . The Denton County Transportation Authority ( DCTA ) is expected to review the proposal on August 22 , 2016 . On game days , UNT football game attendees can also take the DCTA A @-@ train to the Euline Brock Downtown Denton Transit Center and take a shuttle to Fouts Field , where they can walk to the stadium . Beginning two hours prior to the beginning of each game and ending one hour after the game is over , the Mean Green Game Day shuttle also stops at various locations in Denton , including the Denton County Courthouse @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Square and the southeast corner of the university . In September 2013 , the school announced a partnership with DCTA to provide free trips on the A @-@ train and shuttle rides to the stadium for football game attendees wearing UNT apparel .
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= 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania =
1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania was an oral ultimatum presented to Juozas Urbšys , Foreign Minister of Lithuania , by Joachim von Ribbentrop , Foreign Minister of Nazi Germany , on 20 March 1939 . The Germans demanded that Lithuania give up the Klaipėda Region ( also known as the Memel Territory ) , which had been detached from Germany after World War I , or the Wehrmacht would invade Lithuania . After years of rising tension between Lithuania and Germany , increasing pro @-@ Nazi propaganda in the region , and continued German expansion , the demand was expected . The ultimatum was issued just five days after the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia . The four signatories of the 1924 Klaipėda Convention , which had guaranteed the protection of the status quo in the region , did not offer any material assistance . The United Kingdom and France followed a policy of appeasement , while Italy and Japan openly supported Germany . Lithuania was forced to accept the ultimatum on 22 March . For Germany it was the last territorial acquisition before World War II ; for Lithuania it was a major downturn in economy and morale ; for Europe it was further escalation in pre @-@ war tensions .
= = Klaipėda dispute = =
Klaipėda ( German : Memel ) , an important seaport in East Prussia , was detached from Germany by Article 28 of the Treaty of Versailles and was governed by the Allies according to Article 99 . France assumed administration of the region while Lithuania continued to lobby for its control , claiming that it should belong to Lithuania as it had a significant Lithuanian population ( see Lithuania Minor ) and was that country 's only access to the Baltic Sea . Poland also laid claim to the territory . As the Allies were hesitant to make a decision and it seemed that the region would remain a free state much like the Free City of Danzig , Lithuania took the initiative and organized the Klaipėda Revolt in January 1923 . Soviet Russia and Germany supported the action . The region , as an autonomous territory with its own parliament ( Klaipėda Parliament ) , was attached to Lithuania . The region covered about 2 @,@ 400 km ² and had a population of approximately 140 @,@ 000 .
During the 1920s , Lithuania and Germany maintained a relatively normal relationship as they were united by anti @-@ Polish sentiment . In January 1928 , after long and difficult negotiations , Germany and Lithuania signed a border treaty , which left Klaipėda on the Lithuanian side . However , tensions began rising in the 1930s after the Weimar Republic was replaced with Nazi Germany . An especially tense period came in February 1934 when the Lithuanian government arrested dozens of pro @-@ Nazi activists . In response to these arrests and trials , Germany declared a boycott of Lithuanian agricultural imports . The boycott caused an economic crisis in Suvalkija ( southern Lithuania ) , where farmers organized violent protests . However , after the plebiscite in Saar most of the pro @-@ Nazi prisoners received amnesty . In the wake of the amnesties , Lithuanian prestige suffered both abroad and in Klaipėda , allowing Germany to strengthen its influence in the region .
= = Rising tension = =
In the spring of 1938 Adolf Hitler personally stated that gaining Klaipėda was one of his highest priorities , second only to gaining the Sudetenland . When Poland presented its ultimatum to Lithuania in March 1938 , Germany openly declared that in the event of a military clash between Poland and Lithuania , its army would invade Lithuania to capture Klaipėda and a large portion of western Lithuania . A week after Lithuania accepted the Polish ultimatum , Germany presented an eleven @-@ point memorandum that demanded freedom of action for pro @-@ German activists in the region and a lessening of Lithuanian influence there . Its points were worded in a deliberately vague manner , which would enable Germany to accuse Lithuania of violations . Lithuania chose to postpone dealing with the problem , hoping that the international situation would improve . In the meantime it hoped to give the German population no reasons for complaint .
This tactic did not prove successful : pro @-@ Nazi propaganda and protests were rampant , even among the Lithuanian population , and the local government was powerless to prevent them . The Nazis physically harassed Lithuanian organizations . On 1 November 1938 Lithuania was pressured into lifting martial law and press censorship . During the December elections to the Klaipėda Parliament , pro @-@ German parties received 87 % of votes ( 25 seats out of 29 ) in the Klaipėda territory . Dr. Ernst Neumann , the chief defendant in the 1934 trials , was released from prison in February 1938 and became the leader of Klaipėda 's pro @-@ German movement . In December he was received by Adolf Hitler , who assured him that the Klaipėda issue would be resolved by March or April 1939 . Neumann and other Nazi activists claimed the right of self @-@ determination for the region and demanded that Lithuania open negotiations over the political status of Klaipėda . The parliament was expected to vote for a return to Germany when it convened on 25 March 1939 . Germany 's official channels maintained silence on the issue . Germany hoped that Lithuania would voluntarily give up the troubled region , and a public stance could have disturbed the sensitive discussions it was then engaged in with Poland over an anti @-@ Communist alliance against the Soviet Union .
= = The ultimatum = =
Rumors had reached the Lithuanian government to the effect that Germany had specific plans to take over Klaipėda . On 12 March Foreign Minister Urbšys represented Lithuania at the coronation of Pope Pius XII in Rome . On his return to Lithuania he stopped in Berlin with the hope of clarifying the growing rumors . On 20 March Ribbentrop agreed to meet with Urbšys , but not with Kazys Škirpa , who was asked to wait in another room . The conversation lasted for about 40 minutes . Ribbentrop demanded the return of Klaipėda to Germany and threatened military action . Urbšys relayed the verbal ultimatum to the Lithuanian government . Because the ultimatum was never set down in writing and did not include a formal deadline , some historians have downplayed its import , describing it as a " set of demands " rather than as an ultimatum . However , it was made clear that force would be used should Lithuania resist , and it was warned not to seek help from other nations . While a clear deadline was not given , Lithuania was told to make a speedy decision and that any clashes or German casualties would inevitably provoke a response from the German military .
Lithuania secretly informed the signatories of the Klaipėda Convention about these demands , since technically Lithuania could not transfer Klaipėda without the approval of the signatories . Italy and Japan supported Germany in the matter , while the United Kingdom and France expressed sympathy for Lithuania but chose not to offer any material assistance . They followed a well @-@ publicized policy of appeasing Hitler . The UK treated the issue in the same way as it had treated the Sudeten Crisis and made no plans to assist Lithuania or the other Baltic States if they were attacked by Germany . The Soviet Union , while supporting Lithuania in principle , did not wish to disrupt its relations with Germany at that point , since it was contemplating an alliance with the Nazis . Without any material international support Lithuania had no choice but to accept the ultimatum . Lithuanian diplomacy characterized the concession as a " necessary evil " that would enable Lithuania to preserve its independence and maintained the hope that it was merely a temporary retreat .
= = Acceptance = =
At 1 : 00 am on 23 March Urbšys and Ribbentrop signed a treaty , effective 22 March , stating that Lithuania was voluntarily transferring the Klaipėda Region to Germany . The treaty comprised five articles :
= = Aftermath = =
Before the treaty was signed , German soldiers had already entered the port of Klaipėda . Adolf Hitler , on board the cruiser Deutschland , personally toured the city and gave a short speech . The armada sailing to Klaipėda included the cruiser Admiral Graf Spee , the light cruisers Nürnberg , Leipzig , and Köln , two destroyer squadrons , three torpedo boat flotillas , and one tender flotilla . At the time the Lithuanian navy had only one warship , the Prezidentas Smetona , a 580 @-@ ton converted minesweeper . While the Germans were celebrating the return of the city , European politicians expressed fears that the Free City of Danzig would be Hitler 's next target .
President Antanas Smetona 's unconditional acceptance of a second ultimatum in the space of a little over one year became a major source of dissatisfaction with his authoritarian rule . The German ultimatum triggered a political crisis : the passive cabinet of Vladas Mironas was replaced by a cabinet headed by General Jonas Černius . For the first time since the 1926 coup d 'état , the government included members of the opposition : Leonas Bistras , of the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party , was named Minister of Education and Jurgis Krikščiūnas , of the Lithuanian Popular Peasants ' Union , was named Minister of Agriculture . Because other parties were banned , Bistras and Krikščiūnas were officially billed as independent private citizens . Four generals were now members of the cabinet as well . However , even the looming international crisis did not induce Lithuanian politicians to unite , and they continued to engage in petty political disputes .
The loss of its only access to the Baltic Sea was a major blow to the Lithuanian economy . Between 70 % and 80 % of foreign trade passed through Klaipėda . The region , which represented only about 5 % of Lithuania 's territory , contained a third of its industry . Lithuania also lost its heavy investments in the port 's infrastructure . About 10 @,@ 000 refugees , mostly Jews , left the region and sought shelter and support from the Lithuanian government . Lithuanians doubted the fate of their country : in March – April withdrawals of deposits in banks and credit institutions totaled almost 20 % of total deposits . After the loss of Klaipėda , Lithuania drifted into the German sphere of influence , especially in terms of trade . At the end of 1939 , Germany accounted for 75 % of Lithuanian exports and for 86 % of its imports . Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact in 1939 , dividing Eastern Europe into their respective spheres of influence . Not surprisingly , Lithuania was , at first , assigned to Germany . The Nazis went so far as to suggest a German – Lithuanian military alliance against Poland and promised to return the Vilnius Region , but Lithuania held to its policy of strict neutrality .
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= Neil Brooks =
Neil Brooks ( born 27 July 1962 ) is an Australian former sprint freestyle swimmer best known for winning the 4 × 100 m medley relay at the 1980 Olympics in Moscow as part of the Quietly Confident Quartet . Brooks was as much known for his swimming achievements as he was for disciplinary incidents . He often found himself in conflict with officialdom and threatened with sanctions . His international career ended when he was suspended for drinking 46 cans of beer on the return flight to Australia after the 1986 Commonwealth Games . In retirement , he became a news presenter and sports commentator , but was fired amid alcohol problems .
Born in England , Brooks emigrated to Australia as a toddler and started swimming lessons after nearly drowning in a childhood accident . After initially being known for his lack of technique , Brooks quickly rose through the youth ranks . Brooks made his debut at the Australian Championships in 1976 , but it was not until 1979 that he medalled at national level and made his debut for Australia at a FINA ( Fédération Internationale de Natation ) Swimming World Cup meet . In 1980 , he gained prominence by breaking the Australian record in the 100 m freestyle and being invited to a national team camp . There he had his first clash with officialdom , walking out after accusing the officials of neglecting him . He then qualified for the Australian team for the 1980 Moscow Olympics , defying political pressure to boycott the Games in the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . Arriving in Moscow , Brooks ' experience in the 100 m freestyle was an unpleasant one , suffering an asthma attack and missing the final . The peak of his swimming career came in the 4 × 100 m medley relay , when he caught and passed the Soviet Union 's Sergey Kopliakov during the anchor leg to seal a narrow victory for Australia . This victory remains the only time that the United States did not win the event at Olympic level .
Following the Olympics , Brooks was expelled from the Australian Institute of Sport by Don Talbot for disciplinary reasons . He accepted a swimming scholarship at the University of Arkansas , where he enjoyed the more liberal disciplinary standards . He returned to Australia for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane and again raised the ire of officials during a preparatory training camp . After lobbying for improved accommodation conditions , Brooks was involved in a physical altercation with the team manager . As a result , he was given a suspension that was to take effect after the Commonwealth Games . However , his teammates protested and threatened to walk out , resulting in the ban being rescinded . Despite the turbulent preparation , Brooks had a successful meet , winning the 100 m freestyle and anchoring the 4 × 100 m freestyle and medley relays to gold medals . Brooks competed at his second Olympics in Los Angeles in 1984 Games , where he won silver in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay and bronze for swimming the heats of the medley relay . Brooks ' international career ended at the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh with silver in the 100 m freestyle and gold in the freestyle relay . Brooks retired after being suspended for his drinking binge during the return trip . He later became a swimming commentator but was sacked in 1998 after a disciplinary incident .
= = Early years = =
An only child , Brooks was born in Crewe , England , before migrating to Western Australia when he was four , along with his working @-@ class parents Mick and Norah . His first aquatic adventure was almost his last . Aged seven , he was playing with a friend on the shore of the Swan River when they climbed into a boat that drifted deeper into water and overturned . Brooks was forced to cling to the boat as his friend swam ashore to seek help . His parents immediately enrolled him in swimming lessons at the Marylands Swim Club . Shortly after , he switched to the tutelage of Kevin Duff , who coached him for the next fifteen years . After just six weeks under Duff , Brooks came third in the 50 m breaststroke at the State Age Championships . Despite coaching the likes of Olympic medallists Kevin O 'Halloran , Lyn McClements , David Dickson and Lynne Watson , Duff was virtually unknown outside Western Australia . Brooks was known for his rebellious nature , and had a glowing assessment of his coach , opining that " He 's not pushy like many other Australian coaches and he 's not in the politics of Australian swimming " .
Brooks attended Hale Primary School and trained at Beatty Park Pool , routinely dominating the State Age Championships . He won bronze in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke , and silver in the 200 m freestyle at the 1974 Australian Age Championships . Owing to a lack of style , he was known during his primary school years as " Basher Brooks " , but by the time he entered Churchlands Senior High School , his stroke had become more technically refined . Nevertheless , he was always confident in his mental ability , stating " before I just swam on guts , now I had the stroke as well as the guts . I was always the toughest kid in the race . "
At the age of 13 , Brooks suffered a loss of confidence . After being champion in all four strokes for the previous four years , he was now frequently losing . The other children had grown more at the start of their adolescence and he was struggling to match them . Within a year , Brooks ' physical growth began to catch up and he started to regain the dominant position . He also switched from distance to sprint events .
= = National debut = =
In 1976 , at the age of 13 , Brooks competed at his first open Australian Championships , but did not gain any podium finishes and as such missed selection in the team for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal . In the same year , the Australian team came to Perth for its pre @-@ Olympic training camp and were billeted in the homes of members of the local swimming community . Brooks ' family took his future relay team @-@ mate Mark Tonelli , who had a reputation for indiscipline . Brooks , however , was inspired by Tonelli and cited him as a key motivating factor in him wanting to become an Olympian .
During the 1976 – 77 season , Brooks came to prominence as a possible Australian representative sprinter . He broke six records in winning two events at the 1977 Western Australian Championships . He swam the 100 m freestyle in 56 @.@ 56 s , breaking the state records for 14- , 15- , and 16 @-@ year @-@ olds , before repeating the achievement in the 200 m backstroke . Still aged 14 , he competed at his second Australian Championships and came fourth in the 100 m freestyle . In 1978 , he came third in the 100 m freestyle and missed selection for the 1978 Commonwealth Games in Edmonton , Canada by 0 @.@ 03 s . He spent the rest of the year training and studying accounting at Leederville Technical College . During the year , Brooks set Australian age group records in the 200 m individual medley , the 200 m backstroke and the 100 m freestyle . At the inaugural Australian Short Course Championships in Launceston , Tasmania in 1979 , he won silver in the 200 m individual medley and bronze in the 100 m freestyle . His performances earned him selection in the Australian team for the first time , competing in the FINA Swimming World Cup event in Tokyo in April 1979 , aged 16 years and nine months .
Aged 17 , Brooks swam 51 @.@ 91 s in Perth in January 1980 , breaking Tonelli 's Australian record in the 100 m freestyle . As a result , he was invited to his first national training camp under Bill Sweetenham for prospective Olympic swimmers . He had the first of his many clashes with sporting administrators , first claiming that the officials did not want him to board with Tonelli 's family and then stating that Sweetenham had only coached him two or three times , which he felt was insufficient . Brooks walked out of the camp and returned to Perth to train under Duff . At the Australian Championships , the 100 m was seen as a clash between Tonelli and Brooks . The latter came second in the 100 m freestyle , outsprinted in the dying stages by Tonelli , who reclaimed his national record in a time of 51 @.@ 80 s . As a result , Brooks was selected in both the individual event and the 4 × 100 m medley relay .
However , another obstacle arose with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western World , led by the United States . The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee , and significant political pressure came to bear on the athletes to boycott the Games . Tonelli , however , realised that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated . He took a leadership role among the athletes to fight for their right to compete .
= = Moscow Olympics = =
The 4 × 100 m medley relay was the focal point of Brooks ' Moscow campaign and it came only two days before his 18th birthday . The event had always been won by the United States since its inception at Olympic level in 1960 , and their boycott had opened up the field in the event . In the five times the event had been contested , Australia 's best result was a silver in the inaugural race . A bronze in 1964 was the only other medal success and the 1976 edition of the medley relay had seen Australia eliminated in the heats . This time , Australia were regarded as a medal chance , but were not seen as the main threats ; Sweden , Great Britain and the Soviet Union were the most heavily fancied teams . The hosts boasted the silver medallists in the 100 m backstroke and breaststroke , and their butterflyer had come fifth ; their freestyler would place fourth a few days later . The British had Duncan Goodhew , the breaststroke gold medallist , while Sweden 's butterflyer and backstroker had won their respective events and their freestyle swimmer would come second in the 100 m . On paper , Australia 's team paled in comparison . Peter Evans was the only individual medallist over a 100 m race , claiming bronze in the breaststroke . Mark Kerry had been eliminated in the backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer , despite having performed better than Kerry in the 100 m backstroke . Adding to the pressure was the fact that Australia won no gold medals at the 1976 Olympics in any sport , and were yet to win in Moscow , so the public were still awaiting their first victory since Munich in 1972 . Coming into the Olympics , Australia were ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries . Australia 's prospects improved after the morning heats in which Sweden was disqualified . Tonelli , the eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his team @-@ mates to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome as the Quietly Confident Quartet , and they exhibited a quiet confidence as they lined up for the race .
Kerry led off in a faster time than he had clocked in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best time of 57 @.@ 87 s . This left Australia in fourth place at the end of the first leg . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s , leaving the team almost level with the host nation at the halfway mark . Tonelli then swam his leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster than his previous best . He did so with an uneven arm technique due to the disparity in the strength of his arms . He began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind until a late surge brought him to within a metre of the lead by the end of his leg . Brooks then made a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart . At the halfway mark , he had drawn level and made a superior turn to take the lead . The Soviet freestyler Kopliakov pulled level at the 25 m mark before Brooks again sprinted away to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . He did not breathe in the last ten metres , and claimed to be laughing for the final five metres , confident that his opponent could not pass him . The Australian freestyler had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his team mates . The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first ever win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . Brooks dedicated the team 's win to his mother , who had died from cancer the previous Christmas . Upon returning to Australia , he was greeted as a hero , but he considered retiring due to waning desire for success after his triumph in Moscow . In 2000 , Brooks and the other members of the quartet were each awarded the Australian Sports Medal for their victory in Moscow .
In the individual event , which occurred after the relay , Brooks had come equal first in his heat with eventual bronze medallist Per Johansson from Sweden in a time of 52 @.@ 11 s . This made him the seventh fastest qualifier for the semi @-@ finals , but he suffered a severe asthma attack and had to be hospitalised . He swam the semi @-@ final regardless , despite having a heart @-@ rate before the start of race of 120 , compared to his usual 72 . He finished seventh in a time of 52 @.@ 70 s , which saw him place 14th , missing the final by 0 @.@ 83 s .
= = US college career = =
Brooks suffered from a lack of motivation after the Olympics . He was recruited to the Australian Institute of Sport by swimming coaches Bill Sweetenham and Dennis Pursley , but his stay was brief . The inaugural director Don Talbot , a former head coach of the Australian swimming team , expelled him for indiscipline . He then won the 1981 Australian title in the 100 m freestyle without training , but his time of 52 @.@ 61 s was substantially slower than his personal best . Brooks then accepted a scholarship to go to the University of Arkansas to train under Sam Freas . He enjoyed the more liberal culture in the American collegiate system , particularly the relationship between swimmers and their coaches . He enjoyed the less paternalistic treatment that the coaches accorded to their swimmers , saying that " In Australia , after a race they want to lock you in your room . In America , you can share a beer after the meet with the coach . " The shortcourse pools used in the United States played into the hands of Brooks , as his strong legs gave him an advantage in pushing away from the turns , which came twice as often in comparison to longcourse ( 50 m ) pools . He had initially planned to stay in the United States for only a year , but decided to extend his stay by a year , having enjoyed the high frequency of racing and the recognition accorded to university athletes in the United States . In both years , he won the 50 m and 100 m freestyle double in the Southwest Conference , and was fourth in the 100 m freestyle at the 1981 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Championships . He also came second in the 100 m freestyle at the AACC Championships to Rowdy Gaines , who went on to win the event at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics .
Despite his successes in America , the Australian Swimming Union did not offer to fund a return home for Brooks for the 1982 Australian Championships , but the University of Arkansas paid his fare as a reward for his performances in collegiate competition . Despite failing to defend his 100 m title , he qualified for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane . The team then went into a five @-@ week training camp in the seaside Sydney suburb of South Coogee . The team resided at a migrant hostel , which at the time was primarily occupied by Vietnamese refugees from the Vietnam War . Brooks spoke out about the quality of the accommodation , leading officials to make improvements .
= = Brief suspension for disciplinary reasons and 1982 Commonwealth Games = =
Brooks ' protests against the accommodation was overshadowed by a much @-@ publicised physical confrontation with a team official . He telephoned his coach in the United States to make return travel arrangements for the conclusion of the Commonwealth Games . Due to the difference in time zones , he made his call after the team curfew , prompting team manager Jeff Hare to attempt to disconnect the line . After Hare threatened to expel him from the team , Brooks lost his temper and pinned the manager against the wall . The swimmer was summoned to a meeting with ASU officials the following day , where he remained unrepentant . He received a one month ban , effective after the conclusion of the Commonwealth Games . Brooks demanded that if the ASU were to suspend him , they should do so immediately for the Commonwealth Games , rather than letting him compete and win medals before punishing him . His complaints about the training conditions had gained the attention of his team @-@ mates , and several senior swimmers threatened to leave if he was banned . In the end , the ASU rescinded the suspension . Brooks has remained strongly critical of the attitude of swimming bureaucracy , claiming that " too many officials expect unquestioning obedience " , calling for the formation of a swimmers ' committee .
Arriving in Brisbane for the Commonwealth Games , Brooks and some of his fellow sprinters shaved their heads , something that received much attention from the Australian public . He won his heat of the 100 m freestyle in a Commonwealth and Commonwealth Games record of 51 @.@ 09 s . He swam slower in the final , but his time of 51 @.@ 14 s was enough to secure the gold medal in a close contest . Just 0 @.@ 43 s separated him and the bronze and silver medallists Greg Fasala and Michael Delany , both of Australia .
Brooks then won gold as part of the winning 4 × 100 m freestyle relay , anchoring the team of Fasala , Delany and Graeme Brewer to a victory by almost three seconds , putting in a split of 50 @.@ 56 s . The shaven @-@ headed quartet was dubbed the Mean Machine . He collected another gold in the medley relay , combining with David Orbell , Evans and Jon Sieben , this time completing his freestyle anchor leg in 50 @.@ 44 s . Canada had finished the race far ahead of the Australians , but were disqualified for an early changeover . After the games , Brooks completed the American college season before returning to Australia . He was named as Western Australia 's Sportsman of the Year .
= = Second Olympics = =
Brooks came into the 1984 Australian Championships as the favourite , but this time he was on the receiving end of a close result . He placed third in the 100 m freestyle behind Mark Stockwell and Delany , missing individual selection by 0 @.@ 05 s . The trio was separated by a total of only 0 @.@ 15 s . Selected as a relay swimmer only , he went to Los Angeles hoping to win the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay , an event that the United States had always won .
During the heats , the Australian team of Brooks , Fasala , Delany and Stockwell showed their intention to deny the Americans the gold for the first time at Olympic level . Drawn alongside the Americans in the third and final heat , the Australians set a new Olympic record of 3 m 19 @.@ 94 s . Brooks led off in the heat , setting a time of 50 @.@ 36 s , before Stockwell made up a deficit of 0 @.@ 41 s during the anchor leg to beat the hosts by 0 @.@ 20 s . Australia and the United States had stamped their authority on the event , qualifying almost four seconds faster than third @-@ placed Sweden . However , the Americans had more speed in reserve , having rested 200 m freestyle silver medalist Mike Heath and 100 m freestyle gold medallist Rowdy Gaines , whereas Australia used its full @-@ strength team .
In the final , Australian coach Terry Buck switched the swimming order , putting Fasala as the leadoff leg , while the Americans brought in Heath and Gaines . Fasala 's time of 51 @.@ 00 s put the Australians second at the first change , behind the Americans , for whom Chris Cavanaugh had built a 0 @.@ 17 s lead . After the first leg , the race was still close — 0 @.@ 90 s separated all the teams . Brooks completed his leg in 49 @.@ 36 s , the fourth fastest in the race , 0 @.@ 24 s faster than his American counterpart Heath , giving the Australians a slender 0 @.@ 07 s lead at the halfway point . Australia and the United States had broken away from the field , which was now the best part of two seconds in arrears . However , the Australian lead was short @-@ lived . Matt Biondi took 0 @.@ 59 s from Delany and Gaines took another 0 @.@ 13 s from Stockwell , as the United States won in a world record time of 3 m 19 @.@ 03 s . Australia were 0 @.@ 65 s behind with Sweden a further 2 @.@ 99 s in arrears . Brooks remained adamant that either he or Stockwell should have led off , stating that " the gold was there for the taking " .
Brooks collected a bronze in the medley relay after swimming the freestyle leg in the heats before being replaced by first @-@ choice Stockwell in the final . Competing in the third and final heat , Australia and the United States were equal at the last change before Brooks posted the fastest freestyle leg in the heats , pulling out a 0 @.@ 40 s margin over Tom Jager . Australia again qualified fastest , but the Americans again had more in reserve , having rested all of their first @-@ choice quartet in the heats . Stockwell combined with Kerry , Evans and Glenn Buchanan to finish behind the United States and Canada in the final , missing silver by just 0 @.@ 02 s . Australia improved on their qualifying time by only 0 @.@ 68 s , while the Americans sped up by 5 @.@ 03 s .
In 1985 , Brooks dead @-@ heated with Stockwell in the 100 m freestyle at the Australian Championships , clocking a time of 51 @.@ 12 s . He then combined with Tom Stachewicz , Paul Lee and Barry Armstrong , as Western Australia won the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay for the first time . Brooks maintained his form and despite not defending his Australian 100 m title , was selected for the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh , where he came second to Fasala in the 100 m freestyle in a time of 51 @.@ 01 s . He claimed gold in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay along with Fasala , Stockwell and Matthew Renshaw , anchoring the quartet in setting a Commonwealth Games record . On the return flight , he consumed 46 cans of beer and was banned for six months after he talked about the incident during a television interview . In his memoirs , Talbot , a non @-@ drinker , cited Brooks and his Mean Machine teammates as being one of the biggest proponents of a hard @-@ drinking culture that had permeated the Australian swimming scene at the time . In particular , he singled out Brooks as being a focal point of disruptive activity during his time at the Australian Institute of Sport . Talbot sees alcohol as the main reason behind the collapse of Australia 's standing in the swimming world in the 1970s and the subsequent prolonged period of international uncompetitiveness in the 1980s .
= = After swimming = =
Brooks retired thereafter , moving to Nambour , Queensland and starting a rock band called The Union . He played the electric guitar , and also wrote his own music and songs . He also represented Western Australia in water polo and indoor cricket and played Australian rules football at district level .
Having graduated from the University of Arkansas with a degree in journalism in 1985 , Brooks entered the media . Before his graduation , he had been a cadet with the Seven Network in Perth for five years , reading the sports segment on the weekday evening news . He was a television commentator at the 1988 , 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics . Aside from covering the swimming and water polo , he also commentated on volleyball and in 1998 , he called various downhill skiing events at the Nagano Winter Olympics . Domestically , Brooks called Australian Football League matches and read the sports segment on the weekday evening news for the Seven Network . For three years , he hosted Brooksy 's Footy Show , a Western Australian travel / holiday show called Wild West , and in the lead @-@ up to the Sydney Olympics , co @-@ hosted The Games with Tracey Holmes .
However , Brooks ' career began to unravel in the late @-@ 1990s . He became addicted to alcohol , leading to a series of on @-@ screen incidents . He once read the sports news segment while inebriated , and was then involved in a drunken argument with the Nine Network 's Australian rules football pundit Sam Newman . In early 1999 , Seven suspended Brooks from on @-@ screen duties for six weeks after he made comments that they deemed to be " tasteless and offensive " . In an interview with a magazine that had not been authorised by Seven , Brooks was asked what event he was looking forward to most at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , and replied " The after @-@ Olympics piss @-@ up " . He was eventually sacked , denying him the opportunity to commentate on the swimming events and costing him an annual salary of AUD700,000 .
In late 2000 , Brooks was declared bankrupt by the Federal Court in Perth after failing to repay a AUD14,941.64 debt to BankWest . In May 2001 , the police raided Brooks ' Perth home and found a metre @-@ high cannabis plant . Brooks claimed that the plant belonged to a friend , and then announced that he would be leaving the state . Having moved to South Australia in 2003 , Brooks started Local , which he billed as the state 's leading lifestyle magazine . The venture was run solely by him and his wife , and was dominated by advertising . Journalist Peter FitzSimons criticised the lack of grammar checking and copyediting , citing a quote from Kieren Perkins , which was rendered thus in the publication : " I was over the moon . Winning is something you strive to do but when I consider all the factors being married two children twenty seven years of age competing in my third Games and I broke fifteen minutes twice in two days it really was quite outstanding and whichever way you cut it Grant Hackett was just the next generation of swimmer [ sic ] . " Brooks stood 200 cm and weighed 95 kg during his career , but in the early part of the 21st century fought a battle with obesity , after ballooning to 150 kg . As of 2007 , he had lost substantial weight and fought off his alcohol problems .
Brooks later became a partner in Nitro Energy Drink Company , which was involved in motorsport sponsorship . However , the firm suffered from financial trouble and he had a falling out with his business partner . In 2009 , Brooks was removed from the board and the company was put into administration , and both he and his former partner have started legal proceedings .
Brooks ' first marriage was to Lynette Quinlivan in January 1985 . Their son Luke is a member of the Australian water polo team , playing as a goalkeeper . He has two other children from other relationships . In 2000 , he married his third wife Linda .
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= Irruputuncu =
Irruputuncu is a volcano in the commune of Pica , Tamarugal Province , Tarapacá Region , Chile , as well as San Pedro de Quemes Municipality , Nor Lípez Province , Potosí Department , Bolivia . The mountain 's summit is 5 @,@ 163 m ( 16 @,@ 939 ft ) high and has two summit craters — the southernmost 200 m ( 660 ft ) -wide one has active fumaroles . The volcano also features lava flows , block @-@ and @-@ ash flows and several lava domes . The volcano is part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) .
The volcano has been active during the Pleistocene and Holocene , with major eruptions occurring 258 @.@ 2 ± 48 @.@ 8 ka ago , between 55 @.@ 9 ka and 140 ka ago and 1570 ± 900 BP ( 380 ± 900 AD ) , which were accompanied by the formation of ignimbrites . Historical volcanic activity is less clear ; an eruption in 1989 is considered unconfirmed . Plumes linked to phreatomagmatic eruptive activity were observed on 26 November 1995 and 1 September 2003 . Seismic activity is also observed on Irruputuncu , and ongoing fumarolic activity releasing 21 – 50 t / d ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 57 long ton / ks ) of sulfur dioxide has left sulfur deposits in the active crater .
The Central Volcanic Zone is thinly inhabited and most volcanoes are not under reconnaissance , but Irruputuncu is watched by the Chilean SERNAGEOMIN geologic service . The possibility of geothermal energy production from the volcano has been examined .
= = Etymology and alternative names = =
The name Irruputuncu derives from Aymara iru spiny Peruvian feather grass and phutunqu a small vessel or a hole , pit , crater . Alternative names are Irruputunco and Iruputuncu .
= = Geography and geology = =
= = = Regional setting = = =
The subduction of the Nazca plate and the Antarctic plate beneath the western side of South America has generated a belt of volcanic activity named the Andean Volcanic Belt . The belt is separated in a number of volcanic zones by segments lacking recent volcanic activity ; in these segments , shallow subduction of the plates presumably displaces the asthenosphere away from these segments . The segments with active volcanism are the Northern Volcanic Zone ( NVZ ) , the Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) , the Southern Volcanic Zone ( SVZ ) and the Austral Volcanic Zone ( AVZ ) . The " Volcanoes of the World " catalogue counts about 575 eruptions in the entire volcanic belt .
Volcanic activity in the belt is usually linked to the dehydration of the subducting slabs , which causes water and other subducted components to be added to the overlying mantle . In the case of the CVZ , this addition generates magmas that are further modified by the thick crust in the area , forming andesites , dacites and rhyolites .
= = = Local setting = = =
Volcanism in the CVZ is linked to the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South America plate . This subduction within the past c . 27 @.@ 5 mya has triggered a thickening of the crust and orogeny . Approximately 44 volcanic centres that are either active or potentially active are found in the CVZ . Some centres are fumarolically active ; these include Alitar , Lastarria and Tacora . Irruputuncu and other volcanoes including Guallatiri , Isluga , Lascar and San Pedro have displayed phreatic or magmatic @-@ phreatic activity . The arid climate of the area has led to good preservation of volcanic structures .
A small gap about 100 km ( 62 mi ) wide , which is known as the " Pica gap " but includes the Pliocene @-@ Pleistocene Alto Toroni volcano that features vigorous seismic activity , separates Irruputuncu from Isluga in the north . Irruputuncu is part of an elliptical alignment of volcanoes that extends to the east , which may be linked to a cup @-@ shaped intrusion in the crust . Older Pliocene volcanoes around Irruputuncu are Laguna volcano to the northeast and Bofedal to the southeast . Irruputuncu lies at the end of a chain of volcanoes that trends northeastward away from it .
The volcanic complex sits on top of ignimbrite layers , the Miocene Ujina and Pleistocene Pastillos Ignimbrites . These ignimbrites are c.150 m ( 490 ft ) and 20 – 90 m ( 66 – 295 ft ) thick , the former is a welded ignimbrite that was erupted 9 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 4 mya and the latter in two stages 0 @.@ 79 ± 0 @.@ 2 - 0 @.@ 73 ± 0 @.@ 16 mya and 0 @.@ 32 ± 0 @.@ 25 mya . In terms of composition , the Ujina is pink @-@ grey crystals and pumice and the Pastillos a gray @-@ white pumice forming the lower member and the upper member of the Pastillos contains cinerites with accessory claystones , siltstones and diatomites . Further volcanic rocks beneath Irruputuncu are hydrothermally altered dacites that may be part of an older now deeply eroded edifice .
Irruputuncu is a relatively small , 5 @,@ 163 m ( 16 @,@ 939 ft ) high volcano , which covers a surface area of 23 @.@ 861 km2 ( 9 @.@ 213 sq mi ) with a volume of 4 km3 ( 0 @.@ 96 cu mi ) and has two summit craters , of which the 200 m ( 660 ft ) -wide southwestern one is fumarolically active . Crater II , the youngest crater , is surrounded by the Crater lava flows that form lava domes and seven short lava flows 0 @.@ 54 – 0 @.@ 94 km ( 0 @.@ 34 – 0 @.@ 58 mi ) long , 68 – 107 m ( 223 – 351 ft ) thick and with a total volume of 0 @.@ 042 km3 ( 0 @.@ 010 cu mi ) emitted from it . They have weakly developed ogives and there is no evidence of glacial activity anywhere on the volcano . The current edifice is constructed within a collapsed amphitheater of an older edifice . Overall , the volcano has a pristine morphology . Block @-@ and @-@ ash flows and thick lava flows of high viscosity form the stratocone . A rhyolitic ignimbrite is found southwest of the volcano . The oldest lava flows on the northern and eastern side of the volcano were erupted from a northeastern crater named Crater I and are 35 – 113 m ( 115 – 371 ft ) thick with erosional features and preserved ogives . They have a volume of around 0 @.@ 097 km3 ( 0 @.@ 023 cu mi ) .
The younger flows are known as Queñoas lava flows ; they form six distinct flows on the western sides of the volcano . They have different appearances depending on the side ; the northwestern flows form lateral lava levees and ogives and reach thicknesses of 117 – 180 metres ( 384 – 591 ft ) while the other flows have lobate structures with thicknesses of 23 – 95 m ( 75 – 312 ft ) . These thicknesses may be the result of high @-@ viscosity magma and / or low eruption rates . A major block @-@ and @-@ ash deposit with the volume of 0 @.@ 023 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0055 cu mi ) covers a surface area of 11 @.@ 333 km2 ( 4 @.@ 376 sq mi ) ; it was highly mobile considering the distances it reached from the volcano on all three sides of the younger crater . It contains large blocks and has long flow ridges . A second block @-@ and ash flow formed by the collapse of lava domes covers 0 @.@ 801 km2 ( 0 @.@ 309 sq mi ) . Its blocks are somewhat smaller and its ridges are poorly developed . Fissure eruptions have generated large lava flows from the flanks . The El Pozo ignimbrite covers a surface area of 0 @.@ 02 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0077 sq mi ) northwest of the volcano with a thickness of 50 m ( 160 ft ) , an approximate volume of 0 @.@ 001 km3 ( 0 @.@ 00024 cu mi ) and is probably linked to Irruputuncu , in which case it would be the volcano 's oldest unit .
Irruputuncu underwent a flank collapse that subdivides the volcano into two edifices , the older Irruputuncu I and the younger Irruputuncu II , about 140 ± 40 ka ago . This flank collapse extends 6 @.@ 3 km ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) southwest from the older crater I and is about 10 m ( 33 ft ) thick . It was formed by the collapse of the southwestern flank and forms three distinct units formed by hummock @-@ forming lava blocks and flow ridges up to 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) long . Each stage is associated with an individual crater named Crater I and Crater II . The flank collapse was probably produced by oversteepening of the volcano or by asymmetric growth . Subsequent activity of the volcano has completely filled the scarp . The lack of ground deformation during eruptive activity suggests the magma chamber of Irruputuncu may be more than 7 – 15 km ( 4 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 3 mi ) deep , which may be linked to the thickness of the crust beneath the Central Andes , ranging 50 – 70 km ( 31 – 43 mi ) .
Irruputuncu displays vigorous fumarolic activity that occupies about half the summit crater and is visible within several 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . The 200 m ( 660 ft ) high fumaroles have temperatures of 83 – 240 ° C ( 181 – 464 ° F ) and are composed mainly by sulfur dioxide , followed by minor amounts of hydrogen sulfide , hydrogen chloride , hydrogen fluoride , methane , nitrogen and oxygen . In addition , argon , carbon monoxide , helium , hydrogen and sulfur are found . The temperatures of the fumaroles are comparable with or exceed the boiling point at such altitudes . ASTER imagery indicates Irruputuncu 's fumarole field has a small surface area with high temperatures . Total sulfur dioxide flux from the volcano is between 21 – 50 t / d ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 57 long ton / ks ) . The fumarolic activity has left sulfur deposits on the volcano . Sulfur deposits are found in the youngest crater in an area of about 0 @.@ 011 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0042 sq mi ) , and also form small sulfur flows with pahoehoe @-@ type morphology . Deposits are generally yellow but close to the fumaroles they display different colours depending on their temperatures . Gravel and eolian deposits form sedimentary units around the volcano .
= = = Composition = = =
Irruputuncu 's rocks consist of andesite- and dacite @-@ containing hornblende and pyroxene . The El Pozo ignimbrite is pumice @-@ rich and has a composition between trachyandesite and trachydacite . Minerals amphibole , biotite , hornblende , quartz and plagioclase comprise the rocks . The Irruputuncu I lava flows are composed of trachyandesitic with biotite and plagioclase , while the Queñoas are composed of andesite and trachyandesite . The block @-@ and @-@ ash flows and Crater lavas consist of solely trachyandesitic . Overall , these rocks belong to the potassium @-@ rich calc @-@ alkaline series typical of CVZ volcanoes . The magmas are formed by plagioclase and clinopyroxene crystallization with some mixing . Irruputuncu 's rocks show minor evidence of crustal contamination , similar to other CVZ volcanoes located within transition zones .
Water is the most important component in the volcano 's fumarolic gases , comprising 96 @.@ 05 % to 97 @.@ 95 % by volume . Examinations of deuterium and oxygen @-@ 18 content of the water have determined that like the water of fumaroles in other Andean volcanic centres , Irruputuncu water is a mixture of weather @-@ related water and water contained in andesite . The helium isotope ratios indicate the magmatic component dominates the gasses at Irruputuncu , Much of the carbon dioxide comes from subducted and crustal carbonates . The gases escape from oxidizing magma at 491 – 781 ° C ( 916 – 1 @,@ 438 ° F ) and pass through a weakly developed hydrothermal system with temperatures of c . 340 ° C ( 644 ° F ) . Argon isotope ratios appear to be radiogenic .
= = Eruptive history = =
The oldest rocks at Irruputuncu are lavas that have been dated by potassium @-@ argon dating to 10 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 6 mya . The oldest component clearly belonging to the volcano is the El Pozo ignimbrite that was erupted 258 @.@ 2 ± 48 @.@ 8 ka , forming a multi @-@ layered ignimbrite that was probably generated by the injection of new , hot magma into older , cooler magma . A lava dome on the upper flank on the western side of the volcano is 0 @.@ 14 ± 0 @.@ 04 mya old . The block @-@ and @-@ ash flow between 55 @.@ 9 ka and 140 ka old , but has not been pecisely dated . The Crater lavas are 55 @.@ 9 ± 26 @.@ 8 ka old . The block @-@ and @-@ ash flow on the southwestern flank was formed 1570 ± 900 years BP .
Historical activity of Irruputuncu is unclear . An unconfirmed eruption was reported in Bolivia in December 1989 and fumarolic activity in the crater was reported on 25 March 1990 . Eruption plumes on Irruputuncu , which reached an altitude of 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) and dispersed to the east , probably triggered by phreatomagmatic activity , were seen on 26 November 1995 . The plume 's colour changed between black and white repeatedly . Another plume was observed on 1 September 2003 ; neither of these incidents were accompnied with noticeable ground deformation . Like some other volcanoes in the area , activity at Irruputuncu has not been preceded by ground inflation during historical times . Several theories , including aliasing of the imagery , have been proposed to explain the lack of ground inflation .
Ongoing seismic activity at a rate of about 5 – 6 earthquakes per 10 days recorded in two separate phases , November 2005 @-@ March 2006 and April 2010 @-@ February 2011 respectively and including one seismic swarm during the first measurement period , has been recorded at Irruputuncu . Some of this activity may be caused by mine blasts from nearby mining projects . Geothermal anomalies of about 9 K ( − 264 @.@ 15 ° C ; − 443 @.@ 47 ° F ) have been noted , including hot springs west and northwest of the volcano .
= = Threats and geothermal prospecting = =
With the exception of Peruvian volcanoes such as Misti , most of the volcanoes of the CVZ are in remote areas and are not closely watched . Irruputuncu is a remote volcano ; a road between Iquique and the Collahuasi mine is the main infrastructure that could be affected by future activity . In Chile , Irruputuncu is surveilled by SERNAGEOMIN , which produces regular status reports .
Irruputuncu has been examined as a potential location for a geothermal energy project involving a company named Minera Doña Inés de Collahuasi . A geothermal prospect made at the base of Irruputuncu indicated the presence of water at temperatures of up to 220 ° C ( 428 ° F ) in a deep reservoir .
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= Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars =
Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars ( also known as Circle of Blood in the United States ) is a 1996 point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game developed by Revolution Software . The player assumes the role of George Stobbart , an American tourist in Paris , as he attempts to unravel a conspiracy . The game takes place in both real and fictional locations in Europe and the Middle East .
In 1992 , Charles Cecil began researching the Knights Templar for the game after he , Noirin Carmody and Sean Brennan conceived Broken Sword . It was built with Revolution 's Virtual Theatre engine . This was also used for the company 's previous two games . Cecil co @-@ wrote and directed the game , while Eoghan Cahill and Neil Breen drew the backgrounds in pencil and digitally colored them in Photoshop . The game has a serious tone , but features humor and graphics in the style of classic animated films .
Critics lauded Broken Sword 's story , puzzles , voice acting , writing , gameplay , and music . The game received numerous award nominations and wins . It achieved commercial success as well , with one million copies sold in the mid @-@ 1990s . Topping several lists , it is known as one of the greatest examples of adventure gaming . Many developers of later games have cited Broken Sword as an influence .
After its initial release on Microsoft Windows , Mac OS , and PlayStation , it was ported to the Game Boy Advance , Palm OS , and Windows Mobile . The game spawned a number of sequels collectively known as the Broken Sword series . From 2009 to 2012 , a director 's cut version was released on Wii , Nintendo DS , Microsoft Windows , OS X , iOS , Android and Linux .
= = Gameplay = =
Broken Sword is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to interact with the environment and to guide protagonist George Stobbart through the game 's world . To solve puzzles and progress in the game , the player collects items that may be combined with one another , used on the environment , or given to non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . The protagonist converses with NPCs via dialogue trees presented through " conversation icons " to learn about the game 's puzzles and plot . Clues and other information are obtained by clicking on items in the inventory and on objects in the environment . The player navigates with a map , to which new locations are added as the story unfolds . Unlike in most adventure games at the time , the protagonist 's death is possible , after which the player starts from the last save point .
= = Plot = =
As the game begins , American tourist George Stobbart witnesses a terrorist attack at a café in Paris , during which a clown steals an old man 's briefcase and detonates a bomb . Soon after , George meets Nicole Collard , a journalist who is photographing the scene . George investigates the area to help Nicole gather information about the attack . He finds the clown 's discarded nose and learns that a man was seen escaping with a briefcase . After Nicole discovers the address of a costume shop inside the clown nose , George learns from that shop 's owner that the nose had been purchased by a man named Khan .
George travels to the hotel where Khan is staying , where he obtains an ancient manuscript from Khan 's hotel safe . After evading two hired thugs , Flap and Guido , George takes the manuscript to Nicole , who deduces that it is related to the Knights Templar . In a nearby museum , George finds a tripod that is illustrated in the manuscript . He soon travels to the excavation site in Lochmarne , Ireland where the tripod had been discovered ; and , there , he obtains a gem identical to one on the manuscript . After facing a goat , George finds an entrance to a Templar chapel beneath the local castle ruins , where he discovers a mural of a hanged man with " Montfauçon " written underneath .
George returns to Paris and learns from Andre Lobineau , a colleague of Nicole 's , that Montfauçon is a location in Paris . Flap and Guido attempt to steal the tripod from the museum ; but they are beaten to the theft by Nicole , who gives the artifact to George . In the sewers of Montfauçon , George spies on a secret meeting of people who claim to be the Templars , and he learns of their plan to find the Sword of Baphomet . After the group leaves , George uses the tripod and gem in the underground chamber to reveal the name of a village in Syria : Marib . He travels to the village and discovers that Khan has been looking for him . At a nearby rock formation called the Bull 's Head , George finds a lens and deduces that it is represented on the manuscript as a crystal ball . He also discovers an idol with three bearded faces , Baphomet ; and a Latin inscription that describes Britain . Khan arrives and holds George at gunpoint , but George manages to escape .
Back in Paris , George learns from Andre that the manuscript mentions the Spanish De Vasconcellos family , who were once connected with the Templars . At the family 's villa , George speaks to the family 's sole surviving member , a Countess , who leads him to the De Vasconcellos mausoleum . There , George discovers the family 's chalice , which the Countess entrusts to George . She asks him to find her missing ancestor , Don Carlos . In Paris , George uses the lens in the church at Montfauçon and discovers a hidden image of a burning man . In the church , George find Don Carlos ' tomb , which is inscribed with a series of biblical references .
Andre reveals that an idol of Baphomet has been discovered in Paris , and George gains access to the excavation . Using the chalice , he discovers an image of a church with a square tower . George returns to the Countess , and he discovers that the biblical references show a secret area inside a well containing a chessboard mural with a river running through it . Compiling their clues , George , Nicole , and Andre decide that the Templars are going to Bannockburn , Scotland . George and Nicole board a train , but she and an old woman in their compartment soon go missing . He reaches the conductor 's carriage , where the old woman , Khan in disguise , throws Flap out of the carriage . However , Khan is shot and killed during the confrontation .. George and Nicole reach the church in time to see the Grand Master of the Templars acquire a power from two huge Baphomet idols — the Sword of Baphomet , or the Broken Sword . After trying to tempt George to join their ranks , the Grand Master orders the couple to be killed , but they escape with the aid of explosives Khan had given Nicole before his death . The church explodes , killing Guido , the Templars , and — presumably — the Grand Master . The game ends with George and Nicole 's first kiss .
= = Development = =
In 1992 , Cecil and Noirin Carmody met with Sean Brennan , then @-@ head of publishing at Virgin Interactive , and spoke about how the Knights Templar would make an ideal subject to base a game on . Later , Virgin agreed to issue the game . In a September 1992 interview for French magazine Génération 4 , Charles Cecil stated that he had begun working on a scenario for Revolution 's third game , after 1992 's Lure of the Temptress and 1994 's then @-@ upcoming Beneath a Steel Sky . The game would be set in Paris with a Templar story line . The following month , Cecil visited Paris to research the Templars ; after reading The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail , he was certain there was enough known about the Templars to make them a good subject for a game . Cecil , Dave Cummins , and Jonathan Howard began work on the story and design . Cecil and Cummins attended a film @-@ writing course and their script was read by Alan Drury , a senior BBC scriptwriter and dramatist . Revolution artist Steve Ince created initial location sketches for the game before working on Beneath a Steel Sky . He was promoted to producer halfway through the project .
Despite releasing the PC version , Virgin was not interested in publishing the game on the PlayStation , feeling that only 3D games would sell for the console . As a result , Cecil contacted Sony Computer Entertainment , who agreed to release the game for the console . In North America , Broken Sword was renamed to Circle of Blood . Cecil was uneasy about the name change , feeling that it gave a wrong impression of what type of game it was . In 1998 however , THQ published the game on the PlayStation platform under its original Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars title .
One of Cecil 's goals was to depart from the humorous adventure games more popular at the time , such as LucasArts ' Monkey Island series , by creating a game with good pacing and a complex storyline , a reason he thought the Knights Templar would be an ideal subject . Unlike LucasArts games , which used a question @-@ and @-@ answer conversation system , Broken Sword offered " conversation icons " that would not reveal to the player what the protagonist was about to say ; Cecil 's intention was to make the game more cinematic , but not resemble interactive movies of that time ; he felt that they were " mimicking movies . " He wanted to create two protagonists who would exchange ideas , helping drive the game along . He made George American and Nico French to appeal to US and European markets .
The team at Revolution had high expectations for Broken Sword , but there was significant competition . Revolution had a team that had created successful adventure games , but believed they needed to utilise the best of other creative industries . Eoghan Cahill and Neil Breen of Dublin 's Don Bluth studios drew the backgrounds in pencil and digitally colored them in Photoshop . The introductory sequence and the main characters were done by animator Mike Burgess , who worked for the Red Rover animation studio . The game 's graphics were animated in a style resembling classic animated films .
Cecil contacted composer Barrington Pheloung , who agreed to create the game 's score . Revolution had already cast Hazel Ellerby as Nicole Collard , but had trouble finding a voice actor for George Stobbart . Hazel , who went to the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London , suggested her former schoolmate from Guildhall , Rolf Saxon , as George . Charles offered him the job , and Saxon accepted . The remaining credited voice actors in the original are Rachel Atkins , David Bannerman , Rosy Clayton , Jack Elliott , Steve Hodson , David Holt , Peter Kenny , Richard Mapletoft , Matthew Marsh , Colin McFarlane , Don McCorkindale , Gavin Muir , Paul Panting , and Andrew Wincott .
Cecil was the game 's director and writer , Tony Warriner and David Sykes the designer @-@ programmers , and Noirin Carmody the executive producer . The game uses the Virtual Theatre engine , as do Lure of the Temptress and Beneath a Steel Sky . The game 's final cost was one million pounds . It was ported to the Game Boy Advance in 2002 , and to the Palm OS and Windows Mobile in 2006 .
In March 2009 , Ubisoft released a director 's cut of The Shadow of the Templars entitled Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut for the Wii and Nintendo DS . Dave Gibbons , with whom Revolution worked on Beneath a Steel Sky , created additional artwork for the game . Due to the platform 's size limits , the DS version contains no spoken dialogue , only subtitles . A version of the Director 's Cut for iPhone and iPod Touch was released on January 20 , 2010 . In May 2010 , a version in high definition was released for the iPad . Versions for Windows and Mac OS X were released in September 2 , 2010 , on digital @-@ distribution services . An Android version was released on Google Play in June 2012 . The original version of the game is only available from Sold @-@ Out Software and GOG.com with Director 's Cut purchases .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception and commercial performance = = =
Broken Sword was acclaimed by critics , who praised the game 's story , art direction , musical score , voice acting , and writing . Edge stated that Broken Sword was superior to LucasArts ' adventure games , such as Monkey Island and The Dig , and believed it to be an " adventure gaming milestone " and the " best graphic adventure to date . " The game was a commercial success , with roughly one million copies sold in the mid @-@ 1990s . Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut also received praise — particularly the iOS versions , which , along with The Smoking Mirror 's remastered edition , was downloaded by over four million people in 2011 . According to Cecil , the remake 's sales were higher than those of The Sleeping Dragon and The Angel of Death .
Adventure Gamers ' Angella Mooney commented that the game 's " deep and mysterious plot is designed to be thought @-@ provoking and highly entertaining at the same time . " GameSpot 's Rebecca B. Anderson found that the game 's combination of real history and " highly @-@ creative " storytelling " add [ s ] spice to an already @-@ entertaining adventure . " Joe Antol of Adventure Classic Gaming wrote that the involvement of the Knights Templar generated a " unique experience of creative storytelling . " A writer for Next Generation magazine stated that the story is " rich in mystery and intrigue , with plenty of puzzles and locations to explore . " Edge 's reviewer praised the game 's use of " legend and modern @-@ day intrigue " , and believed that " Revolution Software finally escaped the shadow of Monkey Island et al. and [ have ] taken the graphic adventure to new levels in terms of both story and spectacle . " The writer commented that , by weaving its " trans @-@ European plot around the legends of the Knights Templar " , the game " succeeds in appearing weighty and complex without ever losing its sense of place " .
Mark Wolf of PC Gamer US called the game " visually stunning " , praising the animated graphics as " crisp and clear " and the artwork as " simply beautiful " . He also wrote , " At the highest setting , the background and foreground scroll separately , delivering a sense of depth you don 't see in many graphic adventures . Even the atmosphere of each of the areas you explore fit the locale . " Mooney called the animation " extremely colorful and well @-@ executed " and noted that the art team " have taken this style of animation and really made an elegant , mature game with it . " The writer also noted that the environments are " detailed and inviting " . Anderson called the game a " visual treat " and a " work of art , " noting that " every scene is filled with rich , lush , illustrative detail that rivals any animated feature film . " Next Generation 's writer called the character movements " fantastic " and the cutscenes " a joy to watch . " The writer for Edge praised its art direction , in which " every visual element is polished to the ' nth ' degree " . The reviewer believed that " the SVGA artwork by far exceeds the competition in this genre . "
Edge complimented its musical score for " play [ ing ] a large part in mood enhancement " , noting that " it 's beautifully orchestrated and adds immeasurable atmosphere . " Mooney also praised the score , calling it " ambitious and beautiful " and saying it adds a very " cinematic feel " to the experience . Mooney said that the game 's voice acting is " of supreme quality " with " delightful dialogue " , but noted that long conversations might " turn some players off " . Wolf was more critical of the voice acting , calling it " not too professional " and " the worst thing in the game " .
Mooney stated that the game 's puzzles are well integrated into the plot and are moderately challenging . Wolf called the puzzles inventive and challenging , but believed that some require " too much pixel @-@ hunting " . Next Generation 's writer said that the puzzles can be " disappointing . " Despite acclaiming the Windows version , GameSpot deemed the PlayStation version mediocre , criticizing technical deficiencies , such as lengthy load times and muddy graphics . Cecil later cited the PlayStation version as his " one big regret " regarding the game . He believed that the team should have introduced direct control over the player character in this version , instead of mouse @-@ driven point @-@ and @-@ click interaction .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Génération 4 awarded it " Best Adventure 1997 " , and it received the award for " Best Quest " from the magazine Quest . The BBC magazine program Live & Kicking awarded it " Best PC Game of 1996 " . In 2005 , the Game Boy Advance port was awarded the " Pocket Gamer Silver Award " by Pocket Gamer .
The Director 's Cut was nominated for the " Best Story " award at the 2009 British Academy Video Games Awards , and Pocket Gamer awarded the DS version the " Pocket Gamer Silver " award in 2009 and the iPhone version the " Pocket Gamer Gold Award " in 2010 . The Wii and DS versions were nominated for the " Best Port / Updated Re @-@ release " award at Adventure Gamers ' 2010 Aggie Awards . The iPhone version was nominated for the " Best Adventure / RPG Game " award at the 2011 Pocket Gamer Awards . The Wii version won the award for " Best European Adventure " at the 2011 European Games Awards .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Listings = = =
Adventure Gamers ranked Broken Sword fourth on its lists of " Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time " in 2004 and " Top 100 All @-@ Time Adventures " in 2011 . In 2006 , Adventure Classic Gaming put the game in third place on its list of the " Top 10 retro graphic adventure games of all time from PC to consoles " . It was listed on Bright Hub 's " Best Windows Mobile Games Software " in 2008 . In 2010 , Retro Gamer placed it in second on its list of the " Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time ... not by LucasArts " , and was included in Universe Publishing 's 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , a book by video game designer and programmer Peter Molyneux and longtime Edge editor Tony Mott published in 2010 . NowGamer listed it on its 2011 feature , " Greatest Point @-@ And @-@ Click Games ( Not By LucasArts ) " . In 2012 , it ranked eighth on GamesRadar 's " Best point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games " . Broken Sword and its remake are listed on Adventure Gamers ' " Top Adventure Games " recommendations list . It is currently the third best @-@ reviewed adventure game on GameSpot .
The game 's Goat Puzzle appeared on Computer and Video Games ' 2011 feature , " Gaming 's hardest puzzles " . In 2012 , it was listed on GameFront 's " 5 Crazy Difficult and Intricate Video Game Puzzles " . Computer and Video Games also ranked Barrington 's original intro theme 21st on its 2012 " Video game soundtracks : The 100 best themes of all time " list . The Telegraph listed Khan as one of " The 10 best video game assassins " , while in 2013 , Kotaku listed him as one of " The Scariest Clowns And Jesters In Video Games " . The Director 's Cut has been placed on top lists as well , particularly the iOS versions .
= = = Influence = = =
In his book Game Plan : Great Designs that Changed the Face of Computer Gaming , British video game journalist Ste Curran wrote that Broken Sword influenced the adventure games Toonstruck , in which Cecil has a " Special Thanks " credit , and Escape from Monkey Island , which features a puzzle that involves a broken sword . Kevin Bruner , co @-@ founder of Telltale Games , has said that he is a Broken Sword fan . Ashton Raze , a writer for The Telegraph and the co @-@ creator of the 2013 adventure game Richard & Alice , said that Broken Sword is his biggest influence . In his review of the 2010 adventure game Deponia , Declan Skews of Video Games Interactive said that the game drew inspiration from Broken Sword .
= = = = The Da Vinci Code = = = =
Cecil has said that the game 's fanbase believes Dan Brown to have been influenced by Broken Sword when writing his novel , The Da Vinci Code , because of the parallels between the two works . Cecil stated that he is flattered by this sentiment , but that he would never claim so himself due to the threat of Brown 's " very serious " lawyers . Joao Diniz Sanches of Pocket Gamer said Broken Sword 's story is a " tale , some would argue , that effortlessly outclasses Dan Brown 's similarly themed and tricksy novel . " In an article about Broken Sword , Computer and Video Games described the Knights Templar legend as a " great mythology to base a game on " , and noted that Broken Sword " came out years before the Da Vinci Code made that sort of thing popular . "
= = = Sequels and re @-@ releases = = =
Broken Sword spawned four sequels . The first , Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror , was released in 1997 . It uses the same engine as the first Broken Sword game . Six years later , Revolution released Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon , which features 3D graphics and a direct @-@ control mechanism . It uses the RenderWare engine . In 2006 the company released Broken Sword : The Angel of Death ( Secrets of the Ark : A Broken Sword Game in North America ) , which returns to the point @-@ and @-@ click system used in the first two games . It is the only game in the series not released for a console , and it uses Sumo Digital 's engine . The fifth installment , Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse , was announced through a Kickstarter project in August 2012 . The game features 2D graphics , and it was released in September 2013 .
After releasing the Director 's Cut version of Broken Sword , Revolution released a remastered edition of the second game , entitled Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror – Remastered , in 2010 .
= = = Film = = =
In May 2007 , ComingSoon.net reported that Cecil , encouraged by the success of The Angel of Death , had begun work on a Broken Sword theatrical film adaptation . According to the website , producers Jay Douglas and Nav Guptatheir and their CastleBright Studios production company were involved . Justin Kaplan introduced Cecil to the company and was set to be one of the producers . Conversations had begun with directors and screenwriters from films such as Harry Potter , Casino Royale and X @-@ Men .
In July 2008 , Cecil said he was conversing with small studios from Los Angeles . Although he was interested in making a film , he believed that it was not necessary , since the series was already successful and a bad film could only " damage " its reputation . Cecil said that he was not prepared to " give somebody [ he doesn ] ' t know the editorial control " , and that , should the film be created , he would write it himself . He wanted any adaptation to be true to the source material , a film that " enhances [ the game ] rather than cashes in on it " . In May 2009 , Cecil stated that he was in discussion with the production company Radar Pictures , known for films such as The Last Samurai and The Chronicles of Riddick , and that he was re @-@ writing the game into a film .
In August 2012 , Cecil said that he and Revolution were trying to " find the right partner " to create the film . Cecil believed that " a lot of film makers now in their early 30s played Broken Sword the first time around , so they have a lot of affection , and a number of them know a lot about the brand as well . " However , he restated his opinion that it " would be much better not to have a movie at all , than to have a bad movie . " While Cecil said that Revolution 's main focus was the upcoming Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse , he added that he was " sure there [ would ] be a film at some point " . He also said that he was " sure it will be really good , because [ they ] ' ll do [ their ] utmost to make sure that it is . "
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= Don Tallon with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Don Tallon was a key member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team tour of England in 1948 , in which Australia was undefeated in their 34 matches . This unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
The team 's first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper ahead of Ron Saggers , Tallon played in four of the five Tests , missing the Fourth Test due to injury . Despite being the preferred gloveman , Tallon conceded byes at a higher rate than Saggers during the tour .
Bradman rotated the two glovemen during the tour , and Tallon played in 14 of the 31 first @-@ class matches , taking 29 catches and 14 stumpings . Tallon 's catch of Len Hutton in the Fifth Test at The Oval was described as Wisden as the best of the year . He also took a difficult catch to remove George Emmett in the Third Test at Old Trafford , catching a ball that flew to his feet at yorker length . However , Tallon also had some mishaps , with finger injuries inflicted by failing to catch the ball correctly . Tallon had few opportunities with the bat , scoring 283 runs at a batting average of 25 @.@ 72 in 13 first @-@ class innings , including two fifties . During the Test , Tallon scored 112 runs at 28 @.@ 00 , including a 53 in the Second Test that saw Australia recover to a first innings of 350 after a middle @-@ order slump had seen England take the upper hand . He took 12 catches in the Tests .
In recognition of his performances , Tallon was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1949 .
= = Background = =
Tallon 's form as Australia 's wicket @-@ keeper since World War II saw him selected for the 1948 Ashes tour as part of the side that would become known to cricket history as the Invincibles . Tallon was the first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper , with Saggers as his deputy . Having spent the majority of his life in sunny Queensland and growing up in tropical Bundaberg , the cold English climate initially caught Tallon off guard . He did not wet his inner gloves as was his custom due to the temperature . As England agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs , this meant that the ball would more frequently be in a favourable state for fast bowling , since it would swing more . As a result , Australia adopted a pace @-@ oriented strategy and Ian Johnson was the only spinner regularly used in the Test matches . Colin McCool was not to play a Test on the tour , depriving Tallon of an opportunity to show his stumping abilities standing up at the stumps to his Queensland team @-@ mate in the Tests .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . Accordingly , Tallon was selected as the wicket @-@ keeper for the match . The home side batted first and Tallon made his first dismissal on English soil by catching Worcestershire captain Allan White from the bowling of Keith Miller . He then stumped former England captain Bob Wyatt from McCool . In reply to the hosts ' 233 , Tallon was promoted to No. 6 , but managed only six in a collapse of 4 / 38 before Australia recovered to declare at 8 / 462 . He took a further three dismissals in the second innings , two of them stumpings from McCool 's bowling , as Australia crushed the hosts by an innings and 17 runs . Tallon conceded 11 byes in the match .
Tallon was rested for the second tour match against Leicestershire , which Australia won by an innings with Saggers behind the stumps .
Tallon played a key role in Australia 's victory in the next match against Yorkshire , on a damp pitch that suited slower bowling . He came in at 7 / 86 and made ten in the first innings to push Australia to 101 in reply to Yorkshire 's 71 , in which Tallon did not concede a bye . However , Tallon was not so tidy in the second innings , conceding 11 byes as the hosts were bowled out for 89 in their second innings . He did not make a dismissal in the match . Australia then collapsed to 6 / 31 in pursuit of 60 for victory when Tallon strode in . To make matters worse , Sam Loxton was injured and could not bat , so Australia only had three wickets in hand . Australia faced its first loss to an English county since 1912 . He survived an immediate leg before wicket appeal and then hit a shot that fell just short of a fielder . He then compiled 17 unbeaten runs as Australia scraped home by four wickets .
The Australians travelled to London to play Surrey at The Oval . Tallon came in with the score at 6 / 553 , and held up his end , scoring an unbeaten 50 as his partners steadily fell and Australia were bowled out at 632 . Tallon had some difficulty in English conditions as he sustained a bruised right finger when he lost sight of a Ray Lindwall bouncer on a misty morning during the match and was hit as he put hand over his face for protection , with the ball running away for four byes . Tallon took two catches in the second innings as Australia won the match by an innings , but he also conceded 24 byes in Surrey 's match total of 336 .
After sustaining the bruised finger , Tallon was rested for the following three matches , which were against Cambridge University , Essex and Oxford . Australia won each of the matches by an innings . Saggers filled in and scored 110 runs including a 104 not out against Essex and took five dismissals . Saggers conceded only 34 byes in his four tour matches , while Tallon had conceded 46 in three.N-
The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , N- and were basically a full strength Test team , as were Australia , who fielded their first @-@ choice team . It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage , and Tallon was selected despite conceding byes at a higher rate in the preceding tour matches . He made 11 batting at No. 9 , including a six from Jim Laker as Australia made 552 . He took three catches in the first innings , having a hand in the first three wickets to fall , Jack Robertson , Bill Edrich and Denis Compton . He then took two stumpings in the second innings as the follow on was enforced , but also conceded 26 byes as Australia won by an innings . Tallon had conceded 72 byes to Saggers ' 34 with both having played four matches.N-
Following the match against the MCC , there were four more county fixtures before the First Test , against Lancashire , Nottinghamshire , Hampshire and Sussex . Australia drew the first two before winning the latter two by eight wickets and an innings and 325 runs respectively . Tallon played in only the Nottinghamshire match , taking two catches in the first innings and two stumpings in each of the innings . The catches were all from Lindwall and the stumpings from Doug Ring . Tallon conceded 18 byes for the match and scored 27 , being last man out at 400 after coming to the crease at 6 / 355 . In Saggers 's three matches , 36 byes were conceded and six dismissals were made .
= = First Test = =
Despite averaging more byes per innings than Saggers during the warm @-@ up matches , N- Tallon was retained in the Test team . During the First Test at Trent Bridge , Tallon took four catches . In the first innings , Tallon caught Jim Laker from the bowling of Keith Miller to end England 's innings of 165 after he and Alec Bedser had joined forces at 8 / 74 .
When Australia batted , Tallon came in at 6 / 338 to accompany Lindsay Hassett and took 39 minutes to compile 10 before hitting a return catch to the left arm orthodox spin of Jack Young . The scoring was slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26 @-@ over spell conceded only 14 runs with Australia using leg theory .
After Australia ended with 509 and took a 334 @-@ run lead , Tallon took two difficult catches to dismiss key batsmen at the start of England 's second innings . Miller removed Cyril Washbrook for one from a top @-@ edged hook shot to Tallon . Bill Edrich was then caught behind attempting a cut from the off spin of Johnson . He did not read the arm ball that went straight on and the ball took the outside edge , leaving England at 2 / 39 . He thus helped Australia to seize the initiative by denying England a good start , but they recovered . Later , he caught Godfrey Evans for 50 from Johnson as England ended at 441 . Australia reached their target of 98 with two wickets down , completing an eight @-@ wicket victory . Tallon conceded five and 12 byes in the two innings respectively .
Between Tests , Australia played Northamptonshire and Yorkshire , and Tallon was rested for both matches . The first was won by an innings and second was drawn . Saggers made four and 22 and conceded 24 byes in four innings .
= = Second Test = =
The teams moved on to Lord 's for the Second Test and Australia compiled 350 in its first innings . Tallon came to the crease with Australia at 6 / 225 after Hassett and Bill Brown had gone in quick succession , joining Johnson in the middle . Johnson struggled to score , while Tallon did so freely in the last hour . After Johnson fell for four at 7 / 246 , Lindwall then joined Tallon and the pair survived to the close of play . England were well placed when Australia ended at stumps on 7 / 258 with Tallon on 25 . Tallon had dominated the scoring late in day , making 25 of the 33 runs added . The crowd was optimistic about England 's position and some immediately camped outside the turnstiles upon leaving the ground .
Australia 's lower order batted the tourists into control on the second morning . Despite the loss of Lindwall for 15 at 8 / 275 , Tallon kept on batting in a conventional manner , supported by Johnston and Ernie Toshack , who scored their highest Test scores . Both tail @-@ enders threw the bat at the ball , which often went in vastly different directions to where they had aimed their shots . Tallon put on 45 with Johnston — who scored 29 — before holing out for 53 . Ending at 350 , the Australians had regained the momentum , taking 92 runs from 66 minutes of hitting in the morning .
Tallon did not concede a bye in England 's first innings of 215 and his diving was estimated to have saved around 40 runs . He caught Washbrook from Lindwall to leave England at 1 / 17 , and later caught Laker from Johnson . Tallon was not needed in the second innings ; Lindwall was promoted above Tallon because Australia needed quick runs and Lindwall was a big @-@ hitter . Australia declared at 7 / 460 , leaving England a target of 509 .
With the score at 2 / 65 , Washbrook inside edged a Toshack full toss directly downwards at Tallon 's ankle . Bradman described the catch as " miraculous " because Tallon had to reach so low , so quickly , in order to take the catch . Another dive to stop a leg glance resulted in a severely bruised left little finger . Tallon conceded 16 byes in the second innings , more than 8 % of England 's score . Australia won the Test by 409 runs , and nursing his finger , Tallon was rested for both tour matches between the Tests , which were against Surrey and Gloucestershire , which were won by ten wickets and an innings respectively . In his place , Saggers scored 12 , took nine dismissals and conceded 31 byes in four innings .
= = Third Test = =
The teams then played out a rain @-@ affected draw in the Third Test match at Manchester , where England elected to bat first . On the first day , Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught by Tallon for 32 , leaving England at 5 / 119 . Compton returned at the fall of Edrich 's wicket after previously leaving the ground after being bloodied in the head by a Lindwall bouncer . He batted to stumps , after being dropped one @-@ handed on 50 by Tallon , before again being dropped on 64 late in the day by the gloveman from the bowling of Johnston . England closed at 7 / 231 with Compton on 64 .
On the second morning , Tallon again dropped Compton from Johnston when the batsman was on 73 . England eventually finished on 363 , with Compton not out on 145 . Thus Tallon 's drops cost 95 runs as well as allowing Compton to hold up one end so his partners could score . Tallon also conceded seven byes .
Australia reached 3 / 135 when Miller and Arthur Morris departed in quick succession . With Sid Barnes retiring hurt because of a blow to the ribs , Tallon came in at 5 / 139 , effectively six wickets down and made 18 in half an hour before falling at 6 / 172 . Australia managed to reach 221 and avoid the follow on .
England batted again and Tallon dismissed George Emmett from Lindwall with a diving one @-@ handed catch . Lindwall pitched an outswinger on the off stump and Emmett edged it to wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , who took it in his right hand with a dive , leaving England at 1 / 1 . England then declared at 3 / 174 ; Tallon conceded nine byes and with more than a day was lost to rain , Tallon was not required as Australia batted out the last session for a draw .
Tallon 's little left finger swelled up after the Third Test and he exacerbated the injury during a tour match against Middlesex . In this match , he scored 17 , took two catches and a stumping in the first innings and conceded only seven byes for the entire match as Australia won by ten wickets .
= = Fourth Test = =
The left finger injury ruled him out of the Fourth Test at Headingley , and he was replaced by Saggers . Australia set a world record in successfully chasing a target of 404 to win the match by seven wickets and secure the series . Saggers leaked only six byes in 299 @.@ 1 overs of glovework during the match as Australia conceded a total of 861 runs for the match . It was the lowest percentage of byes conceded in a match total by an Australian wicket @-@ keeper for the tour ( 0 @.@ 697 % ) .N-
Tallon missed the innings victory over Derbyshire , before returning against Glamorgan . In his first match back from injury , Tallon took a catch and two stumpings as the hosts were dismissed for 197 , but he also conceded 19 byes . Byes made 9 @.@ 64 % of the match total conceded by Australia , the highest proportion by the tourists during the summer.N- He did not bat as rain ended the match with Australia at 3 / 215 . He was rested for the nine @-@ wicket win over Warwickshire , before returning for Australia 's second match and second draw against Lancashire . Tallon came in at 7 / 232 and scored 33 , adding 63 with Ian Johnson to help Australia reach 321 . He took two catches and two stumpings but also conceded 23 byes . In the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , Tallon played purely as a batsman , while Saggers kept wicket . He opened the batting , but was dismissed for one as Australia made 273 and the hosts reached 5 / 73 before rain ended the match .
= = Fifth Test = =
Tallon returned for the Fifth Test at The Oval , where England elected to bat first on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Tallon caught Jack Crapp from an outside edge for a duck from the bowling of Miller , leaving England at 4 / 23 as play was adjourned for lunch . England continued to struggle against the moving ball and were all out for 52 in the middle session . The innings ended when Tallon took an acrobatic catch to dismiss Len Hutton down the leg side , catching it with his left hand . It was considered the catch of the season by Wisden . Tallon conceded six byes in the innings .
Australia batted and passed England 's total on the first afternoon . Tallon came in to bat on the second day with the score at 7 / 332 , joining opener Morris , who had already passed 150 . It took a run out to remove Morris ; he attempted a quick run to third man after being called through by Tallon but was not quick enough for the substitute fielder 's arm , leaving Australia at 8 / 359 . Tallon , who scored 31 , put on another 30 runs with Doug Ring , before both were out on 389 , ending Australia 's innings . In the second innings , Tallon caught Hutton from Miller and conceded nine byes as England were dismissed for 188 and lost by an innings , sealing a 4 – 0 series victory for Australia .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Tallon was rested for three consecutive matches against Kent , the Gentlemen of England , and Somerset , all of which Australia won by an innings . Saggers stood in and made seven dismissals and conceded 29 byes in the six innings of the three matches .
He returned for the following match against the South of England . He did not bat as Australia declared at 7 / 522 . He then took three catches and conceded 13 byes as the match was washed out when the hosts were dismissed for 298 .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to play for the hosts . Bradman then fielded a full @-@ strength team , with the only difference from the Fifth Test team being Johnson coming for Doug Ring . Tallon made two as Australia declared at 8 / 489 . He conceded seven byes and did not make a dismissal as the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first match , Tallon played as a batsman while Saggers kept wicket . Tallon scored only six in Australia 's 236 and then took 0 / 10 in Scotland 's second innings and did not take a catch in the innings victory . In the second match in Aberdeen , Tallon kept wicket , conceding 26 byes and not taking a dismissal and he was not required to bat . When the match became safe , with Australia in an unassailable position in Scotland 's second innings , Bradman allowed Tallon to dispense with his wicket @-@ keeping pads and try his luck at bowling leg spin . Tallon never bowled in his Test career and only rarely in first @-@ class cricket , where he delivered 301 balls , the approximate workload of a specialist bowler in one match . Tallon took 2 / 15 as Australia finished the tour with another innings win .
= = Role = =
Tallon had had moderate success with his batting during the Test series , aggregating 114 runs at 28 @.@ 50 . He usually batted at No. 8 , and only had four innings as Australia 's batting strength was such that he did not need to bat in the second innings in any of the Tests . The Australian team strategy of primarily depending on fast bowling saw Tallon make 12 catches and no stumpings during the Tests . However , Bradman gave his lead pace bowlers Miller and Lindwall more rest during the tour games to save energy for the Tests , and relied more heavily on the off spin of Ian Johnson and the leg spin of McCool and Doug Ring in the county matches . Thus overall Tallon took 29 catches and 14 stumpings for the first @-@ class matches during the tour . Tallon scored 283 runs at 25 @.@ 72 for the season at an average higher than Saggers 's 23 @.@ 22 . In all his matches on tour , Tallon conceded 249 byes as Australia conceded 5331 runs , a bye percentage of 4 @.@ 67 % , compared to Saggers 's 221 byes from 6190 runs , a percentage of 3 @.@ 57 % .N-
During the tour , Tallon had few opportunities with the bat , generally batting between No. 8 and No. 9 , N- because Australia 's frontline bowlers included the likes of Ray Lindwall , Colin McCool , Ian Johnson and Doug Ring , who were all capable with the bat . Lindwall scored two Test centuries in his career , while McCool scored 18 first @-@ class centuries , including one in Tests . Johnson and Ring both scored more than 20 fifties at first @-@ class level . As Australia often won by an innings , and often declared in the first innings , Tallon only had 13 innings in his 14 first @-@ class fixtures and was not out two times as he ran out of partners .
Tallon 's performances during the English summer saw him named by Wisden as one of its five Cricketers of the Year .
= = = Statistical notes = = =
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