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= Diolkos =
The Diolkos ( Δίολκος , from the Greek διά , dia " across " and ὁλκός , holkos " portage machine " ) was a paved trackway near Corinth in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth . The shortcut allowed ancient vessels to avoid the long and dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnese peninsula . The phrase " as fast as a Corinthian " , penned by the comic playwright Aristophanes , indicates that the trackway was common knowledge and had acquired a reputation for swiftness .
The main function of the Diolkos was the transfer of goods , although in times of war it also became a preferred means of speeding up naval campaigns . The 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) long roadway was a rudimentary form of railway , and operated from c . 600 BC until the middle of the 1st century AD . The scale on which the Diolkos combined the two principles of the railway and the overland transport of ships remained unique in antiquity .
= = Function = =
The Diolkos saved ships sailing from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean Sea a dangerous sea journey round the Peloponnese , whose three headlands had a reputation for gales , especially Cape Matapan and Cape Malea . By contrast , both the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf were relatively sheltered waters . In addition , the overland passage of the Isthmus , a neck of land 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) wide at its narrowest , offered a much shorter route to Athens for ships sailing to and from the Ionian coast of Greece .
= = History = =
Ancient literature is silent on the date of the construction of the Diolkos . For Thucydides ( 460 BC – 395 BC ) the Diolkos already seemed to be something ancient . Excavated letters and associated pottery found at the site indicate a construction date at the end of the 7th or beginning of the 6th century BC , that is around the time when Periander was tyrant of Corinth . The Diolkos remained reportedly in regular service until at least the middle of the 1st century AD , after which no more written references appear . Possibly the trackway was put out of use by Nero 's abortive canal works in 67 AD . Much later transports of warships across the Isthmus in the late 9th century and around 1150 are assumed to have used a route other than the Diolkos due to the extensive time lag .
= = = Role in warfare = = =
The Diolkos played an important role in ancient naval warfare . Greek historians note several occasions from the 5th to the 1st century BC when warships were hauled across the Isthmus in order to speed up naval campaigning . In 428 BC , the Spartans planned to transport their warships over the Diolkos to the Saronic Gulf to threaten Athens , while later in the Peloponnesian War , in 411 BC , they carted over a squadron heading quickly for operations at Chios . In 220 BC , Demetrius of Pharos had a fleet of about fifty vessels dragged across the Isthmus to the Bay of Corinth by his men . Three years later , a Macedonian fleet of 38 vessels was sent across by Philip V , while the larger warships sailed around Cape Malea . After his victory at Actium in 31 BC , Octavian advanced as fast as possible against Marc Antony by ordering part of his 260 Liburnians to be carried over the Isthmus . In 868 AD , the Byzantine admiral Niketas Oryphas had his whole fleet of one hundred dromons dragged across the Isthmus in a quickly executed operation , but this took place most likely on a different route .
= = = Role in commerce = = =
Despite the frequent mentioning of the Diolkos in connection with military operations , modern scholarship assumes that the prime purpose of the trackway must have been the transport of cargo , considering that warships cannot have needed transporting very often , and ancient historiography was always more interested in war than commerce . Comments by Pliny the Elder and Strabo , which described the Diolkos as being in regular service during times of peace , also imply a commercial use of the trackway . Coinciding with the rise of monumental architecture in Greece , the construction of the Diolkos may have initially served particularly for transporting heavy goods like marble , monoliths and timber to points west and east . It is not known what tolls Corinth could extract from the Diolkos on its territory , but the fact that the trackway was used and maintained long after its construction indicates that it remained for merchant ships an attractive alternative to the trip around Cape Malea for much of antiquity .
= = Structure = =
= = = Course = = =
The Diolkos ran across the narrowest part of the Isthmus , where the trackway followed the local topography in a curved course in order to avoid steeper gradients . The roadway passed the Isthmus ridge at c . 79 m ( 259 ft ) height with an average gradient of 1 : 70 , while the steepest sections rose up to 6 % . Its total length is estimated at 6 – 7 km ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , 8 km ( 5 mi ) or 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) depending on the number of supposed bends taken into account . A total of 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) has been archaeologically traced , mainly at its western end close to the Bay of Corinth . There the known trackway began at a mooring place south of the more recent canal and ran parallel to the waterway for a few hundred meters , after which it switched to the north side , running in a slight bend a similar distance along the canal . From there on , the Diolkos either followed in a straight line the course of the modern canal , or swung south in a wide arc . The roadway ended at the Saronic Gulf at the village Schoinos , modern @-@ day Kalamaki , described by Strabo as the trackway 's eastern terminal . Sections of the Diolkos have been destroyed by the 19th @-@ century Corinth Canal and other modern installations .
= = = Track and transport = = =
The Diolkos was a trackway paved with hard limestone with parallel grooves running about 1 @.@ 60 metres ( 63 in ) apart . The roadway was 3 @.@ 4 to 6 metres ( 11 to 20 ft ) wide . Since ancient sources tell little about how the ships were hauled across , the mode of ship transport has largely to be reconstructed from the archaeological evidence . The tracks indicate that transport on the Diolkos was done with some sort of wheeled vehicle . Either vessel and cargo were hauled across on separate vehicles , or only the cargo was taken across and reloaded on a different ship at the other side of the Isthmus . Although a technical analysis has shown that the transport of triremes ( 25 t , 35 metres ( 115 ft ) long , 5 metres ( 16 ft ) beam ) , albeit difficult , was technically feasible , it is assumed that the vessels were usually smaller boats rather than ships . To avoid damaging the keel during transport , hypozomata , thick ropes running from bow to stern , to reduce sagging and hogging of the hull , must have been used . Ship and cargo were presumably pulled by men and animals with ropes , tackles and possibly also capstans .
The scientist Tolley aimed to establish the manpower needed to haul the vessels over the isthmus ridge . Assuming that a trireme soaked with water weighed 38 tons including its trolley , and that a man can exert a force of 300 N over an extended period of time , the pulling teams — depending on the slope and the surface of the cart track — must have numbered between 112 and 142 people , with a combined exertion of force of 33 to 42 kN , or around 3 @.@ 8 tons weight . Bringing the trolley up to speed may have required as many as 180 men . Assuming a speed of 2 km per hour over an estimated length of 6 kilometres , the transfer from sea to sea would have taken three hours to complete .
Assuming less load and rolling friction , Raepsaet , in contrast , calculates a maximum pulling force of 27 kN , which would have needed a slightly smaller towing crew . Under these circumstances , the use of harnessed oxen — which has been refuted by Tolley on the basis of their relatively diminished pulling capabilities — would have become feasible . However , the necessary expenditure of energy at the Diolkos must be regarded in both scenarios as considerable .
= = = Ancient railway = = =
According to the British historian of science M.J.T. Lewis , the Diolkos represented a railway , in the basic sense of a prepared track which so guides the vehicles running on it that they cannot leave the track . Measuring between 6 km ( 4 mi ) and 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) , remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years , and being open to all on payment , it constituted even a public railway , a concept which according to Lewis did not recur until c . 1800 . Also , its average gauge of around 160 cm ( 63 in ) is similar to modern standards .
However , a close examination of the excavated tracks may give a more differentiated picture . While there is agreement that the grooves in the eastern part were cut deliberately into the stone slabs to guide cart wheels , those in the western section are interpreted by some authors as a result of wear or do not appear at all . On the other hand , the marked cambers of this road section may point at deliberate tracks as well . Generally , varying forms of the grooves can also be explained by the long period of operation of the Diolkos , during which modifications and repairs must have significantly changed the appearance of the trackway .
= = = Modern exploration = = =
The chief engineer of the Corinth Canal , Béla Gerster , conducted extensive research on the topography of the Isthmus , but did not discover the Diolkos . Remains of the ship trackway were probably first identified by the German archaeologist Habbo Gerhard Lolling in the 1883 Baedeker edition . In 1913 , James George Frazer reported in his commentary on Pausanias on traces of an ancient trackway across the Isthmus , while parts of the western quay were discovered by Harold North Fowler in 1932 .
Systematic excavations were finally undertaken by the Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Verdelis between 1956 and 1962 , and these uncovered a nearly continuous stretch of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) and traced about 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) in all . Even though Verdelis ' excavation reports continue to provide the basis for modern interpretations , his premature death prevented full publication , leaving many open questions concerning the exact nature of the structure . Additional investigations in situ , meant to complement Verdelis ’ work , were later published by Georges Raepsaet and Walter Werner .
Today , erosion caused by ship movements on the nearby Canal has left considerable portions of the Diolkos in a poor state , particularly at its excavated western end . Critics who blame the Greek Ministry of Culture for continued inactivity have launched a petition to save and restore the registered archaeological site .
= = Ancient sources = =
The following ancient writers mention the transfer of ships across the Isthmus ( in chronological order ) :
Thucydides 3 @.@ 15 @.@ 1 , 8 @.@ 7 , 8 @.@ 8 @.@ 3 – 4
Aristophanes , Thesmophoriazusae 647 – 648
Polybius 4 @.@ 19 @.@ 7 – 9 [ 318 ] , 5 @.@ 101 @.@ 4 [ 484 ] , frag . 162 ( ed . M. Buettner @-@ Wolst )
Livy 42 @.@ 16 @.@ 6
Strabo 8 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 [ C.335 ] , 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 22 [ C.380 ] , 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 4 [ C.369 ]
Pliny the Elder , Natural History , 4 @.@ 9 – 11 , 18 @.@ 18
Cassius Dio 51 @.@ 5
Hesychius ( ed . Schmidt , I , p . 516 @.@ 80 )
Suidas 2 @.@ 92
George Sphrantzes 1 @.@ 33
al @-@ Idrisi ( Joubert , P.A. : Géographie d 'Édrisi 2 , Paris 1840 , p . 123 )
= = Other ship trackways = =
Apart from the Diolkos at Corinth , there is scant literary evidence for two more ship trackways by that name in antiquity , both in Roman Egypt : The physician Oribasius ( c . 320 – 400 AD ) records two passages from his 1st century AD colleague Xenocrates , in which the latter casually refers to a diolkos close to the harbor of Alexandria which may have been located at the southern tip of the island of Pharos . Another diolkos is mentioned by Ptolemy ( 90 – 168 AD ) in his book on geography ( IV , 5 , 10 ) as connecting a false mouth of a partly silted up Nile branch with the Mediterranean Sea . Neither Xenocrates nor Ptolemy offers any details on his trackway .
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= Xue Susu =
Xue Susu ( Chinese : 薛素素 ; also known as Xue Wu , Xuesu , Sunjung among other pen names ) ( c.1564 – 1650 ? C.E. ) was a Chinese courtesan . Known as one of the " Eight Great Courtesans of the Ming Dynasty " , she was an accomplished painter and poet , and was noted for her skill at mounted archery . She was particularly noted for her figure paintings , which included many Buddhist subjects . Her works are held in a number of museums both in China and elsewhere . Her archery was commented upon by a number of contemporary writers , as were her masculine , martial tendencies ; these were regarded as an attractive feature by the literati of the period .
She lived in Eastern China , residing for most of her life in the Zhejiang and Jiangsu districts . After a career as a celebrated courtesan in Nanjing , Xue married several times , but none of these unions lasted . During her later life , she eventually opted for the life of a Buddhist recluse .
= = Biography = =
Xue was born in either Suzhou or Jiaxing ( contemporary sources disagree ) . According to the historian Qian Qianyi she spent at least some of her childhood in Beijing . She spent her professional life in the Qinhuai pleasure quarter of Nanjing in the 1580s , where she became something of a celebrity among the literati and government officials who frequented the " flower houses " there . She was highly selective in her clientele , accepting only learned and scholarly men as her lovers and declining to proffer her affections for mere financial gain ; suitors might spend thousands of taels on her to no avail .
In the 1590s she returned to Beijing , where the parties and literary gatherings that she hosted , as well as her archery demonstrations , further cemented her reputation . Xue referred to herself as " a female knight @-@ errant " , and took her name from a famous woman warrior from history ; she also chose the sobriquet Wulang 五郎 ( " fifth young gentleman " ) as a nickname . The " female knight @-@ errant " epithet was reiterated by both the bibliophile Hu Yinglin and Fan Yulin , Secretary to the Ministry of War . Apparently fond of martial causes , she was not above using her position to influence military affairs , on one occasion abandoning her lover Yuan Baode when he refused to fund an expedition against the Japanese in Korea .
At some point after 1605 her career as a courtesan came to an end when she married the playwright and bureaucrat Shen Defu . She was married several times ( making many of the proposals herself ) but none of these unions lasted . As well as Shen Defu , her husbands included General Li Hualong , art critic Li Rihua and , in later life , an unnamed ( but wealthy ) merchant from Suzhou . Although she wanted children , she was never able to have any .
In later life she converted to Buddhism and remained single thereafter , largely retiring from the world . Even in her eighties , however , she was still active in the literary world , entertaining female artists such as Huang Yuanjie and Yi Lin at her home on the West Lake after the collapse of the Ming Dynasty . With her Buddhist friend Yang Jiangzi ( the sister of Xue 's fellow courtesan Liu Yin ) , she made pilgrimages to sacred sites such as Mount Lu and Mount Emei . The date of her death is uncertain ; some sources suggest that she may have lived into the 1650s whilst others put her death in the late 1630s or early 1640s . Qian Qianyi mentions her death in a work published in 1652 , so it is evident that she must have died before this date .
= = Paintings = =
Already an accomplished painter in her teenage years , Xue was well known for her artistic talent . Her work was considered similar to that of Chen Chun . One of her paintings was considered " the most accomplished work of its kind in the whole of the Ming period " , and contemporary art critics regarded her as " a master of technique " . Hu Yinglin considered her to be at the pinnacle of contemporary painting , asking , " What famous painter with skilled hands can surpass her ? " and claiming that " ... [ she ] surpasses anyone in the painting of bamboo and orchids . " She was also keenly admired by eminent painter and art critic Dong Qichang , who was inspired to copy the entire Heart Sutra in response to Xue 's painting of the bodhisattva Guanyin ; he claimed that " None [ of Xue Susu 's works ] lacks an intention and spirit that approaches the divine . " Although she painted the standard subjects of landscapes , bamboo and blossoms ( being particularly fond of orchids ) , Xue was noted for her work in figure painting , which was a comparatively unusual artistic topic for courtesans to address . Examples of her paintings are displayed at the Honolulu Museum of Art and the San Francisco Asian Art Museum .
= = Poetry = =
Xue regularly accented her paintings with her own poems , and published two volumes of writing , only one of which is still extant . Hua suo shi Chinese : 花瑣事 ( Trifles about Flowers ) is a collection of short prose essays and anecdotes about various flowers , whilst Nan you cao Chinese : 南游草 ( Notes from a Journey to the South ) , which has been lost , apparently contained a selection of her poems regarding life as a courtesan . A number of these were collected in various anthologies from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties .
Hu Yinglin wrote that " Her poetry , although lacking in freedom , shows a talent rare among women . " Moving in literary circles , Xue also provided the subject matter for many contemporary poets . Xu Yuan , another female poet of the period , describes Xue 's allure :
Hu Yinglin wrote of Xue :
Xue 's own works deal with a variety of themes , from the mildy erotic :
to the romantic :
to the whimsically philosophical :
Xue often exchanged poems and paintings with her clientele , receiving their own artworks in exchange .
= = Archery = =
Whilst she excelled at poetry , painting and embroidery , the skill that set Xue apart from other courtesans and created a cult of celebrity around her was her talent for archery . Her mastery of a traditionally masculine art gave her an air of androgyny that was considered highly attractive by the literati of the time . Having practiced in Beijing as a child she furthered her skills during a sojourn in the company of a military officer in the outlying regions of China . The horsemen of the local tribes there were impressed with her shooting , and she became something of a local celebrity . Later in life she gave public demonstrations in Hangzhou , which drew large audiences . Hu Yinglin describes one such performance :
" She is able to shoot two balls from her crossbow one after another and make the second ball strike the first and break it in mid @-@ air . Another trick she can do is to place a ball on the ground , and , by pulling the bow backwards with her left hand , while her right hand draws the bow from behind her back , hit it . Out of a hundred shots , she does not miss a single one .
The poet Lu Bi recalls another trick shot performed by Xue : " When the servant girl takes a ball in her hand and places it on top of her head / She [ Xue ] turns around , hits it with another ball , and both balls fall to the ground . "
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= 5th Avenue Theatre =
The 5th Avenue Theatre ( often referred to as 5th Avenue or the 5th ) is a landmark theatre building located in Seattle , Washington . It has hosted a variety of theatre productions and motion pictures since it opened in 1926 . The building and land is owned by the University of Washington and was once part of the original campus . It is operated as a venue for nationally touring Broadway and original shows by the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre Association . The theatre , located at 1308 Fifth Avenue in the historic Skinner Building , has been listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places since 1978 .
The 2 @,@ 130 @-@ seat theatre is the resident home to the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company , and employs over 600 actors , musicians , directors , choreographers , designers , technicians , stage hands , box office staff , and administrators , making it the largest theatre employer in the Puget Sound region . A non @-@ profit , the theatre company is supported by individual and corporate donations , government sources , and box office ticket sales .
The 5th 's subscriber season programming includes six to seven shows per year , a mix of locally produced revivals of musical theatre classics , and premieres of bound @-@ for @-@ Broadway shows , and national touring musicals . The 5th Avenue Theatre has established a tradition of being a " testing ground " for new musicals before they make their debut on Broadway , launching hits such as Jekyll & Hyde , Hairspray , and The Wedding Singer . The theatre also hosts a variety of special events , and offers education and outreach programs to school @-@ age children and adults reaching over 61 @,@ 000 students , professional performers , and audiences each year .
= = Architecture = =
Located in the Skinner Building , a historic office block ranging from five to eight stories with retail shops on the ground level , the theatre is surrounded on three sides , with its entry facing its namesake avenue . In addition to an auditorium with an original seating capacity of 3 @,@ 000 , the theatre contains a grand entry hall , and a mezzanine that once featured a tea room in addition to a waiting room and women 's lounge .
The interior design of the 5th Avenue Theatre was modeled to reproduce some of the features of historic and well @-@ known Beijing landmarks . The Norwegian artist Gustav Liljestrom executed the design based on his visit to China , and on Chinesische Architecktur , published in 1925 , an illustrated account of Ernst Boerschmann 's travels in China .
The ornate historical Chinese style of the theatre distinguishes itself from the Neo @-@ Renaissance exterior of the Skinner Building . Only at the street entry under the marquee does the viewer get a preview of the interior design . Here , adorning the ceiling are plaster representations of wood brackets , beams , and carved reliefs painted in a polychromatic scheme and decorated with stenciled dragons and flower patterns . Carved cloud shapes screen light fixtures to create an indirect lighting effect as the viewer approaches the wooden , brass knobbed entry doors . The original central free @-@ standing box office was replaced by the current box office located to the side of the entry as part of a 1979 renovation . The original Imperial guardian lions ( Ruì Shī ) , commonly called foo dogs or foo lions , originally located outside the entry were moved inside as part of the 1979 renovation .
The interior architecture of the theatre is an " excellent imitation of Chinese wooden temple construction " . The two story rectangular lobby features red , stenciled columns wrapped in plaster rising to a timbered roof structure of decoratively painted beams supporting a canopy of bamboo , also imitated in plaster . The original pair of guardian lions , both male , guard the stairway to a second level gallery that serves the theatre balcony . In addition to the Imperial guard lions , other original furnishings , light fixtures , and decoration remain intact .
The decorative details continue in the 2 @,@ 130 @-@ seat auditorium , but the highlight and focal decorative feature is the octagonal caisson from which a sculpted five @-@ toed Imperial Chinese dragon springs . A large chandelier of glass hangs from the dragon 's mouth , in reference to the Chinese symbol of a dragon disgorging flaming pearls . One claim puts the size of this caisson at twice the size of the model on which it was based in the throne room of the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City . The opening night program spoke effusively of it :
... Its most imposing feature is the great dome ... its symbolic themes borrowed from Chinese legends , its motifs from Chinese poetry . Coiled within an azure sphere and surrounded by glowing hues of cloud red , emblematic of calamity and welfare ; blue of rain ; green symbolic of plaque ; black of flood ; and gold of prosperity — is the Great Dragon , guardian genius of the place , his presence shadowed and multiplied in varying forms throughout the structure . On the huge beams surrounding and supporting the dome are five @-@ clawed dragons — the Emperor 's emblem — spitting fire in pursuit of the Jewel , rendered in the shape of a disc emitting effulgent rays , and symbolic of Omnipotence .
The dragon motif is repeated in the radial coffers of the caisson and the timbered coffers throughout the theatre . The Imperial dragon is accompanied by the symbol of the Empress , the Chinese phoenix ( Fèng huáng ) , sometimes called Ho @-@ Ho or Ho @-@ Oh Bird from the Japanese . This personal symbol of the Empress is also repeated throughout the theatre , but most prominently in relief as part of the grills above false balconies that once screened organ pipes . In addition to these symbols , orange blossoms , chrysanthemums , and lotus flowers appear throughout the theatre . The highly decorated proscenium arch and safety curtain maintain the Chinese design influence .
Beyond the decorative features of the building , the 5th Avenue Theatre also contained notable technical features when originally built . An ascending orchestra pit and independent Wurlitzer organ platform allowed the musicians to be raised up to main stage height or to orchestra pit level from the basement below . The ventilation system had thermostatic controls throughout the building , and allowed the air to be ' washed ' prior to its introduction into the venue at outlets under every third seat .
= = = Significance = = =
Preceding Grauman 's Chinese Theater in Hollywood , the 5th Avenue Theatre " has been called the largest and most authentic example of traditional Chinese timber architecture and decoration outside of Asia . " In addition , its association with architect Robert Reamer , whose other notable works include the nationally known Old Faithful Inn in Yellowstone National Park , as well as many important buildings in the Art Deco style add to its significance . The Fifth Avenue Theatre was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on November 28 , 1978 .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
The president and general manager of Pacific Northwest Theatres , Inc . , Harry C. Arthur , believed Seattle to be a place of growing importance in the motion picture industry in the mid @-@ 1920s , and consequently as the place to invest for the long term . Arthur 's company absorbed a competing chain of 40 theatres by 1926 , and sought further expansion . A large holder of the theatre company 's stock and debt was C. D. Stimson who sat on the board of directors of both Pacific Northwest Theatres and the Metropolitan Building Company , developer of what became known as the Metropolitan Tract . Stimson promoted the establishment of a theatre district like that which had developed around a theatre he had built in Los Angeles , California . The planned Skinner Building with a theatre owned by Arthur 's company would complete the Stimson development of the Metropolitan Tract .
The architect , Robert Reamer , had joined the Metropolitan Building Company after World War I and as their house architect designed the Skinner Building and the 5th Avenue Theatre . In creating the 5th Avenue Theatre , Reamer was joined by his colleague , Joseph Skoog , of Reamer 's office and Gustav Liljestrom , of the S. & G. Gump Company of San Francisco .
Construction began in October 1925 with construction taking 11 months and costing $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = = Grand opening = = =
The theatre celebrated its grand opening on September 24 , 1926 with an opening unit program that included both film and live vaudeville performances . The opening program included the silent film Young April , Fanchon and Marco 's stage presentation The Night Club , and Lipschultz and his Syncopated Soloists . Oliver Wallace , a popular local musician and composer , returned from Portland , Oregon to be the accompanying organist for opening night . Wallace had been the first theatre organist in a Seattle motion picture house .
Opening night was also marked by festivities outside the theatre . Seven blocks of downtown Seattle around the theatre were closed to street car and automobile traffic . Lured by free street car , bus , and taxicab rides , thousands of people packed Fifth Avenue between Seneca Street and Pike Street , University and Union Streets . The Seattle Times reported :
It is doubtful that any Friday night in Seattle 's history saw more people circulating through all the downtown streets than were there last night . The density in the center of the activities was such that street cars were diverted ...
In the street outside the theatre a street carnival took place . Living up to the moniker for the theater 's marquee , “ the Magic Sign of a Wonderful Time , ” spotlights scanned the night sky , banks of Klieg lights illuminated the streets outside the theater , and flares were shot from the roofs of nearby buildings . Additionally , dance bands were placed at the closed intersections to provide entertainment and , using giant screens to project the words , a sing @-@ along was orchestrated on Fifth Avenue in front of the theatre . An estimated crowd of between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 people participated in the events .
= = = Decline and restoration = = =
Following the grand opening , the theatre served as a venue for vaudeville and film , and following the decline of vaudeville as a movie palace until the 1970s . With the economic recession , the advent of television , and movie complex development in the suburbs , crowds dwindled and the theatre struggled to stay open . It was forced to close its doors in 1978 along with the nearby Orpheum theatre . A variety of re @-@ use possibilities were proposed for the theatre including a Chinese restaurant , a triplex movie theater , an office building , or a shopping center . The city of Seattle was unable to protect the theatre as a designated landmark because of its unique position on the site of the original territorial university grounds owned by the state of Washington .
In 1979 , 43 business leaders formed the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre Association and underwrote a US $ 2 @.@ 6 million loan to save the theatre . Among these was Ned Skinner of the shipbuilding family who was an active patron of the theatre . Architect Richard McCann oversaw the restoration efforts .
Several changes were made during the renovation . The vertical marquee which had marked the theatre 's presence from 1926 to 1980 , was removed , the orchestra pit and auditorium seating were rebuilt , the dressing rooms moved , and the technical systems updated . However , the furniture , fixtures and interior signage were retained . Even the paint was carefully restored to its original luster . The renovation made it suitable again for live performances and filled Seattle 's need for a touring Broadway musical venue . Renovation work was completed without federal , state , or local funds .
June 16 , 1980 marked the theater ’ s rebirth and a new chapter in Seattle ’ s arts community . At the Grand Opening Gala for the renovated theatre , actress Helen Hayes christened the stage with a kiss and declared the 5th “ a national treasure . ” Beginning on July 3 the 5th presented Annie , the first touring Broadway musical to appear at the theatre . The sold @-@ out show ran for 10 weeks with a total of 77 performances .
The 5th Avenue Theatre continues to thrive with the assistance of many generous donors and volunteers .
= = = Post @-@ 1980 history = = =
Since the renovation , the 5th Avenue Theatre has become one of Seattle 's most established theatres . In 1989 , The 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company was established as the resident non @-@ profit theatre company .
On February 28 , 2001 , the Nisqually earthquake rocked the 5th Avenue Theatre . At the time , actors were on stage rehearsing the musical 1776 . The theatre suffered minimal damages with no structural damage from the quake . Earthquake repairs included removal and replacement of 72 plaster ceiling supports and the repair of numerous cracks and damaged decorative plaster pieces in the ceiling . Contractors had to install scaffolding tall enough to reach the highest interior crevice in the ceiling eight stories up — the first time that area had been reached in 75 years . The chandeliers had to be lowered for repair and maintenance . As part of the repair work , Turner Construction provided services for seismic upgrades to the Skinner Building .
In November 2009 a new vertical marquee , similar to the sign that was removed as part of the 1980 renovation , was installed . The marquee was made possible through a donation from Christabel Gough , daughter of Broadway producer and early 5th Avenue promoter Roger L. Stevens . The new sign features a design inspired by both earlier marquees and the theatre 's interior , uses LED lights for energy conservation , and includes a revolving " 5th " sign at the marquee 's top .
= = The 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company = =
= = = Genesis = = =
From the renovation in 1980 until 1985 the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre successfully operated as a venue for touring Broadway shows . As the United States went through an economic downturn from 1985 to 1989 there was a shortage of touring shows for venues like the 5th . Consequently , many of the country 's Broadway houses went unused for extended periods of time . However , the 5th remained open during these years with a reduced staff and was used for community events and local promoters .
This situation forced the theatre to move beyond merely being a presenter of touring musicals . In 1989 , the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre established a resident theatre company , dubbed The 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company , to produce musicals locally . Since the theatre company 's establishment , the 5th 's yearly subscriber season programming has included 6 to 7 shows : national touring musicals , locally produced revivals of musical theatre classics , and premieres of bound @-@ for @-@ Broadway shows . With 150 musical theater performances each fall @-@ to @-@ spring subscriber season which attract over 30 @,@ 000 subscribers and average ticket sales of 300 @,@ 000 tickets annually , the 5th ranks among the nation 's largest musical theater companies .
The musical company employs over 600 actors , musicians , directors , choreographers , designers , technicians , stage hands , box office staff , and administrators , making the 5th the largest theatre employer in the Puget Sound region . A non @-@ profit , the theatre company is supported by individual and corporate donations , government sources , and box office ticket sales .
= = = TUTS partnership = = =
Frank M. Young was the first executive director of the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company . From 1989 to 1999 a collaborative partnership existed between the 5th and Houston 's Theatre Under the Stars ( TUTS ) where Young also served as executive director . This partnership produced 10 seasons of musical theater , including both national tours and self @-@ produced musicals . On October 17 , 1989 the first 5th Avenue / TUTS self @-@ produced musical was presented : Mame , starring Juliet Prowse . In 1995 , after premiering at the 5th , Jekyll & Hyde became the first 5th Avenue Theatre production to open on Broadway in April 1997 . The show was produced in cooperation with Houston 's Alley Theatre and TUTS .
In August 2000 the 5th ’ s partnership with TUTS ended as David Armstrong joined the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company becoming its first resident Producing Artistic Director launching a new era of collaboration with leading musical theater companies and producers across the country .
= = = Broadway " testing ground " = = =
Since the creation of the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company in 1989 , the 5th has established a tradition of being a " testing ground " for new musicals before they make their debut on Broadway . Since 2000 the 5th has produced one pre @-@ Broadway world premiere every 2 to 3 years .
We 've become a very sought @-@ after partner for developing Broadway musicals .
Some notable musicals shown to Seattle audiences at the 5th Avenue Theatre prior to their success on Broadway include : Jekyll & Hyde in 1995 which was nominated for 4 Tony Awards , Hairspray in 2002 which won 8 Tony Awards , and The Wedding Singer in 2006 which had 4 Tony Award nominations . The film adaptation of Hairspray premiered at the 5th on July 16 , 2007 ( 4 days prior to its nationwide release ) as an acknowledgement of the 5th 's role in the musical 's success on Broadway . The " testing ground " tradition continued in the 2008 – 2009 season with the pre @-@ Broadway world premieres of Shrek the Musical , and Memphis . Both went on to win Tony awards , Shrek winning one in 2009 and Memphis winning four , including Best Musical , in 2010 . In the 2009 – 2010 season , they premiered Catch Me If You Can , which premiered on Broadway in the spring of 2011 . In their 2010 – 2011 season , they premiered A Christmas Story : The Musical , based on the film of the same name , and more recently the premiere of Aladdin , based on the Disney film " Aladdin " .
Along with their successful pre @-@ Broadway tryouts , the 5th Avenue Theatre has also performed two musicals , Princesses in 2005 and Lone Star Love in 2007 , which were originally scheduled to go to Broadway , but did not due to poor reviews . They also announced the premiere of a musical adaptation of Cry @-@ Baby , in 2007 , but it was later replaced with Buddy : The Buddy Holly Story .
= = = Community outreach programs = = =
The theatre also hosts a variety of special events , and offers a number of education and outreach programs to school @-@ age children and adults reaching over 61 @,@ 000 students , professional performers , and audiences each year . One example of this is the 5th Avenue High School Musical Theatre Awards which evaluate and honor the performances of student actors and stage hands in Washington state high school productions . At the end of each school year , a Tony Awards @-@ style ceremony is held which includes high @-@ profile presenters , performances by nominees , and acceptance speeches by the award recipients . The awards ceremony has become a useful scouting event for colleges looking to recruit talent for their drama departments .
= = Productions by season = =
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= Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) =
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " is a song by Powderfinger from their sixth album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It is the fourth single from the album and was released in Australia in March 2008 . The band 's publicist , Ms. Fanclub , announced on 27 February that the single would be released to radioplay in the following week , without specifying a date . In her announcement , she also noted that a music video will be released at about the same time . The music video was then released in mid @-@ March ; however , the single 's release was then announced as 31 March .
A music video was released for the song ; however , it features the live version of the song taken from the DVD for the Across the Great Divide tour , whereas the radio single for the song is a radio edit of the studio album version . The music video is directly taken from the DVD ; however , it is altered optically with filters and converted into black and white .
= = Background = =
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " was recorded by Powderfinger for their 2007 album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence at Sunset Sound Studio , Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 with producer Rob Schnapf . The part of the title " Featuring the Sound of Insanity " refers to a sound just after the bridge in which a sitar is played with synthesised effects overlaid . Prior to its release as a single , a live version of " Who Really Cares " appeared on the earlier Dream Days at the Hotel Existence single , " I Don 't Remember " . Another live version also appears on the group 's 2007 DVD Across the Great Divide tour .
= = Release = =
= = = Cover art = = =
Though the single was never a physical CD release , artwork was created for it . The artwork featured the headless man who is otherwise seen throughout the releases for other singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , however on this cover , the area where his head would be is a fireball , and he appears to be holding a briefcase while walking down the hallway of a hotel , another common theme throughout the artwork for the album . Unlike the last two singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , the artwork doesn 't follow the picture @-@ in @-@ picture theme .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Who Really Cares " is a live performance of the song by Powderfinger for their Across the Great Divide tour in 2007 . The music video contains the performance featured on the DVD for the Across the Great Divide tour , filmed in Melbourne in 2007 . The performance features a piano solo by the pianist Lachlan Doley , who performed keyboards and piano throughout the tour . The music video , produced by PVC as part of the tour DVD , is completely in black and white and throughout features optical filters that warp and alter the visual display . These filters intensify from the bridge and continue until the end of the clip . The music is performed differently from the original studio recording , with improvised solos , including Ian Haug playing the sitar part on a double necked guitar with synthesised effects to emulate the sitar sound , and the performance of the song ends with a ritardando , where the tempo slows to an end .
= = Critical response = =
Prior to being released as a single , " Who Really Cares " received a mixed response by reviewers when commenting on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . Melbourne based webzine TheScene.com.au reviewer Andrew Weaver comments on the song 's musical layering , coupling the song with " Wishing on the Same Moon " and comments that the layering in the two songs gives the music " genuine depth of sound and taking the veteran group to new places " . CitySearch Sydney also made reference to the likeness to " Wishing on the Same Moon " , but notes that what sets the two songs apart is " a serviceable fade @-@ out cacophony of keys and guitar " . Music journalist Chris Leonard of UK magazine Rock Louder praises the live performance of the song while Powderfinger performed in Glasgow on 11 December 2007 . J. Watson of Fasterlouder.com.au comments that the song , when performed live at The Sydney Opera House Forecourt for charity on 31 October 2007 , was " another highlight of the evening " . Fellow reviewer from Fasterlouder , ShahXerxes , comments on the song 's " sparse Pink Floyd @-@ esque sound which echoes through " Who Really Cares " , as clever a rock ballad as the band have ever written . " Andrew Ramadge of Mess + Noise echoed the comments of similarities to Pink Floyd , and also Neil Young , stating " where psych @-@ gospel organ and wailing guitar billow around Fanning ’ s vocals like a lost track from Dark Side of the Moon " . Though most of the critical response has been positive , the song has also received criticism from UK reviewer Matthias Scherer of Noize Makes Enemies . Scherer notes that the song 's title " Who Really Cares " is a question that " should have been asked before recording , not during " , though this comment refers both to the song itself , and the whole album of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence .
= = = Charts = = =
The song 's critical response has been mostly positive , though so too were the two prior singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , which both performed poorly in the charts . Like these two , " Who Really Cares " was released to radioplay and music video stations , but with little inclusion in circulation , leading speculators to believe the single will follow " I Don 't Remember " and " Nobody Sees " with poor charting performance . This speculation proved to be accurate , leading to " Who Really Cares " to be the first single by Powderfinger since their 2004 release " Bless My Soul " to fail to achieve a position on the ARIA Charts . Although B @-@ side " One More Kiss As You Fly Away " was the number 81 on the ARIA Charts .
= = Track listing = =
" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) "
" One More Kiss as You Fly Away "
= = Personnel = =
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= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) =
SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was the lead ship of the Erzherzog Ferdinand Max class of broadside ironclads built for the Austrian Navy in the 1860s . She was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , with her keel laying in October 1863 , launching in May 1865 , and commissioning in June 1866 at the outbreak of the Third Italian War of Independence and the Austro @-@ Prussian War , fought concurrently . The ship was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder guns , though the rifled guns originally intended , which had been ordered from Prussia , had to be replaced with old smoothbore guns until after the conflicts ended .
Stationed in the Adriatic Sea , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max served as the flagship of the Austrian fleet under Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff . She saw action at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866 , where she rammed and sank the Italian ironclad Re d 'Italia . Slightly damaged in the collision , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max had her bow repaired in Malta after the war . She remained in the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet for the next twenty years , but severely reduced naval budgets owing to Hungarian disinterest in naval matters led to an uneventful career . She was rearmed with newer guns in 1874 and again in 1882 . Stricken from the naval register in May 1886 , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was employed as a tender to the gunnery training school from 1889 to 1908 . She remained in the inventory until 1916 when she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was 83 @.@ 75 meters ( 274 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 96 m ( 52 @.@ 4 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 14 m ( 23 @.@ 4 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 130 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 050 long tons ; 5 @,@ 650 short tons ) . She had a crew of 511 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine , manufactured by the Stabilimento Tecnico shipyard in Fiume , that drove a single screw propeller . The number and type of her coal @-@ fired boilers have not survived . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 54 knots ( 23 @.@ 22 km / h ; 14 @.@ 43 mph ) from 2 @,@ 925 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 181 kW ) .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns . She also carried several smaller guns , including four 8 @-@ pounder guns and two 3 @-@ pounders . The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 123 mm ( 5 in ) thick on the battery and reduced to 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) at the bow and stern .
= = Service history = =
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was laid down at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 6 May 1863 . She was launched on 24 May 1865 ; the builders were forced to complete fitting @-@ out work quickly , as tensions with neighboring Prussia and Italy erupted into the concurrent Austro @-@ Prussian War and the Third Italian War of Independence in June 1866 . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 's rifled heavy guns were still on order from Krupp , and they could not be delivered due to the conflict with Prussia . Instead , the ship was armed with old smooth @-@ bore guns . Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the commander of the Austrian Fleet , immediately began to mobilize his fleet . As the ships became fully manned , they began to conduct training exercises in Fasana . With his flag aboard Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 26 June in an attempt to draw out the Italians , but the Italian commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , refused to engage Tegetthoff . Tegetthoff made another sortie on 6 July , but again could not bring the Italian fleet to battle .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet , with twelve ironclads , out of Ancona , bound for the island of Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing . Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between the 17 and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack , which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main bases at Pola and Venice . By the morning of the 19th , however , he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective , and so he requested permission to attack . As Tegetthoff 's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July , Persano 's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt . The latter 's ships were divided into three groups , with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians . Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a wedge @-@ shaped formation , leading with Erzherzog Ferdinand Max at the center ; the wooden warships of the second and third divisions followed behind in the same formation .
While he was forming up his ships , Persano transferred from his flagship , Re d 'Italia to the turret ship Affondatore . This created a gap in the Italian line , and Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to divide the Italian fleet and create a melee . He made a pass through the gap , but failed to ram any of the Italian ships , forcing him to turn around and make another attempt . During the second attempt , Austrian gunfire had disabled Re d 'Italia 's rudder , leaving her incapable of maneuvering . Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to ram the Italian vessel , and ordered his ship to maximum speed . After two collisions that occurred at angles too oblique to inflict serious damage , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max struck the ship more directly . The Austrian ship 's ram tore a gaping hole in Re d 'Italia 's hull on the port side , though Erzherzog Ferdinand Max sustained no significant damage herself . Tegetthoff reversed course , allowing the Italian ironclad to lurch back to port and quickly sink . Tegetthoff initially ordered his crew to lower boats to pick up the Italians struggling in the water , but the Italian ironclad San Martino was approaching , and he could not allow his ship to become a stationary target . Instead , he ordered the aviso Kaiserin Elizabeth to remain behind and pick up the survivors while Erzherzog Ferdinand Max engaged San Martino . The other Italian ships , however , did not realize Kaiserin Elizabeth was attempting to pick up the Italian survivors , and so opened fire on her , driving her away from the men in the water .
By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk and the coastal defense ship Palestro was burning badly , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , he refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; Tegetthoff , having gotten the better of the action , kept his distance so as not to risk his success . Additionally , the Austrian ships were slower than their Italian counterparts , and so they could not force a second engagement . As night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max had fired 156 shells in the course of the battle . She had kept boarding parties on her deck , ready to attack Italian vessels , but the opportunity had not presented itself in the engagement ; steam powered ships could simply reverse course and disengage before a boarding party could cross over . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was not significantly damaged by Italian fire or the ramming attempts . A few armor plates were slightly dislodged , the paint had been stripped from the hull where she had collided with Re d 'Italia , and she had a minor leak from the concussion , but she was otherwise unscathed .
= = = Later career = = =
After returning to Pola , Tegetthoff kept his fleet in the northern Adriatic , where it patrolled against a possible Italian attack . The Italian ships never came , and on 12 August , the two countries signed the Armistice of Cormons ; this ended the fighting and led to the Treaty of Vienna . Though Austria had defeated Italy at Lissa and on land at the Battle of Custoza , the Austrian army was decisively defeated by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz . With the war over , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max went into the British Royal Navy shipyard in Malta to have her bow repaired . As a result of Austria 's defeat , Kaiser Franz Joseph was forced to accede to Hungarian demands for greater autonomy , and the country became Austria @-@ Hungary in the Ausgleich of 1867 . The two halves of the Dual Monarchy held veto power over the other , and Hungarian disinterest in naval expansion led to severely reduced budgets for the fleet .
In 1869 , Kaiser Franz Joseph took a tour of the Mediterranean Sea in his imperial yacht Greif ; Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , her sister ship Habsburg , and a pair of paddle steamers escorted the Kaiser for the trip to Port Said at the mouth of the Suez Canal . The two ironclads remained in the Mediterranean while the other vessels passed through the Canal into the Red Sea in company with Empress Eugenie of France aboard her own yacht . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships eventually returned to Trieste in December . In 1874 she was rearmed with a battery of fourteen 7 in ( 180 mm ) muzzle @-@ loading Armstrong guns and four light guns . Her battery was revised again in 1882 , with the addition of four 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) breech @-@ loader guns , two 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) breech @-@ loaders , a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) quick @-@ firing revolver guns , and three 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) auto @-@ cannons . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was stricken from the naval register on 19 May 1886 and her armament was reduced to eight 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The following year , these were removed and a single 26 cm ( 10 in ) gun and a 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun were installed . From 1889 to 1908 , she served as a tender to the gunnery training school . The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1916 during World War I.
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= Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show =
The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show is an annual fashion show sponsored by and featuring Victoria 's Secret , a brand of lingerie and sleepwear . Victoria 's Secret uses the show to promote and market its goods in high @-@ profile settings . The show features some of the world 's leading fashion models such as current Victoria 's Secret Angels Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , Behati Prinsloo , Candice Swanepoel , and Lily Aldridge .
American network television broadcasts the show during prime time . The first few shows in the 1990s were held in the days preceding Valentine 's Day to promote the brand for this holiday . They were not aired on national television . In 1999 and 2000 the show was webcast . Beginning in 2001 , the shows were moved ahead of the Christmas holiday season . Also in 2001 , the show made its network television broadcast on ABC , though in all subsequent years , it has been broadcast on CBS . The show has been held at a variety of locations in different cities including Miami , Los Angeles , and Cannes . The first four shows were held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City , but since it has become a televised event it has most often been held at the 69th Regiment Armory in New York City .
The show is a lavish event with elaborate costumed lingerie , varying music by leading entertainers , and set design according to the different themes running within the show . The show attracts hundreds of celebrities and entertainers , with special performers and acts every year . Each year , twenty to forty of the world 's top fashion models are selected to perform in the fashion show . In a typical year , this includes about a half dozen women under contract to the company , known as Victoria 's Secret Angels , who help publicize the event . The giant angel wings worn by the models , as well as other wings of various forms and sizes such as butterfly , peacock , or devil wings , have become emblematic of the Victoria 's Secret brand .
= = History = =
The first fashion show extravaganza , introduced by Stephanie Seymour , was held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City in August 1995 . The show also featured Beverly Peele and Frederique van der Wal . This first fashion show occurred two months before The Limited , parent company of Victoria 's Secret owner Intimate Brands , sold an initial public offering of a 16 percent stake in the company and almost had Seymour make an appearance at the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) for the opening bell . She actually did ring the closing bell at the NYSE as part of the publicity campaign . The subsequent three annual shows were also held at the Plaza .
In 1999 , during Super Bowl XXXIII , Victoria 's Secret announced a 72 @-@ hour countdown to the Internet webcast of the Victoria 's Secret fashion show , which resulted in over 2 million internet viewers of the show . Parent company Intimate Brands bought a $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 2 @.@ 1 million today ) 30 @-@ second television advertisement during the Super Bowl broadcast and spent an additional $ 4 million ( $ 5 @.@ 7 million ) for subsequent international newspaper advertisements to publicize the event . The show , which was aired by Broadcast.com , featured Tyra Banks , Laetitia Casta , Heidi Klum , Karen Mulder , Daniela Pestova , Inés Rivero , and Seymour . In 1999 and 2000 , the show was broadcast live on the internet , but the 2000 show was moved for a year from the usual February event at the Plaza to a May event in concert with the Cannes Film Festival in France to raise money for the Cinema Against AIDS charity ; it raised $ 3 @.@ 5 million .
In 2001 , the show , which was hosted by Rupert Everett , returned to the New York City but at Bryant Park instead of the Plaza . That year , the show made its broadcast debut on ABC , drawing millions of viewers as well as some middle @-@ brow controversy ; the Federal Communications Commission received many complaints about the broadcast every year . The show has continued to be broadcast on network television every year since .
From 2002 through 2005 , it was held at the Lexington Avenue Armory in New York City . The 2004 show was canceled due to a widespread crackdown on perceived indecency in broadcasting stemming from the Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , in which Jackson encountered a breast @-@ revealing " wardrobe malfunction " . Before the 2005 show , Banks announced her retirement from modeling and embarkation on a television career with The Tyra Banks Show , making the 2005 show a farewell to her decade of fashion shows for the company .
In 2004 , instead of the annual fashion show , the Angels ( Tyra Banks , Heidi Klum , Gisele Bündchen , Adriana Lima , and Alessandra Ambrosio ) did an Angels Across America Tour , a grassroots campaign for the brand visiting four major cities : New York City , Miami , Las Vegas , and Los Angeles .
The 2006 and 2007 shows were held at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles . On November 13 , 2007 , the Victoria 's Secret Angels were honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk Of Fame right outside the Kodak Theatre . The 2007 Angels honored in this celebration to mark Victoria 's Secret 's 25th anniversary on Hollywood Boulevard were Heidi Klum , Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , Karolina Kurkova , Selita Ebanks , Izabel Goulart , Marisa Miller , and Miranda Kerr . The other models , who also appeared in that year 's fashion show , were in attendance that day . The 2008 show coincided with the grand re @-@ opening of the Fontainebleau Miami Beach hotel .
In 2006 , Victoria 's Secret sub @-@ brand PINK made its debut on the runway . Justin Timberlake opened the show with his popular song " Sexy Back " . This year fashion show was the final walk of Gisele Bündchen .
The 2007 show featured a performance by the Spice Girls and gained prominence as the first American TV debut of the band after their comeback . Kanye West was also scheduled to perform at the event , but cancelled his appearance due to his mother 's death. will.i.am was called to perform in his place .
The 2008 show was held at Fountainebleu Miami Beach , Florida . Usher was appeared on the show as well as opened it . Unlike the other shows , the runway was designed parallel with the audience seats .
In 2009 , the fashion show took place in New York City at the Lexington Avenue Armory , where it was last held in 2005 . The 2009 show was notable for featuring the results of a competition , called the Victoria 's Secret Model Search , to find a new Victoria 's Secret " runway Angel . " The winner was announced as Kylie Bisutti .
The 2010 Victoria 's Secret Fashion show aired on November 30 , 2010 on CBS , and featured performances by Katy Perry and Akon . A promotional ad featured a lipdub for Katy Perry 's " Firework " . As of 2010 , 152 models have walked the show .
In 2011 , Kanye West started his song " Stronger " with a tribute to his mother who had died before his scheduled performance four years before , saying : " In 2007 , I was supposed to perform this song on this show ... and I lost my superhero . Now she 's my super @-@ angel . "
In 2012 , an outfit worn by model Karlie Kloss , which was reminiscent of Native American attire , sparked controversy due to its alleged stereotypical depiction of Native Americans . Victoria 's Secret released a statement of apology shortly after , saying that they will remove it from future advertisements and the broadcast . Kloss apologized on her Twitter account for the outfit and expressed her support for the outfit 's removal in the broadcast .
In 2013 , the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift , A Great Big World , Neon Jungle and Fall Out Boy . Taylor Swift performed " I Knew You Were Trouble " , A Great Big World performed " Say Something " , UK 's Neon Jungle made their US television debut with " Trouble " , and Fall Out Boy performed with Taylor Swift in " My Songs Know What You Did In The Dark " and later performed " The Phoenix " .
In 2014 , the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift ; for the second year in a row , Ed Sheeran , Ariana Grande , and Hozier . Taylor Swift performed " Blank Space " and " Style " . Ed Sheeran performed " Thinking Out Loud " . Ariana Grande performed " Love Me Harder " , " Bang Bang " , " Break Free " , and " Problem " . Hozier performed " Take Me to Church " . During the show , Ariana Grande was performing and was hit by accident with an angel 's wings .
= = Critical review = =
The early webcasts were criticized for poor connection , and users that could connect were subjected to low video quality . One critic from The New York Times described the initial 20th @-@ century webcast experience as having felt like he was " watching a striptease through a keyhole " .
Some critics have described the 21st @-@ century televised editions of the show as pornographic , while others have described it as both " outright commercialism " and an infomercial . The Federal Communications Commission has received complaints regarding the broadcast , but no fines have been imposed , with the FCC , following the 2001 airing , citing the First Amendment and stating that " sexual or excretory activities or organs in a patently offensive manner as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium " were not broadcast . In the initial 2001 airing ABC blurred the screen on particularly sheer lingerie . This enabled the show to pass muster with its internal Broadcast Standards and Practices department and to achieve the TV @-@ 14 rating . In 2002 , the National Organization for Women protested the show calling it a " soft @-@ core porn infomercial . " They were joined in protest by the Parents Television Council and other watchdog organizations . CBS has given past shows TV @-@ 14 ratings , which is a warning that the show may contain material unsuitable for children age 14 and under . Nonetheless some affiliates have chosen not to air the show in past years including Fisher Broadcasting affiliates in Idaho . In 2009 , the American Decency Association organized email letters of protests to sponsors of the show including AT & T , Kentucky Fried Chicken , Netflix , Nikon , and Reebok . CBS has described the event to as " the Super Bowl of fashion " .
= = Summary table = =
= = Fantasy Bra = =
Typically , one model is chosen among the Angels to wear a bejeweled bra dubbed the " Fantasy Bra " . It was first advertised in the Victoria 's Secret catalog , but since 2001 has been worn in the Fashion Shows . Prior to each Fashion Show , Victoria 's Secret contracts a renowned jewelry designer to craft the bra to be used as a focal point for promoting the fashion show and as a centerpiece within it . The company offers the Fantasy Bra for sale as " the ultimate holiday " gift . However , only the centerpiece from the 2004 Heavenly " 70 " Fantasy Bra and the 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra and Gift Set have found a buyer . If not bought , the bras are dismantled after a year .
Heidi Klum and Adriana Lima have worn the Fantasy Bra in three different years . Gisele Bündchen , Tyra Banks , Karolina Kurkova , and Alessandra Ambrosio have each worn two Fantasy Bras .
The $ 15 million price tag for the 2000 bra worn by Gisele Bündchen earned a place in the Guinness World Records as the most expensive item of lingerie ever created . The $ 3 million 2009 Harlequin Fantasy Bra and the $ 2 million 2010 Bombshell Fantasy Bra were designed by Damiani . Listed below are the prices per set ( including accessories for the 2007 and 2013 editions , the 2013 bra alone is worth $ 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . The 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra was accompanied by a $ 500 @,@ 000 perfume bottle .
In 2014 , for the first time , two fantasy bras were created . They were worn by Alessandra Ambrosio and Adriana Lima and were valued at $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 each .
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= Boston Police Strike =
In the Boston Police Strike , Boston police officers went on strike on September 9 , 1919 . They sought recognition for their trade union and improvements in wages and working conditions . Police Commissioner Edwin Upton Curtis denied that police officers had any right to form a union , much less one affiliated with a larger organization like the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) . Attempts at reconciliation between the Commissioner and the police officers , particularly on the part of Boston 's Mayor Andrew James Peters , failed .
During the strike , Boston experienced several nights of lawlessness , although property damage was not extensive . Several thousand members of the State Guard , supported by volunteers , restored order . Press reaction both locally and nationally described the strike as Bolshevik @-@ inspired and directed at the destruction of civil society . The strikers were called " deserters " and " agents of Lenin . "
Samuel Gompers of the AFL recognized that the strike was damaging the cause of labor in the public mind and advised the strikers to return to work . Commissioner Curtis refused to re @-@ hire the striking policemen . He was supported by Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , whose rebuke of Gompers earned him a national reputation . The strike proved a setback for labor unions , and the AFL discontinued its attempts to organize police officers for another two decades . Coolidge won the Republican nomination for vice @-@ president of the U.S. in the 1920 presidential election .
= = Background = =
In 1895 , the Massachusetts legislature transferred control of the Boston police department from Boston 's mayor to the governor of Massachusetts , whom it authorized to appoint a five @-@ person board of commissioners to manage the department . In 1906 , the legislature abolished that board and gave the governor the authority to name a single commissioner to a term of five years , subject to removal by the governor . The mayor and the city continued to have responsibility for the department 's expenses and the physical working conditions of its employees , but the commissioner controlled department operations and the hiring , training , and discipline of the police officers .
In 1918 , the salary for patrolmen was set at $ 1 @,@ 400 a year . Police officers had to buy their own uniforms and equipment which cost over $ 200 . New recruits received $ 730 during their first year , which increased annually to $ 821 @.@ 25 and $ 1000 , and to $ 1 @,@ 400 after six years . In the years following World War I , inflation dramatically eroded the value of a police officer 's salary . From 1913 to May 1919 , the cost of living rose by 76 % , while police wages rose just 18 % . Discontent and restiveness among the Boston police force grew as they compared their wages and found they were earning less than an unskilled steelworker , half as much as a carpenter or mechanic and 50 cents a day less than a streetcar conductor . Boston city laborers were earning a third more on an hourly basis .
Police officers had an extensive list of grievances . They worked ten @-@ hour shifts and typically recorded weekly totals between 75 and 90 hours . They were not paid for time spent on court appearances . They also objected to being required to perform such tasks as " delivering unpaid tax bills , surveying rooming houses , taking the census , or watching the polls at election " and checking the backgrounds of prospective jurors as well as serving as " errand boys " for their officers . They complained about having to share beds and the lack of sanitation , baths , and toilets at many of the 19 station houses where they were required to live , most of which dated to before the Civil War . The Court Street station had four toilets for 135 men , and one bathtub .
Boston 's police officers , acting with the sponsorship of the police department , had formed an association known as the Boston Social Club in 1906 . In 1917 , a committee of police officers representing the Social Club met with Commissioner Stephen O 'Meara to ask about a raise . He was sympathetic , but advised them to wait for a better time . They pressed the issue in the summer of 1918 and , near the end of the year , Mayor Andrew Peters offered salary increases that would affect about one @-@ fourth of the officers . O 'Meara died in December 1918 , and Governor Samuel McCall appointed Edwin Upton Curtis , former Mayor of Boston , as Commissioner of the Boston Police Department . After another meeting where representatives of the Social Club repeated their salary demands , Peters said : " while the word ' strike ' was not mentioned , the whole situation is far more serious than I realized . " He also made it clear to the rank and file that they were not entitled to form their own union . Curtis did not share his predecessor 's or the mayor 's sympathy for the police , but in February 1918 he offered a wage compromise that the police rejected . In May , Governor Coolidge announced raises , which were also rejected . When the Social Club 's representatives tried to raise grievances with him , Curtis set up his own grievance committee to handle management @-@ employee disputes , based on the election of representatives from each precinct house by secret ballot , and it met just once .
A few months later , in June 1919 , the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) , responding to repeated requests from local police organizations , began accepting police organizations into their membership . By September , it had granted charters to police unions in 37 cities , including Washington , D.C. , Los Angeles , Miami , and St. Paul , though not without protests from some city officials , who opposed the unionization of police , firefighters , and teachers .
= = Events leading to the strike = =
The Boston police decided to organize under an AFL charter in order to gain support from other unions in their negotiations and any strike that might ensue . On August 9 , 1919 , the Boston Social Club requested a charter from the AFL . On August 11 , Curtis issued a General Order forbidding police officers to join any " organization , club or body outside the department " , making an exception only for patriotic organizations such as the American Legion . His administration argued that such a rule was based on the conflict of interest between police officers ' duties and union membership :
It is or should be apparent to any thinking person that the police department of this or any other city cannot fulfill its duty to the entire public if its members are subject to the direction of an organization existing outside the department .... If troubles and disturbances arise where the interests of this organization and the interests of other elements and classes in the community conflict , the situation immediately arises which always arises when a man attempts to serve two masters , – he must fail either in his duty as a policeman , or in his obligation to the organization that controls him .
On August 15 , the police received their AFL charter . On August 17 , the Central Labor Union of Boston welcomed the police union and denounced Curtis for his assertions that the police had no right to unionize . Curtis refused to meet with the eight members of the police union 's committee . He suspended them and 11 others who held various union offices and scheduled trials to determine if they had violated his General Order . At this point , Curtis was a hero to business interests . Late in August , the New Hampshire Association of Manufacturers called him " the Ole Hanson of the east , " equating the events they anticipated in Boston with the earlier Seattle General Strike .
Mayor Peters sought to play an intermediary role by appointing a Citizen 's Committee to review the dispute about union representation . He chose a well @-@ known local reformer as its chair , James J. Storrow . Storrow 's group recommended that Curtis and the police agree to a police union without AFL ties and without the right to strike . Curtis in turn would recognize the police union and the union would agree to remain " independent and unaffiliated " . Storrow 's group also recommended that no action be taken against the 19 men whom Curtis had suspended . Four of Boston 's five newspapers backed the compromise , with only the Boston Transcript holding to a consistent anti @-@ union position . The Boston Chamber of Commerce backed it as well .
Curtis , with the backing of Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , rejected the Storrow Commission 's proposal . He proceeded with department trials of the 19 and on September 8 found them guilty of union activity . Rather than dismiss them from the police force , he extended their suspensions . He later explained that he was giving them an opportunity to reconsider their actions and avoid discharges , which would have been irrevocable . The police union members responded that same day by voting 1134 to 2 in favor of a strike and scheduled it to start at evening roll call the next day . Their stated grounds omitted wages and working conditions . They said the strike 's rationale was to protest the Commissioner 's denial of their right to ally themselves with the AFL .
In anticipation of the strike , all of Boston 's newspapers called it " Bolshevistic , " pleaded with the police to reconsider and predicted dire consequences . One also warned the police that their eventual defeat was guaranteed , that they would lose because " behind Boston in this skirmish with Bolshevism stands Massachusetts , and behind Massachusetts stands America . "
= = Strike = =
On September 9 , Boston Police Department officers went on strike at 5 : 45 p.m. Of the force 's 1 @,@ 544 officers and men , 1 @,@ 117 ( 72 % ) failed to report for work . Coolidge assigned 100 members of the state 's Metropolitan Park Police Department to replace the striking officers , but 58 of them refused to participate and were suspended from their jobs . Despite assurances from Commissioner Curtis to Mayor Peters and Governor Coolidge , Boston had little police protection for the night of September 9 . Volunteer replacements were still being organized and due to report the next morning .
Over the night of September 9 – 10 , the city witnessed an outbreak of hooliganism and looting . Some was rowdy behavior that scared respectable citizens , such as youths throwing rocks at streetcars and overturning the carts of street vendors . More overtly criminal activity included the smashing of store windows and looting their displays or setting off false fire alarms . Such activity was restricted to certain parts of the city and , according to the New York Times , " throughout the greater part of the city the usual peace and quiet prevailed . " In the morning the Mayor asked the Governor to furnish a force of State Guards ; Coolidge promptly agreed and eventually provided almost 5 @,@ 000 men . Commissioner Curtis later praised the State Guards ' performance in his Annual Report : " The whole community is now aware of the effectiveness with which the Massachusetts State Guard worked when it came into the city . I cannot add anything to the universal chorus of commendation that has greeted their work . " The morning papers following the first night 's violence were full of loud complaints and derogatory terms for the police : " deserters " , " agents of Lenin . "
Violence peaked the next evening , the night of September 10 – 11 . Businesses were better prepared . Some had boarded up and others stayed open all night with armed guards visible to discourage thieves taking advantage of the strike . Gamblers played dice in open view , and women had their handbags snatched . But the Guard 's inexperience at handling crowds resulted in dangerous attempts to assert control . Gunfire in South Boston left two dead and others wounded . One person died in a riot at Scollay Square , a center of amusement halls and theaters . Whether the crowds were threatening property or making trouble because they were in sympathy with the strikers is unknown . The death total ultimately reached nine .
City life continued relatively normally , especially during daytime hours . Schools remained open . Later claims against the city for losses incurred during the two nights of disorder ran to $ 35 @,@ 000 , of which the city paid $ 34 @,@ 000 . Those figures represent a non @-@ partisan calculation of the costs of the strike to the Boston business community .
When Governor Coolidge called the strikers " deserters " and " traitors , " a mass meeting of the Boston Police Union responded :
When we were honorably discharged from the United States army , we were hailed as heroes and saviors of our country . We returned to our duties on the police force of Boston .
Now , though only a few months have passed , we are denounced as deserters , as traitors to our city and violators of our oath of office .
The first men to raise the cry were those who have always been opposed to giving to labor a living wage . It was taken up by the newspapers , who cared little for the real facts . You finally added your word of condemnation ....
Among us are men who have gone against spitting machine guns single @-@ handed , and captured them , volunteering for the job . Among us are men who have ridden with dispatches through shell fire so dense that four men fell and only the fifth got through .
Not one man of us ever disgraced the flag or his service . It is bitter to come home and be called deserters and traitors . We are the same men who were on the French front .
Some of us fought in the Spanish war of 1898 . Won 't you tell the people of Massachusetts in which war you served ?
On the evening of September 11 , the Central Labor Union met to consider calling a general strike in support of the striking police . Earlier it had expressed enthusiasm for a general strike , more likely as an expression of solidarity than a declaration of serious intent . It collected the votes of its constituent unions and on September 12 announced it was delaying a decision . Their statement explained their reasoning : " We are not to act in a manner that will give the prejudiced press and autocratic employers a chance to criticize us . "
On September 11 , Matthew Woll , an AFL vice @-@ president , said his organization discouraged strikes by government employees but defended their right to organize : " all wage earners have the right to associate with one another and collectively to improve their condition " . He blamed the strike on government managers who failed to recognize that right and put the Boston situation in the context of the broader union movement : " On the question of industrial democracy [ i.e. , unionization ] , we find still that group of employers , Bourbonic in character , who believe democracy means for them to ruin or rule industrially . They cannot conceive that works have any right in the management of industry . ... The time has past when any man can say that he is the ruler of the people in his employment . " AFL President Samuel Gompers , just returned from Europe , quickly assessed the situation and the strength of public sentiment . On September 12 , he urged the strikers to return to work , asking the city to agree to suspend judgment on whether to recognize the police union . In a telegram to Mayor Peters he cited the model of Washington , D.C. , which had , at the suggestion of President Wilson , suspended its regulation forbidding police officers to join a union affiliated with the AFL until a conference scheduled for October 6 . The police accepted Gompers ' recommendation immediately . Coolidge replied with a statement of support for Curtis ' hard line . Gompers telegraphed Coolidge again , this time blaming Curtis for the crisis . Coolidge dismissed the Commissioner 's behavior as irrelevant , because no provocation could justify the police walkout . His terse summation created his reputation on the national scene : " There is no right to strike against the public safety , anywhere , anytime . " Coolidge said he would continue to " defend the sovereignty of Massachusetts . "
By the weekend , the presence of the State Guards had become a curiosity . Larger than usual crowds strolled in the center of the city . Thousands attended a band concert on the Boston Common . " The shootings of the last few days for interference with guardsmen , " said the New York Times , " seem to have had a marked effect . "
Coolidge said he originally hoped to reinstate the officers , stating in a telegram to a labor convention , " I earnestly hope that circumstances may arise which will cause the police officers to be reinstated " . Over the objections of Mayor Peters , Commissioner Curtis announced on September 13 that he planned to recruit a new force . He fired roughly 1 @,@ 100 and hired 1 @,@ 574 replacement police officers from a pool of unemployed World War I veterans . Members of the United Garment Workers refused to sew uniforms for the new hires , who had to report for work in civilian clothing .
The new officers hired in the wake of the strike received higher salaries and more vacation days than the strikers had . They enjoyed a starting salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 along with a pension plan , and the department covered the cost of their uniforms and equipment . The population of Boston raised $ 472 @,@ 000 to help pay for the State Guards until new police officers could be recruited .
= = National reaction = =
In an editorial on the first morning of the strike , the New York Times supported the police commissioner and said that the strikers were " [ i ] nspired unconsciously by anti @-@ social ideals , or acting by ' suggestion ' of their London and Liverpool brethren " , which had recently seen similar strikes . It said :
A policeman has no more right to belong to a union than a soldier or a sailor . He must be ready to obey orders , the orders of his superiors , not those of any outside body . One of his duties is the maintenance of order in the case of strike violence . In such a case , if he is faithful to his union , he may have to be unfaithful to the public , which pays him to protect it . The situation is false and impossible .... It is the privilege of Boston policemen to resign if they are not satisfied with the conditions of their employment .... but it is intolerable that a city ... should be deserted by men who misunderstand their position and function as policemen , and who take their orders from outside .... [ I ] t is an imported , revolutionary idea that may spread to various cities . There should be plain and stern law against it . It is practically an analogue of military desertion ... [ I ] t ought to be punished suitably and repressed .
It later called the strike " this Boston essay in Bolshevism " and lamented the attempt of Mayor Peters and the Storrow Commission " to submit to compromise an issue that could not be compromised " . Newspaper accounts exaggerated the level of crime and violence that accompanied the strike , resulting in a national furor that shaped the political response . A Philadelphia paper viewed the Boston violence in the same light as other labor unrest and numerous race riots in 1919 : " Bolshevism in the United States is no longer a specter . Boston in chaos reveals its sinister substance . " President Woodrow Wilson , speaking from Montana , branded the walkout " a crime against civilization " that left the city " at the mercy of an army of thugs . " He said that " the obligation of a policeman is as sacred and direct as the obligation of a soldier . He is a public servant , not a private employee , and the whole honor of the community is in his hands . He has no right to prefer any private advantage to the public safety . " Elihu Root , a former Secretary of War and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize , told a Carnegie Hall audience on September 17 that the strike was an attack on constitutional government because it represented " the passing of power to enforce laws , the power to punish crime , the power to maintain order from the whole people of the United States " to the 3 % of the population represented by the AFL .
A report from Washington , D.C. included this headline : " Senators Think Effort to Sovietize the Government Is Started . " Senator Henry Cabot Lodge saw in the strike the dangers of the national labor movement : " If the American Federation of Labor succeeds in getting hold of the police in Boston it will go all over the country , and we shall be in measurable distance of Soviet government by labor unions . " The Ohio State Journal opposed any sympathetic treatment of the strikers : " When a policeman strikes , he should be debarred not only from resuming his office , but from citizenship as well . He has committed the unpardonable sin ; he has forfeited all his rights . "
= = Aftermath = =
In the police commissioner 's Annual Report for 1919 , Curtis presented his view of the strike . He argued that he could not have requested State Guards for the strike 's first night because the city remained quiet and he had reports that many policemen would not join the strike . By the end of the year the strikers had formed a new organization called the Association of Former Police of the City of Boston .
The strike gave momentum to Coolidge 's political career . In 1918 , he had narrowly been elected governor . In 1919 he won 62 % of the votes when running against an opponent who favored reinstating the strikers . He failed to carry Boston by just 5 @,@ 000 votes , an impressive showing for a Republican in a strongly Democratic city . The Boston Transcript reported :
Massachusetts is hailed today from Maine to California as the winner of a shining triumph for straight Americanism . The voting booths of the old Bay State were a battleground for the nation . The ancient faith was under fire . Law and order formed the line of cleavage . The Governor was the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the people of the commonwealth were the invincible army , the issue was America , and in the triumph of that issue all America triumphs .
Coolidge himself later said , " No doubt it was the police strike in Boston that brought me into national prominence . " In a post @-@ election congratulatory telegram President Wilson wrote : " I congratulate you upon your election as a victory for law and order . When that is the issue , all Americans must stand together . " His role in the strike , however limited , became a prominent feature of his resume as he sought higher office . According to one obituary , " the Boston police strike of 1919 ... brought him national prominence and the nomination for the Vice Presidency " in 1920 . When he succeeded to the presidency in 1923 upon the death of Warren Harding , the New York Times headlined its biography : " Coolidge Firmness Won Recognition ; His Suppression of the Boston Police Strike Made Him a National Figure " . Coolidge 's political rivals interpreted his role differently . In 1925 , U.S. Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin said that Coolidge 's failure to intervene in that year 's coal strike mirrored his 1919 actions when he " persistently refused to act upon the requests of the Mayor of Boston for assistance until riot and bloodshed had aroused the entire State . Then when order had been restored by the efforts of Mayor Peters and the Storrow committee Coolidge sent in the militia and claimed full credit for restoring ' law and order ' . "
The strike heightened public fear of labor unrest and the possible radicalism that lay behind it . It contributed to the public anxiety of the period known as the Red Scare of 1919 – 1920 . The failure of this and other strikes in the years following World War I contributed to declining union membership in subsequent years . The American Federation of Labor responded to political pressure experienced during the strike and revoked the charters it had granted to police unions . That ended police unionism in the U.S. for two decades , as police would not try to organize until World War II .
In 1930 , a history of the Boston Transcript , the most resolutely anti @-@ union of Boston 's newspapers in 1919 , perpetuated its original account of urban chaos during the strike 's first nights . It described large crowds , including a number of sailors from docked naval ships , that took to the streets , smashing windows , committing robbery and stoning bystanders and cars . It said that the northern , southern , and western areas of the city were all taken over by armed gangs .
In 1931 , the Massachusetts legislature voted to allow the officers who had struck to be rehired . In 1937 , Massachusetts Governor Charles F. Hurley , after meeting with some of the 1919 strikers , backed the decision of Police Commissioner Joseph Timilty not to reinstate them .
The Boston Police Patrolman 's Association was formed in 1965 following the enactment of a state statute allowing state and municipal workers to organize for the sake of collective bargaining .
No police officers in the U.S. went out on strike until July 1974 , when some Baltimore police , estimated at 15 % to 50 % of the force , refused to report for work for several days as a demonstration of support for other striking municipal unions .
= = In popular culture = =
The Dropkick Murphys album Rock Against Bush Volume 2 includes the song " We Got the Power " about the Boston police strike .
Dennis Lehane 's novel The Given Day is partly set during the Boston police strike .
Issue number 7 of Alan Moore 's comic book series Providence is set on the backdrop of the Boston police strike .
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= Charles Lloyd ( Australian general ) =
Major General Charles Edward Maurice Lloyd , CBE ( 2 February 1899 – 31 May 1956 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army . Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery and subsequently served in a range of staff and regimental positions in the inter @-@ war years . He later saw service in the Second World War , during which he held senior staff and administrative positions in the Middle East , the Netherlands East Indies , Papua and Australia . Later he worked as a newspaper executive , as chief of several United Nations agencies , and in private enterprise . Lloyd died in 1956 .
= = Early life = =
Charles Lloyd was born on 2 February 1899 at South Fremantle , Western Australia , the second and only surviving child of Thomas Edward Lloyd , a postmaster , and his wife Edith , née Lock . His parents separated in 1901 and two years later his father committed suicide . He was subsequently raised by his mother who worked as a telephone attendant at Coolgardie , and then in Fremantle from 1909 . Lloyd was educated at Beaconsfield , Fremantle Boys ' Central and Perth Modern schools .
= = Military career = =
Entering the Australian Army in 1915 , Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in December 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery , too late to see action during the First World War . Lloyd was nicknamed " Gaffer " by the other cadets due to his serious demeanor , and Gavin Long considered him among the " ablest " of the group of officers that joined the Staff Corps at that time . He was appointed as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force upon completing his training at Duntroon and embarked from Sydney in January 1919 , being sent to the United Kingdom and later posted to France . Returning to the Permanent Military Force as the AIF was demobilised , he later completed his training serving with the British Army in England and India in 1919 – 20 .
Lloyd married Sybil Drummond in Melbourne on 31 December 1921 . He subsequently held junior staff and regimental postings in Australia during the 1920s , at the same time studying law at the University of Sydney . His next postings included various adjutant and quartermaster roles at battery and brigade level in the 2nd and 3rd Military Districts . Later he attended Staff College , Camberley , in the United Kingdom during 1932 – 33 . Next he was appointed Brigade Major of the 4th Divisional Artillery in Melbourne in 1934 , and was promoted to major in 1937 . He was posted to the Directorate of Artillery at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 1938 to 1939 .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Lloyd was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for overseas service . He held administrative posts in the 6th Division and I Australian Corps in the Middle East during 1940 , but was transferred before the 6th Division went into combat for the first time . In December that year , ranked colonel , he was posted to the 9th Division as the senior operational officer , serving as chief of staff to Major General Sir Leslie Morshead . In March , the 9th Division moved into the Western Desert , where they were to finalise their training and prepare to join the British advance through Libya . The landing of German forces around Tripoli in April forced the British and Commonwealth armies into withdrawal from Benghazi as the Afrika Korps arrived to reinforce the Italians in North Africa . The Axis forces subsequently began to advance west towards the strategic port of Tobruk . During the Siege of Tobruk which followed , Lloyd saw action between April and October 1941 , until the Australian units were relieved by British forces . Following the evacuation of the 9th Division from Tobruk by sea , Lloyd then served as chief liaison officer at AIF Headquarters , Middle East .
Departing the Middle East in late January 1942 , Lloyd was promoted to brigadier and flew to Batavia in the Netherlands East Indies , where elements of the 2nd AIF had been diverted to whilst returning from the Middle East in order to meet the Japanese threat following their initial attacks against British Commonwealth and US forces in the Pacific in December 1941 . He subsequently filled a senior staff posting in General Sir Archibald Wavell 's ABDA Command during its brief existence , holding the position of Deputy Intendant @-@ General with the temporary rank of major general between January and February 1942 . Rising from major to major general in less than two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , he became the youngest general officer in the Australian Army at the age of 42 . In this role he acted as Wavell 's chief administrative officer ; however , he advocated to the Australian high command against British proposals for I Corps remain in Java , which he believed was unsound and likely result in its loss given the precarious tactical situation there , and that it should instead be returned to Australia to be concentrated for operations against the Japanese elsewhere . Ultimately while a few Australian units were landed in Java , where they were inevitably captured in the fighting that followed , the bulk of the 6th and 7th Divisions were returned to Australia following pressure from the Australian government .
Following the Netherlands East Indies campaign , Lloyd returned to Australia in April 1942 and reverted to the rank of brigadier . He was subsequently appointed Director of Staff Duties at Land Headquarters ( LHQ ) in July . In September he was briefly posted to I Corps in Papua as Brigadier General Staff under Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Rowell . In February 1943 , Lloyd was promoted again to major general and appointed Adjutant General at LHQ by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , remaining in this position until 1946 . Blamey had reportedly been " dissatisfied " with the performance of the previous Adjutant General , Major General Victor Stantke , and appointed Lloyd to rejuvenate the office . Leaving the full @-@ time army , he transferred to the inactive reserve in February 1946 . Described by Chester Wilmot as " one of the ablest staff officers and most colourful characters of the AIF " , and by Wavell as " a staff officer of great quality " , during his service Lloyd had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( 1941 ) and was mentioned in despatches three times ( 1941 – 42 ) .
= = Later life = =
In 1946 , Lloyd became a senior executive of the Argus & Australasian newspaper , before unsuccessfully seeking Liberal Party pre @-@ selection for a seat in Federal parliament the same year . In 1948 , he was appointed as a member of the government committee that reported on the administration of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . His later work included postings as chief of the United Nations Refugee Organisation in Australia and New Zealand ( 1948 – 51 ) , and Chief of Mission of the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency ( 1951 – 53 ) . On return to Australia he took up a position as vice @-@ chairman of Navcot ( Aust . ) Pty Ltd , a private enterprise which was involved in shipping refugees from Europe as part of the post @-@ war immigration program . Whilst visiting relatives in Western Australia , Lloyd died of jaundice in the Repatriation General Hospital , in Hollywood , Perth , on 31 May 1956 and was buried in Karrakatta Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , daughter and two sons .
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= Nonviolent Communication =
Nonviolent communication ( abbreviated NVC , also called compassionate communication or collaborative communication ) is a communication process developed by Marshall Rosenberg beginning in the 1960s . It focuses on three aspects of communication : self @-@ empathy ( defined as a deep and compassionate awareness of one 's own inner experience ) , empathy ( understanding and sharing an emotion expressed by another ) , and honest self @-@ expression ( defined as expressing oneself authentically in a way that is likely to inspire compassion in others ) .
Nonviolent communication is based on the idea that all human beings have the capacity for compassion and only resort to violence or behavior that harms others when they don 't recognize more effective strategies for meeting needs . Habits of thinking and speaking that lead to the use of violence ( psychological and physical ) are learned through culture . NVC theory supposes all human behavior stems from attempts to meet universal human needs and that these needs are never in conflict . Rather , conflict arises when strategies for meeting needs clash . NVC proposes that if people can identify their needs , the needs of others , and the feelings that surround these needs , harmony can be achieved .
While NVC is ostensibly taught as a process of communication designed to improve compassionate connection to others , it has also been interpreted as a spiritual practice , a set of values , a parenting technique , an educational method and a worldview .
= = Applications = =
NVC has been applied in organizational and business settings , in parenting , in education , in mediation , in psychotherapy , in healthcare , in addressing eating issues , in prisons , and as a basis for a children 's book , among other contexts .
Rosenberg says he has used Nonviolent Communication in peace programs in conflict zones including Rwanda , Burundi , Nigeria , Malaysia , Indonesia , Sri Lanka , Colombia , Serbia , Croatia , Ireland , and the Middle East including the Occupied Palestinian Territories .
= = History and development = =
According to a biography of Rosenberg on the Center for Nonviolent Communication ( CNVC ) website , Nonviolent Communication training evolved from his search for a way to rapidly disseminate peacemaking skills . CNVC says that NVC emerged from work he was doing with civil rights activists in the early 1960s , and that during this period he also mediated between rioting students and college administrators , and worked to peacefully desegregate public schools in long @-@ segregated regions .
An MA thesis by Marion Little ( 2008 ) says that the roots of the NVC model developed in the late 1960s , when Rosenberg was working on racial integration in schools and organizations in the Southern United States . The earliest version of the model ( observations , feelings , and action @-@ oriented wants ) was part of a training manual Rosenberg prepared in 1972 . The model had evolved to its present form ( observations , feelings , needs and requests ) by 1992 . The dialog between Rosenberg and NVC colleagues and trainers continued to influence the model , which by the late 2000s placed more importance on self @-@ empathy as a key to the model 's effectiveness . Another shift in emphasis , since 2000 , has been the reference to the model as a process . The focus is thus less on the " steps " themselves and more on the practitioner 's intentions in speaking ( " is the intent to get others to do what one wants , or to foster more meaningful relationships and mutual satisfaction ? " ) in listening ( " is the intent to prepare for what one has to say , or to extend heartfelt , respectful attentiveness to another ? " ) and the quality of connection experienced with others .
Also according to Little 's thesis , Rosenberg 's work with Carl Rogers on research to investigate the components of a helping relationship was central to the development of NVC . Rogers emphasized : 1 ) experiential learning , 2 ) " frankness about one ’ s emotional state , " 3 ) the satisfaction of hearing others " in a way that resonates for them , " 4 ) the enriching and encouraging experience of " creative , active , sensitive , accurate , empathic listening , " 5 ) the " deep value of congruence between one ’ s own inner experience , one ’ s conscious awareness , and one ’ s communication , " and , subsequently , 6 ) the enlivening experience of unconditionally receiving love or appreciation and extending the same .
Little says Rosenberg was Influenced by Erich Fromm , George Albee , and George Miller to adopt a community focus in his work , moving away from clinical psychological practice . The central ideas influencing this shift by Rosenberg were that : ( 1 ) individual mental health depends on the social structure of a community ( Fromm ) , ( 2 ) therapists alone are unable to meet the psychological needs of a community ( Albee ) , and ( 3 ) knowledge about human behavior will increase if psychology is freely given to the community ( Miller ) .
According to Little , Rosenberg ’ s early work with children with learning disabilities shows his interest in psycholinguistics and the power of language , as well as his emphasis on collaboration . In its initial development , the NVC model re @-@ structured the pupil @-@ teacher relationship to give students greater responsibility for , and decision @-@ making related to , their own learning . The model has evolved over the years to incorporate institutional power relationships ( i.e. , police @-@ citizen , boss @-@ employee ) and informal ones ( i.e. man @-@ woman , rich @-@ poor , adult @-@ youth , parent @-@ child ) . The ultimate aim is to develop societal relationships based on a restorative , " partnership " paradigm and mutual respect , rather than a retributive , fear @-@ based , " domination " paradigm .
Little also says Rosenberg identified Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration for the NVC model , and that Rosenberg ’ s goal was to develop a practical process for interaction rooted in the philosophy of Ahimsa , which Little translates as " the overflowing love that arises when all ill @-@ will , anger , and hate have subsided from the heart . "
In order to show the differences between communication styles , Rosenberg started to use two animals . The violent communication is represented by the carnivorous Jackal as a symbol of aggression and especially dominance . The herbivorous Giraffe on the other hand , represents his NVC strategy . The Giraffe was chosen as symbol for NVC as its long neck is supposed to show the clear @-@ sighted speaker , being aware of his fellow speakers ' reactions , and simply because the Giraffe is the land @-@ living mammal with the biggest heart , representing the compassionate side of NVC . In his courses he tends to use these animals in order to make the differences in communication clearer to the audience .
= = NVC theory = =
= = = Overview = = =
Nonviolent Communication holds that most conflicts between individuals or groups arise from miscommunication about their human needs , due to coercive or manipulative language that aims to induce fear , guilt , shame , etc . These " violent " modes of communication , when used during a conflict , divert the attention of the participants away from clarifying their needs , their feelings , their perceptions , and their requests , thus perpetuating the conflict .
Marshall Rosenberg , the founder of Nonviolent Communication , published numerous training materials to help in efforts to bring about radical social change . He was concerned with transforming the " gangs and domination structures " through the method he called " ask , ask , ask " . He suggested social change activists could focus on gaining access to those in power in order to " ask , ask , ask " for changes that will make life better for all including the powerful . He wrote about the need for the protective use of force , distinguishing it from the punitive use of force .
= = = Theories = = =
Two NVC trainers characterize the assumptions underlying NVC as follows :
All human beings share the same needs
Our world offers sufficient resources for meeting everyone 's basic needs
All actions are attempts to meet needs
Feelings point to needs being met or unmet
All human beings have the capacity for compassion
Human beings enjoy giving
Human beings meet needs through interdependent relationships
Human beings change
Choice is internal
The most direct path to peace is through self @-@ connection
= = = Intentions = = =
The trainers also say that practicing NVC involves having the following intentions :
Open @-@ Hearted Living
Self @-@ compassion
Expressing from the heart
Receiving with compassion
Prioritizing connection
Moving beyond " right " and " wrong " to using needs @-@ based assessments
Choice , Responsibility , Peace
Taking responsibility for our feelings
Taking responsibility for our actions
Living in peace with unmet needs
Increasing capacity for meeting needs
Increasing capacity for meeting the present moment
Sharing Power ( Partnership )
Caring equally for everyone ’ s needs
Using force minimally and to protect rather than to educate , punish , or get what we want without agreement
= = = Communication that blocks compassion = = =
Rosenberg says that certain ways of communicating tend to alienate people from the experience of compassion : ( ch.2 )
Moralistic judgments implying wrongness or badness on the part of people who don 't act in harmony with our values . Blame , insults , put @-@ downs , labels , criticisms , comparisons , and diagnoses are all said to be forms of judgment . ( Moralistic judgments are not to be confused with value judgments as to the qualities we value . ) The use of moralistic judgments is characterized as an impersonal way of expressing oneself that does not require one to reveal what is going on inside of oneself . This way of speaking is said to have the result that " Our attention is focused on classifying , analyzing , and determining levels of wrongness rather than on what we and others need and are not getting . "
Demands that implicitly or explicitly threaten listeners with blame or punishment if they fail to comply .
Denial of responsibility via language that obscures awareness of personal responsibility . It is said that we deny responsibility for our actions when we attribute their cause to : vague impersonal forces ( " I had to " ) ; our condition , diagnosis , personal or psychological history ; the actions of others ; the dictates of authority ; group pressure ; institutional policy , rules , and regulations ; gender roles , social roles , or age roles ; or uncontrollable impulses .
Making comparisons between people .
A premise of deserving , that certain actions merit reward while others merit punishment .
= = = Four components = = =
Rosenberg invites NVC practitioners to focus attention on four components :
Observation : the facts ( what we are seeing , hearing , or touching ) as distinct from our evaluation of meaning and significance . NVC discourages static generalizations . It is said that " When we combine observation with evaluation others are apt to hear criticism and resist what we are saying . " Instead , a focus on observations specific to time and context is recommended . ( ch.3 )
Feelings : emotions or sensations , free of thought and story . These are to be distinguished from thoughts ( e.g. , " I feel I didn 't get a fair deal " ) and from words colloquially used as feelings but which convey what we think we are ( e.g. , " inadequate " ) , how we think others are evaluating us ( e.g. , " unimportant " ) , or what we think others are doing to us ( e.g. , " misunderstood " , " ignored " ) . Feelings are said to reflect whether we are experiencing our needs as met or unmet . Identifying feelings is said to allow us to more easily connect with one another , and " Allowing ourselves to be vulnerable by expressing our feelings can help resolve conflicts . " ( ch.4 )
Needs : universal human needs , as distinct from particular strategies for meeting needs . It is posited that " Everything we do is in service of our needs . "
Request : request for a specific action , free of demand . Requests are distinguished from demands in that one is open to hearing a response of " no " without this triggering an attempt to force the matter . If one makes a request and receives a " no " it is recommended not that one give up , but that one empathize with what is preventing the other person from saying " yes , " before deciding how to continue the conversation . It is recommended that requests use clear , positive , concrete action language . ( ch.6 )
= = = Modes = = =
There are three primary modes of application of NVC :
Self @-@ empathy involves compassionately connecting with what is going on inside us . This may involve , without blame , noticing the thoughts and judgments we are having , noticing our feelings , and most critically , connecting to the needs that are affecting us . ( ch.4 )
Receiving empathically , in NVC , involves " connection with what 's alive in the other person and what would make life wonderful for them ... It 's not an understanding of the head where we just mentally understand what another person says ... Empathic connection is an understanding of the heart in which we see the beauty in the other person , the divine energy in the other person , the life that 's alive in them ... It doesn 't mean we have to feel the same feelings as the other person . That 's sympathy , when we feel sad that another person is upset . It doesn 't mean we have the same feelings ; it means we are with the other person ... If you 're mentally trying to understand the other person , you 're not present with them . " ( ch.5 ) Empathy involves " emptying the mind and listening with our whole being . " NVC suggests that however the other person expresses themselves , we focus on listening for the underlying observations , feelings , needs , and requests . It is suggested that it can be useful to reflect a paraphrase of what another person has said , highlighting the NVC components implicit in their message , such as the feelings and needs you guess they may be expressing . ( ch.7 )
Expressing honestly , in NVC , is likely to involve expressing an observation , feeling , need , and request . An observation may be omitted if the context of the conversation is clear . A feeling might be omitted if there is sufficient connection already , or the context is one where naming a feeling isn ’ t likely to contribute to connection . It is said that naming a need in addition to a feeling makes it less likely that people will think you are making them responsible for your feeling . Similarly , it is said that making a request in addition to naming a need makes it less likely that people will infer a vague demand that they address your need . The components are thought to work together synergistically . According to NVC trainer Bob Wentworth , " an observation sets the context , feelings support connection and getting out of our heads , needs support connection and identify what is important , and a request clarifies what sort of response you might enjoy . Using these components together minimizes the chances of people getting lost in potentially disconnecting speculation about what you want from them and why . "
= = Research = =
NVC lacks significant " longitudinal analytical research , " and few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of NVC training programs . To date , there has been little discussion of NVC in academic contexts . Most evidence for the effectiveness of NVC has been anecdotal or based on theoretical support .
Juncadella produced a systematic review of research related to the impact of NVC on the development of empathy . She found 13 studies which met her inclusion criteria ( three were published in peer reviewed journals ; ten were unpublished theses or researcher reports ) . Eleven of these suggested an increase in empathy subsequent to the application of NVC ( five of these with evidence of statistical significance ) and two did not . Juncadella notes several shortcomings of her review . None of the studies she included were randomized and only three used validated instruments . As a result she used a narrative synthesis review format , which , " lacks precision , " but allows the summarization of studies of different types , sizes , outcome measures and aims . She suggests the primary limitation of her review is that a number of relevant studies exist that could not be included due to lack of availability . She suggests these might have significantly altered her results . Finally , she includes the following caveat : " I must mention the inevitable subjectivity bias present throughout the whole review . In spite of the efforts made towards ‘ disciplined subjectivity ’ ... my decisions show a degree of uncertainty and inaccuracy born via the tension between the weak evidence of the studies and my own convictions about the NVC model . " Her overall assessment of the current research on NVC 's efficacy in promoting the development of empathy is that the results are promising , but " would need to be confirmed with further studies bearing stronger designs and more appropriate measures . " She notes that a major shortcoming of the existing research is the " mismatch between the constructs of the model and the validated empathy measures " and suggests that improved instruments need to be developed to adequately test NVC .
As of 2013 , eight Master 's theses and Doctoral dissertations are known to have tested the model on sample sizes of 108 or smaller and generally have found the model to be effective .
Allan Rohlfs , who first met Rosenberg in 1972 and was a founder of the Center for Nonviolent Communication , explains the paucity of academic literature as follows :
Virtually all conflict resolution programs have an academic setting as their foundation and therefore have empirical studies by graduate students assessing their efficacy . NVC is remarkable for its roots . Marshall Rosenberg , Ph.D. ( clinical psychology , U of Wisconsin ) comes from a full time private practice in clinical psychology and consultation , never an academic post . NVC , his creation , is entirely a grassroots organization and never had until recently any foundation nor grant monies , on the contrary funded 100 % from trainings which were offered in public workshops around the world . ... Empirical data is now coming slowly as independent researchers find their own funding to conduct and publish empirical studies with peer review .
Richard Bowers ’ thesis ( 2012 ) , updated to book form by Bowers and Moffett ( 2012 ) , asserts that NVC has been absent from academic programs due to a lack of research into the theoretical basis for the model and lack of research on the reliability of positive results . Bowers ’ thesis meets the first objection through an analysis of existing theories which provide solid support for each element of the NVC ( mediation ) model . Without this theoretical understanding , it would not be clear what aspects of the NVC model make it work or even if it can be effectively applied by anyone other than Marshall Rosenberg . This theoretical analysis can provide a foundation for further empirical research on the effectiveness and reliability of the model .
NVC has reportedly been an element of a bundle of interventions that produced dramatic changes in forensic psychiatric nursing settings in which a high level of violence is the norm . NVC was adopted , in combination with other interventions , in an effort to reduce violence . The interventions were said to reduce key violence indicators by 90 percent over a three @-@ year period in a medium security unit , and by around 50 percent in a single year in a maximum security unit .
A 2014 study examined the effects of combined NVC and mindfulness training on 885 male inmates of the Monroe Correctional Complex in Monroe , Washington . The training was found to reduce recidivism from 37 % to 21 % , and the training was estimated as having saved the state $ 5 million per year in reduced incarceration costs . The training was found to increase equanimity , decrease anger , and lead to abilities to take responsibility for one 's feelings , express empathy , and to make requests without imposing demands .
NVC has also been reported as effective in reducing domestic violence . Male participants who graduated from an NVC @-@ based batterer intervention program in California had zero percent recidivism within 5 years , according to the relevant District Attorneys ' offices . The news report contrasted this with a recidivism rate of 40 percent within 5 years as reported by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project for graduates of their batterer intervention program based on the Duluth Model , said to previously offer the lowest known domestic violence recidivism rate .
Some recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs .
Bowers and Moffett provide a thoughtful study of the important role of empathy and human needs in mediation through the development of a theoretical model to explain the effectiveness of NVC mediation . The authors present theories of human needs and the basis for a common core of needs . They discuss theories that explain the importance of understanding human needs in the context of conflict resolution . They clearly distinguish core human needs from interests ( strategies ) and how focusing on needs is a paradigm shift in the field of conflict resolution . Further , Bowers and Moffett present theories of empathy from the pioneering work of Carl Rogers , Heinz Kohut , and others . Empathy is distinguished from sympathy and active listening , pointing out how the word empathy is often confused in the literature by using it interchangeably with these other two terms . They also examine stage theories of the development of empathy as well as constructive @-@ developmental theories related to empathy .
= = Relationship to spirituality = =
As Theresa Latini notes , " Rosenberg understands NVC to be a fundamentally spiritual practice . " Marshall Rosenberg has , in fact , described the influence of his spiritual life on the development and practice of NVC :
" I think it is important that people see that spirituality is at the base of Nonviolent Communication , and that they learn the mechanics of the process with that in mind . It ’ s really a spiritual practice that I am trying to show as a way of life . Even though we don ’ t mention this , people get seduced by the practice . Even if they practice this as a mechanical technique , they start to experience things between themselves and other people they weren ’ t able to experience before . So eventually they come to the spirituality of the process . They begin to see that it ’ s more than a communication process and realize it ’ s really an attempt to manifest a certain spirituality . "
Rosenberg further states that he developed NVC as a way to " get conscious of " what he calls the " Beloved Divine Energy " .
Some Christians have found NVC to be complementary to their Christian faith . Many people have found Nonviolent Communication to be very complementary to Buddhism , both in theory and in manifesting Buddhist ideals in practice .
= = Relationship to other models = =
Marion Little examines theoretical frameworks related to NVC . The influential interest @-@ based model for conflict resolution , negotiation , and mediation developed by Fisher , Ury , and Patton at the Harvard Negotiation Project in the 1980s appears to have some conceptual overlap with NVC , although neither model references the other . Little suggests The Gordon Model for Effective Relationships ( 1970 ) as a likely precursor to both NVC and interest @-@ based negotiation , based on conceptual similarities , if not any direct evidence of a connection . Like Rosenberg , Gordon had worked with Carl Rogers , so the models ' similarities may reflect common influences .
Suzanne Jones sees a substantive difference between active listening as originated by Gordon and empathic listening as recommended by Rosenberg , insofar as active listening involves a specific step of reflecting what a speaker said to let them know you are listening , whereas empathic listening involves an ongoing process of listening with both heart and mind and being fully present to the other 's experience , with an aim of comprehending and empathizing with the needs of the other , the meaning of the experience for that person .
Gert Danielsen and Havva Kök both note an overlap between the premises of NVC and those of Human Needs Theory ( HNT ) , an academic model for understanding the sources of conflict and designing conflict resolution processes , with the idea that " Violence occurs when certain individuals or groups do not see any other way to meet their need , or when they need understanding , respect and consideration for their needs . "
Chapman Flack sees an overlap between what Rosenberg advocates and critical thinking , especially Bertrand Russell 's formulation uniting kindness and clear thinking .
Martha Lasley sees similarities with the Focused Conversation Method developed by the Institute of Cultural Affairs ( ICA ) , with NVC 's observations , feelings , needs , and requests components relating to FCM 's objective , reflective , interpretive , and decisional stages .
= = Responses = =
There is little published critique of NVC . Some researchers have noted that NVC lacks an evidence base beyond the copious anecdotal claims of effectiveness and similarly lacks discussion in the literature of the theoretical basis of the model .
Several researchers have attempted a thorough evaluation of criticisms and weaknesses of NVC and assessed significant challenges in its application . These span a range of potential problems , from the practical to the theoretical , and include concerns gathered from study participants and researchers .
The difficulty of using NVC as well as the dangers of misuse are common concerns . The NVC four step model is seen as problematic for a number of reasons :
the notion of unbiased observations has been criticized because multiple interpretations of events and behaviors are likely ;
people may not understand their own feelings and needs and therefore expressing them may be challenging , if not impossible ;
the model often causes people to feel awkward and requires more trust in others than is typically found in everyday interactions ;
the process of paraphrasing and attempting to guess the identity of people 's feelings can be off putting for some ;
the demands of successfully requesting positive actions using appropriate NVC language is daunting and requires a level of investment of time and reflection not typically available in most people 's interactions .
In addition , Bitschnau and Flack find a paradoxical potential for violence in the use of NVC , occasioned by its unskilled use . Bitschnau further suggests that the use of NVC is unlikely to allow everyone to express their feelings and have their needs met in real life as this would require inordinate time , patience and discipline . Those who are skilled in the use of NVC may become prejudiced against those who are not and prefer to converse only among themselves .
Oboth suggests that people might hide their feelings in the process of empathy , subverting the nonviolence of communication .
The massive investment of time and effort in learning to use NVC has been noted by a number of researchers .
Chapman Flack , in reviewing a training video by Rosenberg , finds the presentation of key ideas " spell @-@ binding " and the anecdotes " humbling and inspiring , " notes the " beauty of his work , " and his " adroitly doing fine attentive thinking " when interacting with his audience . Yet Flack wonders what to make of aspects of Rosenberg 's presentation , such as his apparent " dim view of the place for thinking " and his building on Walter Wink 's account of the origins of our way of thinking . To Flack , some elements of what Rosenberg says seem like pat answers at odds with the challenging and complex picture of human nature history , literature and art offer .
Flack notes a distinction between the " strong sense " of nonviolent communication as a virtue that is possible with care and attention , and the " weak sense , " a mimicry of this born of ego and haste . The strong sense offers a language to examine one 's thinking and actions , support understanding , bring one 's best to the community , and honor one 's emotions . In the weak sense , one may take the language as rules and use these to score debating points , label others for political gain , or insist that others express themselves in this way . Though concerned that some of what Rosenberg says could lead to the weak sense , Flack sees evidence confirming that Rosenberg understands the strong sense in practice . Rosenberg 's work with workshop attendees demonstrates " the real thing . " Yet Flack warns that " the temptation of the weak sense will not be absent . " As an antidote , Flack advises , " Be conservative in what you do , be liberal in what you accept from others , " ( also known as the robustness principle ) and guard against the " metamorphosis of nonviolent communication into subtle violence done in its name . "
Bowling Green State University Professor Ellen Gorsevski , assessing Rosenberg 's book , " Nonviolent Communication : A Language of Compassion " ( 1999 ) in the context of geopolitical rhetoric , states that " the relative strength of the individual is vastly overestimated while the key issue of structural violence is almost completely ignored . "
PuddleDancer Press reports that NVC has been endorsed by a variety of public figures .
Sven Hartenstein has created a series of cartoons spoofing NVC .
= = Organizations = =
The Center for Nonviolent Communication ( CNVC ) , founded by Marshall Rosenberg , has trademarked the terms NVC , Nonviolent Communication and Compassionate Communication , among other terms , for clarity and branding purposes .
CNVC certifies trainers who wish to teach NVC in a manner aligned with CNVC 's understanding of the NVC process . CNVC also offers trainings by certified trainers .
Some trainings in nonviolent communication are offered by trainers sponsored by organizations considered as allied with , but having no formal relationship with , the Center for Nonviolent Communication founded by Marshall Rosenberg . Some of these trainings are announced through CNVC . Numerous NVC organizations have sprung up around the world , many with regional focuses .
= = Articles about NVC = =
Atlee , T. " Thoughts on Nonviolent Communication and Social Change . " Co @-@ intelligence Institute .
Kabatznick , R. and M. Cullen ( 2004 ) " The Traveling Peacemaker : A Conversation with Marshall Rosenberg . " Inquiring Mind , Fall issue .
Moore , P. ( 2004 ) " NonViolent Communication as an Evolutionary Imperative @-@ The InnerView of Marshall Rosenberg " Alternatives , Issue 29 , Spring .
Simons , G. ( 2003 ) " Review of Nonviolent Communication " SIETAR Europa Newsletter , November .
Sauer , M. ( 2004 ) " Expert on conflict resolution believes nonviolence is in our nature " San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , October 14 , 2004 .
van Gelder , S. ( 1998 ) " The Language of Nonviolence " Yes Magazine , Summer 1998
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= Who 's Your Neighbor ? =
Who 's Your Neighbor ? is a 1917 silent American propaganda and drama film directed by S. Rankin Drew . The film 's plot focuses around reformers who pass a law to force prostitutes , including Hattie Fenshaw , out of the red light district . Fenshaw becomes Bryant Harding 's mistress and lives in an apartment next door to a reformer , and continues to ply her trade . After Fenshaw becomes familiar with Harding , his son , daughter and the daughter 's fiance , the climax of the film occurs as the cast assembles at Fenshaw 's apartment . Harding returns and a fight breaks out that results in the reformers ' arrival and concludes with the presumption that Fenshaw returns to a place of " legalized vice " . The drama was written by Willard Mack and was his first foray into screen dramas . The film proved controversial , but is noted as a great success . The film originally debuted on June 15 , 1917 , but it was rejected by the National Board of Review and was later approved after a revision , but the film continued to be labeled as an immoral production . The film is presumed to be lost .
= = Plot = =
A group of reformers , led by Mrs. Bowers , moves to have the red light district closed and force the girls out . District Attorney Osborne , believes that it will turn out poorly for the town and tries to persuade the reforms that it would be like scattering smallpox . He fails to persuade them and the law is passed . The film focuses on one of the prostitutes , Hattie Fenshaw , who is forced out from her place of vice . According to H. D. Fretz 's review , Fenshaw is determined to let those at a prominent hotel know that " women such as she had better be left alone " , but is quickly recognized and evicted . At the hotel , Fenshaw makes an acquaintance of Bryant Harding who decides to keep her as his mistress and pays Fenshaw 's rent in an apartment next door to one of the reformers , Mrs. Osborne . Fenshaw also charms Dudley Carleton , who breaks off his engagement to Betty Hamlin , the daughter of Harding , who uses her divorced mother 's maiden name . Hamlin and Fenshaw meet through an introduction with Mrs. Bowers , and Hamlin , unaware of Fenshaw 's character is telephoned by Fenshaw to come and sew for her to earn some money . Hal Harding , a college student with a desire to see the city , is introduced to Fenshaw during his father 's absence . The cast assembles at Fenshaw 's apartment when Hamlin arrives and interrupts Fenshaw 's party with her ex @-@ fiance and her brother , Hal . She is then introduced to her brother under and assumed name and is in the apartment when Bryant Harding returns . A fight breaks out and Harding nearly kills Carleton and knocks Fenshaw unconscious and shoots at his daughter , but misses . Alerted by the shot , the District Attorney , Mrs. Bowers and her reformer friends arrive and learn of Hattie Fenshaw 's vice . Shorey 's film review concludes with the presumption that Fenshaw returns to a place of " legalized vice " with Mrs. Bowers ' permission .
= = Cast = =
Christine Mayo as Hattie Fenshaw
Anders Randolf as Bryant M. Harding ( Richard Harding in Fretz 's review )
Evelyn Brent as Betty Hamlin
Frank Morgan as Dudley Carlton
William Sherwood as Hal Harding
Gladys Fairbanks as Mrs. Bowers
Franklyn Hanna as District Attorney Osborne
Mabel Wright as Betty 's mother
George Majeroni ( Undetermined role )
Dean Raymond ( Undetermined role )
= = Production = =
Willard Mack had registered and copyrighted " Who 's Your Neighbor ? " on March 9 , 1917 . Speculation by Motography states that Mack 's " contribution to the screen drama was probably prompted by the distressing Ruth Cruger mystery , which was so cleverly solved by Mrs. Grace Humiston , and follows very closely many of the phases of drama in real life that shocked the world . " The April 17 , 1917 issue of Motography profiled the film , the first production of Master Drama Features , noting that it would be shown on a " stage @-@ right " basis after a New York City premier at a Broadway theater . H. D. Fretz noted that the majority of the scenes were shot indoors and described the photography as excellent . The film was described as breaking a record by Motoplay because of the use of a triple exposure . The brief note stated that it is a delicate and precise work that required perfect synchronization that " ( the film ) had to be taken twenty times before the result was satisfactory to Director S. Rankin Drew . " Who 's Your Neighbor ? was the first film produced by Edward Small . According to the American Film Institute , the film was edited by Frank Lawrence .
= = Release = =
The film debuted at the Broadway Theater on June 15 , 1917 . After its debut , the film received many bids from buyers for the film . The original film had seven reels , but the June 30 edition of The Moving Picture World stated that it was six reels for unknown reasons . Shortly after the film 's completion , S. Rankin Drew sailed for France to join the American Ambulance Corps . He was killed in action when his plane was shot down over France during the First World War on May 19 , 1918 .
The film was originally set for a winter release , and was the subject of speculation by Lynn Kear , author of Evelyn Brent : The Life and Films of Hollywood 's Lady Crook , the film was delayed because of the fears that World War I would hurt viewer attendance . Lynn also speculated that it may have been due to the film having received condemnation from the National Board of Review . Master Drama Features general manager Herman Becker told the media the film was held for a winter release , due to expectation of a decrease in viewership due to the ongoing war , but the film was released because the vaudeville theaters wanted new acts . Becker also noted the advertising greatly boosted sales of the film . While the film did initially get condemnation from the board , it was later given a full approval following a revision according to the September 1 publication of Motion Picture News . The film was also quick to sell the state rights as noted in the July 28 edition of Motography . Becker sold states rights to " California , Washington , Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico , Colorado , Utah , Wyoming , Montana , Oregon , Idaho and northern New Jersey . " This purchase of rights was made by F. E. Backer of Mammoth Film Corporation after seeing the film .
According to Kear , advertising for the film focused on Evelyn Brent and cited an ad that appeared in the Los Angeles Times on December 5 , 1917 . Though Exhibitor 's Herald cited that the advertising for the film would include " four kinds of one @-@ sheet , three @-@ sheet , six @-@ sheet and 24 @-@ sheet lithographs , newspaper cuts , slides , window cards , banners , heralds , throw aways and many other novelties never before seen . " For advertisement purposes , the Otis Lithograph Company was contracted by the studio 's director of publicity , Arthur M. Brilant . The description of the varied materials were noted in greater detail in a column in Motion Picture News .
Though the film had its debut on June 15 , the American Film Institute states that the film was released in October . This conflicts with a claim from the Paris Theater in Denver , Colorado , found in the September 29 issue of Motography , where the film was said to be popular . The Paris Theater would also run into legal troubles over the films showing , a fact reported in the October 6 edition of Motography . Newspaper accounts for a late October run begin in the San Francisco Chronicle with the Portola Theater debuting the film , originally for one week , starting on October 28 , 1917 . The film was popular enough to run a second week at the Portola . The film would be part of the vaudeville show at the Wigwam for four days starting on November 14 . The film was suggested for mature audiences by the Portola Theater and the Wigwam Theater , both did not allow children under the age of 16 to enter .
= = Reception = =
George N. Shorey 's review of the initial seven reel Broadway release declared it another masterpiece of Mack 's writing and notes that the film would be the best example to go before the courts to argue for " free speech " in films . Shorey notes that the propaganda film " is bold , clear , tremendous in the force of its convincing showing that to drive the scarlet woman from a restricted district into the hotels and apartment houses of a city is a worse crime than it seeks to cure . " The only complaint was found that it " does not sufficiently misrepresent the ease and luxury of the underworld . It shows a scarlet woman who finds the " easiest way " truly easy . She does not die , nor even suffer . The intended moral of the picture , that once abandoned to that life a woman finds it to her taste to remain in it and cannot be " reformed , " necessarily does include the above corollary to that proposition . " The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that the film " deals with a question that has perplexed the sages from the beginning of time and it traverses life 's scroll , writing with thought and deed certain actions of everyday application . There are tense dramatic scenes , and above all there is the question that must be faced , " Who 's Your Neighbor ? " "
The film was declared to be the " most satisfactory picture Denver has had in many months " by the Paris Theater in the September 29 issue of Motography . Though the October 6 edition of Motography noted that W. A. Roderick and F. O. Brown , officers of Paris Theater Company were charged for showing the film which violated a city ordinance on " immoral pictures " . The men rejected that claim , citing that it was not immoral , but was rejected by the censorship board because it was a propaganda film and not on the film 's morality . The city had threatened to file charges and prosecute them for each exhibition of the film .
Ben H. Grimm 's review in The Moving Picture World was completely negative and described it as " one of the most insidious , moral @-@ destroying pictures ever produced . It will lower to the level of a bawdy house any theater in which it is shown . It reeks of a filthy sex element that struts across the screen in the sheep 's clothing of alleged propaganda advocating the segregation of vice . " Grimm highlights how the film 's prostitute sells herself and finds not ill , but instead gets worldly gains . Grimm also notes that the production is based on the premise that a prostitute is a prostitute by choice , does not want reform and infers that she can not be reformed . Grimm 's review stated that the great production was even more detrimental with a metaphor that stated a well @-@ dressed criminal was less likely to be suspected than a poorly dressed criminal .
The film is believed to be lost .
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= Sydney Rowell =
Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Fairbairn Rowell , KBE , CB ( 15 December 1894 – 12 April 1975 ) was an Australian soldier who served as Chief of the General Staff from 17 April 1950 to 15 December 1954 . As Vice Chief of the General Staff from 8 January 1946 to 16 April 1950 , he played a key role in the post @-@ Second World War reorganisation of the Army , and in the 1949 Australian coal strike . However , he is best known as the commander who was dismissed in the Kokoda Track campaign .
As a young officer , Rowell served at Gallipoli but was invalided back to Australia with typhoid fever in January 1916 . The end of the war found Rowell junior in rank to his contemporaries with more distinguished war records , but he managed to catch up in the post @-@ war period . Rowell spent five years with the British Army or at British staff colleges , establishing valuable contacts with his British counterparts . In 1939 he was appointed chief of staff of the 6th Division and later I Corps , serving in that capacity in the Battle of Greece and the Syria @-@ Lebanon campaign . In 1942 he commanded I Corps in the Kokoda Track campaign but was sacked . His subsequent rise to become Chief of the General Staff demonstrated that the circumstances of his dismissal in 1942 were indeed extraordinary .
= = Early life = =
Sydney Fairbairn Rowell was born on 15 December 1894 at Lockleys , South Australia , the fourth son of James Rowell , an English @-@ born soldier and orchardist who served as a senator from 1916 to 1922 , and his Australian @-@ born second wife Zella Jane née Williams . He acted as an ' unofficial batman ' to his father , who was colonel commanding the South Australian Brigade from 1907 to 1911 . Rowell was educated at Adelaide High School and was one of the first cadets to enter the Royal Military College , Duntroon when it opened in 1911 .
= = First World War = =
On 15 September 1914 Rowell and his classmates were commissioned as first lieutenants in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . At the time , Rowell 's class had not yet completed its military training . The AIF 's commander , Major General William Throsby Bridges , decided that regimental duty would rectify that deficiency , so he allotted the Duntroon cadets as regimental officers of the AIF , rather than as staff officers . The cost of this decision was high ; of the 134 commissioned in time to serve at the front , 42 were killed and 38 wounded . Cadets were posted to units being formed in their home states , so Rowell was posted to the 10th Infantry Battalion . When he discovered that the 3rd Light Horse Regiment was to be commanded by his cousin , Lieutenant Colonel F. M. Rowell , Sydney obtained permission to swap places with another member of his Duntroon class Lieutenant Eric Wilkes Talbot Smith . It was a fateful decision ; Smith was fatally wounded on Anzac Day .
Rowell contracted pneumonia and did not embark with the main body of the 3rd Light Horse Regiment . Instead , he left with its First Reinforcements on HMAT Thirty @-@ Six on 21 December 1914 . Rowell joined the regiment in Heliopolis in January . The next month he broke his left leg in a riding accident . For a time it looked like Rowell would again miss the embarkation of his regiment , but the intervention of his father ensured that he reached Anzac Cove with the 3rd Light Horse on 12 May 1915 . He was evacuated sick to Egypt and then Malta in July , and returned to his regiment at Quinn 's Post in August . Rowell was promoted to the temporary rank of captain on 9 September , briefly assuming command of a squadron before becoming the regimental adjutant three days later . In November Rowell was again evacuated to Egypt , this time with typhoid fever , the disease that had killed his cousin . On 20 January 1916 , Rowell was returned to Australia . Because of a policy that a regular officer , once invalided to Australia , could not again be posted overseas , Rowell 's period of active service was over . He was posted , along with several other Duntroon graduates who had been invalided home , to Duntroon , as an instructor at the Officers ' Training School . This was closed in June 1917 and Rowell was posted to the staff of the 4th Military District in Adelaide .
= = Between the wars = =
On 20 August 1919 at the Chalmers Church , North Terrace , Adelaide , Rowell married Blanche May Murison , the daughter of a Scottish engineer . Blanche had served in the Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps in Australia during the war . Due to his brief overseas service , the end of the war found Rowell still a lieutenant and thus junior in rank to his contemporaries but the snail @-@ like pace of promotions between the wars allowed him to gradually catch up . He was promoted to captain on 1 January 1920 , major on 1 January 1926 , and the brevet rank lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1935 , with substantive rank on 1 January 1936 . His inter @-@ war career consisted of a long series of staff postings , interspersed with training courses .
In 1924 , Rowell passed the staff college examination for one of the two Australian spots . Qualifying in first place gave him a choice between the Staff College , Camberley and its counterpart at Quetta , and Rowell chose the former , attending from 1925 to 1926 . At this time , the commandant was Major General Edmund Ironside ; the staff included Colonel J. F. C. Fuller and Lieutenant Colonels Alan Brooke and Bernard Montgomery . Fellow students included Captains Frank Messervy and Francis Tuker . From 1935 to 1937 , Rowell was on exchange to the British Army as a staff officer with the 44th ( Home Counties ) Infantry Division . He then attended the Imperial Defence College . The class was a distinguished one , including two Victoria Cross winners , Group Captain Frank McNamara from Australia and Lieutenant Colonel George Pearkes from Canada ; other students included Lieutenant Colonel William Slim and Wing Commander Keith Park . For his staff work , Rowell was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the King 's Birthday Honours in 1938 .
Rowell returned to Australia to become Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at Army Headquarters in Melbourne but in August 1938 he became staff officer to the Inspector General , Lieutenant General Ernest Squires , partly because Rowell was recognised as " one of the ablest of the early Duntroon graduates " but also because he had spent five of the previous thirteen years with the British Army or at British staff colleges . The government 's decision to appoint a British officer to produce an authoritative report into the Army was widely seen as demonstrating the government 's lack of confidence in its own officer corps . Squires ' first recommendation was to restructure the military districts into four " commands " . This required legislation amending the Defence Act and was not implemented until October 1939 . The second recommendation was the formation of a regular brigade . The death of Prime Minister Joseph Lyons in April 1939 and his subsequent replacement by Robert Menzies caused this to be shelved .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Libya = = =
When the 6th Division was formed in October 1939 , Sir Thomas Blamey appointed Rowell as its GSO1 ( chief of staff ) . Rowell joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and was given the AIF service number VX3 . Gavin Long described Rowell as " clear and incisive in thought , sensitive in feeling , frank and outspoken in approach to men and to problems . Five recent years of service either at English staff colleges or on exchange duty made it probable that wherever he went his opposite numbers in British formations would be men with whom he had previously worked and played . " Comparing him to the AA & QMG , Colonel George Alan Vasey , Long noted that both " were not only efficient soldiers but men of commanding temperament and talent " .
Rowell was promoted to colonel on 13 October 1939 , and when the government decided to form I Corps in April 1940 , Blamey was given the command and Rowell became brigadier , general staff ( BGS ) , with the rank of brigadier . Blamey and Rowell prepared I Corps for operations as best they could , completing the force 's structure and integrating new units as they arrived in the Middle East . Rowell strove to establish good relations with the British Army , while occasionally having to remind them that the AIF was answerable to its own commander in chief and its own government . Rowell 's efforts to create an administrative headquarters to free the I Corps staff for operational duties foundered on Blamey 's reluctance to delegate authority . The best that he could achieve was the creation of a Base and Line of Communications Units command under Brigadier Allan Boase but I Corps remained responsible for organisation and training .
I Corps ' part in the Western Desert Campaign was brief . Its headquarters opened near Benghazi on 15 February 1941 , replacing British XIII Corps . Rowell studied the prospects of an advance on Tripoli , but the headquarters was recalled to Egypt on 24 February to participate in the Battle of Greece . Nonetheless , for his part , Rowell was mentioned in despatches , and appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
= = = Greece = = =
In Greece , I Corps was employed as such for the first time . The campaign was another short one , but very trying on the participants . Just three days after headquarters opened on 5 April 1941 , the Germans broke through and the corps was thrown into a retreat that eventually led to its re @-@ embarkation . Blamey and his staff worked under tremendous pressure ; the operational situation was precarious ; and German air attacks were frequent . Rowell later wrote :
What history should record is that , in the face of a desperate situation , HQ I Corps never lost control of the battle ; made sound tactical decisions with limited resources and succeeded finally in bringing its troops to the beaches with limited resources and with no loss of cohesion .
Tempers flared when I Corps headquarters was ordered to evacuate to Egypt . Blamey 's aide recalled :
We had now now come to our last hours in Greece . They were marked by tension and anger . When Rowell was told that he was to leave almost immediately to fly to Egypt with Blamey , his first reaction was to declare that he had no intention of leaving . The hostility in this exchange opened up a rift between the two men . Rowell had always been completely frank in putting his views to Blamey , but not defiant . On this occasion it took a sharp and direct order to remind Rowell who was in command .
If Rowell felt that Blamey had shown a lack of moral courage in failing to stand up to the political and military superiors who had directed the ill @-@ fated campaign , Blamey felt that the campaign had revealed flaws in Rowell 's character . He wrote to the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee :
Rowell has very great ability ; is quick in decision and sound in judgement . There can be no question of his personal courage , but he lacks the reserves of nervous energy over a period of long strain . I found him difficult in the last days in Greece and , as commander , had to exercise considerable tact . Rather a reverse of what it should be .
I was a little disappointed in both him and Bridgeford over their attitude in one or two matters . They were over @-@ impressed with the danger of the dive bomber and talked a little too freely about its effect on the men . However , a short rest fixed them both up and they are doing a great job in Syria .
For his part in the campaign in Greece , Rowell was mentioned in despatches a second time .
= = = Syria = = =
I Corps was alerted to take part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign although , Blamey having been promoted to Deputy Commander in Chief Middle East Command , it lacked a commanding officer . Apparently , General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson believed that I Corps ' loss of transport and signal equipment precluded it from participating in the campaign from the outset . Instead , Wilson attempted to exercise command from the King David Hotel . This proved to be a serious error , as his staff were preoccupied with political and administrative issues , and were too remote from the battlefields to exercise the close command required — something that Rowell foresaw . Following a series of reverses , Rowell predicted on 16 June that " it won 't be long now . " I Corps headquarters was sent for on 18 June , and Lieutenant General John Lavarack assumed command that day .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
In August 1941 , Rowell returned to Australia to take up the post of Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) , with the rank of major general . He expected that his main task would be to support the AIF ; but it turned out the primary concern was the looming war with Japan , which broke out soon after . It was at this juncture that Rowell was approached by Major General George Vasey , who had a scheme to retire all officers over the age of fifty , and making Major General Horace Robertson Commander in Chief . Presumably Vasey expected Rowell , as a fellow Duntroon graduate , to be sympathetic . A heated argument ensued , ending with Rowell telling Vasey that " if he weren 't so bloody big , I 'd toss him out of the room " . Rowell immediately went to Sturdee , who had Lavarack with him , and told him what had transpired .
In Blamey 's subsequent shake @-@ up of higher command arrangements , Rowell was appointed to command I Corps . This was his first command since his three @-@ day stint in command of a light horse squadron at Gallipoli . He became the first Duntroon graduate to command a corps , and the first to be promoted to the rank of lieutenant general . The old I Corps headquarters was largely absorbed into Lavarack 's new First Army headquarters , so a new one was formed from Headquarters , Southern Command . Initially located in Melbourne , it soon moved to Esk , Queensland .
= = = Kokoda Track = = =
On 31 July 1942 , Blamey informed Rowell that I Corps headquarters would be sent to Port Moresby to control operations in New Guinea . Rowell arrived in Port Moresby on 13 August 1942 and assumed command of New Guinea Force from Major General Basil Morris . Rowell 's I Corps headquarters took over operational control from Morris 's , which became that of ANGAU . The only warning that Morris had of Rowell 's arrival was a message from the DCGS , Vasey , which simply said : " Syd is coming " . The situation was dire . Japanese were steadily advancing on Port Moresby along the Kokoda Trail and were also threatening Milne Bay and Wau . Rowell and his staff were all seasoned officers with combat experience in the Middle East and the Battle of Malaya and " brought to New Guinea skill and organisation that Morris and his staff had been unable to provide " . However , the main body of Rowell 's staff did not arrive until 17 August . Rowell turned down a suggestion from Blamey that he needed additional base staff to cope with his administrative problems , given that a corps headquarters was a tactical headquarters , intended to operate as part of an army , with the latter handling most of the administrative work . Rowell 's staff gradually discovered how enormous the task before them was ; they had few maps , the only transport aircraft were destroyed in a Japanese raid , and the supplies that had been forwarded by air to Kokoda could not be located .
Rowell refused to give General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane a " ball to ball " description of the action , sending only factual information at stated times . Failure to keep GHQ up to date could only lead to fears of the worst , which were confirmed when Major General George Kenney reported that in his opinion Port Moresby would soon fall unless something drastic was done , and Rowell was " defeatist " . On 17 September , the General MacArthur discussed the situation in New Guinea with Prime Minister John Curtin on the secraphone . He pointed out that while the Japanese faced all the same difficulties as the Australian troops fighting on the Kokoda Track , the Japanese were advancing and the Australians were retreating , and the whole situation seemed to MacArthur to be a lot like the Malaya . He recommended that General Blamey be sent up to New Guinea to take personal command of the situation .
" I 'm leaving for New Guinea in a few days , " Blamey told Burston , his Director General of Medical Services , on 18 September .
" Why ? " Burston asked . " Are you worried about New Guinea ? "
" No , " said Blamey , " But Canberra 's lost it ! "
They were talking in Blamey 's office in Victoria Barracks , Melbourne . Blamey had just had talks on the secraphone with both Curtin and MacArthur . Each of them had instructed him to go to Port Moresby . These were not recommendations or requests ; they were orders for every practical purpose . " I remember what happened to the Auk in the desert and I 'm off ! " Blamey told Burston .
Blamey took over command of New Guinea Force , but not I Corps . The difference was academic insofar as there was only one staff . Blamey wrote a letter to Rowell to explain the situation in advance of his arrival in Port Moresby on 23 September :
The powers that be have determined that I shall myself go to New Guinea for a while and operate from there ... I hope you will not be upset at this decision , and will not think that it implies any lack of confidence in yourself . I think it arises out of the fact that we have very inexperienced politicians who are inclined to panic on every possible occasion , and I think that the relationship between us personally is such that we can make the arrangement work without any difficulty .
Rowell took it very badly . He wrote to Major General Cyril Clowes at Milne Bay :
The plain fact is that he [ Blamey ] hasn 't enough moral courage to fight the Cabinet on an issue of confidence in me . Either I am fit to command the show or I am not . If the latter , then I should be pulled out . He comes here when the tide is on the turn and all is likely to be well . He cannot influence the local situation in any way , but he will get the kudos and it will be said , rather pityingly , that he came here to hold my hand and bolster me up . "
On 25 September , at MacArthur 's suggestion , Blamey flew to Milne Bay with Brigadier General Kenneth Walker and ordered Clowes to send a force by air to Wanigela . This would be an important step forward . Rowell , Kenney noted , was " not even consulted anymore " . Rowell was furious at Blamey bypassing him . Blamey reported back to Prime Minister Curtin that :
On arrival here I informed General Rowell of my instructions from the Prime Minister and the CinC SWPA [ MacArthur ] . He proved most difficult and recalcitrant considering himself very unjustly used . I permitted him to state his case with great frankness . It was mainly statement of grievances primarily against myself because he had received only one decoration for war services in Middle East where certain other officers had received two .
He charged me with having failed to safeguard his interests and he felt he was being made to eat dirt . All my persuasion could not make him see matters realistically .
On second evening I asked General Burston as an old friend of Rowell to endeavour to induce a proper frame of mind but Burston met with no success .
Instead of setting out full information here for me I have to search out details and feel a definite atmosphere of obstruction .
Urge that Herring be sent immediately by air as successor to Rowell . If Herring not approved , Mackay second choice but Herring much younger , this important in this climate .
Re disposal of Rowell if you decide to continue his services he could replace Herring in command of II Corps but events here make me doubtful of wisdom of allocating disgruntled officer to this appointment . In this connection Morshead now cables that he would be glad to accept Stevens as second in command AIF in Middle East . Rowell competent to fill Darwin which is a major general 's command . II Corps command could be operated by senior division commander temporarily and by General Eichelberger with a mixed American and Australian staff .
= = = Exile = = =
On further consideration , Blamey decided that he might need Stevens , " a first rate fighter " , and that it would be better to send Rowell to the Middle East , although such a move would involve Rowell being reduced in rank to major general so as to be junior to Morshead . Rowell paid a visit to MacArthur in Brisbane on his way south . MacArthur was unimpressed . He told the Prime Minister that " Rowell 's attitude to a superior officer in a theatre of active operations was quite unpardonable " and hoped for Rowell 's sake that there would be no enquiry into the matter . MacArthur was dissatisfied with the way that Rowell had prosecuted the campaign in Papua , and was opposed to Rowell returning to New Guinea . Curtin granted Rowell an interview on 3 October . He explained to Rowell that Blamey had gone to New Guinea on his orders and had expressed the fullest confidence in his commanders in New Guinea . Not until the end of January did the Prime Minister finally decide to send Rowell to the Middle East , as a major general .
By the time Rowell arrived in the Middle East , Morshead and most of the troops had departed . Rowell filed regular reports on the progress of the war in the Mediterranean , and processed Australian prisoners of war who had been liberated from the Italians . In December 1943 , Rowell took up the appointment as Director of Tactical Investigation at the War Office in London vice Lieutenant General Alfred Reade Godwin @-@ Austen at the instigation of Richard Casey . Despite the important sounding title and a " high powered staff " , the job was a sinecure . When Blamey and Curtin visited London in May 1944 , Rowell was on his " best behaviour " . For his services at the War Office , Rowell was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1946 New Year Honours .
= = Post war = =
Blamey 's appointment as Commander in Chief was terminated in November 1945 and the new Prime Minister Ben Chifley appointed Sturdee in his place . Rowell was recalled from Europe to assume the new post of Vice Chief of the General Staff . He dropped in on Chifley in Canberra at the Prime Minister 's invitation . " I hate bloody injustice ! " Chifley told him . Rowell presided over the Army 's transition to peacetime .
= = = Coal strike = = =
In June 1949 , while Rowell was acting Chief of the General Staff , the country was rocked by the 1949 Australian coal strike . The strike began when stocks of coal were already low , especially in New South Wales and rationing was introduced . The Chifley government turned to the Army to get the troops to mine coal . This became possible when the transport unions agreed to transport coal that was mined . Rowell delegated responsibility for planning and organising the effort to Lieutenant General Berryman , while Rowell flew " top cover " , liaising with the government ministers in Sydney . Rowell managed to get the government to pay a bonus to soldiers mining coal , and persuaded the government to allow soldiers to have beer in their canteens , although the local civilians had none . Soldiers began mining at Muswellbrook and Lithgow on 1 August and by 15 August , when the strike ended , some 4 @,@ 000 soldiers and airmen were employed . They continued work until production was fully restored .
= = = Chief of the General Staff = = =
Sturdee retired in April 1950 and Rowell became the first Duntroon graduate to become Chief of the General Staff , the post of Vice Chief disappearing for a generation . Within months , Australian troops would be committed to the Korean War . Rowell paid visits to Korea in 1952 and 1953 . He presided over the Korean War expansion of the Regular Army , the National Service Scheme , and the re @-@ establishment of the women 's services . Rowell , as Chief of the General Staff , was Army 's chief mourner at Blamey 's funeral in 1951 , also serving as one of the pallbearers along with Frank Berryman , William Bridgeford , Edmund Herring , Iven Mackay , Leslie Morshead , John Northcott , Stanley Savige , Vernon Sturdee , and Henry Wells . For his services as Chief of the General Staff , Rowell was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours in 1953 .
= = Later life = =
Rowell retired from the Army on 15 December 1954 , following a ceremony at Duntroon , where his career had begun over 43 years before . He turned to gardening , cricket , horse @-@ racing , reading , and crossword puzzles . He became a director of Smith , Elder & Co. in 1954 and of the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation in 1956 , serving as its chairman from 1957 to 1968 . From 1958 to 1968 he was chairman of the Australian Boy Scouts ' Association and a member of the Rhodes Scholarships Selection Committee for Victoria . He was offered but declined the post of Australian consul general in New York . In 1974 he published his memoirs , entitled Full Circle — the only Chief of the General Staff to have done so . Rowell died at his South Yarra home , twelve days before Lady Rowell , and was cremated . They were survived by their daughter . Sir Ivor Hele 's portrait of Rowell is held by the Australian War Memorial , as are his papers .
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= Tatuidris =
Tatuidris , or armadillo ant , is a rare genus of ants consisting of a single species , Tatuidris tatusia . The ants are small in size and inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America , from Mexico to Brazil . Workers are ferruginous @-@ colored to dark red and present a distinctive morphology , consisting of a shield @-@ like head with a broad vertex , ventrally @-@ turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure , and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside @-@ down . Little is known about the biology of the ants , but they are likely nocturnal and specialist predators .
Tatuidris was first described in 1968 and initially placed in the myrmicine tribe Agroecomyrmecini , together with two fossil genera . Since the original description , the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate .
= = Taxonomy = =
Tatuidris tatusia is the only species in Tatuidris , a monotypic genus and one of only two extant genera in the subfamily Agroecomyrmecinae . A new species , T. kapasi , was described by Lacau & Groc in 2012 , but has now been relegated to a junior synonym under T. tatusia based on the extent of the morphological variability encountered throughout this broad geographic range . Analysis of DNA barcodes indicated a pattern of genetic isolation by distance , suggesting the presence of a single species undergoing allopatric differentiation .
It was first described by Brown & Kempf in 1968 based on two workers collected in a Berlese sample of humus in El Salvador . Due to morphological similarities , they considered it a very primitive ant and placed it in what was then a myrmicine tribe , the Agroecomyrmecini , together with ants known from Early Eocene Baltic amber ( Agroecomyrmex ) and late Eocene Florissant shale ( Eulithomyrmex ) .
It bears superficial resemblance to some extant genera ( Strumigenys , Ishakidris , Pilotrochus , and Phalacromyrmex ) but these similarities are considered to be due to convergent evolution . Due to similarities in the habitus , Brown & Kempf ( 1968 ) linked Tatuidris to the Dacetini genus Glamyromyrmex ( currently a junior synonym of Strumigenys ) and Phalacromyrmex . However they concluded : " analysis of these similarities indicates [ ... ] that they are mostly convergent and not based on close phylogenetic relationship " . Further work explored the similarities of Tatuidris with Ishakidris ( Bolton 1984 ) and Pilotrochus ( Brown 1977 ) . While these taxa share some characteristics , including an expanded head vertex , deep antennal scrobes and a compact mesosoma , the similarities were again deemed convergent .
Since the original description , the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate . Bolton ( 2003 ) was the first to suggest the taxonomic instability of Tatuidris within Myrmicinae and raised the genus to the level of a new subfamily , the Agroecomyrmecinae , suggesting that Agroecomyrmecinae might be the sister taxon to Myrmicinae . The subfamily rank was re @-@ assessed by Baroni Urbani & de Andrade in 2007 , this was the first attempt to include Tatuidris as a terminal taxon in a morphological cladistic analysis . In their study , Baroni Urbani & de Andrade identified morphological synapomorphies shared between Tatuidris and the dacetines , justifying the inclusion of the genus within Myrmicinae . In addition , two autapomorphies ( a differently shaped petiolar tergum and sternum , and the eyes at or close to the apex of the antennal scrobe ) separated Tatuidris from all other extant ant genera included in their study .
Unlike phylogenetic studies based on morphological traits , molecular analyses of the internal phylogeny of the ants have given strong evidence that the armadillo ants are neither closely related to nor nested within the Myrmicinae . Brady et al . ( 2006 ) , Moreau et al . ( 2006 ) and Rabeling et al . ( 2008 ) reconstructed phylogenetic trees with the agroecomyrmecines inside the ' poneroid ' group of subfamilies , close to the Paraponerinae , and gave support for the exclusion of the genus from the Myrmicinae , a subfamily located inside the ' formicoid ' clade . Given the early appearance of the Agroecomyrmecinae in the geologic record , the similarities of armadillo ants to Myrmicinae were hypothesized to represent convergence and / or retention of plesiomorphic forms .
The name Tatuidris means " armadillo ant " , which is also the common name for this species ; tatu comes from the Tupi and Portuguese word for " armadillo " ; the specific epithet for the single described species , tatusia , is an old generic name for armadillo .
= = Distribution = =
Tatuidris is rare but broadly distributed . The ants inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America , from Mexico to French Guiana , central Brazil , and Amazonian Peru . No collections are known from the Caribbean , Galápagos , or other islands . Most specimens and collections are currently known to occur in localities west of the Andes , with more collections tending to occur towards Central America and Mexico . Most collections come from mountainside ( pre @-@ montane ) areas at mid elevations ( usually 800 – 1200 meters of altitude ) . Collections from lowland Amazonia are few . Published records are few , but with the advent of litter sifting and Winkler extraction as a popular method of ant collecting , Tatuidris are not as rare as they used to seem . Although not very abundant , with frequent litter sifting they can be reliably found in Costa Rican wet forests .
= = Description = =
Workers of Tatuidris present a distinctive morphology , consisting of a shield @-@ like head with a broad vertex ( upper surface of the head ) , ventrally @-@ turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure , deep antennal scrobes ( an impression that receives parts of the antenna ) with eyes at or close to their apex , compact and fused mesosoma , 7 @-@ segmented antenna , first gastral segment ventrally directed , and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside @-@ down on the roof of the expanded frontal lobe .
The body of a worker is short and compact , ferruginous @-@ colored to dark red , with thick and rigid integument ( external " skin " ) . The body is covered by hairs , which are variable in length and inclination . The head is pyriform ( pear @-@ shaped ) , broadest behind , with small eyes . Queens are similar to workers , but yellow @-@ colored and paler . Their wings are about 60 % longer than total body length . Males , also similar to workers ( except head ) , are darker and have wings about 50 % longer than the body . The eyes of the queens and males are larger than in workers .
= = = Size = = =
Specimens of Tatuidris are small , about 3 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) in total length , but specimens can vary greatly in size , with larger specimens being twice as large as the smaller ones . Size variability within trap catches ( possibly same colonies ) may be considerable . For example , workers from one collection catch in Nicaragua varied 30 % in size . It is still unclear whether intra @-@ colony size variation is due to the presence of morphological worker castes ( e.g. minor and major castes ) or continuous size variability . Principal component analysis ( PCA ) revealed that most variability among specimens is related to size , with shape explaining little of total variation .
= = = Pilosity variability = = =
Four pilosity patterns ( patterns of hair @-@ like setae ) are known to occur within Tatuidris collections . Pilosity pattern A consists of a mix of both long flexuous and short appressed setae . This is the most common pilosity pattern and the one that most resembles the type specimens from El Salvador and the gyne from Otongachi , Ecuador . Pilosity pattern B is characterized by very short , fully appressed , and regular spaced setae arrayed homogeneously and equidistantly on the head , mesosoma , petiole , postpetiole and gaster . Pilosity pattern C is characterized by dense lanose @-@ looking setae . Pilosity pattern D consists of short and uniform decumbent ( strongly inclined but not fully appressed ) setae scattered throughout the body .
= = = Eyes = = =
The relative position of eyes is highly variable within the species . For example , eye location ranges from being completely within the antennal scrobes to completely outside the scrobes . In some cases the eye itself is located outside the antennal scrobe , but the eye 's fossa is well marked and confluent with the antennal scrobe . In most specimens , the antennal carina ( ridge extending along the dorsal antennal region ) bifurcates from the antennal scrobes and lies straight above the eyes . However , in specimens from Nicaragua , a strongly impressed antennal carina is present . In these specimens about 40 % of the eye 's area lies within the antennal scrobes . In the gyne , only ~ 1 / 6 of the eye lies within the antennal scrobes . A depression sometimes forms in the integument in the sides of the propodeum , below the propodeal spiracle and above the metapleural gland . The depth of this depression varies among specimens and tends to be deepest in larger specimens .
= = Biology = =
The biology is poorly known ; the male and female reproductive castes were described for the first time in 2012 . The genus is known mainly from isolated workers found in Winkler or Berlese samples . Tatuidris workers have peculiar mandibular brushes and a powerful sting , which led Brown & Kempf to speculate that Tatuidris might be specialist predators of active or slippery arthropod prey . Until 2011 , no observations of live specimens were registered . Details of a first collection event of a small live colony ( 3 workers and 4 gynes ) by Thibaut Delsinne in a mid @-@ elevation forest in southeastern Ecuador suggest that Tatuidris may well be a highly specialized predator , as colonies kept in captivity did not accept any food item offered to them . Food items rejected by the ants included live and dead termites , millipedes , mites , various insect parts , sugar water , tuna , biscuits , live and dead fruit flies ( Drosophila ) , live springtails , live myriapods ( Chilopoda and Diplopoda ) , live and dead Diplura , small live spiders , small live pseudoscorpions , one small snail , uncooked hen egg ( i.e. piece of cotton wool soaked with fresh whisked hen egg ) , ant larvae ( Gnamptogenys sp . ) , and live ant workers ( Cyphomyrmex sp . , Brachymyrmex sp . ) . Potential food items ( arthropods ) for Tatuidris were taken from soil samples and Winkler samples collected at the site where Tatuidris was a priori determined to be present .
Further observations suggest that Tatuidris may be a sit @-@ and @-@ wait predator . Delsinne observed that " both workers and gynes moved very slowly and were very clumsy . They often remained motionless during several tens of seconds or even several minutes when disturbed ( either by my handling or by the contact with another arthropod ) . " These observations were mainly performed at night , suggesting that Tatuidris may be nocturnal , a hypothesis also supported by collection patterns . For example , in the Río Toachi forest of Ecuador Tatuidris specimens tend to fall in pitfall traps , instead of Winkler sacs . Because pitfall traps usually work 24 @-@ h , but Winkler sacs generally uses litter sifted during the day , then ants with nocturnal habits may be underrepresented in Winkler samples . The small eyes of Tatudris species provide further support for this hypothesis .
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= Go , Stewie , Go ! =
" Go , Stewie , Go ! " is the 13th episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 14 , 2010 . The episode features Stewie after he auditions , cross @-@ dressed under the pseudonym Karina Smirnoff , for a female role in the American version of Jolly Farm Revue , and eventually ends up falling in love with a female co @-@ star on the show . Meanwhile , Lois finds herself attracted to Meg 's surprisingly normal boyfriend , once Peter causes her to realize her advancing age .
The episode was written by Gary Janetti and directed by Greg Colton . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 72 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Stephen Bishop , Mo Collins , Colin Ford , Lucas Grabeel , Anne Hathaway , Nana Visitor and Mae Whitman , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Go , Stewie , Go ! " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Brian , walking in drunk , notices that Stewie has resumed watching Jolly Farm Revue , after previously swearing off the show in " Road to Europe " . Remembering a story he had seen in the local newspaper , Brian tells Stewie about upcoming auditions for an American version of the show . Jumping at the opportunity , the two show up to the auditions , but quickly learn that there is only one female role remaining . Determined to win a spot on the show , Stewie decides to cross @-@ dress as a woman , naming his new identity " Karina Smirnoff " . Beginning his audition , he starts by telling a completely fabricated story . Convincing the producers that he is telling a true tale , he wins the role . The next morning , on the first day of filming , Stewie as Karina introduces himself to the rest of the cast , and quickly falls in love with a female co @-@ star named Julie . Another co @-@ star , Randall , objects to the new role that Karina was cast to play , and takes Julie away from him to prevent their friendship . As they continue shooting , however , the two develop a friendly relationship , eventually deciding to hold a sleepover , where they become even closer . The next day , Julie professes her love for Karina by wishing that she was actually a boy , causing Stewie , as Karina , to come on to her . Julie insists that she is not a lesbian , so Stewie decides to unveil his true identity to the entire cast during a live taping of the show . Shocked that Karina was actually a boy , Julie 's mother refuses to let her speak to him , with Stewie left to regret his decision to come out as a cross @-@ dresser , and decides to go get ice cream with Brian , as he can no longer wear that dress .
Meanwhile , Peter begins to insult Lois about her advancing age , including her minor strands of gray hair . This makes her extremely self @-@ conscious , and soon Lois becomes aware of her lust for a younger man . After introducing her new boyfriend , Anthony , to the family , Meg goes on to make out with him on the family couch , with Lois watching over nearby . Jealous of her daughter 's new @-@ found love , she begins hitting on Anthony . Later that day , Lois sends Meg to pick up her grandfather , leaving her all alone with Anthony . The two then begin making out on the couch , but Meg returns to the house only a few moments later and discovers them . Angry at her mother for ruining her chance at having a normal boyfriend , Meg threatens Lois to lay off of him , pulling out one of her own teeth in frustration . Lois quickly agrees , but is still angry with Peter for continually insulting her . She confronts him about this , and he admits that he was actually embarrassed about his own advancing age , as well as his lack of fitness , and was only insulting Lois in order to distract her from the fact that she could be with a much better @-@ looking man . He apologizes for his behavior , and Lois forgives him .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by returning writer Gary Janetti , his first episode since the fourth season episode " Stewie B. Goode " . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Greg Colton , before the conclusion of the seventh production season . The episode was Colton 's second for the season , the first being the season premiere , " Road to the Multiverse " , which received high praise from critics . The episode saw the third re @-@ appearance , the first being an equally brief appearance in " Spies Reminiscent of Us " and the second in " Road to the Multiverse " , by former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spin @-@ off , entitled The Cleveland Show .
" Go , Stewie , Go ! " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , musician Stephen Bishop rerecorded his single " It Might Be You " , actress Mo Collins appeared as a little girl , voice actor Colin Ford appeared briefly as Randall , actress Anne Hathaway appeared as Mother Maggie , actor Lucas Grabeel appeared as Meg 's new boyfriend Anthony , voice actress Nana Visitor appeared briefly as the audition caller and voice actress Mae Whitman appeared as Julie . Recurring guest voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Gary Janetti , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
Although never specifically referenced or mentioned in the episode itself , Stewie 's alter @-@ ego is named after well @-@ known ballroom dancer Karina Smirnoff , who had previously danced professionally on the American television reality show Dancing with the Stars . Most of the storyline following Stewie is a homage of the 1982 film Tootsie . The episode 's title is also a reference to the song " Go , Tootsie , Go " played during the photo @-@ shoot montage in the film . A similar scene featuring the song was slightly modified , replacing " Tootsie " with " Stewie , " in the lyrics to the song . Another song from the film , " It Might Be You " by Stephen Bishop , is played during the closing credit sequence .
As Stewie and Brian watch a recorded episode of Jolly Farm Revue , Stewie notes the introduction of several new characters to the show . The television screen is then shown , as Karina reveals the characters to his co @-@ star , Julie . The new characters include parodies of the Sesame Street characters Big Bird , who describes himself as a " big bird , " and a self @-@ described " grouch " named " Moody Green Garbage Creature " , who resembles Oscar the Grouch , and butch and femme versions of Bert and Ernie , who try to protect Karina and Julie from Oscar .
After sending Meg out on an errand to pick up her grandfather , Lois continues to seduce Anthony , having been interested in him since Peter had begun insulting her about her advancing age . Quickly returning after forgetting the car keys , Meg discovers her mother making out with her new boyfriend on the couch . The bass jingle used extensively in the long @-@ running NBC sitcom Seinfeld is then heard , with the scene pausing , before transitioning to the Jolly Farm studio . In a surprise visit to the Griffin family home , Julie unexpectedly appears when Stewie opens the front door . Expecting Julie to recognize him , he forgets that he is not dressed as Karina , causing him to hurriedly change clothing , while pretending to have an argument with his fabricated persona . A similar scene is featured in the 1993 film Mrs. Doubtfire , starring actor Robin Williams . Stewie and Jolly Farm make a reference to Pan Am Flight 103 , a Boeing 747 – 100 destroyed by a terrorist bomb over Lockerbie , Scotland , killing all 259 occupants . Large portions of the plane fell onto Lockerbie , which killed 11 people , escalating the death toll to 270 . A song features on Jolly Farm that explicitly describes debris from the newly disintegrated plane falling into Lockerbie , sung in the fashion of that of a nursery rhyme .
= = Reception = =
In an improvement over the previous two episodes , the episode was viewed in 6 @.@ 72 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , as well as the series premiere of Sons of Tucson , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mixed , calling the storyline a " [ good source of ] material in the long @-@ running dysfunctional yet affectionate relationship between Brian and Stewie , " while criticizing its multiple cultural references . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the episode a " pleasant surprise , " enjoying Stewie 's storyline , while criticizing the subplot between Lois and Meg . Ramsey Isler of IGN was much more critical of the episode , however , saying that " while there [ were ] a couple of funny moments , there are more misses than hits , " giving the episode a 6 out of 10 . In a subsequent review of Family Guy 's eighth season , Isler listed " Go , Stewie , Go ! " as being " full of the lowest of the lowest @-@ common @-@ denominator " jokes " , with heavy reliance on toilet humor and the characteristic cutaway gags that have steadily gotten more random and less funny . " In contrast , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode , saying that it " [ offered ] an emotional glimpse into the characters . "
Naming the episode as its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for " strong sexual content , " the Parents Television Council called the episode a " nauseating new low , " criticizing multiple scenes , including Lois making out with a minor , as well as the confrontation between Brian and Karina at the bar . The PTC also criticized Seth MacFarlane for attempting to " elicit disgust " throughout the episode by " [ choosing ] incest and rape " in order to " provoke [ emotions ] . "
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= Gettysburg ( The Office ) =
" Gettysburg " is the eighth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It was written by Robert Padnick and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 17 , 2011 . " Gettysburg " guest stars Lindsey Broad as Cathy Simms .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) takes some of the office staff on a field trip to Gettysburg for inspiration . Meanwhile , the rest of the office , under orders from Robert California ( James Spader ) , are tasked with coming up with a new business idea for Dunder Mifflin . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) proposes several vending machine ideas that capture California 's imagination .
" Gettysburg " would be the last episode to feature Jenna Fischer before she went on maternity leave . The episode received mixed reviews , with commentators mainly criticizing the episode for recycling jokes . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Gettysburg " drew 5 @.@ 50 million viewers , and ranked first in its time slot and was the highest @-@ rated NBC show of the night .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to motivate and inspire everyone by taking them on a field trip to Gettysburg . At Gettysburg , Andy is unhappy with the lack of morale and belief in his leadership and attempts to make an analogy between running a paper company and fighting in the Civil War . Andy starts to lead a haphazard tour , and eventually most of the office members sit down to rest . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) follow Andy after he presses on , and eventually tell him to stop trying to impress the office . They reinforce the fact that his co @-@ workers like him the way he is .
During the tour , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) argues with Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) about what he claims is the northernmost battle of the Civil War : the Battle of Schrute Farms . Dwight maintains that its absence from the history books is an example of re @-@ writing history , whereas Oscar maintains that the battle is a fictitious creation . After tracking down a historian , Dwight and Oscar learn that the Battle of Schrute Farms did in fact take place . However , the " battle " was really a code term . During the Civil War , Schrute Farms was a safe haven for artists and poets ( and , as heavily implied , homosexuals ) . Oscar finds this fascinating , whereas Dwight leaves in disgust . Meanwhile , Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) is sidetracked by another tour group who assume that he is an Abraham Lincoln impersonator . He acquiesces and delivers an improvised but applauded performance .
Meanwhile , at the office , half of the office opts to stay behind . Robert California ( James Spader ) makes a spontaneous visit and asks them to come up with Dunder Mifflin / Sabre 's next big idea . However , the office fails to impress Robert with their ideas . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) details an idea he has about cookie placement in the vending machine , but Robert gets the impression that he is extremely clever and is speaking only in metaphors . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who has been annoyed the entire day with Kevin being creative and Robert rejecting his ideas , later tricks Kevin into explaining an idea he has involving the Big Mac , and Robert realizes that there was no subtext to Kevin 's ideas .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by story editor Robert Padnick , his second writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff the previous season . It was directed by frequent director of The Office , Jeffrey Blitz . The episode also marks the second appearance of Lindsey Broad , who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season . Due to Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy , " Gettysburg " would be the last episode of 2011 to feature Pam . The episode was not filmed on location in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt noted that the writers ' used Andy 's " overeager qualities " to have the office group skip the official tour , allowing for " some random California heritage site " to stand in for the real Gettysburg . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Andy preparing the office to go to Gettysburg , and Kevin discussing his new @-@ found approval by California .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on NBC on November 17 , 2011 , " Gettysburg " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 50 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode marked a three percent decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " Pam 's Replacement " . Despite this , the episode ranked first in its timeslot , beating the Fox drama series , Bones which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 percent share , CBS drama , Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) medical drama , Private Practice which received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 percent share , although all three shows received more total viewers than " Gettysburg " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Gettysburg " received mixed reviews from critics , ranging from negative to slightly positive . Hollywood writer Hannah Lawrence was heavily critical of the episode and wrote , " This episode seemed like a joke to me . I really didn 't like it . " What Culture ! reviewer Joseph Kratzer gave the episode three out of five stars and wrote , " While the episode was technically satisfactory , it didn 't carry much momentum . " McNutt referred to the " Battle of Schrute Farms " gag as a " payoff , " but was overall negative . He concluded that although " The Office is still capable of finding humor in [ ... ] situations [ but ] it doesn 't feel like the show is willing to explore that humor , instead content on making the same statements the show has been making for quite some time . " He ultimately gave it a " C – " .
Not all reviews were negative . IGN writer Cindy White awarded the episode 7 out of 10 , signifying a " good " episode . However , she heavily criticized the recycling of story lines , writing , " It may have been heartwarming in the premiere , but now it feels repetitive , and it 's still not funny . " M. Giant of Television without Pity gave the episode a " B – " . Chris Plante from New York wrote a generally positively review , saying " No episode has done the ensemble work better than “ Gettysburg , ” a kind of sitcom buffet , its many stories giving the audience a small taste of every personality . That isn 't to say every character has been fleshed out well . [ ... ] Andy and California seem off point . "
The episode 's opening , featuring Pam Halpert ( Fischer ) faking her water breaking , received mixed reviews . White called the sequence her " favorite part " and felt an empathetic connection to the character . Kratzer claimed that he enjoyed the scene . McNutt , however , wrote that the opening concludes that " Pam and Jim are basically total jerks " .
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= John Deere House and Shop =
The John Deere House and Shop is located in the unincorporated village of Grand Detour , Illinois , near the Lee County city of Dixon . The site is known as the location where the first steel plow was invented by John Deere in 1837 . The site includes Deere 's house , a replica of his original blacksmith shop , a gift shop , and an archaeological exhibit showing the excavation site of his original blacksmith shop . The Deere House and Shop is listed on the National Register of Historic Places ; it joined that list in 1966 , the year the Register was established . Prior to that , it was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 19 , 1964 .
= = History = =
In 1836 , native Vermonter John Deere set out from Rutland , Vermont to Grand Detour , Illinois , founded by his friend and fellow Vermont native Leonard Andrus . The town lacked a local blacksmith , Deere 's trade , and within two days Deere had a forge and new business established . In Vermont , Deere produced plows made from cast @-@ iron and when he first arrived in Illinois he produced the same plows . Soil conditions in Illinois differ from those in Vermont . In Vermont the soil is sandy and falls easily away from the plow blade but in Illinois the soil is thicker and wetter ; it stuck to the plow and had to be scraped off by the farmer as he plowed .
There are varying tales as to the inspiration for Deere to create the invention he is famed for , the steel plow . In one version he recalled the way the polished steel pitchfork tines moved through hay and soil and thought that the same effect could be obtained for a plow . By early 1838 , Deere completed his first steel plow and sold it to a local farmer , Lewis Crandall . Crandall spread word of his success with Deere 's plow quickly , and two neighbors soon placed orders with Deere . By 1841 he was manufacturing 75 plows per year , and 100 plows per year in 1876 .
= = John Deere Historic Site = =
The John Deere Historic Site in Grand Detour , Illinois is operated by the John Deere Company and has five components . Outside of the perimeter , which is surrounded by a white , wooden fence , are 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) of prairie restoration . Inside of the fenced area is the replica blacksmith shop , the John Deere House and the visitor 's center which is a gift shop . Also on the grounds is a building which houses the 1960s archaeological dig site . The blacksmith shop is a replica of the original Deere Shop , unearthed during the 1960s dig . The shop recreates Deere 's shop and includes a demonstration by a modern blacksmith using antique tools of the trade and an open furnace . The visitor 's center is inside an 1843 home built by a Deere neighbor , it houses a gift shop which has an original Deere family wall clock on display . The home was originally owned by William Dana . The house is furnished with period items as well as the gift shop 's merchandise . The entire site is operated by John Deere Company employees .
Part of the John Deere Historic Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places along with being designated a National Historic Landmark . The only contributing property on the National Register listing for the site is the John Deere House . The house is also the only " property type " listed on the National Historic Landmarks ' online database entry for the site . The house obtained National Historic Landmark status on July 19 , 1964 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places soon after its inception on October 15 , 1966 .
= = House = =
The John Deere House was built in 1836 when Deere arrived in Grand Detour and the building was added onto as his family grew . It is furnished with period furniture and household objects that would have been common around the time the Deere family occupied the home . The house has two levels with four rooms on the main level and two rooms upstairs . Each of the upstairs rooms is accessible via a private staircase and it is believed one of the rooms was used by Deere 's apprentices while the other was used as a children 's bedroom .
The front entry leads into the living room where polished wood is found throughout as well as 19th century furnishings . The front room is part of the original building which consisted of one room . The room acted as the Deere 's kitchen , living room , bedrooms , essentially everything . Deere eventually added onto the house , including a bedroom and an upstairs loft . The first floor bedroom would have been used for John and his wife , and possibly a couple of the children while the upstairs room would was used for the rest of the children . The Deeres left the home in 1847 when they moved to Moline , Illinois .
= = Shop = =
The original blacksmith shop on the site is long gone , however , in 1962 an archaeological team made of students from the University of Illinois approached the Deere Company about excavating the site where the shop once stood . The team unearthed the location of the original Deere Blacksmith Shop where the first successful steel plow was developed in 1837 . The dig site is preserved beneath a building , known as the pavilion . The site is surrounded by museum exhibits which include artifacts , news clippings , and photographs .
A blacksmith shop does occupy the current John Deere Historic Site grounds . Archaeologists used a magnetometer to locate the position of the forge in the original blacksmith shop , thus , the current shop shares an interior which is an exact replica of the original . The exterior of the building has the same dimensions as the original as well .
= = Historic significance = =
The John Deere House and Shop is historically significant for its influence in the areas of commerce , agriculture , industry , and invention . The site was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark on July 19 , 1964 . The Landmark designation was assigned by the U.S. Department of Interior because of the House and Shop 's association with John Deere , founder of the John Deere Company and inventor of the first steel plow . His invention was of significance to the entire United States and made large scale cultivation of areas in Illinois , Indiana and Ohio possible . When the U.S. National Register of Historic Places was established in 1966 the John Deere House and Shop was among the first properties to join that list . It was added to the National Register on October 15 , 1966 , the same day the National Register was established .
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= Polygon ( website ) =
Polygon is an American video game website that publishes news , culture , reviews , and videos . It launched as Vox Media 's third property on October 24 , 2012 . The site was built over the course of ten months , and its 16 @-@ person founding staff included the editors @-@ in @-@ chief of the gaming sites Joystiq , Kotaku and The Escapist . Vox produced a documentary series about the founding of the site . The site sought to distinguish itself from competitors by focusing on the stories of the people behind the games instead of the games themselves . They also produced long @-@ form magazine @-@ style feature articles , invested in video content , and chose to allow their review scores to be updated as the game changed . The site was built to HTML5 responsive standards with a pink color scheme , and their advertisements focused on direct sponsorship of specific kinds of content .
= = History = =
The gaming blog Polygon was launched on October 24 , 2012 , as Vox Media 's third property . The site grew from technology blog The Verge , which was launched a year earlier as an outgrowth of sports blog network SB Nation before the Vox Media was formed . Vox Media CEO Jim Bankoff approached Joystiq editor @-@ in @-@ chief Christopher Grant in early 2011 about starting a video game website . Bankoff considered video games to be a logical vertical market for Vox , whose sites attracted an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . He also saw games to be an expanding market in consideration of mobile and social network game categories . Forbes described Bankoff 's offer as a " serious commitment to online journalism " in an age of content farms and disappearing print publications , but Grant did not trust the offer and declined . Upon seeing the effort that Vox put into The Verge , their Chorus content management system , and the quality of their content and sponsorships , Grant changed his mind and returned to pitch Bankoff . Grant wanted the new site to compete with top gaming websites GameSpot and IGN , but still be able to run longform " magazine @-@ style journalism " that could be of historic interest . As part of the site 's attempt to " redefine games journalism " , Vox made a 13 @-@ part documentary series of the site 's creation ( " Press Reset " ) that tracked the site 's creation from start to launch .
Forbes described Polygon 's original 16 @-@ person staff as " star @-@ studded " for including the editors @-@ in @-@ chief from three competing video game blogs . Grant left Joystiq in January 2012 and brought the editors @-@ in @-@ chief of Kotaku and The Escapist , Brian Crecente and Russ Pits . Other staff included Joystiq managing editor Justin McElroy and staff from UGO , IGN , MTV , Videogamer.com , and 1UP.com. Ben Kuchera joined the site after The Penny Arcade Report closed in November 2013 . The team works remotely from places including Philadelphia , New York , West Virginia , San Francisco , Sydney , London , and Austin , though Vox Media is headquartered in Washington , D.C. The site was developed over the course of ten months , where the staff chose the site 's name and set standards for their reporting and review score scale . Polygon staff published on The Verge as " Vox Games " beginning in February 2012 and ending with their October launch . The site 's name was announced at a PAX East panel in April . It refers to a polygon — " the basic visual building block of video games " .
In March 2016 , editors from Polygon and SB Nation launched a new Vox Media venture , The Rift Herald , which covers League of Legends esports .
= = Content = =
Polygon publishes video game news , entertainment , reviews , and video . They sought to set their content apart from other games journalism outlets by focusing on the people making and playing the games rather than the games alone . At the site 's outset , Polygon planned to run multiple longform feature articles weekly , which they intended to be comparable in intent to the cover stories of magazines . They also decided to allow their game review scores to be updated as the games were updated , so as to more adequately reflect games that had changed with downloadable content and updates since their original release . The site received criticism for its comparatively low review score given to The Last of Us , which was later increased with the game 's remastered edition . In consideration of games that may differ in quality before and after release , Polygon later began to mark pre @-@ release reviews as " provisional " to defer final scoring until after their public release .
After raising money in a second round of funding in late 2013 , Vox announced that they would be investing further in the site 's video product , such that it " feels as much like TV programming as magazine publishing " . The site announced in June 2014 that features editor Russ Pitts would be leaving Polygon along with their video director and video designer as the site planned to run fewer feature articles in the future . Polygon 's Minimap podcast was named among iTunes 's best of 2015 .
= = Design = =
The site uses a pink color palette and emulates the magazine @-@ style layout of The Verge . The site was programmed to use HTML 5 standards with a responsive design that adapts to the screen dimensions of laptops , tablets , and cell phones . This is partially to remove need for a separate mobile version . Their longform journalism was optimized for reading on tablets .
= = Business = =
The site uses a " direct content sponsorship " model of online advertising used by SB Nation and The Verge . For example , a video series sponsorship pairs brands with specific editorial content . Forbes wrote that Vox 's avoidance of content farm and news aggregator tactics , and interest shown in building communities is desirable to " magazine @-@ quality advertisers " . The site pitched its longform journalism to advertisers as an indicator of high @-@ quality content . The site 's founding sponsors included Geico , Sony , and Unilever .
As of June 2014 , Polygon ranks fourth among games sites by Comscore web traffic data : behind IGN , GameSpot , and Kotaku . The same month , Grant reported that the previous month had been their most highly popular .
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= Hogwarts Express ( Universal Orlando Resort ) =
The Hogwarts Express is an 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 5 ft 10 7 ⁄ 8 in ) broad gauge funicular railway , people mover , and attraction within the Universal Orlando Resort in Orlando , Florida , United States . The route runs 676 metres ( 2 @,@ 218 ft ) between Hogsmeade station in the Islands of Adventure theme park and King 's Cross station in the London area of the Universal Studios Florida theme park . It provides a connection between the Diagon Alley and Hogsmeade areas which together form The Wizarding World of Harry Potter themed area , based on the Harry Potter film series .
The attraction , which was manufactured by the Doppelmayr Garaventa Group , is operated with two replicas of the Hogwarts Express . The two directions of travel provide two different experiences . Because the trains transport guests between stations in two separate theme parks , riders must have an admission pass valid for both theme parks , with ticket inspectors checking prior to boarding .
The Hogwarts Express soft @-@ opened to the public on 1 July 2014 before officially opening seven days later along with the rest of the Diagon Alley expansion on 8 July 2014 . Within one month of its opening , one million riders had travelled on the trains .
= = History = =
The idea of creating a Hogwarts Express @-@ related attraction came from Mark Woodbury , the president of Universal Creative . After the opening of the Hogsmeade attraction at the Islands of Adventure theme park in 2010 , Universal began considering how to keep attendance balanced between the adjacent parks . At first , the creative team considered putting Diagon Alley within Islands of Adventure . Eventually they decided that the London and Hogsmeade environments should not be visible between one another . As a result , Woodbury proposed building Diagon Alley in Universal Studios Florida and then connecting the two Harry Potter @-@ themed lands with the Hogwarts Express train .
Rumours that Universal Orlando was planning to expand The Wizarding World of Harry Potter began in early 2011 after construction surveying was spotted in the Lost Continent section of Islands of Adventure and the resort began asking visitors about a possible expansion . On 2 December 2011 , the resort announced the Jaws attraction would close on 2 January 2012 to make way for a future attraction . In the same month , speculation arose that an expansion would include the Hogwarts Express to connect Hogsmeade in Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley in Universal Studios Florida . In June 2012 , theme park enthusiasts discovered that applications for permits had been submitted to the South Florida Water Management District and the City of Orlando suggesting that the resort was planning to build a track connecting the two theme parks , as well as one station building in each park . Almost a year later , WESH , a local news channel , reported that an elevated track system had been installed at Universal Orlando and that the track ran between Hogsmeade in Islands of Adventure and a construction area in Universal Studios Florida ; suggesting the rumours were true .
On 8 May 2013 , Universal Orlando announced the expansion of Wizarding World of Harry Potter , Diagon Alley , along with the Hogwarts Express attraction , to be located on the former site of the Jaws attraction . By the end of August 2013 , all six passenger cars and both tenders had been spotted in the backstage area , waiting to be assembled on the track . The first of the two trains was installed on the track on 24 October 2013 . By the beginning of December 2013 , the second train had been placed on the track . In January , the resort previewed the interior of the Hogwarts Express through a live cast . On 2 December 2013 , Orlando Attractions Magazine , an amusement park website , spotted one of the trains being tested for the first time . In mid @-@ March 2014 , Universal Orlando Resort released further information about the ride , including concept animations . On 24 June 2014 , the resort announced that the Diagon Alley expansion , including the Hogwarts Express , would officially open to the public on 8 July 2014 . A week later , Universal Orlando soft @-@ opened the Hogwarts Express , without any announcement . Within a month of the Hogwarts Express ' opening , one million riders had ridden the attraction . It had taken approximately two and a half years to develop .
= = Ride experience = =
Theme park guests may use the Hogwarts Express to travel between Hogsmeade and King 's Cross in London , close to Diagon Alley . They can travel in either direction as long as the guest has purchased a Park @-@ to @-@ Park ticket , which gives guests access to both of Universal Orlando 's theme parks within the same day . Two different experiences are provided depending on the destination of the train , both of which are approximately four minutes long .
= = = Hogsmeade to King 's Cross = = =
At the entrance of the queue , ticket inspectors check passengers ' tickets for Universal Studios . The queue then leads into a forested area which later leads into the Hogsmeade station building . Upon climbing a flight of steps , travellers reach the Hogsmeade station platform . Once the arriving passengers on the Hogwarts Express have left the platform , passengers waiting may then board the train and enter one of the twenty @-@ one passenger compartments within the train .
As the train departs towards King 's Cross , Rubeus Hagrid waves riders goodbye outside of the window . Shadows of Harry Potter , Ron Weasley , and Hermione Granger can also been seen walking down the train corridor , looking for an empty compartment . Following this , Buckbeak flies outside the window , while Hogwarts can be seen in the background . Shortly after , the train enters a forest where centaurs are running . Upon exiting the forest , Hogwarts can be seen once again in the background . Fred and George Weasley appear , flying broomsticks and playing with fireworks . The Hogwarts Express then enters a tunnel , after which riders find themselves in the middle of a storm and pass Malfoy Manor . The journey then enters a second tunnel ; Harry , Ron , and Hermione appear again in the train corridor . As a spider crawls up the compartment door , Ron eats it and the trio continue to walk on down the corridor . After the tunnel the journey continues into London passing by an industrial factory and then a residential area . The Knight Bus then appears ; squeezing between buildings and shrinking to pass under a bridge . As the bus drives away , the train enters King 's Cross station , where Alastor Moody greets passengers .
Passengers then disembark onto Platform 9 ¾ of King 's Cross and proceed down some stairs into a 2010 @-@ era King 's Cross Station , before arriving at the London waterfront area , adjacent to Diagon Alley .
= = = King 's Cross to Hogsmeade = = =
The King 's Cross station part of the attraction is built on a site that previously held the Jaws attraction . The entrance to the station , which is a quarter @-@ scale replica of the real London King 's Cross railway station , is located in the London area , close to Diagon Alley . Passengers enter the station building and have their admission ticket checked . They then enter a queue which takes them farther into the station building , under a split @-@ flap department board , and past London @-@ related advertisements , several stacks of suitcases and a shop selling food . After ascending a flight of stairs , passengers find themselves between signs for King 's Cross Platform 9 and Platform 10 . They can see those ahead of them walking through the " wall " forming the entrance to Platform 9 ¾ . This effect uses the Pepper 's ghost illusion . After continuing around several corners , guests arrive on Platform 9 ¾ itself to wait for the next train to arrive . After the Hogwarts Express has reversed into Platform 9 ¾ and the arriving passengers have disembarked , the next passengers enter one of the twenty @-@ one compartments in the three passenger carriages .
As the train departs King 's Cross , Hedwig the owl flies alongside while passing through the outskirts of London . Hedwig flies away and Dementors arrive from over the nearby buildings . At the same time Harry , Ron , and Hermione pass along the corridor side of the carriage looking for food . The journey enters a tunnel ; upon its exit , it passes by Malfoy Manor during a stormy night . Next , the train passes through a second tunnel and the lights in the compartments go out as a Dementor enters the train and passes along the corridor ; Harry Potter uses his magic to defeat the Dementor . After exiting the tunnel , riders are greeted by Hagrid flying on a motorbike with Hogwarts in the background . As the train enters a forest , the flying Ford Anglia appears and starts driving through the terrain . The car crashes soon after and the train leaves the forest , passing by Hogwarts once again before arriving at Hogsmeade Station with Hagrid greeting passengers .
Passengers then disembark the train , walk down a ramp past the front of the Hogwarts Express and follow a path leading to Hogsmeade .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The track of the Hogwarts Express is a single @-@ track funicular elevated railway running over the backlot between the two theme parks , with a two @-@ track passing loop at the midpoint . It is 676 metres ( 2 @,@ 218 ft ) long and has a track gauge of 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 5 ft 10 7 ⁄ 8 in ) . On the track , there is a haul rope and a counter rope , each with a diameter of 46 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) . The cable winding motor is located at King 's Cross station and has a rated load of 215 kilowatts ( 300 hp ) and a peak power rating of 636 kilowatts ( 900 hp ) .
= = = Trains = = =
The Hogwarts Express uses two trains that can transport 168 passengers each , giving a total of 336 passengers per cycle . Each train is an articulated cable car formed of five sections : a replica of steam @-@ locomotive and its tender plus a set of three passenger vehicles . Originally each train was planned to have only two passenger carriages — this was increased following a survey that suggested potential passengers saw the connecting Hogwarts Express as an attraction instead of only as a means of transportation between the parks . The locomotive on the 70 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 230 ft ) trains weigh 13 tonnes ( 29 @,@ 000 lb ) , the tenders weigh 15 tonnes ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) , and each passenger carriage weighs 27 tonnes ( 60 @,@ 000 lb ) . Since the attraction is set up with a funicular track system , both trains depart and arrive at the end stations at the same time and travel at the same speed of 3 @.@ 4 metres per second ( 12 km / h ; 7 @.@ 6 mph ) .
On both trains , the locomotive faces towards Hogsmeade station ; it is not possible for the trains to face Kings Cross . The Hogwarts Express enters King 's Cross in reverse but forwards at Hogsmeade ; the train departs Kings Cross forwards and in reverse at Hogsmeade . As a result , the trains are only designed to be seen from one side as the locomotives ' false driving wheels and specific detailing only exist on one side .
The trains were built in Goldau , Switzerland . CWA Constructions designed both the exterior and interior of the trains to make them look as faithful as possible to the Hogwarts Express seen in the Harry Potter film franchise . They are based on the steam locomotive GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall ( as 5972 Hogwarts Castle ) and were built from aluminum and glass @-@ reinforced plastics . Afterwards , an artificial weathering process was applied to give the appearance of a historic train .
Frey AG was responsible for wiring the trains ; specifically for the video and sounds components . The company also installed other technical equipment that allow the trains to be controlled by a computer system .
= = = = Media = = = =
Each compartment has a curved screen where the window would be . There are two different experiences , depending on the destination of the train . The special effects in both video components were designed by Double Negative .
The London Symphony Orchestra recorded the music played throughout the journey at Abbey Road Studios on 25 March 2014 . The music for the northbound journey is called " Connector Train – Hogsmeade to London " .
= = Reception = =
The ride received mostly positive reviews upon its July 2014 opening . Lance Hart from Screamscape was impressed with the fact that the King 's Cross entrance was hidden from the rest of the Diagon Alley area . He also credited Universal for making the train look as realistic as possible : " Clearly they went to great lengths to create these cars to be replicas of what you see in the films , both on the outside as well as on the inside as you move down the hallway towards your cabin to take your seat " . In terms of the overall experience Hart said , " Universal has managed to turn what would simply be a method of transporting guests between their two parks into yet another must @-@ see attraction ... tying together the overall story and theme of visiting Hogwarts at Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley inside Universal Studios Florida " .
Robert Niles from Theme Park Insider mentioned how the attraction " broke walls " ; including the separation of the Wizarding and Muggle worlds , how Universal made the audience the performers ( in the part of the King 's Cross queue where guests walk through the wall leading to Platform 9 ¾ ) , and how , " It 's become convention for theme park attractions to drop you off at or very near the same point where you boarded the ride , so it 's a bit disorienting when you exit the Hogwarts Express and find that you 're not only in a different train station — you 're in a different theme park . "
Arthur Levine from About.com was disappointed that Universal had not tried to re @-@ create the magical aspect of guests entering Platform 9 ¾ , " When it 's time to make their own way to the platform , however , it appears to would @-@ be wizards that they are merely entering a darkened corridor . Aside from an audible " whoosh " sound , there is , regrettably , no attempt to reproduce the magical , molecule @-@ shifting phenomenon " . He also found it awkward that the Hogwarts Express reverses into Platform 9 ¾ at King 's Cross — although in Hogsmeade the train arrives facing forwards . Overall Levine said that the attraction does more than just making it a ride , " By making it an integral and compelling part of The Wizarding World , most guests would want to ride it to get the complete Potter experience . By making it an inter @-@ park ride and requiring a two @-@ park ticket to board it , Universal will surely help up @-@ sell a lot more more customers to higher @-@ priced passes , encourage multi @-@ day visits , increase demand for its on @-@ property hotels , and drive business at its CityWalk dining / shopping / entertainment district " .
In 2014 , attendance at Universal Studios Florida increased to 8 @.@ 3 million visitors , compared to 7 @.@ 1 million in the previous year . However , attendance at Islands of Adventure did not change . According to vice president of AECOM 's economics , Brian Sands , the attendance increase at the Studios was likely due to the Diagon Alley expansion . Sands also mentioned attendance at Islands of Adventure remained the same since " visitors go to the new thing " , though the Hogwarts Express likely prevented attendance from decreasing at the park .
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= 509th Composite Group =
The 509th Composite Group ( 509 CG ) was a unit of the United States Army Air Forces created during World War II and tasked with the operational deployment of nuclear weapons . It conducted the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan , in August 1945 .
The group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . Because it contained flying squadrons equipped with Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers and C @-@ 47 Skytrain and C @-@ 54 Skymaster transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " formation . It operated Silverplate B @-@ 29s , which were specially configured to enable them to carry nuclear weapons .
The 509th Composite Group began deploying to North Field on Tinian , Northern Mariana Islands , in May 1945 . In addition to the two nuclear bombing raids , it carried out 15 practice missions against Japanese @-@ held islands , and 12 combat missions against targets in Japan dropping high @-@ explosive pumpkin bombs .
In the postwar era , the 509th Composite Group was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946 and the only one equipped with Silverplate B @-@ 29 Superfortress aircraft capable of delivering atomic bombs . It was standardized as a bombardment group and redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy , on 10 July 1946 .
= = History = =
See the 509th Operations Group for additional group history and lineage .
= = = Organization , training , and security = = =
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on 9 December 1944 , and activated on 17 December 1944 , at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , who received promotion to full colonel in January 1945 . It was initially assumed that the group would divide in two , with half going to Europe and half to the Pacific . In the first week of September Tibbets was assigned to organize a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon by airplane against targets in Germany and Japan , then command it in combat . Because the organization developed by Tibbets was self @-@ sustained , with flying squadrons of both Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers and transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " unit .
On 8 September , working with Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . ' s Manhattan Project , Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend Army Air Field , Kansas , and Mountain Home Army Airfield , Idaho , because of its remoteness . On 14 September 1944 , the 393d Bombardment Squadron arrived at Wendover from its former base at Fairmont Army Air Base , Nebraska , where it had been in operational training ( OTU ) with the 504th Bombardment Group since 12 March . When its parent group deployed to the Marianas in early November 1944 , the squadron was assigned directly to the Second Air Force until creation of the 509th Composite Group . Originally consisting of twenty @-@ one crews , fifteen were selected to continue training , and were organized into three flights of five crews , lettered A , B , and C. The 393d Bombardment Squadron was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Classen , who like Tibbets had combat experience in heavy bombers , commanding a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress with the 11th Bombardment Group .
The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron , the other flying unit of the 509th , came into being because of the highly secret work of the group . The organization that was to become the 509th required its own transports for the movement of both personnel and materiel , resulting in creation of an ad hoc unit nicknamed " The Green Hornet Line " . Crews for this unit were acquired from the five 393d crews not selected to continue B @-@ 29 training . All those qualified for positions with the 320th chose to remain with the 509th rather than be assigned to a replacement pool of the Second Air Force . They began using C @-@ 46 Commando and C @-@ 47 Skytrains already at Wendover , and in November 1944 acquired three C @-@ 54 Skymasters . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron originally consisted of three C @-@ 54 and four C @-@ 47 aircraft . In April 1945 the C @-@ 47s were transferred to the 216th AAF Base Unit and two additional C @-@ 54s acquired . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was constituted and activated on the same dates as the group .
Other support units were activated at Wendover from personnel already present and working with Project Alberta or in the 216th AAF Base Unit , both affiliated with the Manhattan project . Project Alberta was the part of the Manhattan Project at Site Y in Los Alamos , New Mexico responsible for the preparation and delivery of the nuclear weapons . It was commanded by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons , who would accompany the Hiroshima mission as weaponeer .
The 390th Air Service Group was created as the command echelon for the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron , the 1027th Air Material Squadron , and its own Headquarters and Base Services Squadron , but when these units became independent operationally , it acted as the basic support unit for the entire 509th Composite Group in providing quarters , rations , medical care , postal service and other functions . The 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was unique in that it provided depot @-@ level B @-@ 29 maintenance in the field , obviating the necessity of sending aircraft back to the United States for major repairs . On Tinian the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing 's " C " and " D " Service Centers , where it performed provided depot @-@ level ( " third echelon " ) maintenance for the entire 313th Bombardment Wing when it was not engaged in 509th activities . The 393d Bombardment Squadron 's maintenance section was re @-@ organized as a " combat line maintenance " section ( also called PLM , or " production line maintenance , " a technique developed by the Air Transport Command in India for " Hump " aircraft ) to maximize use of personnel for first and second echelon maintenance .
The 393d Bombardment Squadron conducted ground school training only until delivery of three modified Silverplate airplanes in mid @-@ October 1944 allowed resumption of flight training . These aircraft had extensive bomb bay modifications and a " weaponeer " station installed . Initial training operations identified numerous other modifications necessary to the mission , particularly in reducing the overall weight of the airplane to offset the heavy loads it would be required to carry . Five more Silverplates were delivered in November and six in December , giving the group 14 for its training operations . In January and February 1945 , 10 of the 15 crews under the command of the Group S @-@ 3 ( operations officer ) were assigned temporary duty at Batista Field , San Antonio de los Baños , Cuba , where they trained in long @-@ range over @-@ water navigation .
On 6 March 1945 , concurrent with the activation of Project Alberta , the 1st Ordnance Squadron , Special ( Aviation ) was activated at Wendover , again using Army Air Forces personnel on hand or already at Los Alamos . Its purpose was to provide " skilled machinists , welders and munitions workers " and special equipment to the group to enable it to assemble atomic weapons at its operating base , thereby allowing the weapons to be transported more safely in their component parts . A rigorous candidate selection process was used to recruit personnel , reportedly with an 80 % " washout " rate . Not until May 1945 did the 509th Composite Group reach full strength .
= = = Overseas movement = = =
With the addition of the 1st Ordnance Squadron to its roster , the 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1 @,@ 542 enlisted men , almost all of whom deployed to Tinian . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron kept its base of operations at Wendover . In addition to its authorized strength , the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel of Project Alberta , and two representatives from Washington , D.C. , the deputy director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee .
Two anecdotes illustrate the level of security affecting the 509th 's personnel and equipment . En route to Tinian on 4 June 1945 , the B @-@ 29 that became The Great Artiste made an intermediate stop at Mather Field , near Sacramento , California . The commanding general of the base allegedly attempted to enter the aircraft to inspect it and was warned by a plane guard who aimed his carbine at the general 's chest that he could not do so . A similar incident occurred to a Project Alberta courier , 2nd Lieutenant William A. King . King was escorting the plutonium core of the Fat Man implosion bomb to Tinian , strapped to the floor of one of the 509th 's C @-@ 54s . On 26 July 1945 it made a refueling stop at Hickam Field , Hawaii . The commander of a combat unit returning to the United States learned that the Skymaster had only one passenger and attempted to enter the C @-@ 54 to requisition it as transport for his men . He was prevented from doing so by King , who aimed a .45 caliber automatic pistol at the colonel .
The 509th transferred four of its 14 training Silverplate B @-@ 29s to the 216th AAF Base Unit in February 1945 . In April the third modification increment of Silverplates , which would be their combat aircraft , began coming off the Martin @-@ Omaha assembly line . These " fly @-@ away " aircraft were equipped with fuel @-@ injected engines , Curtiss Electric reversible @-@ pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements . The remaining 17 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were placed in storage . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert pumpkin bombs before Tibbets declared his group combat @-@ ready .
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group , consisting of 44 officers and 815 enlisted men commanded by Major George W. Westcott of the Headquarters Squadron , received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area . An advance party of the air echelon , consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men commanded by Group Intelligence Officer ( S @-@ 2 ) Lieutenant Colonel Hazen Payette , flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field , Tinian , between 15 and 22 May . It was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945 , marking the group 's official change of station . Project Alberta 's " Destination Team " also sent most of its members to Tinian to supervise the assembly , loading , and dropping of the bombs under the administrative title of 1st Technical Services Detachment , Miscellaneous War Department Group .
= = = Equipment and crews = = =
The air echelon consisted of the members of the 393d Bombardment Squadron . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron remained at Wendover . It began deploying from Wendover 4 June 1945 , with the first B @-@ 29 arriving at North Field on 11 June . The group was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing , whose four groups had been flying missions against Japan since mid @-@ February , but for security reasons their permanent base area was near the runways on the island 's north tip , several miles away from the main installations in the center of Tinian . The 509th , after spending most of June in an area previously occupied by the Seabees of the 18th Naval Construction Battalion , took over the 13th Naval Construction Battalion Area just west of North Field 's Runway D , a self @-@ contained base with 89 Quonset huts , a huge storage warehouse , a consolidated mess hall , chapel , administrative area , theater , and other amenities .
Each crew was required to attend the 313th Bombardment Wing 's week @-@ long " Lead Crew Ground School " on its arrival . The ground school indoctrinated combat crews in procedures regarding air @-@ sea rescue , ditching and bailouts , survival , radar bombing , weather , wing and air force regulations , emergency procedures , camera operation , dinghy drills , and other topics related to combat operations . Two of the group 's bombers were not delivered by Martin @-@ Omaha until early July . They remained at Wendover until 27 July to act as transports for two of the Fat Man assemblies .
Because of their geographical isolation from the combat crews of other groups , rigidly enforced security measures , and exclusion from participation in regular bombing missions , crews of the 393d Bombardment Squadron were resented and ridiculed as " lacking in discipline " and having a " soft life " . The official history of the Army Air Forces characterized the ridicule as " epitomized in a satirical verse entitled Nobody Knows , with a recurring refrain , ' For the 509th is winning the war . ' "
The group was assigned tail markings of a circle outline ( denoting the 313th Wing ) around an arrowhead pointing forward , but at the beginning of August its B @-@ 29s were repainted with the tail markings of other XXI Bomber Command groups as a security measure , because it was feared that Japanese survivors on Tinian were reporting the 509th 's activities to Tokyo by clandestine radio . The Victor ( identification assigned by the squadron ) numbers previously assigned the 393d aircraft were changed to avoid confusion with B @-@ 29s of the groups from whom the tail identifiers were borrowed . Victor numbers 82 , 89 , 90 , and 91 ( including the Enola Gay ) carried the markings of the 6th Bombardment Group ( Circle R ) ; Victors 71 , 72 , 73 , and 84 those of the 497th Bombardment Group ( large " A " ) ; Victors 77 , 85 , 86 , and 88 those of the 444th Bombardment Group ( triangle N ) ; and Victors 83 , 94 , and 95 those of the 39th Bombardment Group ( square P ) .
* These airplane commanders and crews exchanged aircraft assignments on 9 August 1945
Although all of the B @-@ 29s were named as shown , the only nose art applied to the aircraft before the atomic bomb missions was that of Enola Gay . With the exceptions of Victors 71 and 94 , the others were applied some time in August 1945 . Luke the Spook was not named until November 1945 , and it is not known if nose art was ever applied to Jabit III .
= = = Combat operations = = =
After ground training for the combat crews , the 509th began operations on 30 June 1945 , with a calibration flight involving nine of the B @-@ 29s on hand . During the month of July and the first eight days of August the thirteen bombers of the 393d Bombardment Squadron flew an intensive training and mission rehearsal program that consisted of :
17 individual training sorties without ordnance ,
15 practice bombing missions between 1 and 22 July against airfields on Japanese @-@ held Truk , Marcus , Rota , and Guguan in which 90 B @-@ 29 sorties dropped 500- and 1000 @-@ pound bombs to practice radar and visual bombing procedures ,
12 combat missions between 20 and 29 July against targets in Japan dropping high @-@ explosive pumpkin bombs , in which 37 B @-@ 29 sorties delivered conventional @-@ bomb replications of the Fat Man : four on 20 July , three on 24 July , two on 26 July , and three on 29 July . Some 27 sorties were made visually and 10 by radar , striking 17 primary targets , 15 secondary targets , and five targets of opportunity . Two other aircraft did not drop their bombs : one jettisoned its pumpkin bomb into the sea near Iwo Jima , and the Strange Cargo 's bomb came loose from the bomb rack and plunged through the closed bomb bay doors while the bomber was still on the ground . One B @-@ 29 incurred minor battle damage in the attacks . Flying at 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) put them above the effective range of flak . Each pumpkin bomb mission was conducted by a formation of three aircraft in the hope of convincing the Japanese military that small groups of B @-@ 29s did not justify a strong response . This strategy proved successful , and Japanese fighters only occasionally attempted to intercept the 509th Composite Group 's aircraft .
7 component @-@ tests between 23 July and 8 August involving rehearsal drops of four inert Little Boy gun @-@ type fission weapons and three Fat Man assemblies , and
a practice mission on 29 July to Iwo Jima in which an inert Little Boy was unloaded and then reloaded to rehearse the contingency plan for using a back @-@ up bomber in an emergency .
While this training was taking place , the components of the first two atomic bombs were shipped to Tinian by various means . For the uranium bomb code @-@ named " Little Boy " , fissile components consisted of a cylindrical target and nine washer @-@ like rings that made up the hollow cylinder projectile . When the bomb detonated , these would be brought together to create a cylindrical core . The uranium @-@ 235 projectile and bomb pre @-@ assemblies ( partly assembled bombs without the fissile components ) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California , on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis , arriving 26 July . The Little Boy pre @-@ assemblies were designated L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 3 , L @-@ 4 , L @-@ 5 , L @-@ 6 , L @-@ 7 and L @-@ 11 . L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 5 and L @-@ 6 were expended in test drops . L @-@ 6 was used in the Iwo Jima dress rehearsal on 29 July . This was repeated on 31 July , but this time L @-@ 6 was test dropped near Tinian by Enola Gay . L @-@ 11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb . On 26 July three C @-@ 54s of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron left Kirtland Army Air Field , each with three of the uranium @-@ 235 target rings , and landed at North Field on 28 July .
The components for the bomb code @-@ named the Fat Man arrived by air the same day . The bomb 's plutonium core ( encased in its insertion capsule ) and the beryllium @-@ polonium initiator were transported from Kirtland to Tinian by C @-@ 54 in the custody of Project Alberta couriers . Three Fat Man high explosive pre @-@ assemblies designated F31 , F32 , and F33 were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B @-@ 29s , two from the 509th and one from the 216th AAF Base Unit , and transported to North Field , arriving 2 August . The B @-@ 29s were Luke the Spook and Laggin ' Dragon of the 509th , and 42 @-@ 65386 , a phase 3 Silverplate of the 216th AAF Base Unit . F33 was expended during the final rehearsal on 8 August , and F31 was the bomb dropped on Nagasaki . F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal .
The final item of preparation for the operation came on 29 July 1945 . Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy , the acting Chief of Staff of the United States Army , since General of the Army George C. Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with the President . The order designated four targets : Hiroshima , Kokura , Niigata , and Nagasaki , and ordered the attack to be made " as soon as weather will permit after about 3 August . "
= = = Atomic bomb missions = = =
The mission profile for both atomic missions called for weather scouts to precede the strike force by an hour , reporting weather conditions in code over each proposed target . The strike force consisted of a bombing aircraft , with the aircraft commander responsible for all decisions in reaching the target and the bomb commander ( weaponeer ) responsible for all decisions regarding dropping of the bomb ; a blast instrumentation aircraft which would fly the wing of the strike aircraft and drop instruments by parachute into the target area ; and a camera ship , which would also carry scientific observers . Each mission had an additional " spare " aircraft pre @-@ positioned on Iwo Jima to take over carrying the bomb if the strike aircraft encountered mechanical problems . The six combat crews of the Hiroshima mission were briefed on their targets , operational flight data , and the effects of the bomb on 4 August 1945 . Their pre @-@ mission briefing on 5 August , under the terms of Operations Order No. 35 , covered details on weather and air @-@ sea rescue . The Order described the bomb to be used as " special " .
Special Mission 13 , attacking Hiroshima , was flown as planned and executed without significant problems or diversion from plan . Enola Gay took off at 02 : 45 , 7 @.@ 5 long tons ( 7 @.@ 6 t ) overweight and near maximum gross weight . Arming of the bomb began eight minutes into the flight and took 25 minutes . The three target @-@ area aircraft arrived over Iwo Jima approximately three hours into the mission and departed together at 06 : 07 . The safeties on the bomb were removed at 07 : 30 , 90 minutes before time over target , and 15 minutes later the B @-@ 29s began a climb to the 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) bombing altitude . The bomb run began at 09 : 12 , with the drop three minutes later , after which the B @-@ 29s immediately performed steep diving turns . The detonation followed 45 @.@ 5 seconds after the drop . Primary and " echo " shock waves overtook the B @-@ 29s a minute following the blast , and the smoke cloud was visible to the crews for 90 minutes , by which time they were almost 400 miles ( 640 km ) miles away . Enola Gay returned to Tinian at 14 : 58 .
Special Mission 16 was moved up two days from 11 August because of adverse weather forecasts . Weather also dictated a change in rendezvous to Yakushima , much closer to the target , and an initial cruise altitude of 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) instead of 9 @,@ 300 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) , both of which considerably increased fuel consumption . Pre @-@ flight inspection discovered an inoperative fuel transfer pump in the 625 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 370 l ) aft bomb bay fuel tank , but a decision was made to continue anyway . The plutonium bomb did not require arming in flight , but did have its safeties removed 30 minutes after the 03 : 45 takeoff ( all times Tinian ; Nagasaki times were one hour earlier ) when Bockscar reached 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of altitude . When the daylight rendezvous point was reached at 09 : 10 , the photo plane failed to appear . The weather planes reported both targets within the required visual attack parameters while Bockscar circled Yakushima waiting for the photo plane . Finally the mission proceeded without the photo plane , thirty minutes behind schedule . When Bockscar arrived at Kokura 30 minutes later , cloud cover had increased to 70 % of the area , and three bomb runs over the next 50 minutes were fruitless in bombing visually . The commanders decided to reduce power to conserve fuel and divert to Nagasaki , bombing by radar if necessary . The bomb run began at 11 : 58 . ( two hours behind schedule ) using radar ; but the Fat Man was dropped visually when a hole opened in the clouds at 12 : 01 . The photo plane arrived at Nagasaki in time to complete its mission , and the three aircraft diverted to Okinawa , where they arrived at 13 : 00 . Trying in vain for 20 minutes to contact the control tower at Yontan Airfield to obtain landing clearance , Bockscar nearly ran out of fuel .
While the Nagasaki mission was in progress , two B @-@ 29s of the 509th took off from Tinian to return to Wendover . The crews of Classen in the unnamed Victor 94 , and Captain John A. Wilson in Jabit III , together with ground support crews , were sent back to the United States to stage for the possibility of transporting further bomb pre @-@ assemblies to Tinian . Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for shipment on 13 August and use on 19 August , with three more available in September and a further three in October . Groves ordered that all shipments of material be stopped on 13 August , when the third bomb was still at Site Y.
= = = Post atomic bomb operations = = =
After each atomic mission the group conducted other combat operations , making a series of pumpkin bomb attacks on 8 and 14 August . Six B @-@ 29s visually attacked targets at Yokkaichi , Uwajima , Tsuruga , and Tokushima on 8 August , bombing two primary and three secondary targets with five bombs . Seven aircraft visually attacked Koroma and Nagoya on 14 August . Some Punkins ( Crew B @-@ 7 , Price ) is believed to have dropped the last bombs by the Twentieth Air Force in World War II . After the announcement of the Japanese surrender , the 509th Composite Group flew three further training missions involving 31 sorties on 18 , 20 and 22 August , then stood down from operations . The group made a total of 210 operational sorties from 30 June to 22 August , aborted four additional flights , and had only a single aircraft fail to take off . Altogether , 140 sorties involved the dropping of live ordnance . Some 60 flights were credited as combat missions : 49 pumpkin bomb and 11 atomic bomb sorties .
Three B @-@ 29s ( Full House , Straight Flush , and Top Secret ) flew six combat missions each . Crews A @-@ 1 ( Taylor ) and C @-@ 11 ( Eatherly ) flew the most combat missions , six ( including one atomic mission ) each , while six other crews each flew five . Only the late arrivals ( A @-@ 2 [ Costello ] and C @-@ 12 [ Zahn ] ) did not participate in any combat missions , although Costello 's B @-@ 29 was used by another crew for weather reconnaissance of Nagasaki on the second mission . Including training and test flights , crews B @-@ 8 ( McKnight ) and C @-@ 13 ( Bock ) flew the most missions , with 20 total ( 5 combat ) . Crew B @-@ 7 ( Price ) is the only crew to fly all of its missions ( 18 total , 5 combat ) in its normally assigned aircraft , Some Punkins .
The 509th Composite Group returned to the United States on 6 November 1945 , and was stationed at Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico . Colonel William H. Blanchard replaced Tibbets as group commander on 22 January 1946 , and also became the first commander of the 509th Bombardment Wing . It was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command when it was formed on 21 March 1946 . The 715th and 830th Bombardment Squadrons were assigned to the 509th on 6 May 1946 , and the group was redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy on 10 July . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was inactivated on 19 August . At Roswell , the 509th became the nuclear strike and deterrence core of the Strategic Air Command , and was the only unit capable of delivery of nuclear weapons until June 1948 , when B @-@ 50 Superfortresses were initially deployed . The 509th itself converted to the B @-@ 50 in 1950 , and transferred its Silverplate B @-@ 29s to the squadrons of the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base , Texas .
= = Organization = =
¹ The 393d Bombardment Squadron was part of the 504th Bombardment Group ( VH ) from 12 March to 14 September 1944 .
¹ The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was activated on 17 December 1944 , and ² disbanded 19 August 1946 .
= = Depictions = =
The training and operations of the 509th Composite Group were dramatized in a Hollywood film , Above and Beyond ( 1952 ) , with Robert Taylor cast in the role of Tibbets . The story was retold in a partly fictionalized made @-@ for @-@ television film Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb ( 1980 ) , with Patrick Duffy portraying Tibbets . The operations of the 509th Composite Group were treated to a lesser extent in the docudrama The Beginning or the End ( 1947 ) , with Barry Nelson as Tibbets .
= = Lineage = =
Established as 509th Composite Group on 9 December 1944
Activated on 17 December 1944
Redesignated : 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy , on 10 July 1946
Redesignated : 509th Bombardment Group , Medium , on 2 July 1948
Inactivated on 16 June 1952
Redesignated 509th Operations Group on 12 March 1993
Activated on 15 July 1993
Source : Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group ( ACC )
= = Assignments = =
Second Air Force , 17 December 1944 ;
315th Bombardment Wing , 18 December 1944 ;
313th Bombardment Wing , c . June 1945 ;
Second Air Force , 10 October 1945 ;
58th Bombardment Wing , 17 January 1946 ;
Fifteenth Air Force , 31 March 1946
Source : Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group ( ACC )
= = Stations = =
Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , 17 December 1944
North Field , Tinian , 29 May 1945
Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico , 6 November 1945
Source : Maurer 1983 , p . 372
= = Campaigns = =
Air Combat , Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign
Air Offensive , Japan
Eastern Mandates
Western Pacific
Source : Maurer 1983 , p . 372
= = Honors = =
Department of the Air Force Special Order GB @-@ 294 , dated 2 September 1999 , awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award ( with Valor ) to the 509th Composite Group for outstanding achievement in combat for the period 1 July 1945 to 14 August 1945 .
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= Italian cruiser Giovanni Bausan =
Giovanni Bausan was a protected cruiser of the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) that was designed and built by Sir W G Armstrong Mitchell & Co . ' s Elswick Works in England in the mid @-@ 1880s . The finished ship entered service in May 1885 . She was the first ship of this type to be built for the Italian fleet , and she provided the basis for subsequent designs built in Italy , including the Etna class . Giovanni Bausan was intended to serve as a " battleship destroyer " , and was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns to give her the ability to defeat heavy armor , but design flaws rendered her unfit for this role .
Giovanni Bausan frequently served abroad . She participated in the conquest of Eritrea in 1887 – 88 as the flagship of the Italian squadron during the campaign . She took part in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 alongside British and German warships . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , she provided gunfire support to Italian troops ashore in North Africa . By the outbreak of the First World War , Giovanni Bausan had been relegated to secondary duties , first as a distilling ship , and later as a depot ship for seaplanes . The ship was disarmed during the conflict and ultimately was sold to ship @-@ breakers in March 1920 .
= = Design = =
The design of Giovanni Bausan was based on that of Elswick 's earlier Esmeralda , built for Chile and designed by George Rendel , and was the first modern protected cruiser constructed for the Italian Navy . The new ship was ordered in 1882 by Guglielmo Acton , then the Minister for the Navy , and was named for Giovanni Bausan , a Neapolitan naval commander who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . Referred to by some as a torpedo ram , she was one of the first ships of her type . Giovanni Bausan was intended for use as a " battleship destroyer " , but the low rate of fire of her guns and her lack of steadiness as a gun platform made her ineffective in this role . She nevertheless represented a temporary embrace of the theories of the Jeune École doctrine espoused by French naval architects and strategists .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Giovanni Bausan was 84 @.@ 12 meters ( 276 @.@ 0 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 89 @.@ 32 m ( 293 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 12 @.@ 85 m ( 42 @.@ 2 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 98 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) . Giovanni Bausan was steel @-@ hulled , and had a crew of 295 officers and enlisted men , though later in her career this was reduced to 256 . The four Etna @-@ class cruisers were half @-@ sisters of Giovanni Bausan , built to a modified , slightly enlarged design . She was equipped with a ram bow and initially fitted with rigging as a schooner .
Giovanni Bausan was powered by two compound @-@ expansion steam engines that each drove a screw propeller . Steam was provided by four cylindrical Scotch boilers , which were trunked into two funnels on the centerline . On trials , the engines produced 6 @,@ 470 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 820 kW ) for a top speed of 17 @.@ 4 knots ( 32 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 0 mph ) . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , the ship could steam for 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) . The schooner rig was intended to provid an auxiliary method of propulsion if the ship 's engines broke down ; by the time Giovanni Bausan entered service in the mid @-@ 1880s , marine steam engines had become reliable enough that auxiliary sails were no longer necessary , and hers were later removed .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Armament was heavy for her size , with the main battery consisting of a pair of 10 @-@ inch 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading ( BL ) guns mounted in individual barbettes fore and aft , capable of training up to 30 degrees abaft of the beam . These were Pattern G models manufactured by Elswick Ordnance Company . Six BL 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) , 26 @-@ caliber secondary guns were mounted in sponsons , three on a side , comprised the secondary battery . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a tertiary battery of four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) ) 40 @-@ caliber guns and two QF 1 @-@ pounder ( 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) ) guns . She was also equipped with three 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside above water and one submerged tube in the bow .
She was fitted with an armored deck that ran from stem to stern . It was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in thickness over the boilers and engines and reduced in thickness to .75 inches ( 19 mm ) fore and aft . The ship also had an " armor " belt of cork at her waterline , which was intended to swell through water absorption after being hit . This proved to be unsuccessful as hits would result in the destruction of the cork . Giovanni Bausan 's conning tower was protected with armor plating 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and the breeches of her main guns were also protected by 2 inches of armor .
= = Service history = =
Giovanni Bausan was laid down at the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard in Elswick in England on 21 August 1882 . Her completed hull was launched on 15 December 1883 . After her commissioning on 9 May 1885 , she departed from England on 21 May to join the Squada Permamente ( Permanent Squadron ) , and in 1887 – 1888 she participated in the conquest of Eritrea , where she acted as the flagship of the Italian Red Sea Squadron . Following the conclusion of the Eritrean campaign , Giovanni Bausan returned to Italy . In 1888 , she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers , along with four ironclads , three other protected cruisers , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy . On 5 July 1889 , she collided with the torpedo cruiser Folgore , badly damaging her . Giovanni Bausan thereafter spent much of her time in service overseas , particularly in the Americas . During this service , she made a port visit to New York City in 1892 , during which she was the first foreign warship to be repaired at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in 15 years . 1896 , she took part in the annual summer maneuvers in July as part of the Second Division of the Active Squadron , which also included the ironclads Francesco Morosini and Andrea Doria and the torpedo cruiser Tripoli . In 1899 , Giovanni Bausan had her 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch guns replaced by modern QF 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns .
In late 1902 , Giovanni Bausan was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . The Italian contingent also included the protected cruiser Elba and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto . The following year , she and the protected cruisers Etna and Dogali represented Italy at the international naval review in New York , held at the start of the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . The Exposition marked the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in North America . Contingents from France , Germany , Britain , Spain , and several other nations also participated in the celebration . In 1904 , Giovanni Bausan returned to Italy , where she was assigned to the Reserve Division , and two of her 6 @-@ inch guns were removed , though she was slated to be replaced by the new armored cruiser Francesco Ferruccio , when she entered service in September 1905 .
From 1905 , Giovanni Bausan served as a training ship for stokers and mechanics until the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1912 . Returning to active duty as Flagship Cyrenaica , she served in the shore bombardment role until the end of the war , when she was again returned to second @-@ line service as a distilling ship . Fitted with four distillers and capable of producing 200 tons of fresh water every 24 hours , she was operating in this role at the start of the First World War . Because of the pressing need for artillery for service with the army , Giovanni Bausan was partially disarmed in 1915 , losing her 10 @-@ inch guns and two of the 6 @-@ inch pieces . Later in the war , the rest of her armament was removed . She was reassigned for service as a seaplane depot ship at Brindisi . Decommissioned in 1919 , she was sold for scrap in March 1920 and broken up soon after .
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= Typhoon Karen =
Typhoon Karen was the most powerful tropical cyclone to strike the island of Guam , and has been regarded as one of the most destructive events in the island 's history . It was first identified as a tropical disturbance on November 6 , 1962 , well to the southeast of Truk . Over the following two days , the system tracked generally northward and quickly intensified . Karen became a tropical storm late on November 7 , and within two days it explosively intensified into a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . Turning westward , the typhoon maintained its intensity and struck Guam with winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) on November 11 . Once clear of the island , it strengthened slightly and reached its peak intensity on November 13 with winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) . The storm then gradually turned northward as it weakened , brushing the Ryukyu Islands on November 15 , before moving east @-@ northeastward over the open waters of the Pacific . Karen continued to weaken and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 before losing its identity the following day between Alaska and Hawaii .
Karen devastated Guam with wind gusts estimated up to 280 km / h ( 185 mph ) . Ninety @-@ five percent of homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving at least 45 @,@ 000 people homeless . Communication and utilities were crippled , forcing officials to set up water distribution centers to prevent disease . Total losses on the island amounted to $ 250 million . Despite the severity of the damage , only 11 people were killed . In the wake of the storm , a massive relief operation evacuated thousands to California , Hawaii , and Wake Island . Thousands more were sheltered in public buildings , and later tent villages , for many months . More than $ 60 million in relief funds were sent to Guam over the following years to aid in rehabilitation . Though the storm was devastating , it spurred new building codes and a revitalized economy .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 6 , 1962 , a tropical disturbance was identified over the Pacific Ocean several hundred miles south @-@ southeast of Truk , in the Federated States of Micronesia , by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Tracking northwestward , the disturbance intensified and was classified as a tropical depression early on November 7 . Later that day , the system passed to the east of Truk and turned due north before attaining gale @-@ force winds . Around 18 : 00 UTC , the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Storm Karen , the 27th named storm of the 1962 season . Several hours later , a reconnaissance mission into the storm revealed a partially closed 35 km ( 22 mi ) wide eye . Over the following 30 hours , Karen underwent a period of explosive intensification as its eye became small and increasingly defined . Between 00 : 00 UTC on November 8 and 03 : 40 UTC on November 9 , Karen 's barometric pressure plummeted from 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 24 inHg ) to 899 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 55 inHg ) , a drop of 91 mb ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 69 inHg ) . At the end of this phase , Karen featured an 8 to 10 km ( 5 to 6 mi ) wide eye and had estimated surface winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) , ranking it as a modern @-@ day Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .
After attaining this initial peak intensity on November 9 , Karen weakened somewhat as it gradually curved west @-@ northwestward . By 15 : 14 UTC , the storm began to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle as a larger secondary eyewall , approximately 64 km ( 40 mi ) in diameter , started developing . Although the storm 's winds failed to drop significantly , Karen 's central pressure rose to 919 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) during this phase . Accelerating slightly , Karen tracked steadily west @-@ northwestward towards Guam . By November 11 , the system had regained a well @-@ defined eye and deepened once more . Between 12 : 10 and 12 : 35 UTC on November 11 , the 14 km ( 9 mi ) wide eye of Karen passed directly over southern Guam . At this time , the storm was estimated to have had winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , which would have made it the most intense typhoon to strike the island since 1900 . However , years of post @-@ storm analyses have indicated that it may have been somewhat weaker when it passed over Guam . At the Weather Bureau station at the north end of Guam , a pressure of 942 @.@ 4 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 83 inHg ) was measured . Farther south at Anderson Air Force Base , 939 @.@ 7 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 75 inHg ) was recorded . The lowest verified pressure was 931 @.@ 9 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) at the Agana Naval Air Station . Closest to the eye was Naval Magazine where a pressure of 907 @.@ 6 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 80 inHg ) was estimated but never verified .
Continuing west @-@ northwestward , Karen attained its peak intensity on November 13 with a central pressure of 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) . Between November 13 and 14 , Karen gradually turned towards the north as it underwent another eyewall replacement cycle . During this time , Karen finally weakened below Category 5 status as its winds dropped below 251 km / h ( 156 mph ) . This marked the end of its near @-@ record 4 @.@ 25 @-@ day span as a storm of such intensity , second only to Typhoon Nancy of 1961 which maintained Category 5 status for 5 @.@ 5 days . Over the following days , the typhoon 's structure gradually became disorganized , with its eye no longer well @-@ defined by November 15 . By this time , Karen began accelerating northeastward and later east @-@ northeastward over the open ocean . The combination of its rapid movement and entrainment of cold air into the circulation ultimately caused the system to transition into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 . The remnants of Karen continued tracking east @-@ northeast and were last noted by the JTWC on November 18 roughly halfway between the southern Aleutian Islands and northern Hawaiian Islands .
= = Impact = =
= = = Guam = = =
Following the identification of a tropical disturbance on November 6 , a level four Typhoon Condition of Readiness ( TCOR ) , the lowest level of alert , was raised for Guam . By November 8 , three days prior to Karen 's arrival , this was raised to level three , prompting residents and military personnel to stock up on supplies . A public announcement was made that day as well , warning residents that the typhoon would likely strike the island . At 9 : 00 p.m. on November 10 ( 11 : 00 UTC ) , a level two TCOR was put in place for Guam and a typhoon emergency was declared . Buildings were boarded up and emergency supplies were distributed . By 8 : 00 a.m. ( 22 : 00 UTC on November 10 ) , this was raised to level one , the highest level of warning . At this time , the USS Haverfield , USS Brister , USS Wandank , and USS Banner sought refuge from the storm over open waters . All personnel on the island were ordered to evacuate to typhoon @-@ proof shelters and emergency rations were prepared . Strategic air command planes stationed on the island were relocated to avoid damage . Many residents on the island sought refuge in government buildings designed to withstand powerful storms while others evacuated to Wake Island . Roughly 24 hours after the typhoon 's passage , all warnings were discontinued .
Striking Guam as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Karen produced destructive winds across much of the island . With the eye passing over the southern tip of the territory , the most intense winds were felt over central areas . Wind gusts over the southern tip of Guam were estimated to have peaked around 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Due to the extreme nature of these winds , all anemometers on the island failed before the most intense portion of the storm arrived , and there were no measurements of the strongest winds ; however , post @-@ storm reports estimated that sustained winds reached 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) in some areas . The highest measured gust was 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) at a United States Navy anemometer on Nimitz Hill just before 11 : 00 UTC on November 11 , roughly two hours before the typhoon 's eye passed the station . Based on this measurement , a study in 1996 estimated that gusts peaked between 280 and 295 km / h ( 175 and 185 mph ) over southern areas of the island . Newspaper reports indicated that a gust of 272 km / h ( 169 mph ) was measured on the island before the anemometer was destroyed . There was also an unverified report of a 333 km / h ( 207 mph ) wind gust . Nearly all measurements of rainfall during the typhoon were lost ; the only known total is 197 mm ( 7 @.@ 76 in ) at the Weather Bureau station for the period of November 10 – 12 .
Surveys of damage revealed belt @-@ like damage patterns from the winds , with some homes being leveled and others nearby having only minor damage , akin to the impacts of tornadoes . The winds uprooted and snapped palm trees across the island and , in some instances , stripped the bark of tree trunks and branches as if they had been sandblasted . Vegetation was completely defoliated across central areas of the island . In some places , it was described as the aftermath of a forest fire . The winds also blew debris across the island . Metal roofing was found wrapped around trees . In one instance , a twin @-@ engine aircraft was carried 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) from the hangar it was tied down in . A metal sign bolted into a warehouse was tossed 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) and found half @-@ buried in the ground . Elsewhere , a quonset hut was lofted and carried for 125 m ( 411 ft ) , intact , before being crushed on impact . Along the coast , the USS Arco was torn from her moorings , severing two anchors and shearing a cleat – tested for over 23 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 kg ( 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 lb ) , respectively – in the process . The ROK Han Ra San and RPS Negros Oriental sank in the inner harbor of Guam .
Karen is regarded as the worst typhoon to ever impact Guam . Acting governor Manuel Guerrero stated that " the entire territory was devastated . " Almost all structures , both civilian and military , were severely damaged or destroyed . Even reinforced concrete structures at Anderson Air Force Base sustained severe damage . Though these structures withstood the direct impact of winds , sudden drops in pressure caused windows to shatter in most structures , ultimately exposing the interior to water damage . Military structures suffered the most from this phenomenon as the buildings were designed in a way that pressure differences between the interior and exterior would not equal out . Debris from damaged or destroyed homes became projectiles during the storm that created further damage , like " shrapnel or artillery missiles . "
George Washington High and Tumon Junior High were both destroyed . Guam Memorial Hospital and the island 's public works department were extensively damaged . Downtown Hagåtña , Guam 's largest city , was flattened . Along the city 's main road , Marine Drive , 20 cm ( 8 in ) of sand accumulated from Karen 's storm surge . Overall , the city was 85 percent destroyed , while the villages of Yona and Inarajan were 97 and 90 percent destroyed , respectively . Additionally , Agana Heights and Sinajana were reportedly leveled . The communication network on the island was completely destroyed as antennas and transmission equipment were blown away . Approximately 30 percent of telephone poles between the island 's naval station and Nimitz Hill and 95 percent of civilian telephone poles were downed . The power grid was also destroyed . The Guam portion of the Pacific Scatter Communications System suffered extensive damage , with all four 61 m ( 200 ft ) antennas at Ritidian Point being reduced to a " mess of tangled , twisted steel and cable . " Losses from the antennas alone reached $ 1 million . All airstrips on the island were rendered inoperable , hampering initial relief efforts . Numerous roads across the island were also impassable , covered by downed trees and smashed vehicles . The wreckage left in the wake of the storm was described as a " massive junkyard " .
Throughout Guam , 95 percent of homes were destroyed , and those left standing were damaged . Nearly every non @-@ typhoon @-@ proof home was severely damaged or destroyed and a majority of typhoon @-@ proof buildings sustained extensive damage . Preliminary surveys by the Red Cross on November 15 indicated that at least 5 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 3 @,@ 000 were severely damaged . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 people , mostly Guamanians , were left homeless . A total of 11 people lost their lives and about 100 others were injured . At least four of the deaths were due to collapsed buildings , including three in one home that buckled due to pounding surf . Another death resulted from decapitation by airborne debris . Losses across the island amounted to $ 250 million ( 1962 USD ) . The damage across Guam was described as " ' much more serious " than it had been during the second Battle of Guam , when American troops retook the island from the Japanese . The U.S. Navy described the damage as equal to that of an indirect hit from a nuclear bomb . Guerrero said that the recovery effort of the previous 17 years had been " completely wiped out " .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In the Mariana Islands , three ships under the command of Rear Admiral J. S. Coye Jr. sank ; however , the crew had been evacuated prior to the storm 's arrival .
On November 13 , a level three TCOR was issued for Okinawa . This prompted military personnel to begin securing the island and preparing planes without hangars for evacuation . Brushing the region as a Category 3 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Karen caused considerable disruptions to airlines , trains , shipping , and communications . No serious damage was reported in Okinawa , but the nearby Daiyumaru and another Japanese fishing vessel with a total of 26 crew went missing .
On November 15 , residents in Taiwan were urged to take precautions to minimize casualties . Prior to the storm 's arrival , the USS Duncan , the USS Kitty Hawk , and two other aircraft carriers sought refuge in the Taiwan Strait . Despite attempts to escape the storm , large swells exceeding 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) battered the vessels , causing them to pitch up to 59 degrees . At times , the waves crashed onto the deck of the USS Kitty Hawk . According to crewmen , waves up to 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) struck Taipei , leaving water marks on many buildings .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the typhoon , the Pacific Air Forces were on standby to deliver supplies to Guam , but were delayed by inoperable airstrips . Guam Memorial Hospital was damaged , but other civilian and military installations , including the Navy 's hospital , were able to handle injured persons . On November 12 , Manuel Guerrero made an urgent appeal to the Government of the United States requesting that aid be rushed to the territory . Additionally , he instituted an island @-@ wide curfew between 8 : 00 p.m. and 6 : 00 a.m. local time to limit looting . At schools , teachers were called in to guard supplies and equipment . The Federal Emergency Management Agency , under orders from United States President John F. Kennedy , declared Guam a major disaster area later that day , allowing residents to receive federal aid . Additionally , 15 United States Air Force communications technicians were deployed from Manila , Philippines carrying three plane @-@ loads of communication supplies . Guerrero estimated that it would take four months to complete repairs to utilities . It was also estimated that schools on the island would be closed for six months .
Initially , residents across Guam were critical of the delayed response by the U.S. government ; no aid had arrived within two days of the storm , but unsafe conditions at airports had prevented aircraft from landing . With the majority of homes destroyed across Guam , structures that remained standing were used as temporary shelter for those left homeless . Similarly , damaged military installations at Anderson Air Force Base were made available to all civilians . By November 14 , the USS Daniel I. Sultan arrived in Guam with 1 @,@ 100 troops to provide emergency power . A U.S. Air Force AC @-@ 130 landed on the island that day carrying the first package of relief supplies . About 400 troops and 80 public works employees were sent from Hawaii on November 14 . The Red Cross and civil defense offices were placed in charge of coordinating recovery efforts . Water distribution centers were set up across the island to provide residents with clean drinking water .
On November 15 , a massive evacuation of residents began to remove survivors from unsafe conditions . Two flights to California took place on the first day of evacuation , carrying a total of 154 people . Thousands of residents were also brought to Wake Island for shelter . Military Air Transport Service planes from the United States mainland , Japan , the Philippines , and Hawaii were called in for the operation . On November 16 , residents were warned of a possible typhoid epidemic and urged to get inoculations for the disease . Over a three @-@ day span , roughly 30 @,@ 000 people were given preventative shots for the disease . In contrast to their previous ban on alien workers , the Government of Guam requested 1 @,@ 500 carpenters , masons , and other building workers from the Philippines . By November 21 , the Navy Supply Depot planned to have enough supplies for the entire populous shipped until replenishment arrived . In order to shelter homeless , the United States Navy set up tent villages across the island . Military kitchens were also established to provide food . Due to continued rains in the wake of the typhoon , many were unable to get a full meal for Thanksgiving .
On November 21 , insurance payments for losses were expected to exceed $ 12 million . On January 1 , 1963 , a $ 2 million relief fund was authorized by President Kennedy . Another $ 5 @.@ 4 million in relief funds were provided by President Lyndon B. Johnson on February 15 , 1964 . The United States Congress provided Guam with $ 60 million , including $ 45 million through federal loans , mainly to help rebuild the territory and promote expansion of the economy . Additionally , the storm brought about the end of military security on the island , which in turn aided economic growth . Within five years of this decision , Japanese tourism to the island dramatically increased , prompting a major increase in the number of hotels . In the long term , Typhoon Karen , along with other destructive storms , shaped the development of the island 's infrastructure . It led to higher quality buildings and more efficient utilities that could withstand powerful typhoons . Since Karen , most buildings on the island have been constructed with concrete and steel .
On April 29 , 1963 , less than half a year after Karen , Typhoon Olive caused extensive damage in Guam and the Mariana Islands . With many residents living in tents , and debris from the storm still scattered about , severe damage was anticipated . Schools , churches , and other structures were opened as shelters in order to protect those without homes . Ultimately , Guam was spared the worst of the storm though much of Saipan was devastated . The island was again devastated in 1976 by Typhoon Pamela which buffeted the island with destructive winds for 36 hours . Though weaker than Karen , the longer lasting impact of Pamela was regarded as more destructive .
Due to the severity of damage caused by the typhoon in Guam , the name Karen was retired and replaced with Kim .
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= Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy =
Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy ( Norwegian : Brønnøysund lufthavn , Brønnøy ; IATA : BNN , ICAO : ENBN ) is a regional airport located at the town of Brønnøysund , in the municipality of Brønnøy , Nordland county , Norway . The airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor and serves the southern part of Helgeland . It has a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 937 ft × 98 ft ) runway numbered 04 – 22 and is served by Widerøe , which operates their Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft to Oslo , Trondheim , Bodø , Bergen and other airports in Helgeland . The airport also serves offshore helicopter flights by CHC Helikopter Service to Norne and temporary oil rigs in the Norwegian Sea . In 2014 , the airport served 117 @,@ 471 passengers , making it the second @-@ busiest regional airport in Norway , after Florø Airport .
Brønnøysund received seaplane services in 1935 , at first operated by Norwegian Air Lines and later by Widerøe . Plans for short take @-@ off and landing airports in Northern Norway were launched in 1965 ; construction started in 1967 and Brønnøysund Airport opened along with three nearby airports on 1 June 1968 . Originally served using Twin Otter aircraft , Widerøe replaced them with Dash 7 aircraft in 1982 and Dash 8 aircraft in 1992 . Offshore helicopter traffic started in 1983 . The runway was originally 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) ; it was extended to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) in 1987 and to the current length in 1999 . A new control tower opened in 2000 and a new terminal in 2008 . There have been two major accidents connected with the airport : Widerøe Flight 710 in 1988 and Helikopter Service Flight 451 in 1997 .
= = History = =
The first aircraft to land in Brønnøysund was a Hansa @-@ Brandenburg seaplane of the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service on 23 July 1922 . It was piloted by Hjalmar Riiser @-@ Larsen and Finn Lützow @-@ Holm , en route from Horten to Kirkenes . The following thirteen years Brønnøysund only saw occasional landings , when Norwegian Air Lines started a service from Bergen to Tromsø on 7 June 1935 , which included a stop at the harbor in Brønnøysund . Passengers and mail would be rowed out to the waiting aircraft . The first season the route was flown using a single @-@ engine Junkers W 34 . The aircraft turned out to be too small and a larger Junkers Ju 52 was introduced the following season . Flights were dependent on good weather and were only operated during the summer . The route was taken over by Widerøe in 1938 . All civilian flights were terminated during World War II , although the town would see occasional military landings .
Seaplane routes resumed in 1947 using the Junkers Ju 52 . Construction of primary airports in Norway started in the 1950s based on building joint military and civilian airport with funding from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) . The alliance considered constructing an airport at Søndre Herøy in Herøy , an archipelago near Sandnesssjøen , but funding was never allocated to the project .
No primary airports had been built in Helgeland by the mid @-@ 1960s . The coastal parts of the region , such as at Brønnøysund , were without highways and railways . Although Widerøe operated a seaplane route , it remained a summer @-@ only service . Travel time to Sandnessjøen , where the closest hospital was located , took five hours . A committee , led by Erik Himle and later Preben Munthe , was appointed in 1962 to consider additional airports in Norway . The Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft was about to be phased into use on the main domestic routes by Scandinavian Airlines System and the committee recommended in 1964 that nine new airports be built which could serve jetliners , including an airport in Sandnesssjøen .
Widerøe came with an alternative proposal and suggested that a network of smaller airports be built instead , which could be served using short take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) aircraft . Smaller airports could be built and operated at lower costs than larger airports , but both airports and airlines would need subsidies to operate . Håkon Kyllingmark was appointed Minister of Transport and Communications in 1965 and was a proponent of the STOLport proposal . The political rationale was that , despite that the total operating costs would rise , that it would provide better services to rural areas and thus keep up their population . The regional airports were built in groups , and the first four were built in Namsos and Helgeland .
Planning started in 1966 and construction commenced the following year . Brønnøysund Airport cost NOK 2 @.@ 7 million plus costs for expropriation and navigational aids . NOK 1 @.@ 9 million was covered by the state , while the rest was covered by Brønnøy Municipality . The runway was originally 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) and was the only asphalted area in Brønnøysund . The airport was originally operated by the municipality , except the tower , which was operated by the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration . Brønnøysund was one of very few regional airport to receive a restaurant . The airport opened on 30 May 1968 , along with Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvoll , Namsos Airport , Høknesøra and Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka . Widerøe commenced flights to Bodø and Trondheim with their de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters the following day .
The first year of operation saw 6 @,@ 157 passengers , dropping to 5 @,@ 543 in 1969 . Originally there were two southbound and two northbound flights per day in the summer and one per direction during winter . In 1969 this increased to two flights per direction all year . Trønderfly started an air ambulance service in the early 1970s . Widerøe introduced the de Havilland Canada Dash 7 in 1982 , resulting in the terminal being expanded . Offshore helicopter services began the following year . The runway was expanded to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) in 1987 .
NATO showed interest in upgrading Brønnøysund Airport in 1991 . Specifically they intended to spend NOK 125 million in expanding the runway to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) and building a fuel depot . The airport was planned used as a relief military airbase without any permanently stationed aircraft . The plans were canceled in 1993 following cut @-@ backs in NATO . Widerøe introduced Dash 8 aircraft in 1992 , gradually replacing the Dash 7 . In 1996 , Brønnøysund and 25 other regional airports were taken over by the state and the Civil Aviation Administration ( later renamed Avinor ) . The runway was extended to 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 937 ft ) in 1999 ; 1 @,@ 440 meters ( 4 @,@ 724 ft ) including the safety zone at each end . While allowing for a direct service to Oslo , the service was terminated the following year . The same year a new control tower was opened and the old tower taken over by a motorcycle club .
Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 . This put a large strain on the terminal capacity and the terminal had to be expanded . Makeshift solutions were used , such as plywood boards to allocate people through the security check . In late 2004 , the airport started planning an all @-@ new terminal building , as the old terminal was deemed both too small and out of date . Construction of the NOK @-@ 115 @-@ million terminal started on 24 October 2006 . As the first airport in the world , Brønnøysund received SCAT @-@ I , a satellite @-@ based landing system , on 29 October 2007 . The new terminal opened on 26 May 2008 , which allowed the a restaurant to open at the airport , all vehicles to be stored indoors and included a new helicopter terminal . Thon Hotel Torghatten opened in October 2009 and an airport surveillance radar was installed in 2010 , making Brønnøysund the first regional airport in Norway to have one .
Widerøe reintroduced direct flights to Oslo on 10 May 2010 . Statoil started using scheduled services instead of their previous charter flights on 2 January 2011 . This caused Widerøe to increase the number of direct flights to Oslo to three per day on 1 April 2011 . Widerøe introduced irregular charter flights to Manchester in April 2012 , largely targeting English tourists traveling on holidays and Norwegian football patriots .
Avinor is working on plans to close the airports in Sandnessjøen , Mo i Rana and Mosjøen and replace them with a primary airport . Brønnøysund has stated that they wish to keep their airport and not be part of a central airport for the region . There have also been launched proposals by local politicians to extend the runway at Brønnøysund to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) . This proposal was later dismissed by the municipal council , who instead wanted a shorter extension to allow landing of Dash 8 Q400 aircraft .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located 2 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of the town center of Brønnøysund . It consists of a combined passenger terminal and works building and includes a café . There is a separate helicopter terminal . The runway , numbered 04 – 22 , is 1 @,@ 200 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 937 ft × 98 ft ) ; when including the safety zones at each end the total length is 1 @,@ 440 meters ( 4 @,@ 724 ft ) . Brønnøysund Airport lacks an instrument landing system and instead uses the satellite @-@ based SCAT @-@ I. It is the only regional airport in Norway which has an airport surveillance radar installed . The airport had 117 @,@ 471 passengers , 10 @,@ 494 aircraft movements and 39 tonnes of cargo in 2014 .
Taxis , paid parking and car rental is available at the airport . Driving time to the town center is about five to seven minutes . There is a bus service operated by Torghatten Trafikkselskap form the airport to the town center ; onwards connection is available to several areas in Helgeland and Namdalen . Ferry and fast ferry services are also operated from the town center to nearby islands . The 44 @-@ room Thon Hotel Torghatten is located next to the airport .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Widerøe is the only airline operating scheduled flights out of Brønnøysund , serving it with their Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft . The services to Bodø and Trondheim are subsidized through public service obligations with the Ministry of Transport and Communications .
CHC Helikopter Service operates flights to the offshore oil platform at Norne on contract with Statoil . The oil company flies an average 55 people to the airport with various scheduled services and onwards to the oil field . In addition , the helicopter operator flies to various temporary oil rigs . It has two Sikorsky S @-@ 92 helicopters stationed at Brønnøysund . In 2011 , there were 17 @,@ 229 offshore helicopter passengers which traveled through Brønnøysund Airport .
The Norwegian Air Ambulance operates both a helicopter and fixed @-@ wing air ambulance service out of Brønnøysund Airport . Aircraft operations are subcontracted to Lufttransport , which operates an AgustaWestland AW139 helicopter and a Beech King Air fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Both are manned by medical personnel from Helgeland Hospital Trust . In 2011 , the helicopter flew 465 missions and the fixed @-@ wing aircraft 1022 missions .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
Widerøe Flight 710 took place on 6 May 1988 when a Dash 7 crashed into nearby Torghatten mountain during a landing approach , killing all 36 aboard . It remains the worst accident involving a Dash 7 and is the fourth @-@ worst accident on Norwegian soil .
Helikopter Service Flight 451 took place on 8 September 1997 , when a Eurocopter Super Puma en route to Norne crashed into the Norwegian Sea 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) northwest of the airport , killing all 12 people on board .
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= 1981 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1981 , and lasted until November 30 , 1981 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1981 season was high in activity with 18 tropical depressions and twelve storms forming during the year . Nine of these systems made landfall . Cindy , Harvey , and Irene neither affected land directly nor indirectly .
Hurricane Dennis caused millions of dollars in damage in Dade County , Florida and produced the highest rainfall totals of any tropical cyclone this season . Tropical Depression Eight caused the most damage , due to flooding in Texas at the end of August , and led to most fatalities of any tropical cyclone this season ( five ) . Tropical Depressions Two and Eight caused a majority of the damage and fatalities this season , with both affecting Louisiana and Texas . Katrina was the only named storm with associated fatalities .
= = Seasonal activity = =
The 1981 season was high in activity with eighteen tropical depressions and twelve storms forming that year . The season began early , as Tropical Storm Arlene formed on May 6 . Arlene made landfall in Cuba , being absorbed by a low later . Tropical Depression Two moved out of the Gulf of Mexico into eastern Texas on June 5 , producing localized rainfall amounts of 12 inches ( 300 mm ) and numerous tornadoes over Louisiana before recurving across the Southeast United States . Tropical Storm Bret formed as a subtropical low in the open Atlantic Ocean , and made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula .
Tropical Depression Four formed in the Gulf of Mexico on July 25 , moving into Mexico the next day , and causing heavy rains in west Texas , Oklahoma , and Arkansas when its remnants moved into the United States . Tropical Storm Cindy formed on August 2 in the open Atlantic and became an extratropical cyclone on August 5 . Hurricane Dennis formed on August 7 near South America . Dennis degenerated into a depression while making landfall in the Leeward Islands , but regained storm strength while over Cuba . Dennis moved near the southeast United States coastline from Florida to Virginia , briefly becoming a hurricane . Dennis weakened into a tropical storm and was declared an extratropical cyclone on August 22 .
Tropical Depression Seven formed in mid @-@ August and tracked through the Windward Islands before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Tropical Depression Eight led to a significant flooding event between San Antonio and Houston on August 30 and August 31 while recurving through Texas into Louisiana . Hurricane Emily formed on September 1 southeast of Bermuda . Emily made a cyclonic loop as a tropical storm . Emily strengthened into a hurricane out in the North Atlantic Ocean and by September 12 , was no longer identifiable . Hurricane Floyd was a Category 3 hurricane that grazed Bermuda , but no damage was reported . Hurricane Gert formed September 8 , strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , and followed the same track as Floyd , dissipating near the Azores . Hurricane Harvey became the strongest storm of the season , reaching Category 4 strength . Harvey never affected land , but ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds . Tropical Depression Thirteen brought gusts of tropical storm force to Bermuda in mid @-@ to @-@ late September . Hurricane Irene also stayed out at sea , reaching Category 3 strength and was extratropical in early October . The extratropical Irene made landfall in France .
Tropical Depression Fifteen was small and well @-@ organized as it crossed the tropical Atlantic before weakening as it moved through the northeast Caribbean and southwest North Atlantic during late September and early October . Tropical Storm Jose was a short @-@ lived storm forming out in the open Atlantic in late October . Jose never affected land and dissipated on November 1 near the Azores . Hurricane Katrina formed in the Caribbean Sea , and made landfall in Cuba after reaching hurricane strength . Katrina was the only named storm with fatalities . The final storm of the season , Subtropical Storm Three , formed in the Atlantic Ocean on November 12 and moved north , making landfall in Nova Scotia and becoming extratropical soon after .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 100 , which is classified as " near normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = =
Arlene was a very unusual tropical storm in 1981 . It formed on May 6 , well before the beginning of the normal hurricane season . It developed out of a disturbance that moved from the Pacific Ocean across Central America into the Caribbean Sea . As the disturbance tracked northeast across the western Caribbean , it became a tropical depression , then on May 7 reached tropical storm strength near the Cayman Islands . Arlene struck eastern Cuba on the night of May 7 , and the passage over land weakened it to a depression . It restrengthened briefly over the southeastern Bahamas , but weakened again and was absorbed by another system . Reported damage was minimal .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
A tropical depression formed in the Bay of Campeche near Veracruz , Mexico , on June 3 . The system moved north @-@ northwest , lured by a cyclone over the southern Plains . Tropical Depression Two made landfall along the upper Texas coast on June 5 , spreading up to 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of rainfall northeast of the point of landfall . A total of nine tornadoes stuck the western Gulf coast , with eight touching down in Louisiana . Three people died ; two due to flooding and one from an associated tornado . The depression quickly recurved through the Mississippi Valley , and deepened as it moved off the coast of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states into the western subtropical Atlantic on June 7 . At least US $ 4 million in damage was caused by this depression .
= = = Tropical Storm Bret = = =
Bret formed out of a subtropical low roughly 150 miles ( 240 km ) off the coast of North Carolina . The storm moved west @-@ northwest , striking land in southern Maryland on July 1 . Bret weakened significantly just before landfall , and reported winds were below gale force . Rainfall amounts were light , with a narrow area of over one inch of rain reported near its track and within the central Appalachians . The highest rainfall amount reported was 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) at Big Meadows , Virginia . No significant damage was reported , but one fatality was reported at Nags Head , North Carolina due to riptides .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
A tropical disturbance moved across the Caribbean sea between July 20 and July 24 before moving across the Yucatán peninsula . After emerging into the south @-@ central Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance organized into a tropical depression early on July 25 . The depression moved west @-@ northwest into northeast Mexico on July 26 before its surface circulation dissipated . Heavy rains fell across western Texas , Oklahoma , and Arkansas when the remains of this system interacted with a stationary front across the southern Plains between July 28 and July 30 .
= = = Tropical Storm Cindy = = =
A subtropical depression that developed along a cold front organized into Tropical Storm Cindy on August 2 , in the open Atlantic midway between Bermuda and Nova Scotia . Cindy tracked east @-@ northeast until it became extratropical on August 5 as it moved over colder water . The storm never affected land and caused no known damage .
= = = Hurricane Dennis = = =
Dennis began as Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes typically do . A tropical wave leaving the coast of Africa on August 5 developed into Tropical Storm Dennis on August 7 near Cape Verde . Unlike most such storms , Dennis degenerated to a tropical wave before reaching the Windward Islands on August 12 . This wave crossed the Caribbean , passing over Jamaica before reaching the southwestern coast of Cuba on August 15 .
Once near Cuba , the wave began rapid organization , restrengthening into a tropical storm . It crossed Cuba , then moved into southern Florida . Over Florida , steering currents weakened and the storm stalled . On August 19 , Tropical Storm Dennis reemerged over water , skimming the coasts of the Carolinas before accelerating out to sea . Dennis reached hurricane strength before becoming extratropical on August 22 .
Most damage associated with Dennis was from the heavy rainfall caused by its slow passage over Florida , although two tornadoes were also reported within Florida . The highest amount registered was near Homestead , Florida , where 25 @.@ 56 inches ( 649 mm ) of rain was measured . Agriculture damage in Dade County , Florida was estimated at $ 15 million ( 1981 USD ) . Coastal areas of the Carolinas were also affected by heavy rainfall , with spots seeing over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) , as well as minor beach erosion .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =
This system developed across the tropical Atlantic ocean on August 18 , moving westward through the Windward islands into the eastern Caribbean Sea before dissipating on August 21 .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
This tropical depression formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 26 and moved slowly northwest , moving ashore northeast Mexico on August 29 and into the United States on August 30 . As an ill @-@ defined surface low , a large thunderstorm complex formed near its center that day , unleashing heavy rainfall in a band 50 miles ( 80 km ) wide which stretched along a path 200 miles ( 320 km ) long from Seguin , Texas to north of Houston , Texas . The highest rainfall amount reported was from Pine Springs in Fayette County , Texas , where 21 inches ( 530 mm ) fell in the 24 ‑ hour period ending on the morning of August 31 . Five died in the town of Shiner , Texas due to the flood . Downtown Halletsville flooded to a depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . Significant flooding occurred along the Lavaca , Guadalupe , and Colorado rivers in Texas . The cyclone spawned 14 tornadoes as well , including one at Scholes Field in Galveston , Texas which produced winds as high as 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) at 7 : 15 pm on August 31 .
Its surface circulation remained ill @-@ defined as it produced another round of heavy rainfall across northwest Louisiana on September 1 . A large mesoscale convective system moved in from Oklahoma and northeast Texas , dissipating what was left of this tropical depression by September 2 . Paid losses by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) totaled nearly US $ 21 million ( 1981 dollars ) , with total damages exceeding US $ 26 million ( 1981 dollars ) .
= = = Hurricane Emily = = =
On September 1 , a subtropical storm became Tropical Storm Emily southwest of Bermuda . Emily moved northeast , crossing the island the next day , but measured winds were below tropical storm force . The storm continued generally northeast and strengthened into a hurricane . Hurricane Emily weakened over the north Atlantic and was no longer identifiable as a weather system by September 12 . Hurricane Emily caused beach erosion across the East Coast of the United States , but no other damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Floyd = = =
Floyd was first tracked as a tropical depression on September 3 when it organized east of the Leeward Islands . As the depression moved northwest , it caused heavy rain . The highest rainfall reported was 5 @.@ 7 inches ( 140 mm ) at Antigua . It strengthened into a tropical storm , then reached hurricane strength on September 7 .
Floyd turned to the northeast , and passed just southeast of Bermuda as a weakening hurricane . As a tropical storm , Floyd moved east across the Atlantic until losing its identity on September 12 .
No damages are associated with Floyd . Although Bermuda was directly affected , the island experienced the weaker half of the storm .
= = = Hurricane Gert = = =
A tropical wave exited western Africa on September 1 , gradually developing a concentrated area of convection . Early on September 7 , it was estimated that Tropical Depression Eleven about 400 mi ( 640 km ) east of the Leeward Islands , based on satellite imagery . The next day , data from the Hurricane Hunters indicated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gert . The newly upgraded storm passed between the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe and continued to intensify , making landfall on southeastern Puerto Rico with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late September 8 . After emerging into the Atlantic , Gert weakened while passing off the north coast of the Dominican Republic . It restrengthened while turning northward near the Bahamas , becoming a hurricane on September 10 . Midday on September 11 , Gert attained its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The hurricane turned northeastward and weakened over cooler waters , passing about 100 mi ( 160 km ) north of Bermuda on September 12 as a tropical storm . On September 14 , Gert weakened further to tropical depression status , dissipating the next day .
While passing through the Leeward Islands , Gert dropped moderate rainfall of 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 148 @.@ 5 mm ) on St. Thomas . Winds gusted to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on the island . In Puerto Rico , rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 02 inches ( 153 mm ) in the Puerto Rican municipality of Maricao . Gale warnings were issued for the Turks and Caicos Islands and later the southeastern Bahamas , and light rainfall occurred in the region , reaching 3 @.@ 20 inches ( 81 @.@ 28 mm ) on the island of San Salvador . Winds were light in Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Harvey = = =
Harvey formed in the central Atlantic , reaching hurricane strength only a few hours after first becoming a named system on September 12 . From its initial position several hundred miles east of the Leeward Islands , Harvey moved northwest . Its path began curving more to the north , and was considered a threat to Bermuda until the continuing curve took Harvey away from the island . Harvey 's track became more easterly , and the storm weakened and became extratropical as it approached the Azores . Harvey caused no reported damage , although several ships reported experiencing tropical storm force winds .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =
The thirteenth tropical depression developed 275 mi ( 443 km ) southwest of Bermuda on September 22 , and was initially expected to intensify into a tropical storm . Although it failed to further intensify , Tropical Depression Thirteen brought squalls to Bermuda with winds gusts of tropical storm force as it passed west of the island on September 23 . Moving northward , the system merged with a developing extratropical cyclone south of Nova Scotia on September 24 .
= = = Hurricane Irene = = =
Irene became a named storm midway between the Windward Islands and Cape Verde on September 23 , and its track mimicked that of Hurricane Harvey . The storm tracked northwest , becoming a hurricane on September 25 . Its track then began curving to the east , eventually resulting in motion to the northeast .
The storm weakened and became extratropical in early October . The remaining extratropical storm moved over France on October 3 .
= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen = = =
This tropical depression formed southwest of the Cape Verde Islands on September 27 , and tracked through the deep tropics before weakening as it moved over the Leeward Islands late on September 30 . Heavy rains occurred at Guadeloupe as the system passed by the island . The depression then recurved to the south and east of Bermuda late on October 3 .
= = = Tropical Storm Jose = = =
Jose was a weak and short @-@ lived tropical storm that formed far from land on October 29 . It moved generally northeast before becoming subtropical and then dissipating on November 1 near the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Katrina = = =
A tropical depression formed on November 3 in the western Caribbean Sea about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of the Cayman Islands . The depression moved north , reaching tropical storm strength as it moved through the Caymans . Katrina continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane strength half a day before landfall in Cuba . A weakening Katrina moved across eastern Cuba on November 6 . After emerging over water , the storm accelerated northeast through the Bahamas . Katrina 's circulation fell apart , and the storm merged with a front on November 8 .
Hurricane Katrina is reported to have killed two and caused widespread flood damage in Cuba 's Camagüey province . Katrina was the only named storm responsible for fatalities in 1981 .
= = = Subtropical Storm Three = = =
A frontal low over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream organized into an subtropical storm on November 12 while 400 miles ( 640 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . After moving northeastward , it turned to the northwest , threatening the northeastern United States as an intensifying subtropical storm that was gradually developing tropical characteristics . A high pressure system turned it to the northeast , and after peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) it became extratropical near Nova Scotia on November 17 . The storm produced significant beach erosion and coastal flooding .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1981 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1987 season . It was the first use for all of these names since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Arlene , Cindy and Irene which had been previously used in 1959 , 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
Due to lack of major damage from the storms , the WMO did not retire any names in 1981 . They were used again in 1987 .
= = Season summary = =
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= Günther Lützow =
Günther Lützow ( 4 September 1912 – 24 April 1945 ) was a German Luftwaffe aviator and fighter ace credited with 110 enemy aircraft shot down in over 300 combat missions . Apart from five victories during the Spanish Civil War , most of his claimed victories were over the Eastern Front in World War II . He also claimed 20 victories over the Western Front , including two victories — one of which was a four @-@ engined bomber — flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter .
Born in Kiel , Lützow volunteered for military service in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic in 1931 . In parallel , he was accepted for flight training with the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule , a covert military @-@ training organization , and at the Lipetsk fighter @-@ pilot school . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader " Richthofen " ( Fighter Wing " Richthofen " ) in 1934 . In 1937 , he volunteered for service with the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War where he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) in Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) . From April to September 1937 , he claimed five aerial victories . For his service in Spain he was awarded the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds , Germany 's highest decoration of the Spanish Civil War .
After an assignment as fighter pilot instructor , he was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) in Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) following the outbreak of World War II . He led the Gruppe through the Battle of France and claimed his first victory of World War II on 14 May 1940 . Lützow became Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 3 on 21 August 1940 . After 15 aerial victories during the Battle of Britain , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 September 1940 . Lützow commanded JG 3 in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . There , after his 42nd aerial victory , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 20 July 1941 . Three months later , following his 92nd aerial victory of the war , Lützow was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 11 October 1941 . On 24 October , he claimed his 100th victory of the war , becoming the second fighter pilot after Werner Mölders to do so . From September to November 1941 , he also served as acting commander of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) , replacing Friedrich Beckh , who had been injured in combat , until the position was filled by Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann . After being instructed not to fly operations , he ignored the order , adding two more victories before being posted on 11 August 1942 to the staff of General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) Adolf Galland , serving as " Inspector of Day Fighters , East " .
In July 1943 , Lützow was tasked with commanding fighter operations in Italy . From September 1943 to March 1944 , he led the 1 . Jagd Division ( 1st Fighter Division ) , commanding all day- and night @-@ fighter operations in northwestern Germany , the Netherlands and Belgium . Lützow 's role in the " Fighter Pilots Revolt " was considered mutiny by Hermann Göring , who exiled Lützow to Italy . In April 1945 , he joined Galland 's Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 — 44th Fighter Detachment ) . He was reported missing in action flying the Me 262 on 24 April 1945 while attempting to intercept a U.S. Army Air Forces B @-@ 26 Marauder raid near Donauwörth . His body was never recovered .
= = Early life and career = =
Lützow was born on 4 September 1912 in Kiel , at the time the capital of the Province of Schleswig @-@ Holstein , a province of the Kingdom of Prussia . He was the third of five children of Friedrich Lützow , a naval officer , and his wife Hildegard , née Kinzel . He had an older brother , Werner , an older sister , Liselotte ( Elisabeth Charlotte ) , a younger sister , Hildegard , and a younger brother , Joachim . The family at the time lived at the Reventlouallee 23 on the west bank of the Kieler Förde . This was close to the German Imperial Naval Academy where his father attended a two @-@ year Admiralty Staff training course . Following the outbreak of World War I , his father was posted to the staff of the Führer der Unterseeboote ( Commander of Submarines ) Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Hermann Bauer , and the family had to move to Wilhelmshaven .
Lützow graduated with his Abitur ( university @-@ preparatory high school diploma ) on 31 March 1931 from the Schulpforta , a boarding school for academically gifted students . Unlike his brothers , who both pursued a naval career , Lützow joined the Reichswehr ( Army of the Weimar Republic ) following his graduation from school . This decision had been influenced by his mother 's youngest brother , Eberhard Kinzel , at the time an officer in the Reichswehr and later General der Infanterie ( General of the Infantry ) in the Heer ( German Army ) .
On 7 April 1931 Lützow began his pilot training at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( DVS — German Air Transport School ) at Schleißheim . The DVS was headed by Karl Bolle , a World War I fighter pilot , and his flight instructor was Wilhelm Stör , another World War I fighter pilot . He and 29 other trainees were part of Kameradschaft 31 ( camaraderie of 1931 ) , abbreviated " K 31 " . Among the members of " K 31 " were future Luftwaffe staff officers Bernd von Brauchitsch , Wolfgang Falck , Günther Radusch and Hannes Trautloft . Lützow graduated from the DVS on 19 February 1932 . In late September 1931 , Lützow and three other students made a cross @-@ country flight from Schleißheim to Berlin . The flight was made in two 2 @-@ seater Klemm Kl 26 training aircraft . Lützow , as the best air navigation student of his class , flew in the navigator 's position . In the Luftstreitkräfte of World War I , the pilot was called " Emil " and the navigator was called " Franz " . From that point on , Lützow was nicknamed " Franz " or the diminutive " Franzl " ( little Franz ) . From " K 31 " , Lützow and nine others were recommended for Sonderausbildung ( special training ) at the Lipetsk fighter @-@ pilot school .
Following his return from flight training , Lützow joined 5 . ( Preußisches ) Infanterie @-@ Regiment ( 5th ( Prussian ) Infantry Regiment ) , at first in Greifswald ( 15 October 1932 – 31 January 1933 ) as a Offizieranwärter ( officer candidate ) . There he completed his basic training . From 1 February to 31 March 1933 , he served with 5 . ( Preußisches ) Infanterie @-@ Regiment in Stettin . He then attended the Kriegsschule ( war school ) in Dresden and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 October 1934 . In 1935 , he officially transferred to the newly formed Luftwaffe , at first serving as a fighter pilot instructor at Schleißheim ( 8 March 1935 – 31 March 1936 ) followed by a posting to II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Sturzkampfgeschwader 162 ( StG 162 — 162nd Diver Bomber Wing ) at Lübeck @-@ Blankensee ( 1 April – 3 November 1936 ) . In parallel , from 1 May to 1 November 1936 , Lützow held the position of Staffeloffizier ( squadron officer ) with 4 . Staffel ( 4th squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 132 " Richthofen " ( JG 132 — 132nd Fighter Wing ) at Jüterbog @-@ Damm .
= = Spanish Civil War = =
During the Spanish Civil War , Lützow volunteered for service with the Condor Legion , a unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and from the Heer which served with the Nationalists . On 19 March 1937 , he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) .
From March to September 1937 , Lützow , now an Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) , claimed five victories , including the first ever recorded claim by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 pilot . Flying a Bf 109 B , he shot down an Polikarpov I @-@ 15 , a Soviet built biplane fighter aircraft , on 6 April 1937 . On 26 April 1937 , air elements of the Condor Legion targeted and bombed Guernica , an attack which has been characterised as a war crime by Wette and Ueberschär , but Lützow did not participate in the attack as he was on home leave from 8 – 29 April 1937 . After he returned , Lützow claimed three more I @-@ 15s shot down , one on 22 May , another on 28 May , and his last on 18 August 1937 . His final aerial victory in Spain was over a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 , a monoplane fighter aircraft , which he shot down on 22 August 1937 .
On 16 October 1937 , Lützow was assigned to the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM — Ministry of Aviation ) Sonderstab W. ( special staff " W " ) under the command of and named after General Helmuth Wilberg . Sonderstab W. was responsible for collecting and analyzing the tactical lessons of the Spanish Civil War . Lützow wrote up his report , Erfahrungsbericht Winterausbildung 1937 / 1938 , Jüterbog @-@ Damm , 5 . Staffel ( field report winter training 1937 / 1938 , Jüterbog @-@ Damm , 5th squadron ) documenting his Spanish experiences and tactical proposals . His report referred to the finger @-@ four formation as the clearly superior tactical formation for contemporary fighter operations . Lützow 's comrade Werner Mölders solved the problem of manoeuvring a finger @-@ four formation months later by introducing what is still known today as the " crossover turn " or " tac turn " . At RLM , Lützow received his promotion to Hauptmann ( captain ) on 20 November 1937 . For his achievements in Spain , Lützow was honored with the Spanish Medalla de la Campaña and Medalla Militar and the German Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( Spanienkreuz in Gold mit Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 6 June 1939 .
On 12 February 1938 , Lützow met his future wife Gisela von Priesdorff , the oldest daughter of military historian Kurt von Priesdorff , at a carnival party held at the Jagdfliegerschule 1 ( fighter pilot school ) at Werneuchen . On 19 July 1938 the two were officially engaged , and they married on 11 March 1939 at the Holy Trinity Church in Berlin . They had a son , Hans @-@ Ulrich , born 29 January 1940 , and a daughter , Carola , born 31 August 1942 . On 1 November 1938 , Lützow became a head flight instructor at Jagdfliegerschule 1 at Werneuchen , replacing Johannes Janke . At the time Jagdfliegerschule 1 , was under the command of Theo Osterkamp , a World War I fighter pilot .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . Lützow did not participate in this campaign . He was tasked with providing fighter protection for Berlin . From the Jagdfliegerschule in Werneuchen , he detached two squadrons and placed them under the command of Jagdgruppe 20 based at Strausberg . At the end of October 1939 , a change in command of I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) was announced . The former commander Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Otto @-@ Heinrich von Houwald was transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule in Werneuchen . Lützow joined I. Gruppe on 1 November 1939 , officially taking over command as Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) two days later .
= = = Battle of France = = =
On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht began its offensive Operation Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb ) , the invasion of France and the neutral Low Countries . I. Gruppe of JG 3 participated in the offensive as a subordinated unit of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) . During the Battle of France , JG 77 was under control of I. Fliegerkorps ( 1st Air Corps ) , which formed the right wing of Luftflotte 3 ( 3rd Air Fleet ) in Belgium and the Netherlands .
On 14 May 1940 , Lützow claimed his first two aerial victories of World War II . Flying out of Hargimont , his flight was tasked with providing fighter cover in the area northwest of Dinant . At 8 : 00 pm , the flight encountered 15 to 20 Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk fighter aircraft . Without loss , I. Gruppe claimed seven Curtisses shot down , including two claimed by Lützow . The next day , he claimed another P @-@ 36 southeast of Charleroi , his third victory of the war . On 19 May in combat north of Arras , he claimed a Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft . Lützow claimed his fifth and sixth victory of the war on 31 May 1940 , shooting down two Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 fighter aircraft south of Amiens . This was followed by another P @-@ 36 on 3 June . On 6 June , he claimed a Bristol Blenheim light bomber followed by another Blenheim shot down on 8 June . This latter Blenheim was shot down when Lützow was returning from a Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber escort mission . The Blenheim IV was flying alone unescorted and Lützow set it on fire . The bomber exploded in midair near Abbeville .
On 23 June 1940 , I. Gruppe was moved to a forward airfield at Grandvilliers in preparation for missions over the Channel Coast , but the following day , all Bf 109s were sent to Wiesbaden , via Brussels , for a thorough maintenance check . The overhaul detachment arrived in Wiesbaden in the late afternoon and the pilots were sent on home leave . The cease @-@ fire of the Armistice of 22 June 1940 went into effect on 25 June 1940 , ending the Battle of France . During the French campaign , Lützow flew 64 combat missions and claimed nine victories . Under his leadership , I. Gruppe was one of the most successful units in this campaign . It was credited with 88 aerial victories for the loss of six pilots killed and ten Bf 109s destroyed .
By 3 July 1940 , the majority of the Bf 109s had returned to Grandvilliers from maintenance overhaul . At the time , Lützow had 45 pilots and 33 Bf 109 Es for disposition , 28 of the aircraft being operational . I. Gruppe flew its first missions over the Channel Coast on the evening of 5 July 1940 . In the following days flight operations were impeded by a period of bad weather . On 1 August 1940 , I. Gruppe was moved to Colembert , the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) and the other two Gruppen were moved to airfields in the vicinity of Boulogne . In preparations for actions against Great Britain , JG 3 was put under the control of Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) , thus placing it under the command of Jagdfliegerführer 2 Oberst ( Colonel ) Osterkamp .
On 1 August 1940 , Adolf Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) ; the strategic objective of which was to engage and defeat the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) so as to achieve air superiority in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain . Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Realm ) Hermann Göring , in his role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Luftwaffe ordered an attack on RAF Fighter Command 's ground organization , code named Adlertag ( Operation Eagle Attack ) . On 13 August , 485 bomber and approximately 1 @,@ 000 fighter sorties were flown , targeting British airfields in southern England . Lützow claimed his first aerial victory in the Battle of Britain on 16 August 1940 , shooting down a Supermarine Spitfire over Kent .
= = = Wing commander of JG 3 = = =
At the height of the Battle of Britain on 21 August 1940 , it was announced that Lützow was to be appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 3 . He officially took command of JG 3 on 25 August and was promoted to Major ( major ) on 30 August 1940 . On 25 August , command of I. Gruppe was handed over to Oberleutnant Lothar Keller who led the Gruppe until the new Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann Hans von Hahn arrived at the end of August . Lützow 's former adjutant with I. Gruppe , Friedrich @-@ Franz von Cramon , joined him at the Geschwaderstab and continued to serve as his adjutant . Under Lützow 's command , the Geschwaderstab was based on the Channel Coast until 16 February 1941 , at first in Colembert , then in August 1940 it was moved to Wierre @-@ au @-@ Bois and at the end of September to Desvres . Lützow , as Geschwaderkommodore , claimed eight victories during the Battle of Britain , his 11th – 18th of the war .
On 26 August 1940 , Lützow claimed a pair of Boulton Paul Defiant fighters from No. 264 Squadron off the north Kent coast . On 27 August 1940 , Lützow , and other Geschwaderkommodore , were summoned to a meeting held by Jagdfliegerführer 2 , Generalmajor ( Major General ) Kurt @-@ Bertram von Döring in Wissant . This meeting was also attended by Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Albert Kesselring , and the commanding general of the II . Fliegerkorps Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Bruno Loerzer . The subject of the meeting was the perceived lack of fighter protection provided for the bomber arm by the Jagdwaffe ( fighter force ) . The bomber crews had demanded the fighter escorts fly closer to the bombers , within visual proximity , increasing perceived security of the bomber crews . The generals accused the Geschwaderkommodere of being overly interested in accumulating aerial victories and awards at the expense of exposing the bombers to enemy attacks . Lützow argued that a fighter aircraft , such as the Bf 109 , required speed and space to combat the fast and more agile RAF fighter aircraft . The discussion ended with a compromise , some of the fighters were ordered to fly close and at the same speed as the bombers , while other fighters were to fly 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 – 6 @,@ 600 feet ) above the main bomber force , clearing the airspace of enemy fighters in the direction the bomber force was flying .
In September 1940 , Lützow claimed three Hurricanes , one each on 7 , 9 and 15 September . In addition to the 15 aerial victories he had claimed since the start of the war , he was credited with three ground victories and one barrage balloon destroyed . Subsequently , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernes Kreuzes ) on 18 September 1940 . The presentation was made by Göring at the headquarters of the Befehlshaber der Wehrmachts in den Niederlanden ( Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht in the Netherlands ) , General der Flieger ( General of the Flyers ) Friedrich Christiansen , at Wassenaar near The Hague on 19 September . That day , both Lützow and Wolfgang Schellmann , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , were so honored . Lützow was credited with three further victories against the RAF , two P @-@ 36s shot down on 5 October , and a Spitfire on 5 November 1940 . These were his last victories claimed over the Western Front until 1945 , taking his World War II score to 18 .
In spring 1941 , Geschwaderstab of JG 3 was transferred to Mannheim @-@ Sandhofen for a period of rest and conversion to the new Bf 109 F @-@ 2 . On 4 May 1941 , the Geschwaderstab was sent back into combat along the Channel Coast . On 7 May 1941 , Lützow 's Bf 109 F @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 8117 — factory number ) suffered minor damage in combat when his tail surfaces were shot up . Operating from Saint @-@ Pol @-@ Brias until 8 June , the Geschwaderstab flew missions over southern England and the English Channel without filing any claims or sustaining any losses .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , the Geschwaderstab began heading east on 8 June 1941 . They stopped for several days at Breslau @-@ Gandau , the present day Wrocław – Copernicus Airport in Poland . On 18 June , the Geschwaderstab relocated to Hostynne , from where on 22 June 1941 , Lützow led JG 3 in combat against the Soviet Union . At the start of the campaign , JG 3 was subordinated to the V. Fliegerkorps ( 5th Air Corps ) , under command of General der Flieger Robert Ritter von Greim , which was part of Luftflotte 4 ( 4th Air Fleet ) , under command of Generaloberst Alexander Löhr . These air elements supported Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt 's Heeresgruppe Süd ( Army Group South ) , with the objective of capturing the Ukraine and its capital Kiev .
Lützow claimed nine aerial victories in his first week on the Eastern Front . The first victory , an I @-@ 18 fighter , a variant of the Polikarpov I @-@ 16 , was achieved on the opening day of Barbarossa . On the second day of Barbarossa , he accounted for two Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bombers . On 24 June , he filed a claim for a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 biplane fighter destroyed . Two days later , he destroyed three aircraft , two SB @-@ 2 bombers and a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft . On 27 June , he shot down an Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bomber followed by another Pe @-@ 2 on the following day , his last victory of June 1941 . Following a DB @-@ 3 bomber claimed on 7 July , Lützow was credited with four aerial victories on 10 July , consisting of one Vultee V @-@ 11 attack aircraft and three I @-@ 153s . The next day he claimed an II @-@ 16 . On 15 July he shot down two further I @-@ 16s and another DB @-@ 3 taking his total to 36 World War II victories .
On 16 July 1941 , Lützow claimed three further victories — a SB @-@ 2 , an I @-@ 16 and a DB @-@ 3 — and another DB @-@ 3 the next day . On 20 July , he claimed his 42nd aerial victory of the war , two V @-@ 11s . On the same day he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) , and was the 27th member of the Wehrmacht so honored .
Major Friedrich Beckh , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) at the time , was wounded in combat on 16 September . During Beckh 's convalescence , Lützow temporarily commanded both JG 51 and JG 3 until 21 December when Beckh returned . On 23 September , Lützow suffered combat damage to his radiator and had to make a forced landing behind Soviet lines near Krasnograd . He managed to return to the German lines unhurt . In October he claimed 29 victories , including five bombers shot down on 8 October . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 11 October 1941 at which point he had accumulated 92 aerial victories since 1 September 1939 . The presentation was made on 12 October 1941 by Hitler at the Führer Headquarter Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) in Rastenburg ( now Kętrzyn in Poland ) .
On 24 October 1941 , Lützow became the second fighter pilot , after Mölders , to amass 100 aerial victories in World War II . This event was also mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , on 25 October 1941 . Fearing his loss in combat , Lützow was then grounded , an order he did not always obey . In early November , he led Stab JG 3 back to Germany to rest and re @-@ equip . During this period , Lützow participated in the honor guard for Generaloberst Ernst Udet . Udet had committed suicide on 17 November 1941 and on 1 December JG 3 received the honorary name " Udet " . In May 1942 Lützow and JG 3 commenced operations near Kharkov before moving into the Crimea and operating around Stalingrad . Lützow added one victory when he claimed a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 fighter on 21 May 1942 for his 107th kill . On 11 August , Lützow handed over command of JG 3 to Hauptmann Wolf @-@ Dietrich Wilcke .
According to Braatz , sometime in June 1942 ( most likely in Grakowo ) , Lützow was visited by two men from the SS . They were of lower rank . After Lützow asked them how he could be of assistance to them they responded by requesting as many of his men as possible to form up execution squads to liquidate Jews , Soviet Political Officers and other " scum " . Lützow was furious and ordered the entire Geschwader in full dress uniform to assemble and before the Jagdgeschwader he explained what the SS had requested and how he considered this act to be barbaric and criminal . He threatened to resign from command and take off his uniform if a single soldier volunteered . Braatz speculated whether this act got Lützow into trouble with the SS and the NSDAP .
= = = Luftwaffe commander = = =
In August 1942 , Lützow was posted to the staff of General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) Adolf Galland as Inspector of Day Fighters , Eastern Area . Braatz argues that Galland 's decision to appoint Lützow to this position may have been motivated by a desire to get him out of the " line of fire " from the SS and NSDAP . On 1 April 1943 , Lützow was promoted to Oberst ( colonel ) .
In July 1943 , Lützow became Inspector of Day Fighters , Italian Front , based in Naples . From September 1943 to March 1944 , he commanded the 1 . Jagd @-@ Division ( 1st Fighter Division ) in Defense of the Reich at Döberitz , where he assumed command for day- and night @-@ fighter operations in northwestern Germany , the Netherlands and Belgium . 1 . Jagd @-@ Division was under control of 1 . Jagd @-@ Korps ( 1st Fighter Corps ) commanded by Generalmajor Joseph Schmid . Lützow was relieved of this command on 16 March 1944 due to personal differences with Schmid . Following his dismissal , he was given command of the 4 . Flieger @-@ Schuldivision ( 4th Flyers Training Division ) .
= = = Dismissal and death = = =
Lützow became known as a central figure and spokesman behind the Fighter Pilots ' Mutiny which escalated in a meeting with Göring on 22 January 1945 . This was an attempt to reinstate Galland who had been dismissed for outspokenness regarding the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Luftwaffe high command ) , and had been replaced by Oberst Gordon Gollob as General der Jagdflieger . The meeting was held at the Haus der Flieger in Berlin and was attended by a number of high @-@ ranking fighter pilot leaders which included Lützow , Hermann Graf , Gerhard Michalski , Helmut Bennemann , Kurt Bühligen , Erich Leie and Herbert Ihlefeld , and their antagonist Göring supported by his staff Brauchitsch and Karl Koller . The fighter pilots , with Lützow taking the lead as spokesman , criticized Göring and made him personally responsible for the decisions taken which effectively had led to the lost air war over Europe . This behavior , the fact that someone dared to criticize Göring in his leadership abilities , was regarded as mutiny by Göring , who relieved him of command and had him posted to Italy to take over Jagdfliegerführer Oberitalien ( Fighter Leader Northern Italy ) from Oberst Eduard Neumann . Göring exiled Lützow from Germany by placing him under " Reichsacht " ( lit . " Ban from the Reich " ) . He was not allowed to inform his secretary in Jüterbog nor his wife back home , he immediately had to leave Germany .
In early April 1945 , Lützow joined Galland 's Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 — 44th Fighter Detachment ) at Munich @-@ Riem . JV 44 was equipped with the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter , an aircraft which was heavily armed and faster than any Allied fighter . Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the numerical superiority of the Allies . Lützow had been released from his position as fighter leader in Italy and Galland appointed him as his adjutant . Lützow was credited with two aerial victories flying the Me 262 .
Lützow was posted missing in action following combat on 24 April 1945 while attempting to intercept an attack by United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder medium bombers near Donauwörth . According to Stockert , an examination of U.S. records by Mr. Hirst indicates that Lützow 's Me 262 crashed near Schrobenhausen . The USAAF flew three attacks against the oil terminals at Schrobenhausen , south of Neuburg an der Donau , that day . On their second mission , 22 B @-@ 26 bombers escorted by 16 Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft , were just beginning their bomb run at 3 : 25 pm , when they came under attack by four Me 262s . Two P @-@ 47s came diving down from their top cover position to fend off the attacking jets . In this account , one Me 262 pilot noticed that he was about to come under attack and attempted to dive away . Unable to recover from this dive , the American pilots observed the Me 262 crashing into a small hill . This Me 262 may have been piloted by Lützow .
That day , Lützow had led a flight of six Me 262s of JV 44 against a force of 256 medium bombers of the 322nd and 344th Bombardment Group ( 344th BG ) . Lützow 's flight included Hauptmann Walter Krupinski and Oberleutnant Klaus Neumann . Two of the Me 262s had to abort the mission due to engine problems . The remaining four , of which at least Lützow 's and Neumann 's Me 262s were armed with the R4M air @-@ to @-@ air rockets , attacked elements of 344th BG . Following the first attack , at least three B @-@ 26 Marauder bombers were seen trailing smoke , when the Me 262s came under attack by P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft of the 365th Fighter Group . Blue Flight leader Captain Jerry G. Mast and his wingman , Second Lieutenant Byron Smith , went into full power dives to drive the attacking Me 262s away . Following the dive , Smith got separated from Mast and pursued an Me 262 . Mast and Second Lieutenant William H. Myers then jointly went after another Me 262 which went into an even steeper dive . The Me 262 was seen crashing into the ground and exploding . In Forsyth 's account , the Me 262 chased by Mast and Myers was Lützow 's and had been flying furthest to the south .
On 28 April 2015 , the Augsburger Allgemeine , a German regional daily newspaper , published an article stating that according to Erich Bäcker , Lützow attempted an emergency landing at Donaumünster / Erlingshofen and crashed into the Danube . Bäcker made his claim based on reports made by eye @-@ witnesses who saw a low flying Me 262 crashing into the Danube that day .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Lützow was credited with 110 enemy aircraft shot down in 310 combat missions . He claimed five victories in Spain , and 105 during World War II . The majority of his World War II victories were claimed over the Eastern Front , although 20 were claimed over the Western Front , two of which were achieved while flying the Me 262 jet fighter . These included one four @-@ engined bomber .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Lützow an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates conflicting information regarding the date or type of the aerial victory .
= = Awards = =
Spanish Medalla de la Campaña
Spanish Medalla Militar
Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 July 1939 )
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 300 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 26 May 1940 )
1st Class ( 3 June 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 18 September 1940 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3
27th Oak Leaves on 20 July 1941 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3
4th Swords on 11 October 1941 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht
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= Imperator torosus =
Imperator torosus , commonly known as the brawny bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . It is native to southern Europe east to the Caucasus and Israel . It is generally associated with deciduous trees such as hornbeam , oak and beech in warm , dry locales . Although generally rare in Europe , it appears to be relatively common in Hungary . Appearing in summer and autumn on chalky soils , the stocky fruit bodies have an ochre cap up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) across , yellow pores on the cap underside , and a wine @-@ red to brown or blackish stipe up to 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The pale yellow flesh changes to different colours when broken or bruised depending on age ; younger mushrooms become reddish , and older ones additionally take on bluish tones .
Elias Magnus Fries and Christopher Theodor Hök first described this species as Boletus torosus in 1835 , a name by which it was known for many years . Modern molecular phylogenetics shows that it is only distantly related to Boletus edulis — the type species of Boletus — and it was duly placed in the new genus Imperator in 2015 . Eating raw mushrooms of this species leads to vomiting and diarrhea . Gastrointestinal symptoms have also occurred after eating cooked specimens , though some people have eaten it without ill @-@ effects .
= = Taxonomy = =
Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan described the brawny bolete as Boletus pachypus in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse . Many of his names have been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan had a narrow species concept , dividing many taxa into multiple species that were not supported by other authorities , and his works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently . Swedish mycologists Elias Magnus Fries and Christopher Theodor Hök described Boletus torosus in 1835 based on Secretan 's B. pachypus — distinct from the B. pachypus described by Fries himself . Fries reported in his 1838 book Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum that he had not actually observed the species , and he did not designate a type specimen or illustration . The specific epithet torosus , which derives from Latin , means " muscular " . In the United Kingdom , it is known commonly as the " brawny bolete " . The German name Ochsen @-@ Röhrling means " oxen bolete " and the French bolet vigoureux is " strong bolete " .
French naturalist Lucien Quélet transferred the species to the now @-@ obsolete genus Dictyopus in 1886 , which resulted in the synonym Dictyopus torosus . Boletus xanthocyaneus , first described by Henri Romagnesi in 1948 as Boletus purpureus var. xanthocyaneus and classified as a species in 1976 , was considered by Italian mycologist Carlo Luciano Alessio to be synonymous with B. torosus . Others , however , regard this fungus a distinct species . In 2013 Italian mycologists Valerio Bertolini and Giampaolo Simonini observed that the brevity of the original species description meant that some subsequent papers used B. torosus for specimens that aligned more closely with descriptions of Boletus rhodopurpureus or B. luteocupreus ( both now placed in the genus Imperator ) . They did note that Swiss and French authors had adhered to a more detailed description by Quélet , and that this was the only description faithful to the original description with a grey cap and yellow pores that slowly turn red . They concluded the original description must have been based on specimens growing near the French @-@ Swiss border and hence selected a neotype specimen from this region .
Within the large genus Boletus , the brawny bolete was classified in the section Luridi , which included species producing medium to large fruit bodies with thick , swollen stipes , and minute pores . In 1996 , Czech mycologist Jiří Hlaváček further subdivided the section Luridi , defining and naming the subsection Torosi — for B. torosus — to contain boletes that strongly bruised blue @-@ black with handling .
In a molecular analysis of Boletaceae phylogeny , the brawny bolete was most closely related to Boletus luteocupreus ; these two species formed a clade that was sister to B. luridus . Genetic analysis published in 2013 showed that B. torosus and many ( but not all ) red @-@ pored boletes were part of a dupainii clade ( named for B. dupainii ) , well @-@ removed from the core group of Boletus edulis ( the type species of genus Boletus ) and relatives within the Boletineae . This indicated that the brawny bolete and its relatives needed to be placed in a new genus . It was made the type species of the new genus Imperator , becoming Imperator torosus , in 2015 .
= = Description = =
Quite heavy compared with other mushrooms of similar size , the stocky fruit body contains relatively high amounts of chitin . Holding the brawny bolete has been described as " having a stone in your hand " . The cap is 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter . Hemispherical when young , it extends and flattens into a convex and finally a flattish shape , sometimes forming a slight depression in the centre . Initially curled downward and inward , the cap margin gradually turns outward , eventually flattening in maturity , and sometimes protruding beyond the pored undersurface . The surface texture starts out slightly velvety , but becomes smoother and hairless with age ; in moist weather , the cap is slightly sticky . Changing over time , the colour of the cap is initially vivid yellow or golden yellow , then ochre , then darkening in age to brown . However , if the cap cuticle is bruised , or even touched , there are sudden changes in the colour that depend on the age of the mushroom : young , yellow caps become cherry @-@ red , while ochre @-@ brown cap tissue bruises to reddish @-@ purple . These colour changes soon give way to bluish or greyish tones , which , when combined , give the cap a variegated appearance .
The pores on the cap underside are round and small , the sulfur @-@ yellow colour of the pore surface becoming less intense with age . The squat stipe measures 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . Egg @-@ shaped when young , it lengthens somewhat as the mushroom grows , but is still bulbous in maturity ; a mature stipe is typically a little shorter than the diameter of the cap . It is initially roughly the same colour as the cap , but as it matures , develops a wine @-@ red colouration near the base and a dirty brown to bluish @-@ black colouration elsewhere . The surface has a mesh @-@ like pattern ( reticulation ) that has a colour development similar to that of the cap : initially yellow , then purplish , and finally dark brown . The flesh is thick and hard . It is yellow , except for the stipe base where it is deep red , or dark brownish in older mushrooms . The pores , stipe and flesh turn greenish @-@ blue with bruising or cutting . The smell is unpleasant , but the taste is mild .
The spore print is olive @-@ brown . The smooth oval spores measure 12 – 15 by 5 – 6 μm , and sometimes have an internal oil drop . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 22 – 34 by 8 – 9 μm . The fusiform ( fuse @-@ shaped ) cystidia are colourless with oil droplets , and have dimensions of 40 – 50 by 7 – 8 μm . Cap cuticle tissue is in the form of a trichoderm , where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These cylindrical , interwoven hyphae contain septa .
= = = Similar species = = =
The Mediterranean species Boletus poikilochromus somewhat resembles I. torosus , but can usually be distinguished by a smaller fruit body , a cylindrical stipe , and the lighter colours of younger mushrooms . Also , B. poikilochromus does not feature the colour change of the stipe base in mature fruit bodies that is seen in I. torosus . Imperator luteocupreus and Caloboletus radicans are also similar but the pores of the former are red and the flesh of latter has a bitter taste .
Several chemical tests can be used to distinguish I. torosus from other similar boletes , such as I. rhodopurpureus . I. torosus displays the following characteristic colour changes with tests performed on cut flesh less than 12 hours old : ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH ) – yellow centre bordered by a blue circular outer ring ; potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) – deep buff ( instantly ) ; ferrous sulphate ( FeS04 ) – no change ; Melzer 's reagent – dark blue ; phenol – blue green ( very slow ) ; formalin – mid blue ( slow ) .
= = Toxicity = =
Like many boletes , Imperator torosus causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain , diarrhoea and vomiting when eaten raw . These reactions can also happen to some people when the mushroom is eaten cooked , though others have consumed it with no ill effects . In a 1994 study , researchers Ulrich Kiwitt and Hartmut Laatsch looked for the antabuse @-@ like compound coprine in Suillellus luridus and similar species that had been suspected of inducing antabuse @-@ like reactions with alcohol . Coprine ingestion results in heat and flushing in the face , tingling in arms and legs , nausea and vomiting , and increased heart rate within five to ten minutes of consuming alcohol . They found none in the suspect species , but did find indications for it in Imperator torosus . They concluded that the most likely explanation for historical poisoning incidents was a misidentification of I. torosus with Suillellus luridus , though they could not rule out the latter species containing a hitherto unidentified compound causing alcohol @-@ related reactions . No clinical cases of alcohol @-@ related sensitivity have been recorded for I. torosus .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Imperator torosus is native to southern Europe east to the Caucasus and Israel . A mycorrhizal species , the fungus is generally associated with deciduous trees such as hornbeam ( Carpinus ) , oak ( Quercus ) and beech ( Fagus ) in warm , dry locales , and is generally rare in Europe . In the United Kingdom , it is listed as a " priority species " — a threatened species requiring conservation action under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan . Similarly , it is on the list of protected species of macrofungi in Montenegro . It appears to be relatively common in Hungary . It is found under Palestine oak ( Quercus calliprinos ) in the Bar 'am forest in Upper Galilee . Fruitings typically occur from July to September in calcareous ( chalky ) soil , with fruit bodies appearing either singly or in small groups .
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= Kareena Kapoor =
Kareena Kapoor ( pronounced [ kəˈriːnaː kəˈpuːr ] ; born 21 September 1980 ) , also known by her married name Kareena Kapoor Khan , is an Indian actress who appears in Hindi films . She is the daughter of actors Randhir Kapoor and Babita , and the younger sister of actress Karisma Kapoor . Noted for playing a variety of characters in a range of film genres — from romantic comedies to crime dramas — Kapoor is the recipient of several awards , including six Filmfare Awards , and is one of Bollywood 's most popular and highest @-@ paid actresses .
After making her acting debut in the 2000 war film Refugee , Kapoor established herself in Hindi cinema with roles in the historical drama Aśoka , and the blockbuster melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( both 2001 ) . This initial success was followed by a series of commercial failures and repetitive roles , which garnered her negative reviews . The year 2004 marked a turning point for Kapoor when she played against type in the role of a sex worker in the drama Chameli . She subsequently earned wide critical recognition for her portrayal of a riot victim in the 2004 drama Dev and a character based on William Shakespeare 's heroine Desdemona in the 2006 crime film Omkara . She went on to receive Filmfare Awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for her performances in the 2007 romantic comedy Jab We Met and the 2010 drama We Are Family , respectively . Kapoor achieved further success by featuring as the female lead in four of India 's top @-@ grossing productions — the 2009 comedy @-@ drama 3 Idiots , the 2011 romantic drama Bodyguard , the 2011 science fiction Ra.One , and the 2015 social drama Bajrangi Bhaijaan — and received praise for her roles in the 2009 thriller Kurbaan and the 2012 drama Heroine .
Married to actor Saif Ali Khan , Kapoor 's off @-@ screen life is the subject of widespread coverage in India . She has a reputation for being outspoken and assertive , and is recognised for her contributions to the film industry through her fashion style and film roles . In addition to film acting , Kapoor is a stage performer and has contributed as a co @-@ author to three books : an autobiographical memoir and two nutrition guides . She has also launched her own clothing line in association with the retail chain Globus .
= = Early life and background = =
Born on 21 September 1980 in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , Kapoor ( often informally referred to as ' Bebo ' ) is the younger daughter of Randhir Kapoor and Babita ( née Shivdasani ) ; her elder sister Karisma is also an actress . She is the paternal granddaughter of actor and filmmaker Raj Kapoor , maternal granddaughter of actor Hari Shivdasani , and niece of actor Rishi Kapoor . According to Kapoor , the name " Kareena " was derived from the book Anna Karenina , which her mother read while she was pregnant with her . She is of Punjabi descent on her father 's side , and on her mother 's side she is of Sindhi and British descent . As a child , Kapoor regularly practised Hinduism with her family , but was also exposed to Christianity from her mother .
Describing herself as a " very naughty [ and ] spoilt child " , Kapoor 's exposure to films from a young age kindled her interest in acting ; she was particularly inspired by the work of actresses Nargis and Meena Kumari . Despite her family background , her father disapproved of women entering films because he believed it conflicted with the traditional maternal duties and responsibility of women in the family . This led to a conflict between her parents , and they separated . She was then raised by her mother , who worked several jobs to support her daughters until Karisma debuted as an actress in 1991 . After living separately for several years , her parents reconciled in October 2007 . Kapoor remarked " My father is also an important factor in my life [ ... ] [ Al ] though we did not see him often in our initial years , we are a family now . "
Kapoor attended Jamnabai Narsee School in Mumbai , followed by Welham Girls ' School in Dehradun . She attended the institution primarily to satisfy her mother , though later admitted to liking the experience . According to Kapoor , she wasn 't inclined towards academics though received good grades in all her classes except mathematics . After graduating from Welham she studied commerce for two years at Mithibai College in Vile Parle ( Mumbai ) . Kapoor then registered for a three @-@ month summer course in microcomputers at Harvard University in the United States . She later developed an interest in law , and enrolled at the Government Law College , Mumbai ; during this period , she developed a long @-@ lasting passion for reading . However , after completing her first year , Kapoor decided to pursue her interest to become an actress . She began training at an acting institute in Mumbai mentored by Kishore Namit Kapoor , a member of the Film and Television Institute of India ( FTII ) .
= = Acting career = =
= = = 2000 – 03 : Career beginnings , breakthrough and setback = = =
While training at the institute , Kapoor was cast as the female lead in Rakesh Roshan 's Kaho Naa ... Pyaar Hai ( 2000 ) opposite his son , Hrithik Roshan . Several days into the filming , however , she abandoned the project ; Kapoor later explained that she had benefited by not doing the film since more prominence was given to the director 's son . She debuted later that year alongside Abhishek Bachchan in J. P. Dutta 's war drama Refugee . Set during the Indo @-@ Pakistani war of 1971 , the film centers on a man who illegally transports civilians back and forth across the border . Kapoor portrayed Naaz , a Bangladeshi girl who falls in love with Bachchan 's character while illegally migrating to Pakistan with her family . Her performance was acclaimed by critics ; Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama described her as " a natural performer " and noted " the ease with which she emotes the most difficult of scenes " , while India Today reported that Kapoor belonged to a new breed of Hindi film actors that breaks away from character stereotypes . On the experience of acting in her first film , Kapoor described it as " tough ... [ but ] also a great learning experience " . Refugee was a moderate box @-@ office success in India and Kapoor 's performance earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut .
For her second release , Kapoor was paired opposite Tusshar Kapoor in Satish Kaushik 's box @-@ office hit Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai ( 2001 ) . A review in The Hindu noted that based on her first two films , she was " definitely the actress to watch out for " . She next starred alongside Jackie Shroff and Hrithik Roshan in Subhash Ghai 's flop Yaadein , followed by Abbas @-@ Mustan 's moderately successful thriller Ajnabee , co @-@ starring Akshay Kumar , Bobby Deol and Bipasha Basu . Later that year , she appeared in Santosh Sivan 's period epic Aśoka , a partly fictionalized account of the life of the Indian emperor of the same name . Featured opposite Shah Rukh Khan , Kapoor found herself challenged playing the complex personality of her character Kaurwaki ( a Kalingan princess ) with whom Ashoka falls in love . Aśoka was screened at the Venice and 2001 Toronto International Film Festivals , and received generally positive reviews internationally but failed to do well in India , which was attributed by critics to the way Ashoka was portrayed . Jeff Vice of The Deseret News described Kapoor as " riveting " and commended her screen presence . Rediff.com , however , was more critical concluding that her presence in the film was primarily used for aesthetic purposes . At the 47th Filmfare Awards , Aśoka was nominated for five awards including a Best Actress nomination for Kapoor .
A key point in Kapoor 's career came when she was cast by Karan Johar as Pooja ( " Poo " , a good @-@ natured , superficial girl ) in the 2001 melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... alongside an ensemble cast . Filming the big @-@ budget production was a new experience for Kapoor , and she recalls it fondly : " [ I ] t was great fun doing [ the film and ] we had a blast . [ W ] orking with the unit and the six mega star set was a dream come true . " Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... was an immensely popular release , finishing as India 's second highest @-@ grossing film of the year and Kapoor 's highest @-@ grossing film to that point . It also became one of the biggest Bollywood success of all time in the overseas market , earning over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide . Taran Adarsh described Kapoor as " one of the main highlights of the film " , and she received her second Filmfare nomination for the role — her first for Best Supporting Actress — as well as nominations at the International Indian Academy ( IIFA ) and Screen Awards .
Box Office India reported that the success of Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai and Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... established Kapoor as a leading actress of Hindi cinema , and Rediff.com published that with Aśoka she had become the highest @-@ paid Indian actress to that point earning ₹ 15 million ( US $ 220 @,@ 000 ) per film . During 2002 and 2003 , Kapoor continued to work in a number of projects but experienced a setback . All six films in which she starred — Mujhse Dosti Karoge ! , Jeena Sirf Merre Liye , Talaash : The Hunt Begins ... , Khushi , Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon , and the four @-@ hour war epic LOC Kargil — were critically and commercially unsuccessful . Critics described her performances in these films as " variations of the same character " she played in Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... , and expressed concern that she was becoming typecast .
= = = 2004 – 06 : Professional expansion = = =
By 2004 , Kapoor was keen on broadening her range as an actress and thus decided to portray more challenging roles . Under the direction of Sudhir Mishra , Kapoor played the role of a golden @-@ hearted prostitute in Chameli , a film relating the story of a young prostitute who meets with a widowed investment banker ( played by Rahul Bose ) . When Kapoor was initially offered the film she refused it , explaining that she would be uncomfortable in the role . She relented when Mishra approached her for the second time , and in preparation for the role , visited several of Mumbai 's red @-@ light districts at night to study the mannerisms of sex workers and the way they dressed . Chameli was well received by critics and the film marked a significant turning point in her career , earning Kapoor a special jury recognition at the 49th Filmfare Awards . Indiatimes praised her " intuitive brilliance " and stated that she had exceeded all expectations . Rediff.com , however , found her portrayal unconvincing and excessively stereotypical , describing her as " sounding more like a teenager playacting than a brash , hardened streetwalker " and comparing her mannerisms to a caricature .
Kapoor next co @-@ starred in Mani Ratnam 's bilingual project Yuva alongside Ajay Devgan , Abhishek Bachchan , Vivek Oberoi , Rani Mukerji and Esha Deol . The film , consisting of three chapters , tells the story of six individuals linked by a car accident . Kapoor is featured in the third chapter as Oberoi 's love interest ( Mira , a witty young woman ) . In a Times of India review film critic Subhash K. Jha described her role as " fey and insubstantial " , but further stated that " she turns these character traits to her own advantage to create a girl who is at once enigmatic and all @-@ there " . She then appeared alongside Amitabh Bachchan and Fardeen Khan in Govind Nihalani 's critically acclaimed film Dev , which revolved around the 2002 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots in the Indian state of Gujarat . Kapoor 's role was that of a Muslim victim named Aaliya , modelled after Zaheera Sheikh ( a key witness in Vadodara 's Best Bakery case ) . It earned her a Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress and nominations for Best Actress at various award ceremonies . Taran Adarsh described her as " first @-@ rate " and in particular noted her scene with Bachchan 's character .
Shortly afterwards , Kapoor was cast for the first time as a villain in the thriller Fida . Set against the backdrop of the Mumbai underworld , the film follows the story of an online heist in which her character , Neha Mehra , becomes involved . Although the film was unsuccessful at the box office , Kapoor received positive reviews for her performance , and some critics noted a distinct progression from her earlier roles . Her subsequent releases that year included Abbas @-@ Mustan 's thriller Aitraaz and Priyadarshan 's comedy Hulchul , both of which were successful at the Indian box office . Following the success of her last two releases , she was cast as the protagonist of the 2005 drama Bewafaa . The feature received mostly negative reviews , and Kapoor 's portrayal of Anjali Sahai ( an unfaithful woman ) was not well received . Nikhat Kazmi of Indiatimes believed that to become a serious actress Kapoor was embodying a maturer , more @-@ jaded character beyond her years in Bewafaa . That same year , she starred in the romantic dramas Kyon Ki and Dosti : Friends Forever , both of which underperformed at the box office ; however , Kapoor 's performance in Kyon Ki was generally well received by critics ( with the BBC describing her as " a pure natural " ) .
In 2006 , Kapoor appeared in three films . She first starred in the thriller 36 China Town , followed by the comedy Chup Chup Ke ; both were moderately successful . She next portrayed the character of Desdemona in Omkara — the Hindi adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Othello . The film ( directed by Vishal Bhardwaj ) is a tragedy of sexual jealousy set against the backdrop of the political system in Uttar Pradesh . Describing Bhardwaj as a " world @-@ class director [ with ] a unique style " , Kapoor was cast in the project after the director had seen her performance in Yuva , and was subsequently required to attend script @-@ reading sessions along with the entire cast . The feature premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was screened at the Cairo International Film Festival . Omkara was received positively by critics , and Kapoor 's portrayal earned her a fourth Filmfare Award and first Screen Award . In a 2010 retrospective of the " Top 80 Iconic Performances " of Hindi cinema , Filmfare wrote that she was " brilliant " and praised her ability to " effortless [ ly ] " convey the various emotions her character went through . Kapoor considered her role in Omkara as a " new benchmark " in her career , and compared her portrayal of Dolly with her own evolving maturity as a woman .
Following Omkara , Kapoor took a short break from acting , as she felt that " nothing [ was ] challenging enough for me to say yes " . In an interview with The Times of India Kapoor commented , " In my initial years in the industry , I pushed myself to do a lot of work because I was greedy . I did some films — which I now regret — purely for the money . Today , I want to do selective films . " Later that year , she appeared briefly in one of the year 's biggest hits , the Farhan Akhtar action @-@ thriller Don ( a remake of the 1978 film of the same name ) .
= = = 2007 – 11 : Rise to prominence = = =
Kapoor returned to film as the female protagonist Geet Dhillon , a vivacious Sikh girl with a zest for life , in the romantic comedy Jab We Met ( 2007 ) . Director Imtiaz Ali was not a well @-@ known figure before its production , with only one feature credit to his name , but Kapoor agreed to the film after being impressed with his " mind @-@ blowing " script . Featured opposite Shahid Kapoor , the film relates the story of two people with contrasting personalities who meet on a train and eventually fall in love . The film was received favourably by critics and became successful at the box office with gross earnings of ₹ 303 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) . Kapoor won several awards for her performance , including her second Screen Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . Jaspreet Pandohar of the BBC commented that the role required a mixture of naivety and spontaneity , and was impressed with Kapoor 's effort . The critic Rajeev Masand labelled her the film 's " biggest strength , as she brings alive her character with not just those smart lines , but with the kind of candor actors seldom invest in their work . " While shooting for Jab We Met , Kapoor and Shahid ended their three @-@ year relationship . When asked by Mumbai Mirror , she stated " I hold him in utmost regard , and I hope one day we could be good friends . He is a great guy . "
The following year , Kapoor co @-@ starred in Vijay Krishna Acharya 's action @-@ thriller Tashan , where she met her future husband in actor Saif Ali Khan . Although a poll ( conducted by Bollywood Hungama ) named it the most anticipated release of the year , the film underperformed at the box office grossing ₹ 279 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) in India . After providing her voice for the character of Laila , the love interest of a street dog named Romeo , in the Yash Raj Films and Walt Disney Pictures animated film Roadside Romeo , Kapoor played a mistrustful wife who believed her husband was unfaithful in Rohit Shetty 's comedy Golmaal Returns . A sequel to the 2006 film Golmaal : Fun Unlimited , the film had an ambivalent reception from critics , and Kapoor received mixed reviews . The Indian Express believed the screenplay was derivative , concluding : " There is nothing particularly new about a suspicious wife keeping tabs on her husband , and there is nothing particularly new in the way Kareena plays it . " Golmaal Returns was a financial success with global revenues of ₹ 793 million ( US $ 12 million ) .
In 2009 , Kapoor was cast as Simrita Rai ( a surgeon who moonlights as a model ) in Sabbir Khan 's battle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ sexes comedy Kambakkht Ishq , opposite Akshay Kumar . Set in Los Angeles , it was the first Indian film to be shot at Universal Studios and featured cameo appearances by Hollywood actors . The film was poorly received by critics but became an economic success , earning over ₹ 840 million ( US $ 12 million ) worldwide ; a review in Times of India described Kapoor 's performance as " a complete let @-@ down " and " unconvincing " . The box @-@ office flop Main Aurr Mrs Khanna came next , following which she played the leading lady in the dramatic thriller Kurbaan , alongside Saif Ali Khan and Vivek Oberoi . The film ( which marked the directorial debut of Rensil D 'Silva ) featured Kapoor as Avantika Ahuja , a woman who is confined to house arrest after discovering that her husband is a terrorist . Describing the film as " an emotionally draining experience " , Kapoor explained that it was difficult to disconnect from her character . The film was critically praised , and Kapoor received her fourth Filmfare Best Actress nomination . Gaurav Malani of The Economic Times commented that after a long time the actress was given " a role of substance that brings her performing potential to the fore " , while Subhash K. Jha described it as her " most consistently pitched performance to date " played " with splendid sensitivity " and " credib [ ility ] " .
Kapoor 's second Filmfare nomination that year came for Rajkumar Hirani 's National Film Award @-@ winning 3 Idiots , a film loosely based on the novel Five Point Someone by Chetan Bhagat . Co @-@ starring alongside Aamir Khan , R. Madhavan and Sharman Joshi , Kapoor played Pia ( a medical student and Khan 's love interest ) . Several actresses were considered for the role , though Kapoor was eventually cast under the recommendation of Khan . The film received critical acclaim and emerged as the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time up until then , grossing ₹ 2 @.@ 03 billion ( US $ 30 million ) in India . It also did well internationally , earning over ₹ 1 @.@ 08 billion ( US $ 16 million ) , the second biggest Bollywood success ever in the overseas market . The Deccan Herald opined that Kapoor " brings a dollop of sunshine and feminine grace to an otherwise masculine tale . She is so spunky and spontaneous you wish there was room for more of her . " 3 Idiots received several Best Movie recognitions at major Indian award functions , and Kapoor was awarded the IIFA Award for Best Actress , among others .
In 2010 , Kapoor appeared in the romantic comedy Milenge Milenge , a production delayed since 2005 . The feature garnered negative reviews and poor box @-@ office returns . Kapoor 's role was small , and not well received . She next starred alongside Kajol and Arjun Rampal in We Are Family , an official adaptation of the Hollywood tearjerker Stepmom ( 1998 ) from director Siddharth Malhotra . Kapoor played the role of the career @-@ oriented Shreya Arora ( a character originally played by Julia Roberts ) and refrained from watching the film again so she could bring her own interpretation to it . Priyanka Roy of The Telegraph criticized the film for being " superficial and unnecessarily melodramatic " , but praised Kapoor for " breath [ ing ] life and a new @-@ found maturity into what is largely a uni @-@ dimensional character " . We Are Family emerged a moderate success and Kapoor was awarded the Best Supporting Actress at the 56th Filmfare Awards . At the end of the year , she reunited with director Rohit Shetty for Golmaal 3 , a sequel to Golmaal Returns . Like its predecessor , the film received mixed reviews though emerged as the most successful entry in the Golmaal series , earning more than ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) domestically . For her portrayal of the tomboy Daboo , Kapoor received Best Actress nominations at various award ceremonies including Filmfare .
Kapoor had further success in 2011 as the love interest of Salman Khan 's character in the romantic drama Bodyguard , a remake of the 2010 Malayalam film of the same name . The film was not well received by critics , though became a financial success , with a domestic total of ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) — India 's highest @-@ earning film of the year . A review in Mint dismissed Kapoor 's role as the " sacrificial , ornamental [ and ] submissive female " ; Mid Day referred to her as " bright " , arguing that she " actually manages to bring her caricature of a role alive " . She next appeared in Anubhav Sinha 's science fiction film Ra.One with Shah Rukh Khan and Arjun Rampal . Made on a budget of ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) — " India 's most expensive film " at the time — the film follows the story of a London @-@ based videogame designer creating a villainous character who escapes into the real world . Despite negative media coverage of the film 's box office performance , Ra.One became one of the biggest earners of the year with a worldwide total of over ₹ 2 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 36 million ) , and Kapoor 's fourth major commercial success in two consecutive years .
= = = 2012 – 15 : Marriage and decrease in workload = = =
Kapoor followed her success in Bodyguard and Ra.One with a role in Shakun Batra 's directorial debut Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu ( 2012 ) opposite Imran Khan . Set in Las Vegas , the romantic comedy follows the story of two strangers who get married one night after getting drunk . She played Riana Braganza , a carefree young woman , and was particularly drawn to the qualities of her character : " Riana knows what she is doing . Even though she does not have a house or a job , she is a positive person [ ... ] very similar to the way I am . " The film received positive reviews and was an economic success , grossing a total of ₹ 530 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 9 million ) in India and abroad . The Hollywood Reporter found her " endearingly natural " ; Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com asserted that " after doing ornamental roles in films like Bodyguard and Ra.One , it is nice to see the spunky actress in her element again since Jab We Met . " She next appeared in Agent Vinod , an espionage thriller directed by Sriram Raghavan . Kapoor was enthusiastic about the project , but it met with a tepid response and she was described as miscast . When asked why she had taken the role , Kapoor described it as an opportunity to attempt something she had never done before .
For her next feature , Kapoor was cast as the protagonist of Madhur Bhandarkar 's Heroine , a drama revolving around the Bollywood film industry . Originally the first choice for the role , Kapoor was hesitant to take on the project when Bhandarkar approached her with the film 's initial concept . With reservations about the criticism her character might evoke , she was replaced by Aishwarya Rai . Days after production began , Rai left the film ( due to her pregnancy ) and Bhandarkar re @-@ approached Kapoor with the film . When the director reinforced his faith in her , she agreed to do the film after having read the completed script . Kapoor ( who described her character of Mahi Arora — a fading star — as " bipolar and schizophrenic " ) refrained from taking on any other projects , since she found Heroine " very aggressive and tiring " . Reviewers found the film to be " drably monotonous " , but noted that it was watchable primarily due to Kapoor 's performance . Rajeev Masand described it as " a deliciously camp performance , " played " with utmost sincerity " . Bollywood Hungama opined that it was her best work to date and concluded that " [ t ] hough her character is inconsistent [ ... ] Kareena furnishes the heroine 's character with a rare vulnerability and an exceptional inner life . " At the annual Stardust Awards , Kapoor garnered the Editor 's Choice for Best Actress , and received additional nominations at Filmfare , IIFA , Producers Guild , Screen and Stardust .
On 16 October 2012 , Kapoor married actor Saif Ali Khan in a private ceremony in Bandra , Mumbai , and a reception was later held at The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel and the Lutyens Bungalow Zone in Mumbai and Delhi respectively . Kapoor stated that despite adding Khan to her name she would continue practising Hinduism after her marriage . At the end of the year , she co @-@ starred alongside Aamir Khan and Rani Mukerji as the " tantalisingly seductive prostitute " Rosie , in Reema Kagti 's crime mystery Talaash : The Answer Lies Within . Set against the backdrop of Mumbai 's red @-@ light districts , it follows the travails of its personnel and principal , Inspector Surjan Singh Shekhawat ( Khan ) who is assigned the duty of solving a mysterious car accident . Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph found Kapoor to be a standout among the ensemble , adding that " she brings an unseen mix of oomph and emotion that becomes the [ film 's ] centrepiece " . With global revenues of ₹ 1 @.@ 74 billion ( US $ 26 million ) , the film emerged as a box office hit , and earned Kapoor Best Actress nominations at the Screen , Stardust and Zee Cine award ceremonies .
In 2013 , Kapoor collaborated with Ajay Devgan for the fourth time ( alongside Amitabh Bachchan , Arjun Rampal , Manoj Bajpayee and Amrita Rao ) in Prakash Jha 's Satyagraha , an ensemble socio @-@ political drama loosely inspired by social activist Anna Hazare 's fight against corruption in 2011 . The film was highly anticipated by trade journalists due to its release coinciding with the Mumbai and Delhi gang rape public protests , and Kapoor hoped that the film would help inspire people to stop violence against women in India . Satyagraha received little praise from critics and underperformed at the box office earning ₹ 675 million ( US $ 10 million ) domestically . A review in the Daily News and Analysis noted that Kapoor 's role as reporter Yasmin Ahmed was " limited to mouthing a few ' important ' dialogues and being present in crucial scenes like any leading lady " .
Following an appearance in the poorly received romantic comedy Gori Tere Pyaar Mein ( 2013 ) , Kapoor decreased her workload for the next two years to focus on her marriage and family . She took on smaller parts where she played the love @-@ interest of Ajay Devgan and Salman Khan in the dramas Singham Returns ( 2014 ) and Bajrangi Bhaijaan ( 2015 ) respectively . Singham Returns served as a sequel to the 2011 film Singham and Kapoor 's role was written specifically for her by Rohit Shetty — the third time the pair collaborated . Reviews for the film were generally mixed with Kapoor being criticized for taking a role of minimal importance , but the film was a financial success with a revenue of over ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) . Kabir Khan 's Bajrangi Bhaijaan emerged as India 's highest @-@ earning film of the year grossing a total of ₹ 3 @.@ 20 billion ( US $ 48 million ) , and earned the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment at the 63rd National Film Awards .
= = = 2016 – present : Recent work = = =
The following year , Kapoor took on a starring role opposite Arjun Kapoor in Ki & Ka , a romantic comedy about gender stereotypes from the writer @-@ director R. Balki . She was cast as the ambitious and career @-@ oriented Kia , and was particularly drawn to the project for its relevance and novel concept . Upon release , critics were divided in their opinion of the film , but with a worldwide gross of over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) the film was a financial success . Meena Iyer of The Times of India mentioned Kapoor as " terrific " and Sukanya Verma considered the actress to be the film 's prime asset noting her ease at " smoothly transition [ ing ] between fragile and volatile to reveal a woman comfortable in her own skin , unapologetic about living life on her terms and never missing an occasion to mince words . "
Kapoor next played the role of Dr. Preet Sahni in Abhishek Chaubey 's critically acclaimed Udta Punjab ( 2016 ) , a crime drama that documents the substance abuse endemic in the Indian state of Punjab . Co @-@ starring alongside Shahid Kapoor , Alia Bhatt and Diljit Dosanjh , Kapoor was initially reluctant to do the film due to the length of her role , but agreed after having read the completed script and waived half of her fees to star in it . Udta Punjab generated controversy when the Central Board of Film Certification deemed that the film represented Punjab in a negative light and demanded extensive censorship before its theatrical release . The Bombay High Court later cleared the film for exhibition with one scene cut . In a highly positive review , Rediff.com stated that despite being " the narrative ’ s most conventional character , " the film " greatly relies on [ her ] for warmth and virtue " and Mehul S. Thakkar of The Deccan Chronicle wrote that she was successful in " deliver [ ing ] a strong and hard hitting performance . "
As of June 2016 , Kapoor has committed to play the lead role in Shashanka Ghosh 's Veere Di Wedding , a romantic comedy co @-@ starring Sonam Kapoor , Swara Bhaskar and Shikha Talsania about four girls who embark on a trip from Delhi to Europe .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Clothing line and publication = = =
Alongside her acting work , Kapoor has established a career as a designer and an author . During her five @-@ year association with the retail chain Globus , Kapoor became the first Indian actress to launch her own line of clothing for women ; she described the collaboration as being " special " and " reflective of my personal sense of style " . Her collection made its debut several months later in stores across India , and was well received . Following the end of her contract with Globus , she expressed a desire to work with a design house to release her clothing line internationally , but later explained that those plans were on hold .
In 2009 , Kapoor collaborated with nutritionist Rujuta Diwekar on Don 't Lose Your Mind , Lose Your Weight , a book which focused on the principles of healthy eating habits . Published by Random House Publications , the book was well received by critics , and sold 10 @,@ 000 copies within its first twenty days . A follow @-@ up titled , Women and The Weight Loss Tamasha , was released two years later . It addressed the weight loss concerns and eating habits of women in various parts of their life , and featured Kapoor in a voice @-@ over for the audiobook . In February 2013 , Kapoor released her autobiographical memoir : The Style Diary of a Bollywood Diva . Co @-@ authored alongside Rochelle Pinto , it became the first book to be launched under the Shobhaa De imprint of Penguin Books — a set of series that included celebrity memoirs , guides and biographies . In a review published by Mint , Shefalee Vasudev criticised the writing style as " too @-@ breezy " but further stated that it is " a well @-@ produced book , reproducing chirpy little post @-@ it notes and diet charts , punctuated with Bebo 's stunning pictures from her private albums to fashion magazine covers . " Later that year , she collaborated with Diwekar for the third time on The Indian Food Wisdom and The Art of Eating Right , a documentary film about nutrition .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
During her years in the film industry , Kapoor has made public appearances to support various philanthropic endeavours , and has been actively involved in promoting children 's education and the safety of women . In November 2003 , she performed at a fundraiser for the World Youth Peace Summit and two years later she participated in a concert to raise money for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami . In 2005 , she visited Indian jawans ( troops ) in Rajasthan , for a special Holi weekend episode of NDTV 's reality show Jai Jawaan . As part of the 2010 NDTV Greenathon Campaign , Kapoor adopted the village of Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh to provide the village with a regular supply of electricity , and also took part in the international campaign 1GOAL Education for All .
The following year , Kapoor was appointed ambassador for the Shakti Campaign — a project launched by NDTV to combat violence against women — in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of International Women 's Day . In December 2013 , Kapoor launched Channel V 's anti @-@ rape mobile app ' VithU ' ; she stated that with an increasing amount of violence against women in India , " [ i ] t [ was ] important for actors to stand up for issues because they can reach out to a lot of people . " Kapoor later attended a gala dinner at the Taj Mahal Hotel ( hosted by Valérie Trierweiler ) where she participated in a campaign to raise awareness on hunger and malnutrition in the world .
In 2014 , Kapoor began working with UNICEF to advocate the education of girls and increase quality based education in India . During the first year , Kapoor visited schools in the states of Rajasthan and Maharashtra where she interacted with students and participated in fundraising events hosted by the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya organization in the Jalna district . As part of a joint initiative by UNICEF and Groupon to help raise funds for promoting a higher @-@ quality learning environment in Indian schools , Kapoor gave an equivalent amount of the funds raised during the campaign , and later launched the ' Child @-@ Friendly School and Systems ' ( CFSS ) package . In 2015 , ( along with chief minister Raman Singh ) she awarded 31 students and 5 teachers for their contribution towards the field of education in Chhattisgarh at the concluding ceremony of Child Rights Protection week . Also that year , Kapoor provided a voice @-@ over for the documentary film Girl Rising : Woh Padhegi , Woh Udegi [ She will learn , she will fly ] for the organisation of the same name and made donations to the Kashmir flood relief .
= = = Stage performances = = =
Kapoor has participated in several stage shows and world tours since 2002 . Her first tour ( Heartthrobs : Live in Concert ( 2002 ) with Hrithik Roshan , Karisma Kapoor , Arjun Rampal and Aftab Shivdasani ) was successful in the United States and Canada . At the end of that year , she performed with several other Bollywood stars at Kings Park Stadium in Durban , South Africa in the show Now or Never .
Four years later , Kapoor returned to the stage with six other Bollywood celebrities in the successful Rockstars Concert world tour . The concert was originally scheduled to commence in April 2006 , but was postponed due to the arrest of Salman Khan . It later began the following month and was staged in 19 cities across the United Kingdom , the United States and Canada . In 2008 , Kapoor performed in Shah Rukh Khan 's Temptation Reloaded 2008 , a series of concerts in a number of countries . The show ( which also featured Arjun Rampal , Katrina Kaif , Ganesh Hegde , Javed Ali and Anusha Dandekar ) debuted at the Ahoy Rotterdam venue in Rotterdam , the Netherlands . Several months later she again joined Khan , Rampal and Kaif to perform for an audience of 15 @,@ 000 at Dubai 's Festival City Arena .
= = Public image and character = =
Known for her nonchalant relationship with the media , Kapoor has gained a reputation for discussing her private life with no reservations . As a child she regularly attended award ceremonies and events with her family , and would also accompany Karisma on @-@ set during filming . In an interview with Filmfare , she explained that growing up in a film family helped her develop a sense of professionalism and dedication towards her craft . Kapoor 's private life has been the subject of media attention in India , with frequent press coverage of her weight and relationship with actor Saif Ali Khan . The couple — dubbed " Saifeena " by the entertainment media — has been one of the country 's most @-@ reported celebrity stories since 2007 . In July 2016 , Khan confirmed to the media that they were expecting their first child , due in December 2016 .
While a segment of the press has described Kapoor as friendly and extremely close to her family , others have criticized her for being arrogant and vain — an image she gained in the wake of her superficial character , Poo , in Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) . She subsequently featured in films portraying similar characters , and this further established her off- and on @-@ screen personae . Before the release of Chameli ( 2004 ) ( in which she played a sex worker ) , Kapoor stated that " there is a certain image that people identify you with [ and ] [ i ] t always follows you whichever role you play . I am trying to transgress this image and become more screen @-@ friendly than image @-@ friendly . " Chameli helped Kapoor reinvent her on @-@ screen persona , and she later explained that her honesty and openness was often perceived by the media as arrogance .
Kapoor is also known for her assertive and moody nature , and her outspoken views and independence have been singled out for making major contributions to her career ; they " add to her superstar aura " . In an early interview , she confessed to being an " introvert , yet [ ... ] extremely candid and blunt " , reasoning : " Total faith and complete belief in myself is my attitude towards life , films and virtually everything else . I am all about doing what I feel is right . It is not easy to pin me down as I can be a bundle of contradictions . " Journalist Subhash K Jha explained that while this approach has sometimes been at the cost of professional opportunities , it " makes her such a favourite among the generation that believes in self regard being the highest form of creativity [ ... ] She lives for the moment and crams all her intensity into it , not sparing a single thought for what is gone and what is waiting around the corner . " Meanwhile , Anu Ahuja suggested that Kapoor 's demeanour is an act ; she is " cold and unapproachable so that no one will act funny with her " .
Today , Kapoor is considered as one of the most popular Bollywood celebrities in India . Her look and performances have established her as a style icon for young women . In a 2009 poll conducted by the newspaper Daily News and Analysis Kapoor was voted one of India 's most popular icons ; with her partner Saif Ali Khan , she was listed amongst the top celebrity endorsers for brands and products worldwide . She became the only Indian actress to be featured on CNNGo 's list of " Who Mattered Most in India " , and was later selected by Verve for its list of the country 's most powerful women from 2008 to 2013 . In June 2010 , Kapoor was named " India 's Most Beautiful Woman " by the Indian edition of People magazine ; Eastern Eye and Indian Maxim named her as " Asia 's Sexiest Woman " and " India 's Hottest Woman " in 2011 and 2012 respectively . The following year , she was selected by India Today for its list of the country 's most influential women . From 2012 – 15 , Kapoor has featured on Forbes India 's " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She ranked among the top 25 each year , peaking at the seventh position in 2012 with an estimated annual earning of ₹ 735 million ( US $ 11 million ) .
= = Performances : technique and analysis = =
According to media reports , Kapoor relies on her instincts and spontaneity as an actor . She is known to commit heavily to each role , and refrains from rehearsing for a project . Commenting on this , director Rajkumar Hirani said " I usually have a habit of conducting rehearsals for my actors , but she insisted on not having them as it would affect her spontaneity . She really surprised me with a couple of emotional scenes which we canned in just one take . " Karan Johar described Kapoor as a " natural " , explaining that " she has no craft , grammar or process attached to her acting [ ... ] It is a great sense of cinema that can keep her going . " According to Rensil D 'Silva ( who directed her in Kurbaan ) , " Kareena [ .. ] is instinctive and has emotional intelligence . She absorbs the situation and performs accordingly . Discussing the scene , in fact , harms her . "
While discussing her career highlights in a 2010 article , Rediff.com noted : " [ E ] ven though a lot of her starring roles have been forgettable , [ a ] look at her filmography now , however , would show a more thoughtful selection of roles [ ... ] playing to her strengths . " Her portrayal of a series of superficial characters at the start of her career were criticized ; film historian Gyan Prakash explained that these roles " tended to infantilise her , packaging her as daddy 's little girl , all bubble and no fizz " . Critics noted Chameli ( 2004 ) as her coming of age , claiming that " a new actor in her was discovered " . Following her portrayal of a variety of character types in Chameli , Dev ( 2004 ) , Omkara ( 2006 ) and Jab We Met ( 2007 ) , Kapoor was noted for her versatility . In 2010 , Filmfare Magazine included two of her performances — from Omkara and Jab We Met — in its list of " 80 Iconic Performances " . India Today labelled her " the most versatile female lead in the industry " , noting that she " play [ s ] her roles with trademark spunk " .
Manjula Sen of The Telegraph wrote that although she has " the worst success ratio among her contemporaries " , it does not affect her marketability . Sen further explained that Kapoor 's strength lies in her being versatile ; she is " effortlessly honest in her performances . It is a candour that spills over in her personal conduct . " Writing for CNN @-@ News18 , Rituparna Chatterjee spoke of her transformation to date : " [ A ] fter 40 films and 10 years of fighting off competition from some of the most versatile actors of her generation , Kareena has matured into a bankable actor reinventing herself with surprising ease . " In 2004 , Kapoor placed third on Rediff 's list of " Top Bollywood Female Stars " . She was later ranked seventh and fifth in 2005 and 2006 , respectively , and returned to third place in 2007 . In January 2011 , Kapoor placed fourth on Rediff 's list of " Top 10 Actresses of 2000 – 2010 " .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Kapoor has received six Filmfare Awards out of ten nominations . For her role in Refugee , Kapoor was awarded the Best Female Debut in 2000 . She earned a special jury recognition for Chameli ( 2003 ) , and two Critics Award for Best Actress for Dev ( 2004 ) and Omkara ( 2006 ) . Kapoor later received the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and We Are Family ( 2010 ) respectively .
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= Ryan Hanigan =
Ryan Michael Hanigan ( born August 16 , 1980 ) is an American professional baseball catcher for the Boston Red Sox of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . After graduating from Andover High School in 1999 , Hanigan attended Rollins College , where he signed as an undrafted free agent with the Cincinnati Reds . He then spent the 2002 to 2006 seasons with Reds minor league baseball teams before making his MLB debut on September 9 , 2007 as a pinch hitter . He recorded his first major league hit in that at @-@ bat . He also played for the Tampa Bay Rays . He has caught two no hitters , both thrown by Homer Bailey .
= = Early life = =
Hanigan was born on August 16 , 1980 , in Washington , D.C. , to Mike and Helen Hanigan . He has an older sister named Hayley . He played American Legion Baseball for American Legion Post 8 in Andover . At Andover High School , Hanigan was a three @-@ year varsity starter , and was named an Eagle @-@ Tribune and Eastern Massachusetts All @-@ Star during his senior season , in which he hit .397 . From 1997 – 98 , the Andover team had a 38 – 9 record . He was teammates with future professional golfer Rob Oppenheim , and graduated from the school in 1999 .
= = College career = =
After graduating from high school , Hanigan had a difficult time finding a college that would let him play baseball . He attended Rollins College in Winter Park , Florida , where he played third base or left field because of an upperclassman at the catcher position . During the summer in 2001 , Hanigan played in the New England Collegiate Baseball League , where he hit .282 in 38 games . In his junior year , he hit .384 with 48 RBIs over 57 games for Rollins , as the team finished 41 – 16 and clinched a berth to the NCAA Division II Baseball Championship . Hanigan would have served as team captain his senior year ; when he left Rollins , Hanigan 's .359 career batting average was seventh best in school history .
He played summer baseball in the Cape Cod League for Orleans Cardinals , where he was named the Top New England Prospect and an All @-@ Star . In August 2002 , Hanigan was awarded the Charles F. Moore Sr. award for the most valuable player on the Cardinals team . John Brickley , a scout for the Reds , signed him as a free agent on August 23 , although six other teams " showed interest " in signing the catcher .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
True fans of baseball understand that Hanigan is known for his extraordinarily competitive at @-@ bats . As early as T @-@ Ball--a league I 'm which it 's difficult to give away an AB-- " Hanny " as his teammates called him , was known for his patience and eye . " Every at @-@ bat is competitive with Ryan , " said then teammate Eric Derek . " This guy sets the rest of us up to crush that ball [ on the tee ] . " Hanigan continued commanding at @-@ bats all the way to the major leagues where his .190 average belies his mastery of the zone . " Watching him command an at @-@ bats isn 't unlike watching a ninja master command an inferior opponent , " said current teammate Dustin Pedroia . " I imagine . " In 2002 , Hanigan began his career with the Reds ' organization when he played in six minor league games for the Dayton Dragons of the Midwest League , batting .273 with three hits . On April 28 , 2003 , in a game against the Quad City River Bandits , he went 4 – 5 with three RBIs . Hanigan was named to the East squad in the Midwest League All @-@ Star Game , where he served as the reserve catcher . Later in July , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) with a high ankle sprain ; up until then , he was hitting .283 with 26 RBIs . Hanigan finished the season batting .277 with a home run and 31 RBIs , which earned him a promotion to the Triple @-@ A Louisville Bats . In one game for the Bats , he went 1 – 3 .
Hanigan spent the entire 2004 season with the Class A @-@ Advanced Potomac Cannons , where he served as the team 's catcher and designated hitter . From July 6 to July 29 , he had a 22 @-@ game hit streak , the longest in the Carolina League for the year . On August 24 , he hit in the game @-@ winning run against the Salem Avalanche with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . For the season , Hanigan hit .296 with five home runs and 56 RBIs over 119 games as the Cannons made the Carolina League Northern Division playoffs for the first time since 1995 .
The following season , Hanigan played for the Double @-@ A Chattanooga Lookouts . On August 29 , 2005 , he hit a grand slam against the West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx as the Lookouts lost , 10 – 12 . After the season , he was selected by the Reds to represent the organization in the Arizona Fall League , and was a non @-@ roster invitee to the Reds 2006 spring training camp . In 2006 , Hanigan appeared in 56 games for the Lookouts as well as eight games for the Bats . During a July 13 , 2006 contest , Hanigan drove in the what would be the winning run with two outs in the seventh inning against the Birmingham Barons . For the season , he hit .246 for the Lookouts and .154 for the Bats .
Playing for the Lookouts , Hanigan was selected to the Southern League All @-@ Star Game in June 2007 . He was promoted to the Bats on June 28 , 2007 , after reaching base safely in 40 of his last 42 games for the Lookouts , including three four @-@ hit games . He was called up to the major @-@ league squad on September 1 . Hanigan made his MLB debut on September 9 against the Milwaukee Brewers . Pinch hitting for Kirk Saarloos , he doubled to left field off the first pitch from All @-@ Star Ben Sheets , and later scored a run on a wild pitch . For the MLB Reds , Hanigan hit .300 in five games played , with two RBIs and a double . During the off @-@ season , he played in the Dominican Professional Baseball League for the Leones del Escogido .
Playing for the Bats in 2008 , Hanigan was a mid @-@ season and postseason International League ( IL ) All @-@ Star , and was named the best defensive catcher in the IL by Baseball America . He was called up to the majors on August 10 , 2008 , after David Ross was designated for assignment by the Reds ; 18 days later , he hit a home run in the eighth inning to score what would be the winning run against the Houston Astros . After batting .271 in 31 games for the Reds , Hanigan was ranked as the 16th best prospect in the Reds minor league system by Baseball America .
Hanigan spent the entire 2009 season with the Reds except for five games with the Bats . He served as the backup catcher to Ramón Hernández until Hernández underwent knee surgery and was placed on the DL . Hanigan went on the DL after he was hit on the face mask by a foul tip and suffered a concussion ; he returned on August 8 , 2009 . For the season , Hanigan had the best fielding percentage as a catcher ( .998 ) , and the second best caught stealing percentage ( 42 @.@ 9 ) in the majors .
On March 14 , 2011 , Hanigan signed a three @-@ year , $ 4 million extension with the Reds , covering his first two arbitration @-@ eligible seasons . The contract also included up to $ 800 @,@ 000 in incentives based on playing time , split for the 2012 and 2013 seasons . The deal included a $ 300 @,@ 000 signing bonus .
On April 3 , 2011 , he set career records by hitting more than one home run and getting four hits in a single game . Against Chicago Cubs pitcher Sean Marshall , Hanigan drove in the tie @-@ breaking run in what was an 8 – 7 win for the Reds on August 7 . He finished the year batting .267 with an on @-@ base percentage of .356 and a career @-@ high of six home runs .
In 2012 and 2013 , Hanigan split time catching with Reds ' prospect Devin Mesoraco . Hanigan caught both of Homer Bailey 's no @-@ hitters , against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 28 , 2012 , and against the San Francisco Giants on July 2 , 2013 .
= = = Tampa Bay Rays = = =
Hanigan was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays as part of a three @-@ team trade also involving the Arizona Diamondbacks on December 3 , 2013 . The Rays immediately signed him to a three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 75 million contract through 2016 , with a team option for 2017 .
Playing as the Rays ' primary catcher , on April 4 he went 2 @-@ 5 with a three @-@ run homer in a win over the Texas Rangers . Two weeks later he hit two home runs with six RBIs in a 16 @-@ 1 win over the New York Yankees . In May , Hanigan , plagued for nearly two weeks by a strained hamstring , was finally placed on the 15 @-@ day DL on May 28 . On June 17 he had a home run and a walk against the Baltimore Orioles , but he then missed several more games due to neck stiffness and later with soreness in his left side .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
On December 19 , 2014 , the Rays traded Hanigan and Wil Myers to the San Diego Padres as part of a three @-@ team transaction , in which the Padres traded Jake Bauers , Burch Smith , and René Rivera to the Rays , the Padres trade Joe Ross and a player to be named later to the Washington Nationals , and Washington traded Steven Souza and Travis Ott to Tampa Bay . The Padres then traded him , later that same day , to the Boston Red Sox for Will Middlebrooks . On April 17 , 2015 , Hanigan hit his first home run in a Red Sox uniform off of Ubaldo Jiménez of the Baltimore Orioles . The two run shot tied the game that Boston eventually won in walk @-@ off fashion . On May 1 , 2015 , Hanigan left the game after a ball struck his hand after Mark Teixeira got struck in his hand first . The next day , X @-@ rays tested positive that Hanigan 's hand was fractured , placing him on the 15 @-@ day disabled list . The Red Sox projected that he was going to be out indefinitely but other sources projected that the injury did not end his 2015 year . On May 3 , 2015 , Hanigan was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list .
= = Personal life = =
Hanigan currently resides in Lexington , Kentucky , where he also breeds horses . His Australian shepherd won a Best in Breed award at the 2014 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show .
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= SS Pennsylvanian =
SS Pennsylvanian was a cargo ship built in 1913 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was requisitioned by the United States Navy and commissioned as USS Pennsylvanian ( ID @-@ 3511 ) in September 1918 , and renamed two months later to USS Scranton . After her naval service , her original name of Pennsylvanian was restored .
Pennsylvanian was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened . Pennsylvanian was one of the first two steamships to travel eastbound through the canal when it opened in August 1914 . During World War I , as both SS Pennsylvanian and USS Scranton , the ship carried cargo and animals to France , and returned American troops after the Armistice in 1918 .
After her naval service ended in 1919 , she was returned to her original owners and resumed relatively uneventful cargo service over the next twenty years . Early in World War II , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration , and shipped cargo on New York – Caribbean routes and transatlantic routes . In mid @-@ July 1944 , Pennsylvanian was scuttled as part of the breakwater for one of the Mulberry artificial harbors built to support the Normandy Invasion .
= = Design and construction = =
In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Montanan , and Pennsylvanian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 each . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Pennsylvanian , including financing costs , was $ 70 @.@ 35 per deadweight ton , which came out to just under $ 716 @,@ 000 .
Pennsylvanian ( Maryland Steel yard no . 127 ) was the final ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 29 March 1913 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in June . Pennsylvanian was 6 @,@ 547 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 429 feet 2 inches ( 130 @.@ 81 m ) in length and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT and a storage capacity of 491 @,@ 084 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 906 @.@ 0 m3 ) . Pennsylvanian had a single quadruple expansion steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller . It could propel the ship at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . The engine had cylinders of 25 ½ inches ( 65 cm ) , 37 inches ( 94 cm ) , 53 ½ inches ( 136 cm ) and 78 inches ( 200 cm ) diameter by 54 inches ( 140 cm ) stroke . It was built by the Maryland Steel Company , Sparrows Point , Maryland .
= = Early career = =
When Pennsylvanian began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Pennsylvanian sailed in this service on the west side of North America .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route . Pennsylvanian , on the west side of the canal when it opened , was one of the first two eastbound steamers to traverse the canal during her trip to New York . In late August , American @-@ Hawaiian announced that Pennsylvanian would sail on a San Francisco – Panama Canal – Boston route , sailing opposite of Mexican , Honolulan , and sister ship Washingtonian . When landslides closed the canal in October 1915 , all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Pennsylvanian , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again .
Pennsylvanian 's exact movements during 1916 and 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore . However , when the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the entire American @-@ Hawaiian fleet , including Pennsylvanian , was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , which then returned the ships for operation by American @-@ Hawaiian .
= = U.S. Navy service = =
On 13 September 1918 , Pennsylvanian was transferred to the U.S. Navy at New York and commissioned USS Pennsylvanian ( ID @-@ 3511 ) the same day . Assigned to the Navy 's Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) , Pennsylvanian loaded a general cargo and sailed for Brest , France , on 30 September . She arrived there on 15 October and sailed for La Pallice the next day , where she unloaded her cargo before departing for New York on 5 November .
Arriving at New York on 15 November , four days after the Armistice , Pennsylvanian was refitted as an animal transport ship , which , among other things , required the building of ramps and stalls for the animals . Sometime in November , probably during her refit , she was renamed USS Scranton , becoming the first U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the Pennsylvania city . Scranton sailed for France on 12 December , arriving at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 29 December , and returning to New York on 29 January 1919 .
On 5 February , Scranton was transferred from the NOTS to the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force , and began conversion to a troop transport to carry American personnel home from France . While sailing to France to begin her first troop @-@ carrying duties in late March , Scranton suffered damage to her rudder and was disabled 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ) east of New York . Navy transport El Sol responded to Scranton 's distress call , and attempted to take Scranton under tow . During the day on 28 March , Scranton attempted to run a towline to El Sol by sending a launch in the rolling seas , but it capsized , drowning three men . El Sol stood by Scranton for over 40 hours until minesweeper Penguin arrived and took Scranton under tow . Penguin and Scranton arrived in New York on 3 April , where Scranton entered drydock to undergo repairs .
After repairs , Scranton made three roundtrips to France and carried some 6 @,@ 000 troops and passengers home to the United States before she was decommissioned on 19 July . The ship was handed over to the USSB for return to American @-@ Hawaiian , who restored her original name .
= = Interwar years = =
Pennsylvanian resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Pennsylvanian continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal in a relatively uneventful career . One incident of note occurred on 28 November 1930 , when Pennsylvanian hit a Southern Pacific ferry near Goat Island ( present @-@ day Yerba Buena Island ) in a dense fog in San Francisco Bay . Pennsylvanian hit the stern of the ferry and caused damage to the ferry 's superstructure and destroyed about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of the ferry 's railing . No one on either ship was injured .
Other hints of Pennsylvanian 's activities throughout the rest of her career can be found from contemporary newspaper reports . In October 1929 , the Los Angeles Times reported on a shipment that included 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 radio sets among Pennsylvanian 's 2 @,@ 300 long tons ( 2 @,@ 340 t ) of cargo . In March 1938 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that Pennsylvanian 's captain , C. M. Bamforth , had temporarily turned the deck of the cargo ship into a boatyard to build a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) catboat for his son in Swampscott , Massachusetts . Bamforth laid the keel while in San Francisco , bought copper rivets for the hull planking in Portland , Oregon , and began painting the boat after Pennsylvanian had traversed the Panama Canal . He expected to have the boat finished when Pennsylvanian arrived in Boston on 22 April .
In October the same year , Pennsylvanian delivered 325 long tons ( 330 t ) of steel parts for the Hale Telescope then under construction at the Palomar Observatory outside San Diego . The ship had picked up the $ 375 @,@ 000 cargo in Philadelphia before sailing for San Diego .
= = World War II = =
At some point after the United States entered World War II , Pennsylvanian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) , and , as with her pre @-@ U.S. Navy service in World War I , she continued to be operated by American @-@ Hawaiian . From July to September 1942 , Pennsylvanian sailed between New York and Caribbean ports , calling at Trinidad , Key West , Hampton Roads , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal . In January 1943 , Pennsylvanian called at Bandar Abbas , Iran , on the Persian Gulf , and returned to Caribbean sailings again by March 1943 .
Between May and September 1943 , Pennsylvanian made four transatlantic crossings between New York and Liverpool , making intermediate stops in Loch Ewe and Methil while in the United Kingdom . The cargo ship made two New York – Guantánamo Bay roundtrips between September and December before resuming transatlantic sailings . After two New York – Liverpool roundtrips between late December 1943 and April 1944 , Pennsylvanian left the United States for the final time on 19 May 1944 , arriving in Liverpool on 2 June . She called at the British ports of Methil , Loch Ewe , Clyde , and Milford Haven in late June and early July , and , sailing from Barry in mid July , Pennsylvanian arrived at Saint @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer , France . There she was scuttled as part of the breakwater for the Mulberry artificial harbor built to support the Normandy Invasion .
In March 1945 , the WSA offered a payment of $ 565 @,@ 910 to American @-@ Hawaiian for Pennsylvanian as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven requisitioned American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had either been sunk , scuttled , or were to be retained by the government .
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= Cabell Breckinridge =
Joseph " Cabell " Breckinridge ( July 14 , 1788 – September 1 , 1823 ) was a lawyer and politician in the U.S. state of Kentucky . From 1816 to 1819 , he was a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives , serving as speaker from 1817 to 1819 . In 1820 , he was appointed Kentucky Secretary of State by Governor John Adair . A member of the Breckinridge political family , he was the son of U.S. Attorney General John Breckinridge and the father of U.S. Vice President John C. Breckinridge .
Born in Albemarle County , Virginia to John Breckinridge ( 1760 @-@ 1806 ) and Mary Hopkins Cabell Breckinridge ( 1769 @-@ 1858 ) , Breckinridge moved to Kentucky with his parents in 1793 . When John Breckinridge was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1801 , Cabell traveled with him to Washington , D.C. , and completed preparatory studies at New London Academy ( now Colby – Sawyer College ) . In 1806 , he enrolled in the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) . His studies were interrupted in 1807 when he participated in a student protest against the strict rules and rigorous curriculum at the institution , but after a year @-@ long break , he returned and completed his bachelor 's degree in 1810 . After graduation , he married Mary Clay Smith , daughter of Samuel Stanhope Smith , the university 's president .
Breckinridge intended to begin practicing law in Lexington , Kentucky , but he enlisted for service in the War of 1812 instead . After the war , he opened his practice and was elected to the Kentucky House , where he led an unsuccessful attempt to oust Gabriel Slaughter after he ascended to the governorship upon the death of George Madison . He served as Speaker of the House from 1817 to 1819 , and was appointed as Adair 's Secretary of State in 1820 . He moved to Frankfort , the state capital , so that he could attend to the duties of his office , but fell ill with a fever in August 1823 and died in office on September 1 .
= = Early life and family = =
Joseph Cabell Breckinridge was born in Albemarle County , Virginia , on July 14 , 1788 . He was the second child and first son of John and Mary Hopkins " Polly " ( née Cabell ) Breckinridge . He was named for his maternal grandfather , Joseph Cabell , of Virginia 's Cabell political family but was known as " Cabell " throughout his life .
In 1793 , the family moved to Lexington , Kentucky . Late in the year , a smallpox epidemic struck the city . Inoculations came too late , and Breckinridge , his mother , and three of his siblings were infected . Breckinridge , his mother , and his sister Letitia survived , but his sister Mary and brother Robert died . Other than this , historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that " little is known of his boyhood " , although he speculates that he probably attended some local schools and read from his father 's extensive library .
In 1801 , when Breckinridge was 12 years old , his father was elected to the U.S. Senate . The family moved to Bedford County , Virginia , where they lived with relatives in order to be closer to the elder Breckinridge during the congressional session at Washington , D.C .. While there , Cabell Breckinridge attended New London Academy ( now Colby – Sawyer College ) . A case of measles prevented him from attending William and Mary College ( now College of William & Mary ) , his father 's alma mater , where his cousin , future Congressman James Breckinridge , was enrolled . In 1803 , he accompanied his father to the capital where he witnessed the debates over the Louisiana Purchase before returning to college in October . After Congress adjourned in March , John Breckinridge met his son in Virginia , and they arrived back at Cabell 's Dale , the family estate near Lexington , on April 18 , 1804 . He did not return to Virginia with his father in late 1804 , instead pursuing preparatory studies under Colonel Samuel Wilson in advance of his enrollment at the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) .
= = Studies at Princeton University = =
Breckinridge arrived in Princeton , New Jersey , in late December 1805 . He had completed his final exams by April 5 , but he declined his father 's offer to come to Washington because he needed to catch up on his studies in arithmetic . When the next term began in May , he joined the American Whig – Cliosophic Society , a debating society founded by James Madison , Philip Freneau , Aaron Burr , and Henry Lee in 1769 .
In mid @-@ 1806 , Cabell learned that his father was sick . Not long after , however , he received word that his father was improving and expected to meet him in Virginia en route to the capital . Although a rendezvous location had not been set , he assumed it would be in Lynchburg , where the Breckinridges had relatives . In October , he traveled to his uncle Lewis Breckinridge 's home to wait for his father , but he never came . Disappointed , he returned to Princeton for the beginning of the new term , unaware that his father 's recovery had been short @-@ lived . Later he learned that his father had attempted to leave Cabell 's Dale on October 22 but collapsed off his horse and returned to his sick bed ; he died December 14 , 1806 .
In January 1807 , travelers from Kentucky finally brought news of John Breckinridge 's death . Despite Cabell 's declaration to a relative that , " I consider my life dedicated to my mother 's ease " , Breckinridge continued his studies . John Breckinridge died intestate , complicating the settlement of his estate and creating financial difficulties for Cabell , who had been receiving support from his father . Desperate , he appealed to Alfred Grayson , his sister Letitia 's husband and son of Senator William Grayson , for assistance .
In March 1807 , about 125 students organized a protest against the college 's strict conduct policies and rigorous study requirements . The protest included signing a formal petition of protest ; college administrators subsequently suspended everyone who refused to withdraw his name from the petition . Breckinridge was required to apologize for his part in the protest in order to return to school , but he refused to do so . In May , he left Princeton for Cabell 's Dale , but in Philadelphia he found that there were no available stages heading west for two weeks . Unable to afford room and board for that long , he went to Fincastle , Virginia , to stay with relatives . He considered enrolling at the College of William and Mary for the fall term in 1807 , believing he could complete his studies in nine months but ultimately decided against it . Harrison surmises that the lack of correspondence between Breckinridge and his family in Kentucky between July 1807 to July 1808 indicated that he was at Cabell 's Dale during most or all of that period .
By July 1808 , Breckinridge had decided to return to Princeton in October to finish his studies . His roommate , James G. Birney , and the university president , Samuel Stanhope Smith , were both ardent abolitionists , and through their influence , he became convinced that slavery must be ended , but only by voluntary emancipation , not by government interference . He completed his bachelor 's degree in 1810 .
= = Marriage and law practice = =
While completing his degree , Breckinridge began courting Mary Clay Smith , the daughter the university president and granddaughter of John Witherspoon , a signer of the Declaration of Independence . After graduation , he journeyed home , but returned to Princeton where he and Smith were married on May 11 , 1811 . The couple had five children – Frances ( b . 1812 ) , Caroline ( b . 1813 ) , Mary Cabell ( b . 1815 ) , John Cabell ( b . 1821 ) , and Laetitia ( b . 1822 ) . John Cabell Breckinridge went on to represent Kentucky in both houses of Congress , was elected Vice President of the United States in 1856 , and was the fifth and final Confederate States Secretary of War .
After attending wedding celebrations with friends and relatives in Princeton , Philadelphia , and New York City , the couple moved in with Breckinridge 's widowed mother at Cabell 's Dale . Before Breckinridge could commence practice , the U.S. entered the War of 1812 . He was commissioned a major and served as aide @-@ de @-@ camp under Samuel Hopkins . He would later refer to the war as " a foolish and ineffectual brace of campaigns on the Illinois and Wabash " . After the war , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , was admitted to the bar in 1814 , and opened a practice in Lexington . Concurrent with his practice , he served as a professor of religion . He also helped found the Second Presbyterian Church in Lexington and became one of its ruling elders . In 1815 , he purchased Thorn Hill , a home in Lexington , from John W. Hunt .
= = Political career = =
In 1816 , Breckinridge was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to represent Fayette Countyin the Kentucky House of Representatives , gaining the largest majority given to a candidate for office in that county to that point . Historian Lewis Collins notes that Breckinridge 's legislative career began during the national " Era of Good Feelings " , largely congruent with the presidency of James Monroe , when political disagreements were relatively few . Nevertheless , dissension erupted in Kentucky in October 1816 after the death of Governor George Madison just three weeks into his term . Lieutenant Governor Gabriel Slaughter , as acting governor , rescinded Madison 's appointment of Charles Stewart Todd as Secretary of State , replacing him with former Senator John Pope , who was unpopular because of his vote against declaring the War of 1812 . Slaughter followed this up by appointing Martin D. Hardin , widely regarded as a Federalist despite his nominal identification with the Democratic @-@ Republicans , to fill the Senate vacancy caused by the resignation of William T. Barry .
Both appointments were unpopular in the state , and on January 27 , 1817 , Breckinridge formed a coalition of legislators in the House that sponsored a bill to elect " a governor to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of " Madison , essentially an attempt to oust Slaughter from the governorship . The bill passed the House by a vote of 56 – 30 , but the Senate refused to concur . Madison 's death was the first time the lieutenant governor succeeded permanently to the governorship , establishing the precedent for future instances . Nevertheless , several anti @-@ Slaughter candidates were elected in the 1817 legislative elections . Breckinridge was re @-@ elected in both 1817 and 1818 and was chosen Speaker of the House both years .
In 1820 , Breckinridge 's friend , newly elected Governor John Adair , appointed him as Kentucky Secretary of State . Of this appointment , historian William C. Davis wrote , " It was a prestigious , albeit not too influential , position and would require his full @-@ time presence at the capital . " He remained in Lexington until the birth of his son in January 1821 ; in February , the family moved to the Governor 's Mansion in Frankfort to live with Adair . Although his mother opposed the move to Frankfort , he intended for it to be permanent ; an acquaintance wrote that " his plans were extensive and his hopes high " for his family 's life in the state capital . In addition to his duties as secretary of state , he continued to practice law .
= = Death = =
Throughout his term , Breckinridge 's health became increasingly fragile . When an illness described in contemporary accounts as " the prevailing fever " struck Lexington in 1823 , he took the children to Cabell 's Dale to prevent them from becoming ill . When he returned in late August , he contracted the fever . Despite the care of his brother , John , and the local doctors , he died on September 1 , 1823 , just over a week after falling ill . Originally buried on the grounds at Cabell 's Dale , he and several family members were re @-@ interred at Lexington Cemetery near the grave of his brother Robert Jefferson Breckinridge .
Breckinridge left behind $ 15 @,@ 000 in debts , and with the nation still in the throes of the Panic of 1819 , his assets were not enough to pay off the obligations . His wife , who also fell ill and was pregnant with the couple 's sixth child , was so depressed because of his death and her subsequent financial straits that she suffered a miscarriage . She and the children moved in with Cabell 's widowed mother at Cabell 's Dale . For several years , she was dependent upon her in @-@ laws for survival ; Breckinridge 's brother , Robert , assumed Cabell 's debts , which he paid in full in 1832 .
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= Typhoon Oliwa =
Typhoon Oliwa was one of a record eleven super typhoons in the 1997 Pacific typhoon season . It formed in the central Pacific Ocean on September 2 to the southwest of Hawaii , but it became a typhoon in the western Pacific . Oliwa explosively deepened on September 8 , increasing its winds from 85 mph to 160 mph in a 24 ‑ hour period . Afterward , it slowly weakened , and after passing east of Okinawa , Oliwa turned northeast and struck Japan with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . There , it affected 30 @,@ 000 people and killed 13 ; thousands of houses were flooded , and some were destroyed . Offshore South Korea , the winds and waves wrecked 28 boats , while one boat went missing with a crew of 10 people . Typhoon Oliwa dissipated on September 19 in northern Pacific Ocean near the International Date Line .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Oliwa were from an unusually eastward extension of the monsoon trough in late August 1997 . The tropical disturbance organized southwest of Hawaii , and slowly organized . On September 2 , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Two @-@ C about 590 miles ( 950 km ) southwest of Johnston Island , slightly east of the International Date Line . The depression quickly attained tropical storm status , and the CPHC gave it the name " Oliwa " , meaning " Oliver " in the Hawaiian language .
A moderately powerful ridge persisted north of Tropical Storm Oliwa , which caused a slow west to west @-@ northwest track . Water temperatures were slightly warmer than usual , and there was a favorable upper @-@ level environment for strengthening . Initially , however , Oliwa was somewhat disorganized on satellite imagery , and on September 4 , as it crossed the International Date Line , there may have been multiple circulations . Upon entering the western Pacific Ocean , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began issuing advisories on the system ( 9719 ) . Despite the favorable conditions , further intensification was slow , and it reached typhoon status - winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) - on September 8 . Prior to that time , Oliwa co @-@ existed with a weak tropical cyclone that formed in a similar location in the south Pacific .
About twelve hours after reaching typhoon status , Oliwa began to undergo unexpected explosive deepening . In a 24 ‑ hour period , the JTWC assessed the typhoon as nearly doubling in intensity , from 85 to 160 mph ( 140 to 260 km / h 1 @-@ min winds ) , while the pressure dropped 69 mbar to a minimum of 898 mbar ; based on the estimated intensity , the JTWC classified Oliwa as a super typhoon . The JMA , which is the official agency of the western Pacific , assessed Oliwa as reaching a peak of 115 mph ( 185 km / h 10 @-@ min winds ) , with a pressure of 915 mbar . Around that time , satellite imagery indicated a possible eyewall mesovorticy , which is a small scale rotational feature found in the eyewall of an intense tropical cyclone . Additionally , concentric eyewalls developed in the center of Oliwa , which typically occur in strong typhoons .
After maintaining peak intensity for 36 hours , Oliwa gradually weakened as it continued to the west @-@ northwest , during which it passed through the Northern Marianas Islands . On September 14 , the typhoon slowed to the north of Okinawa , and it turned to the northeast toward Japan . As a weakened typhoon , Oliwa moved ashore on Makurazaki , Kagoshima , Kyushu with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) late on September 15 . It weakened to tropical storm strength while crossing Japan , and deteriorated further to tropical depression status on September 16 . On September 17 , the JTWC issued the final advisory on Oliwa while it was in the eastern portion of the Sea of Japan . The JMA maintained advisories as the storm crossed northern Japan , and it accelerated over the open Pacific Ocean . On September 19 , Oliwa dissipated near the International Date Line to the south of the Aleutian Islands .
= = Impact and records = =
While weakening after peaking in intensity , Oliwa passed about 60 miles ( 95 km ) north of Agrihan in the Northern Marianas Islands . Sustained winds on the island reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , with gusts to 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The winds downed two coconut trees onto a radio antenna , which left the island temporarily without contact to the outside world . On the Japanese island of Kyushu , where Oliwa made landfall as a weakened typhoon , thousands of homes were flooded , and dozens were destroyed . Its slow movement caused heavy rainfall that created a mudslide in Tashiro , Kagoshima , killing three people . Across Kagoshima Prefecture , officials issued evacuations due to flooding , although many did not heed the warnings . In the prefecture , the typhoon destroyed 131 buildings and damaged about 1 @,@ 700 more . Damage there was estimated at 14 million yen ( 1997 JPY , $ 150 @,@ 000 in 1997 USD ) . Across Japan , Typhoon Oliwa caused 12 fatalities and displaced a total of 30 @,@ 000 people . Total damage amounted to 4 @.@ 36 billion yen ( $ 50 @.@ 1 million USD ) . Offshore the South Korea coast , the winds and strong waves wrecked 28 vessels , and 10 people were reported missing from one ship .
Typhoon Oliwa was one of eleven super typhoons in the western Pacific , which is tied to the previous record of eleven ; a typical typhoon season has four super typhoons . The period of heightened activity was the result of one of the most powerful El Niño events on record . The track Oliwa was unusual , due to its origin as a cyclone from the central Pacific Ocean and its path over the Northern Marianas Islands and Japan . The typhoon was one of only two during the season to undergo explosive deepening , which is a decrease in barometric pressure of ≥ 2 @.@ 5 mbar per hour for a period of at least 12 hours . In 24 hours , the pressure dropped 69 mbar , which averages 2 @.@ 9 mbar per hour ; such values are usually estimated in the western Pacific using the Dvorak technique .
The name was not retired , although due to the low activity in the central Pacific Ocean , the name will not be used for several years .
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= Tops in Science Fiction =
Tops in Science Fiction was a science fiction magazine which was launched in 1953 . The publisher , Love Romances Publishing , created it as a vehicle to reprint stories from Planet Stories . It was unsuccessful and only lasted for two issues . Although it contained no original stories , it did print some original artwork , including some of Kelly Freas 's early work . A British reprint edition appeared in the mid @-@ 1950s .
= = Publication history = =
The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years ; Tops in Science Fiction was one of the last of these . The publisher , Love Romances Inc . , also published Planet Stories , and Malcolm Reiss , Planet 's editorial director , decided to try to take advantage of the backfile of stories and artwork from Planet 's 14 years of publication . He may have been inspired by the example of Fantastic Story Magazine , which was published by Standard Magazines as a vehicle to reprint their extensive backfile of science fiction . If so , he was evidently not aware that by 1953 Fantastic Story was not doing well financially .
The first issue was dated Spring 1953 , and was edited by Jack O 'Sullivan . The cover , by Alexander Leydenfrost , was reprinted from a 1942 issue of Planet Stories . The fiction included " Black Friar of the Flame " by Isaac Asimov , and " The Million Year Picnic " , by Ray Bradbury — the first of his " Martian Chronicles " stories . Interior art included some of Kelly Freas ' earliest work . The issue was only modestly successful , and on the advice of his distributor , who told Reiss that they were having trouble getting the magazine distributed , Reiss decided to switch to the digest format for the second issue : digests were starting to become more popular than the pulps , which would be almost completely gone from the market within only a couple more years . The second issue was dated Fall 1953 ; the cover , by Freas , illustrated " Lorelei of the Red Mist " , by Bradbury and Leigh Brackett . Freas also did the interior illustrations for the story , and later commented that he was delighted by the results but felt he was " never quite able to repeat it . A hex , of course . " Interior artists for the second issue also included Emsh ; the fiction included stories by Fredric Brown and Horace Gold . However , this issue received only limited distribution , and Reiss decided against continuing with the magazine .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Tops in Science Fiction 's two issues were dated Spring and Fall 1953 ; the first in pulp format , and the second a digest . There was a single volume of two numbers . The publisher was Love Romances Publishing , based in Stamford , Connecticut . The magazine was priced at 25 cents for the pulp issue , and 35 cents for the digest issue . Both issues were 128 pages long . The first issue was edited by Jack O 'Sullivan ; the second by Malcolm Reiss .
A British reprint edition appeared , with three 128 @-@ page digest editions published by Top Fiction Ltd . These were released in Autumn 1954 , Winter 1955 and Summer 1956 , though none of them were dated . The first two reprinted stories from the first U.S. issue ; the third reprinted material from the second U.S. issue . They were each priced at 1 / 6 .
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= John Gardner ( British writer ) =
Not to be confused with John Gardner ( American writer )
John Edmund Gardner ( 20 November 1926 – 3 August 2007 ) was an English spy and thriller novelist , best known for his James Bond continuation novels , but also for his series of Boysie Oakes books and three continuation novels containing Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's fictional villain , Professor Moriarty .
Gardner , an ex @-@ Royal Marine commando , worked for a period as an Anglican priest , but he lost his faith and left the church after a short time . After a battle with alcohol addiction he wrote his first book , the autobiographical Spin the Bottle , published in 1964 .
Gardner went on to write over fifty works of fiction , including fourteen original James Bond novels , and the novel versions of two Bond films . He died from suspected heart failure on 3 August 2007 .
= = Early life = =
John Edmund Gardner was born on 20 November 1926 in Seaton Delaval , a small village in Northumberland . His parents were Cyril Gardner , a London @-@ born Anglican priest who had been ordained in Wallsend in 1921 , and Lena Henderson , a local girl ; the couple were married in 1925 . In 1933 the family moved to the market town of Wantage in what was then Berkshire , where Cyril took up the position of Chaplain at St Mary 's , Wantage and Gardner was educated at the local King Alfred 's School .
During the Second World War he joined the Home Guard , despite being only 13 at the time . Gardner subsequently served in the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm , before transferring to the Royal Marines 42 Commando for service in the Middle and Far East . Gardner considered himself " the worst commando in the world " and , despite being " a small @-@ arms expert ... [ who ] also knew a lot about explosives " , he admitted that " I bent an aeroplane I was learning to fly " .
After the war he went up to St John 's College , Cambridge , to study theology and was subsequently ordained as an Anglican priest in 1953 . He realised that he had lost his faith and made an error in his career ; he later admitted that during one sermon , " I didn 't believe a word I was saying " . He was released from the church in 1958 and took up a position as a drama critic with the Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon Herald . It was whilst at the Herald — aged 33 — that Gardner realised he was an alcoholic , drinking two bottles of gin a day . He overcame his addiction and produced his first book as part of his therapy : the autobiographical Spin the Bottle , published in 1964 . Critic and scholar John Sutherland says that of all the books Gardner published , " it 's the one that most deserves to survive . "
= = Writing career = =
In 1964 , Gardner began his novelist career with The Liquidator , in which he created the character Boysie Oakes who inadvertently is mistaken to be a tough , pitiless man of action and is thereupon recruited into a British spy agency . In fact , Oakes was a devout coward who was terrified of violence , suffered from airsickness and was afraid of heights and Gardner admitted of him that , " though I have denied it many times — he was of course a complete piss @-@ take of J. Bond " . The book appeared at the height of the fictional spy mania and , as a send @-@ up of the whole business , was an immediate success . Upon reviewing the novel in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher wrote , " Mr. Gardner succeeds in having it both ways : He has written a clever parody which is also a genuinely satisfactory thriller . " The book was made into a film of the same name by MGM and another seven light @-@ hearted novels and two short stories about the cowardly Oakes appeared over the next eleven years .
Following the success of his Oakes books , Gardner created new characters : Derek Torry — a Scotland Yard inspector of Italian descent — and Herbie Kruger , the latter of which appeared in a series of novels published simultaneously with his Bond works . In the mid @-@ 1970s Gardner also wrote the first of three novels using the character of Professor Moriarty from the Sherlock Holmes series , the last of which was published posthumously . The third of this series , titled simply Moriarty , was delayed due to a dispute with the publisher , but was finally released shortly after his death . Erik Lee Preminger bought the film rights to the first of the trilogy - The Return of Moriarty - and wrote a script . Edgar Bronfman , Jr . , for Sagittarius Entertainment and Nat Cohen , for EMI Productions were to produce . Donald Sutherland was to portray Moriarty . Funding however fell through shortly before filming was to begin .
In 1979 Glidrose Publications ( now Ian Fleming Publications ) approached Gardner and asked him to revive Ian Fleming 's James Bond series of novels . Between 1981 and 1996 , Gardner wrote fourteen James Bond novels , and the novelizations of two Bond films . Gardner stated that he wanted " to bring Mr Bond into the 1980s " , although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them . Even though Gardner kept the ages the same , he made Bond grey at the temples as a nod to the passing of the years . With the influence of the American publishers , Putnam 's , the Gardner novels showed an increase in the number of Americanisms used in the book , such as a waiter wearing " pants " , rather than trousers , in The Man from Barbarossa . James Harker , writing in The Guardian , considered that the Gardner books were " dogged by silliness " , giving examples of Scorpius , where much of the action is set in Chippenham , and Win , Lose or Die , where " Bond gets chummy with an unconvincing Maggie Thatcher " . Whilst Gardner 's Bond novels received a mixed reaction from the critics , they were popular and a number appeared in The New York Times Best Seller list , bringing the author commercial success . Gardner had an ambivalent view on being the Bond author , once saying that " I 'm very grateful to have been selected to keep Bond alive . But I 'd much rather be remembered for my own work than I would for Bond " , while saying on another occasion that " I remain proud that my contribution to the Bond saga played a great part in its development " . In the mid @-@ 1990s , after discovering he had esophageal cancer , Gardner officially retired from writing Bond novels and Glidrose Publications quickly chose Raymond Benson to continue the literary stories of James Bond .
His break from writing lasted for five years , following the death of his wife , but after battling his illness he returned to print in 2000 with a new novel , Day of Absolution . Gardner also began a series of books with a new character , Suzie Mountford , a 1930s police detective .
The Globe and Mail crime critic Derrick Murdoch said , " John Gardner is technically a highly competent thriller novelist who never seems to be quite at ease unless he is writing in the same vein as another writer . ( He has worked John le Carré and Graham Greene this way , and it 's what makes him so well qualified to continue the James Bond saga . ) "
The Crime Writers ' Association short @-@ listed The Liquidator , The Dancing Dodo , The Nostradamus Traitor , and The Garden of Weapons for their annual Gold Dagger award .
= = Personal life = =
In 1952 Gardner married Margaret Mercer and the couple had two children , Simon and Alexis . Gardner also had another daughter , Miranda , the result of a long affair with Susan Wright , former PA to Peter Sellers . In 1989 , Gardner and his family moved to the US and it was in America that he was diagnosed with cancer ; firstly for the prostate and then , six years later , of the oesophagus . The subsequent medical treatment in the US left him near bankrupt and he returned to the UK in November 1996 . Shortly after his return , in February 1997 , Margaret died unexpectedly .
When Gardner returned to writing , his second book , Bottled Spider , introduced a new character , Detective Sergeant Suzie Mountford . Gardner took the surname from Patricia Mountford , an ex @-@ girlfriend to whom he 'd been engaged in 1949 . When she read the book Mountford contacted Gardner through his publishers and the two were subsequently engaged .
= = Death = =
Gardner died on Friday 3 August 2007 from suspected heart failure . He collapsed while shopping in Basingstoke ; he was later rushed to hospital , where he died .
= = Works = =
= = = Autobiography = = =
Spin the Bottle ( 1964 )
= = = Boysie Oakes novels = = =
The Liquidator ( 1964 )
Understrike ( 1965 )
Amber Nine ( 1966 )
Madrigal ( 1967 )
Founder Member ( 1969 )
Traitor 's Exit ( 1970 )
The Airline Pirates ( 1970 ) - published in the U.S. as Air Apparent
A Killer for a Song ( 1975 )
Two Boysie Oakes short stories appear in The Assassination File ( A Handful of Rice , Corkscrew ) .
Two Boysie Oakes short stories appear in Hideaway ( Boysie Oakes and The Explosive Device , Sunset At Paleokastritsa ) .
= = = Derek Torry novels = = =
A Complete State of Death ( 1969 ) - reissued in the U.S. as The Stone Killer
The Corner Men ( 1974 )
= = = Professor Moriarty novels = = =
The Return of Moriarty ( 1974 )
The Revenge of Moriarty ( 1975 )
Moriarty ( 2008 )
= = = Herbie Kruger novels = = =
The Nostradamus Traitor ( 1979 )
The Garden of Weapons ( 1980 )
The Quiet Dogs ( 1982 )
Maestro ( 1993 )
Confessor ( 1995 )
Herbie Kruger also appears in The Secret Houses and The Secret Families .
= = = The Railton family novels = = =
The Secret Generations ( 1985 )
The Secret Houses ( 1988 )
The Secret Families ( 1989 )
= = = James Bond novels = = =
Licence Renewed ( 1981 )
For Special Services ( 1982 )
Icebreaker ( 1983 )
Role of Honour ( 1984 )
Nobody Lives for Ever ( 1986 )
No Deals , Mr. Bond ( 1987 )
Scorpius ( 1988 )
Win , Lose or Die ( 1989 )
Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) – novelization of a film script
Brokenclaw ( 1990 )
The Man from Barbarossa ( 1991 )
Death is Forever ( 1992 )
Never Send Flowers ( 1993 )
SeaFire ( 1994 )
GoldenEye ( 1995 ) – novelization of a film script
Cold ( 1996 ) – published in the U.S. as Cold Fall
= = = Detective Sergeant Suzie Mountford novels = = =
Bottled Spider ( 2002 )
The Streets of Town ( 2003 )
Angels Dining at the Ritz ( 2004 )
Troubled Midnight ( 2005 )
No Human Enemy ( 2007 )
= = = Other novels = = =
The Censor ( 1970 )
Every Night 's a Bullfight ( 1971 ) ( Published in the U.S. in a bowdlerized edition as " Every Night 's a Festival " in 1972 . ) [ 1 ]
To Run a Little Faster ( 1976 )
The Werewolf Trace ( 1977 )
The Dancing Dodo ( 1978 )
Golgotha ( 1980 ) - published in the U.S. as The Last Trump
The Director ( 1982 ) ( A re @-@ working of his 1971 novel " Every Night 's a Bullfight " . )
Flamingo ( 1983 )
Blood of the Fathers ( 1992 ) ( as by " Edmund McCoy " . Later published under his own name in 2004 . )
Day of Absolution ( 2000 )
= = = Short story collections = = =
Hideaway ( 1968 ) ( Contains two Boysie Oakes stories . )
The Assassination File ( 1974 ) ( Contains two Boysie Oakes stories . )
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= Jordan Kovacs =
Jordan David Kovacs ( born June 12 , 1990 ) is an American football safety who is currently a free agent . He was signed by the Dolphins as an undrafted free agent in 2013 . He played college football at Michigan . Kovacs has also been a member of the Philadelphia Eagles and Miami Dolphins .
He was a walk @-@ on who earned 2009 CollegeFootballNews.com Freshman All @-@ America second team recognition and 2009 Sporting News Freshman All @-@ Big Ten honors for the 2009 Wolverines while being the second @-@ leading tackler on the team . Granted a scholarship by the 2010 team for his second year , he was the second @-@ leading tackler in the Big Ten Conference and was selected as a 2010 All @-@ Conference honorable mention . He was also a 2011 All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention for the 2011 team . He served the 2012 team as captain and was also a 2012 All @-@ Big Ten second team selection and a 2012 Academic All @-@ Big Ten honoree .
= = Background = =
Kovacs , a Hungarian American , attended Clay High School , which is the rival high school of former Wolverine teammate Kevin Koger . In high school , he earned varsity letters in basketball as a sophomore and junior . He also earned All @-@ City recognition in track and field three times ( first team as a senior , second team as a junior and honorable mention as a sophomore ) and was a four @-@ year letterman . He qualified for the Ohio State championships in the 4x400 meter relay . He was a three @-@ year letterman in football , where he earned All @-@ Ohio academic honors and All @-@ district honors as both a wide receiver and defensive back .
He was not recruited by any Division I schools as a high school football player , but he was recruited by some Division II schools . Kovacs only had two campus visits : Division II Hillsdale and Toledo ( a school 13 miles from his high school ) . By the time he completed his college applications , even Hillsdale had lost interest in him . His father placed a call to Michigan Director of Football Operations Brad Labadie after Jordan was wait listed and got him to agree to review a homemade highlight reel . As his graduation neared , Kovacs shook hands with Andy Boyd , a Toledo coach , on a preferred walk @-@ on spot . That same afternoon in June 2008 , Labadie called to confirm that Kovacs had been admitted from the wait list . The admission came without an athletic scholarship . Labadie encouraged Jordan to attend walk @-@ on tryouts .
= = College career = =
= = = Redshirt ( 2008 ) = = =
Kovacs initially passed the walk @-@ on tryouts , but he had to pass the physical with Paul " Schmidty " Schmidt , who had been a trainer since Jordan 's father Lou had played and been on the coaching staff at Michigan . He had had surgery to repair cartilage damage in high school , but that did not alleviate his problems . When Jordan responded yes to a question about whether he had had any surgeries in the prior 12 months , it triggered a line of questioning about his senior season meniscus surgery . He did not make the 2008 Wolverines due to a knee problem , but was advised to try out again after his knee healed . After discovering a torn meniscus , he had a second knee surgery , which was successful . He attended every game that season in his family 's season ticket section .
= = = Freshman ( 2009 ) = = =
In 2009 , he was one of the most highly regarded walk @-@ ons in the nation , and emerged from a group of Michigan football players who referred to themselves as " The Walk @-@ On Nation " . His debut on September 5 against the Western Michigan was on special teams . The following week he registered 31 plays against Notre Dame after starting safety Michael Williams suffered leg cramps . He made his first start on September 26 against Indiana . On October 3 of that season , he had 17 tackles against Michigan State in the annual Paul Bunyan Trophy . He posted ten tackles and made his first career interception on November 14 against Wisconsin . That season he played free safety before being switched to strong safety . He started one game at free safety and seven at strong safety over the course of the season . He finished the season as the second leading tackler for the 2009 Wolverines . He earned 2009 CollegeFootballNews.com Freshman All @-@ America second team recognition and 2009 Sporting News Freshman All @-@ Big Ten honors . He was also a Rudy Award candidate .
= = = Sophomore ( 2010 ) = = =
Kovacs earned a scholarship at the beginning of the 2010 NCAA Division I FBS football season . In the second game of the season on September 11 against Notre Dame in the Michigan – Notre Dame football rivalry game , Kovacs recorded his first interception of the season and second of his career as part of a 10 @-@ tackle effort . On October 16 he recorded 2 @.@ 5 tackles for a loss against Iowa . After eight games in the 2010 season he ranked second in the Big Ten Conference in tackles . On November 18 , he was nominated for the Burlsworth Trophy , which was a newly created award for the most outstanding player to have begun his career as a walk on . On November 20 , he posted his first career quarterback sack during a season @-@ high twelve tackle performance against Wisconsin . With one week remaining on the conference schedule , the performance tied Kovacs for third @-@ overall in the Big Ten , gave Kovacs a wide lead among Big Ten underclassman ( 8 @.@ 64 vs. 7 @.@ 55 per game over the next highest performer ) and extended his lead among Big Ten defensive backs ( 8 @.@ 64 vs 8 @.@ 27 ) . In the final game of the regular season on November 27 against Ohio State in the annual Michigan – Ohio State football rivalry game , Kovacs recorded his second interception of the season and third of his career as part of a 17 @-@ tackle effort . He collected a career @-@ best 41 return yards following the interception . In The Game , Kovacs tied a career @-@ high with 17 total tackles including a new career @-@ high 9 solo tackles . Kovacs ended the 2010 Big Ten Conference football season ranked second in the conference to teammate Jonas Mouton in total tackles . However , he led the team in solo tackles . Following the Big Ten Conference season , he was selected as an honorable mention All @-@ Conference selection by the media .
= = = Junior ( 2011 ) = = =
When Brady Hoke took over as Michigan head coach for the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season , Kovacs impressed him quickly . Kovacs was one of the first five players named as a starter for the 2011 team . In the September 3 , 2011 season opener against Western Michigan at Michigan Stadium , Kovacs forced a fumble that was recovered and advanced for a touchdown . Although the game was ended by mutual agreement in the third quarter due to inclement weather , Kovacs recorded 10 tackles , including two sacks . He was named the Lott Trophy impact player of the week . At first , the stats for the game were considered official by the Big Ten Conference and the University of Michigan , but the NCAA has vacated the statistics for this game because three quarters were not completed . However , at the conclusion of the regular season , the NCAA reversed course and ruled that since the game is counting for win @-@ loss record , the statistics will be counted by the NCAA . On September 10 , against Notre Dame , during the first night game ever played at Michigan Stadium , he talied an interception , and eight tackles . When it became evident that the defense had improved markedly from the prior season , he and fellow safety Thomas Gordon were credited as being the " leaders of the defense " . On October 8 , against Northwestern , Kovacs posted two solo tackles for a loss , both on fourth down . Kovacs suffered a knee injury that sidelined him for the October 29 game against Purdue . Kovacs had been one of twenty quarterfinalists for the Lott impact player of the year . Kovacs was named as one of 10 semifinalists for the 2011 Burlsworth Trophy on November 22 . Following the 2011 Big Ten Conference football season , he earned All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention recognition from the media and was selected as the Big Ten Sportsmanship Award recipient for the Michigan program . Kovacs earned 2011 Fall Academic All @-@ Big Ten recognition along with 10 teammates . In the January 3 , 2012 Sugar Bowl 23 – 20 overtime victory against Virginia Tech , he led the team with 11 tackles . Kovacs finished among the conference leaders in several statistics : sacks / game ( .33 , 17th ) , tackles / game ( 6 @.@ 2 , 30th ) and fumbles forced / game ( .17 , t @-@ 9th ) .
= = = Senior ( 2012 ) = = =
Kovacs was elected team captain . He was selected to the preseason watchlist for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ( best defensive player ) . At a ceremony on November 10 , Kovacs ' jersey number was changed from 32 to the previously retired number 11 which was recirculated as a " Michigan Football Legend " jersey in honor of Francis ( " Whitey ) , Albert and Alvin Wistert . He was interviewed as part of a 13 @-@ minute segment that appeared on the November 18 edition of 60 Minutes about the business of college football . Kovacs was a second team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and an honorable mention selection by the media . On November 27 , he was named a finalist for the Burlsworth Trophy . At the December 3 team banquet , Kovacs earned team MVP for the season . He earned Academic All @-@ Big Ten recognition in 2012 . Following the season , he participated in the February 2 , 2013 Texas vs. the Nation All @-@ Star Bowl .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Miami Dolphins = = =
Kovacs signed an undrafted free agent contract with the Miami Dolphins following the 2013 NFL Draft . Kovacs was assigned to the Dolphins ' practice squad to start the 2013 NFL season . Kovacs was promoted to the 53 @-@ man roster in week 5 of 2013 . Kovacs had a tackle in his debut against the Baltimore Ravens on October 6 .
He was released at the end of training camp in 2014 . He was signed to the Philadelphia Eagles practice squad on October 6 . On November 4 , he was signed off the Eagles practice squad by the Dolphins , and was placed on the active 53 man roster . He had seven tackles over the course of the season , including 5 in December 28 week 17 contest against the New York Jets .
On October 18 , 2015 , Kovacs recorded his first sack against Zach Mettenberger of the TennesseeTitans . Towards the season he was expected to be released by the Miami Dolphins with the expectation that he would be placed on the practice squad once he cleared waivers .
= = = Kansas City Chiefs = = =
Following the season 2015 season , he was signed to a futures contract by the Kansas City Chiefs . On May 10 , 2016 , he was released .
= = Personal = =
His father Louis , who was a walk @-@ on for Michigan coach Bo Schembechler , lettered for the 1982 Michigan Wolverines football team . He subsequently served two seasons as a graduate assistant for Schembechler . Lou is married to Susan Kovacs . Jordan wears # 32 , the reverse of his father 's # 23 . Kovacs has three siblings , and his older brother Aaron played his freshman season for the 2007 Toledo Rockets . His family regularly brought him to watch Michigan home games when he was growing up . The family regularly sat in Section 27 of Michigan Stadium , on the north side of the press box . Today the family sits underneath the scoreboard , since they have a son on the team . The first Michigan game Kovacs watched was Lloyd Carr 's first game as coach of Michigan Wolverines football for the 1995 Wolverines , which was a memorable 18 @-@ point comeback against Virginia .
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= TNA X Division Championship =
The TNA X Division Championship is a professional wrestling championship owned by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) professional wrestling promotion . It is primarily defended in TNA and ( as per a talent exchange agreement ) also formerly in Wrestle @-@ 1 as well . It debuted on June 19 , 2002 at the taping of TNA 's second weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event .
Like most professional wrestling championships , the title is won as a result of a scripted match . There have been 68 reigns among 30 wrestlers . The title has previously been known as the NWA X Championship , the NWA – TNA X Championship , and the NWA – TNA X Division Championship .
= = History = =
= = = X Division = = =
The TNA X Division was established on June 19 , 2002 at Total Nonstop Action 's first weekly PPV event with a Six Man Tag Team match resulting in Jimmy Yang , Jorge Estrada , and Sonny Siaki — collectively known as The Flying Elvises — defeating A.J. Styles , Jerry Lynn , and Low Ki . Later that day at the taping of the next weekly PPV event , TNA introduced the X Division Championship — then known as the X Championship — to showcase the division more prominently . The division is described as wrestling reinvented , as it takes traditional wrestling and mixes it with the fast paced , high – risk style of wrestling incorporated in cruiserweight divisions and lucha libre . The division was until 2011 promoted under the motto " It is not about weight limits , it is about no limits " by commentator Mike Tenay . On the August 11 , 2011 , edition of TNA 's primary television program , Impact Wrestling , TNA authority figure Eric Bischoff announced that from that point onwards the X Division would have a weight limit of 225 lb ( 102 kg ) . Following Hulk Hogan becoming the new on @-@ screen General Manager in March 2012 , the weight limit was ignored on June 10 , 2012 , at Slammiversary when the 280 lb ( 130 kg ) Samoa Joe was allowed to challenge for the belt . On October 2012 , the weight limit was officially repealed when 237 lb ( 108 kg ) Rob Van Dam challenged for , and eventually won , the title at Bound for Glory . In March 2013 , the X Division was given a new set of rules , which meant all matches were wrestled in Triple Threat format , and a new weight limit of 230 lbs . This proved to be extremely unpopular with fans , and the rules and weight limit were repealed once again in August of that year .
= = = = Speciality matches = = = =
The Total Nonstop Action X Division has multiple styles of match types used to showcase the talent within the division and to defend the TNA X Division Championship in more marketable matches . Three of the matches used in TNA are the Ultimate X match , The Steel Asylum , and the Xscape match .
The Ultimate X match was introduced in 2003 . It involves multiple competitors racing to retrieve the X Division Championship or a giant red letter " X " , which is suspended above the ring by two cables . The cables are attached to posts that stand behind the turnbuckles of the ring . These cables intertwine to form an " X " over the center of the ring . This match has become successful in TNA ; it was featured in the 2008 DVD " TNA : Ultimate Matches " , released by TNA Home Video .
The Steel Asylum made its debut in May 2008 at TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event , under the name " The TerrorDome " . It was used once again in October 2008 at their Bound for Glory IV PPV event , under the new and current moniker " The Steel Asylum " . As of July 2016 , this match has only been used to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . The layout of the match involves the ring being surrounded by a giant red steel barred cage with a domed ceiling . The only way to achieve victory is to escape the cage through a hole in the center of the ceiling .
The Xscape match is the third specialty match primarily used in TNA . It is held annually at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event in April — an all – steel cage format PPV event . The first two Xscape matches were held to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship , while , since 2007 , it has been contested for the X Division Championship . The contest involves four to six participants . To win this match , two or more participants — depending on how many are involved in the encounter — must be eliminated by pinfall or submission leaving only two participants . These two men then race to see who escapes the cage first to claim victory .
= = = Creation = = =
The championship was created and debuted before the main event at the taping of TNA 's second weekly PPV event on June 19 , 2002 ; the event aired on June 26 , 2002 . Later , A.J. Styles defeated Low Ki , Jerry Lynn , and Psicosis in a Four Way Double Elimination match to be crowned the inaugural champion ; this match was announced as being for the NWA X Championship on the onscreen graphic while the ring announcer stated it was for the " NWA – TNA X Championship " . Afterwards , the title was renamed the NWA – TNA X Division Championship and then shortened to just the TNA X Division Championship . This is the oldest title in TNA .
= = = Option C = = =
Option C is a concept in which the current X Division Champion may voluntarily vacate the championship in exchange for a TNA World Heavyweight Championship match at that year 's Destination X event . It began in June 2012 when then @-@ champion Austin Aries said that he was not satisfied with being just the X Division Champion , which led to then @-@ General Manager Hulk Hogan offering him a match for the World Heavyweight Championship , but only if he first vacated the X Division Championship ( as Hogan didn 't want the same wrestler holding both titles ) . Aries agreed to Hogan 's terms , on the condition that the X Division Champion be given the same opportunity in future years . Aries would then relinquish the X Division Championship and successfully defeated Booby Roode for the World title .
The following year , Hogan asked then @-@ champion Chris Sabin if he wanted to vacate the championship and challenge for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which Sabin accepted , and later defeated Bully Ray to win the title . On June 24 , 2014 , a mere five days after regaining the X Division Championship for his fifth reign , Austin Aries invoked Option C once again , but failed to defeat then champion Lashley . On May 10 , 2015 , one day after regaining the title for his second reign , Rockstar Spud invoked Option C , and was defeated by then champion Kurt Angle . On the July 5 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling , TNA World Heavyweight Champion Lashley offered a winner take all match to X Division Champion Eddie Edwards in lieu of Edwards invoking Option C. The match ended in a no @-@ contest after an interference from Mike Bennett and Edwards was attacked the debuting Moose .
= = Unifications and outside defenses = =
In July 2002 , the X Division Champion AJ Styles defended the title against Adam Jacobs and David Young at Ring of Honor 's Crowning a Champion , the first defense outside TNA . In May 2003 , before the professional wrestling promotion World Wrestling All @-@ Stars ' ( WWA ) foreclosure , then NWA – TNA X Division champion Chris Sabin defeated WWA International Cruiserweight Champion Jerry Lynn , Frankie Kazarian , and Johnny Swinger in a Four Corners championship unification match to unify the X Division Championship with the WWA International Cruiserweight Championship . On Winter 2004 , Petey Williams defended the title in various IWA @-@ Mid South events .
During Christopher Daniels ' first reign in mid @-@ 2005 , he defended the X Division Championship at several Pro Wrestling Guerrilla shows . The first defense happened at All Star Weekend - Night One on April 1 against Alex Shelley , while the second occurred at All Star Weekend – Night Two on April 2 against Chris Hero ; Daniels won both encounters retaining the championship . At Jason Takes PWG on May 13 , Daniels fought A.J. Styles for the X Division Championship and Styles ' PWG Championship to a one @-@ hour time @-@ limit draw . Daniels successfully defended the X Division Title two more times in PWG ; once at Guitarmageddon on June 11 against El Generico , while once at The 2nd Annual PWG Bicentennial Birthday Extravaganza - Night One on July 9 against fellow TNA wrestler Chris Sabin . In September 2005 at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event , the TNA X Division Championship was defended in the main event for the first time at a monthly PPV event ; then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels defended the championship against A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe .
The title was once again defended in the main event of a monthly event at TNA 's August 2007 Hard Justice PPV event , where Kurt Angle defeated Samoa Joe to win the TNA X Division and the TNA World Tag Team Championship and retain the TNA World Heavyweight and IGF 's version of the IWGP World Heavyweight Championship . This win made Angle the only person in the history of TNA to hold every active championship at the same time ; TNA World , X Division , and World Tag Team .
On March 4 , 2014 , The title was defended in Japan as part of Kaisen : Outbreak - a supershow event promoted by Wrestle @-@ 1 in partnership with TNA - where the title was won by Wrestle @-@ 1 star Seiya Sanada . On March 22 , Sanada defended and successfully retained the title on a Wrestle @-@ 1 show .
= = Belt designs = =
In May 2007 , the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) ended their five @-@ year partnership with TNA , which allowed the NWA to regain control over the NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships that TNA had controlled since June 2002 . TNA then introduced a new TNA X Division Championship belt on the May 16 , 2007 edition of TNA 's online podcast TNA Today . Jeremy Borash and Management Director Jim Cornette , TNA 's on @-@ screen authority figure at the time , unveiled the new belt and awarded it to then @-@ champion Chris Sabin .
On July 19 , 2013 , TNA President Dixie Carter unveiled a new design for the championship , with blue accents to match the color scheme of the company .
On June 16 , 2015 , TNA tweaked the title 's design by recoloring its accents from blue to green .
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champion was A.J. Styles , who won the championship by defeating Low Ki , Jerry Lynn , and Psicosis in a Four Way Double Elimination match on June 19 , 2002 at TNA 's second weekly PPV event . At 301 days , Austin Aries ' first reign holds the record for longest in the title 's history . At less than one day , Eric Young 's only reign , and Chris Sabin 's sixth reign and Rockstar Spud 's second reign are the shortest in the title 's history . Chris Sabin holds the record for most reigns with eight .
The current champion is Lashley . He defeated previous champion Eddie Edwards on July 13 , 2016 , in Orlando , Florida during the Impact Wrestling tapings .
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= Andrianjaka =
Andrianjaka reigned over the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands region of Madagascar from around 1612 to 1630 . Despite being the younger of King Ralambo 's two sons , Andrianjaka succeeded to the throne on the basis of his strength of character and skill as a military tactician . The most celebrated accomplishment of his reign was the capture of the hill of Analamanga from a Vazimba king . There he established the fortified compound ( rova ) that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo . Upon his orders , the first structures within this fortified compound ( known as the Rova of Antananarivo ) were constructed : several traditional royal houses were built , and plans for a series of royal tombs were designed . These buildings took on an enduring political and spiritual significance , ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995 . Andrianjaka obtained a sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder , materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance and expand his rule over greater Imerina .
Many of the cultural practices that were to define Merina social and political life for centuries are credited to Andrianjaka . He designated the twelve sacred hills of Imerina that were to become the spiritual and political heartland of the Merina empire , contributing to the establishment of the kingdom 's traditional boundaries ; clans were assigned to specific regions within his kingdom , further defining the cultural landscape . He consolidated power through such measures as appropriating the folk tradition of sampy ( community talismans ) , thereby ensuring all the powers traditionally attributed to these idols were under the control of the sovereign alone . Merina traditions related to the burial and mourning of sovereigns are also traced back to Andrianjaka 's reign .
= = Early life = =
Andrianjaka was the second son of Ralambo , ruler of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands of Madagascar . As a young man , Andrianjaka married Ravadifo , a daughter of Prince Andriampanarivomanjaka . The marriage produced one daughter and one son , Andriantsitakatrandriana , who would rule after his father from 1630 to 1650 . Andrianjaka was also actively involved in providing support to his father 's military campaigns to expand and defend Ralambo 's realm . Oral history describes an incident wherein Andrianjaka and Ralambo were engaged in the defense of Ralambo 's capital at Ambohidrabiby , which was threatened by the advance of Antsihanaka warriors . Andrianjaka reportedly suggested an innovative defensive tactic to annihilate the enemy by filling the town 's hadivory ( defensive trenches ) with cow dung and rice husks , lighting it on fire , and covering the smoldering embers with burnt rice stalks so that the area resembled a patch of land recently re @-@ cleared for planting through tavy ( slash and burn agriculture ) . The enemy troops reportedly marched into the trap , sinking into the embers and burning or suffocating to death .
Oral history provides two different accounts of Andrianjaka 's succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Imerina . According to popular legend , Ralambo devised a test to determine which of his two sons was most fit to rule : he would summon them both to join him at his capital in Ambohidrabiby , and whichever of his two sons reached him soonest would inherit his kingdom . In one account of this legend , Andrianjaka was reportedly engrossed in strategizing a win in a difficult game of fanorona and so refused to admit audience to the royal messenger until after the game was over . During this delay , his older brother Andriantompokoindrindra received his father 's message and rushed home ; he was thus awarded Ralambo 's title and kingdom . However , this tale continues , Andriantompokoindrindra 's claim to power was rejected by the public , and he was soon forced to cede the throne to Andrianjaka . In an alternate account of the succession tale , it is Andriantompokoindrindra ( not Andrianjaka ) who was said to be preoccupied with the fanorona game — a version in keeping with the oral tradition that credits him with the game 's invention and popularization at court — and his refusal to return to his father until after the game had finished led Ralambo to choose Andrianjaka as his successor . One source states that the summons was not a test , but rather occurred during the aforementioned incident when Ralambo was besieged in his capital by the Antsihanaka warriors and was genuinely in need of his sons ' assistance .
It is generally accepted by historians that Andrianjaka did indeed succeed to the throne around 1610 or 1612 after his older brother 's claim was rejected by the public . All speculation about fanorona and royal summons aside , Ralambo may have chosen Andrianjaka based on the simple fact that he was the son of Ralambo 's first wife . Ralambo 's father , Andriamanelo , had established rules of succession by which Ralambo 's first son by his first wife must rule after his father in order to fulfill a mandate established by his Vazimba antecedents Rafohy and Rangita . The passing over of Andriantompokoindrindra in favor of his younger brother was partially mitigated by the establishment of a royal tradition maintaining that all reigning descendants of Andrianjaka would henceforth be required to marry a princess directly descended from Andriantompokoindrindra , thereby preserving the royal status of descendants in both brothers ' bloodlines .
= = Reign = =
Andrianjaka moved his capital from Ambohidrabiby to Ambohimanga upon ascending to the throne around 1610 or 1612 . He was reportedly the first Merina leader to receive Europeans around 1620 and traded slaves in exchange for guns and other firearms to aid in the pacification of rival principalities , obtaining 50 guns and three barrels of gunpowder to equip his army . He unified the principalities on what he later designated as the twelve sacred hills of Imerina at Ambohitratrimo , Ambohimanga , Ilafy , Alasora , Antsahadita , Ambohimanambony , Analamanga , Ambohitrabiby , Namehana , Ambohidrapeto , Ambohijafy and Ambohimandranjaka . These hills became and remain the spiritual heart of Imerina , which was further expanded over a century later when Andrianampoinimerina redesignated the twelve sacred hills to include several different sites .
His policies and tactics highlighted and increased the separation between the king and his subjects . Andrianjaka transformed social divisions into spatial divisions by assigning each clan to a specific geographical region within his kingdom . He made a demonstration of royal power by appropriating the local tradition of sampy ( talismans ) , previously created by village chiefs and others for personal or local spiritual ends , restricting their number to twelve and declaring their creation a strictly royal prerogative . The king also imposed an intimidating change to the traditional form of justice , the trial by ordeal : Andrianjaka ordered that rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person 's rooster to determine their innocence by the creature 's survival , the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself .
= = = Founding of Antananarivo = = =
Around 1610 or 1625 according to various estimations , Andrianjaka commanded a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to seize the hill of Analamanga ( " Blue Forest " ) — at 1 @,@ 480 metres ( 4 @,@ 860 ft ) above sea level , then the highest and most strategically important in the region — from its Vazimba inhabitants . He constructed a royal fortified compound ( rova ) on the hilltop as the capitol of a new town at the site which he named Antananarivo ( " the city of the thousand " ) in honor of the thousand soldiers who aided in capturing and protecting the hill . He reportedly succeeded with minimal bloodshed : according to oral history , the encampment of his army at the foot of Analamanga was sufficient to secure the submission of the Vazimba . Andrianjaka made Antananarivo the capital of his realm . From his position atop Analamanga , he was well @-@ placed to exert control over the vast plains of Betsimitatatra below . Under his command the plains were gradually transformed into vast , surplus @-@ producing rice paddies . This feat was accomplished by mobilizing large numbers of his able @-@ bodied subjects to construct dikes that enabled the redirection of rainwater for controlled flooding of planted areas .
Andrianjaka 's fortified compound came to be known as the Rova of Antananarivo and constituted the heart of his newly founded city of Antananarivo . Prior to Andrianjaka 's rule , Merina sovereigns shifted their capital from one town to another , but with the establishment of the rova on the peak of Analamanga hill , Antananarivo was to become the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina ( and , ultimately , the 19th @-@ century Kingdom of Madagascar ) for generations of Merina sovereigns . The heart of the town was built in stages : first , the army cleared the forest covering the hill 's summit and constructed the rova compound to serve as an initial garrison enclosing a traditional @-@ style wooden house ( lapa ) that served as a residence for the king . Soon thereafter , two more houses were constructed ; Andrianjaka also designated the construction space and design for a row of royal tombs . In keeping with Merina aristocratic tradition , each structure in the compound was given a name . The row of tombs was named Fitomiandalana ( " Seven Aligned Tombs " ) , Andrianjaka 's own tomb being the first of these constructed . According to one account , the very first royal house constructed within the Rova of Antananarivo was named Besakana ( " Great Breadth " ) and served as the personal residence of Andrianjaka . This account is contradicted by another source that states the second and third houses were called Masoandrotsiroa and Besakana , with the latter again characterized as Andrianjaka 's personal residence , leaving the precise origins of Besakana unclear .
The Besakana , Masoandrotsiroa and Fitomiandalana structures at the Rova of Antananarivo were preserved and maintained over the centuries by successive generations of Merina sovereigns , imbuing the structures with deep symbolic and spiritual meaning . As Andrianjaka 's residence , the Besakana was particularly significant : the original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680 , and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800 , each of whom inhabited the building in turn as their personal residence . King Radama I likewise inhabited the building for much of his time at the Rova , and in 1820 he designated the building as the first site to house what came to be known as the Palace School , the first formal European @-@ style school in Imerina . Sovereigns were enthroned in this building and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial , rendering Besakana " the official state room for civil affairs ... regarded as the throne of the kingdom . "
= = Death and succession = =
The rule of Andrianjaka continued uninterrupted until his death at the Rova of Antananarivo around 1630 . He was the first king to be buried on the grounds of the Rova , his tomb forming the first of the Fitomiandalana . To commemorate his greatness , his subjects erected a small wooden house called a trano masina on top of his tomb . Future Merina sovereigns and nobles continued to construct similar tomb houses on their tombs well into the 19th century . According to oral history , the institution of lengthy formal mourning periods for deceased sovereigns in Imerina may also have begun with the death of Andrianjaka . He was succeeded by his son , Andriantsitakatrandriana .
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= No Way Out ( 2004 ) =
No Way Out ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on February 15 , 2004 , at the Cow Palace in San Francisco , California . It was presented by THQ 's MX Unleashed . It was the sixth event produced under the No Way Out name and starred wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand .
In the main event , Eddie Guerrero defeated WWE Champion Brock Lesnar to win the title - his sole World Championship before his death in 2005 . On the undercard Kurt Angle defeated The Big Show and John Cena in a Triple Threat match to earn a title match for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XX . Furthermore , Chavo Guerrero defeated Rey Mysterio .
No Way Out grossed over $ 450 @,@ 000 ticket sales from an attendance of approximately 11 @,@ 000 and received 350 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , and was instrumental in helping WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 11 @.@ 9 million compared to the previous year . Like the event , the DVD received favorable reviews .
= = Background = =
The event consisted of eight professional wrestling matches with wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the SmackDown ! brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being Raw .
After winning a 15 @-@ man battle royal ( a match in which participants are eliminated until one person remains as the winner ) on the January 29 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , Eddie Guerrero earned the right to challenge for the WWE Championship at No Way Out against the champion , Brock Lesnar in a standard wrestling match , also known as a singles match . Outside the storyline with Guerrero , Lesnar was involved in a staged rivalry with Goldberg , a member of the Raw program . The feud between Lesnar and Goldberg began at the Royal Rumble , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event which involved both brands . Lesnar interfered in the Royal Rumble match , a 30 @-@ man battle royal , attacking and eliminating Goldberg from the match . On the week of January 26 , 2004 , Lesnar and Goldberg conducted promotional in @-@ ring segments on respective episodes of Raw and SmackDown ! , in which they insulted each other . The following week on an episode of Raw , as a result of the rivalry extending between the two programs , General Manager Steve Austin gave Goldberg the option of attending No Way Out by giving him a front @-@ row ticket . That Thursday on SmackDown ! , the storyline between Guerrero and Lesnar was enhanced when they began a brawl after an in @-@ ring interview segment .
On the February 5 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , The General Manager Paul Heyman scheduled a Triple Threat match between The Big Show , Kurt Angle and John Cena for No Way Out . The winner of that match would face the WWE Champion at WrestleMania XX for the title . The rivalry continued to develop the following week , when Angle was scheduled to team with Guerrero to face The Big Show and Lesnar , though the latter was portrayed as being unconscious backstage . Cena then replaced Angle in the match and defeated the opposition with Guerrero .
In February 2004 , WWE Cruiserweight Champion Rey Mysterio produced " Crossing Borders " , which was No Way Out 's official theme song . In this storyline , Chavo Guerrero became jealous of the attention Mysterio garnered as a result of recording the song . Therefore , Heyman promoted a match between the two at No Way Out for the WWE Cruiserweight title during the February 5 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! . The following week on SmackDown ! , Mysterio was accompanied by Jorge Páez , a professional boxer and childhood friend of Mysterio who appeared in his " Crossing Borders " music video , to his match against Tajiri . Mysterio defeated Tajiri but was attacked by Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero , Sr. after the match until Paez intervened and helped Mysterio .
= = Event = =
Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an episode of Sunday Night Heat , one of WWE 's secondary television programs , was taped live . In a six @-@ person tag team match , the team of Tajiri , Sakoda , and Akio defeated Último Dragón , Billy Kidman , and Paul London .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
After Sunday Night Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view began with a handicap match - a tag team match in which a team of two wrestlers face a team of three . WWE Tag Team Champions Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty defended their titles against The Basham Brothers ( Doug and Danny Basham ) and Shaniqua . During the match Hotty attempted to hit Shaniqua , who was lying on her back , with a slap over her chest , but Shaniqua countered by hitting him with her forearm . The challengers had the advantage until Hotty hit both Basham brothers with his forearm , causing them to flip over the top ring rope and into ringside . Afterwards , Rikishi lifted Shaniqua over his shoulders before falling backwards in a Samoan drop . Rikishi then covered Shaniqua to pin her , a move that allowed Rikishi and Hotty to retain their championships . Next was a Singles match , in which Jamie Noble was blindfolded as he faced his storyline girlfriend Nidia . Nidia would take advantage of Noble 's inability to see by performing antics that caused him to fall . Eventually , Noble was able to apply the guillotine choke on Nidia . Noble won the match after he forced her to submit with this move .
The third contest was a tag team match , in which The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) faced the APA ( Bradshaw and Faarooq ) . At one point , Bradshaw performed a high @-@ impact forearm " Clothesline from Hell " attack on Haas . Benjamin then hit Bradshaw with a superkick and pinned him to gain the win for his team . After the match , Goldberg was seen arriving at the arena and being escorted to his seat by arena security . In the ring , General Manager Paul Heyman gave a promotional in @-@ ring segment on how SmackDown ! was the better program over Raw . Lesnar would come down to the ring to promote his match and to insult Goldberg . As part of the storyline , Goldberg immediately jumped over the barricade into the ring , where Lesnar performed a spear , a running shoulder block to Goldberg 's stomach ; however he recuperated and lifted Lesnar vertically in the air before slamming him down to perform the Jackhammer . Goldberg was then escorted out of the arena by security . This altercation was followed by a singles match between Hardcore Holly and Rhyno . Before the match began , Holly and Rhyno brawled on the entrance ramp , before they entered the ring . Once there , Holly slammed Rhyno off the top rope with a superplex , though , as they recuperated , Rhyno hit Holly with a spear that caused Holly to roll out of the ring . Afterwards , Holly lifted Rhyno by his legs over his shoulders before throwing him down with an Alabama slam ; Holly covered Rhyno for a pinfall .
= = = Main event matches = = =
In the fifth match Rey Mysterio ( managed by Jorge Paez ) , defended his WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Chavo Guerrero ( managed by his father Chavo Guerrero , Sr. ) During the fight , Mysterio performed a 619 on Guerrero ( at the time positioned on the second ring rope ) and hit him in the face with both legs while using the ropes for leverage , leading to an attack by Paez on Guerrero , Sr. The referee ordered Paez backstage . Both fighters wrestled inconclusively until Mysterio hit a second 619 . During the second sequence of the move , Guerrero grabbed Mysterio 's legs and achieved a position with his shoulders spread so as to win both a pinfall and the WWE Cruiserweight title .
The following match was the Triple Threat between The Big Show , John Cena , and Kurt Angle fighting for the opportunity to face the WWE Champion at WrestleMania XX . For the duration of the match , The Big Show , who stood at 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) and weighed 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Cena and Angle . Thereafter , Cena lifted The Big Show over his shoulders and threw him down to execute the FU , while Angle lifted The Big Show by the side to throw him out of the ring . Angle then applied an ankle lock on Cena , forcing him to submit . As a result , Angle won a WWE Championship match at WrestleMania XX .
The main event was a singles match in which WWE Champion Brock Lesnar defended his title against Eddie Guerrero . Lesnar did not show any effect from the Jackhammer Goldberg performed on him earlier in the event ; similar to the prior match , Lesnar used his size advantage over Guerrero throughout the match . As Lesnar lifted Guerrero over his shoulders to slam his face down to perform an " F @-@ 5 " , he knocked down the referee . Lesnar then attempted to take advantage of the referee 's state , as he went to retrieve the WWE title belt to hit Guerrero . Meanwhile , Goldberg came down into the ring and hit a spear on Lesnar . Because the referee was incapacitated , Guerrero could not be disqualified for Goldberg 's interference . As Goldberg retreated , Guerrero countered Lesnar 's 2nd F5 into a DDT on the title belt while the referee regained consciousness . Guerrero kicked the belt out of the ring to prevent the referee from seeing it and performed his Frog splash to pin Lesnar and win the WWE Championship from him .
= = Aftermath = =
At WrestleMania XX , WWE Champion Eddie Guerrero defeated challenger Kurt Angle via pinfall and retained his title . John " Bradshaw " Layfield , portraying a new character after the semi @-@ retirement of his tag team partner Faarooq , challenged Guerrero for the WWE Championship and defeated him at The Great American Bash to win the title . Guerrero failed to recapture the title from Layfield in a steel cage match on SmackDown ! . After Guerrero 's death in November 2005 , WWE held Tribute Shows on Raw and SmackDown ! During these programs , No Way Out was the main highlight of Guerrero 's career , as it was where he won his only World Championship . John Cena began a rivalry with The Big Show over his WWE United States Championship and , at WrestleMania XX , Cena defeated Show to win the title . Goldberg and Lesnar continued their rivalry , leading to a match promoted at WrestleMania XX , in which Goldberg defeated Lesnar . After their match , Goldberg and Lesnar left the company , although Lesnar would make his return in April 2012 .
Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero 's storyline over the WWE Cruiserweight Championship also continued , culminating in a battle royal match at WrestleMania XX involving other wrestlers . Guerrero last eliminated Mysterio to retain his title in this match . After the Draft Lottery , a mock sports draft lottery in which wrestlers switched programs , Rico was drafted to SmackDown ! , while Shelton Benjamin was drafted to Raw , in the process splitting up The World 's Greatest Tag Team . Afterward , Haas and Rico won the WWE Tag Team Championship from Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty on SmackDown !
= = = Reception = = =
The Cow Palace arena usually can accommodate 13 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for No Way Out 2004 . This event grossed over $ 450 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 11 @,@ 000 which was the maximum allowed . It also received 350 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . No Way Out helped World Wrestling Entertainment earn $ 43 @.@ 7 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 31 @.@ 8 million the previous year ; Linda McMahon , then CEO of WWE , confirmed this statement on June 21 , 2004 in a quarterly financial report . The event received mostly positive reviews . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section described the event as " Smackdown ! [ giving ] us our money 's worth last night but they also set up what 's probably going to be the best match at Wrestlemania . " Kevin Sowers from PWTorch described the main event between Eddie Guerrero and Brock Lesnar as " one to remember for a long time . " The event was released on DVD on March 16 , 2004 . After its release , the DVD received a rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 points by IGN .
= = Results = =
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= Scout Taylor @-@ Compton =
Scout Taylor @-@ Compton ( born February 21 , 1989 ) is an American actress . She has appeared in numerous small television roles and in feature films that range from dramas to those in the horror genre giving her the reputation of a scream queen . Her most notable roles include Laurie Strode in the horror films Halloween ( 2007 ) and Halloween II ( 2009 ) , as well as Lita Ford in the film The Runaways ( 2010 ) .
In addition to taking vocal lessons and singing the theme song for her film Chicken Night ( 2001 ) , Taylor @-@ Compton is recording her debut rock album . Taylor @-@ Compton had also provided voice over work in other films , including The Core ( 2003 ) , and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ( 2004 ) .
= = Personal life = =
Scout Taylor @-@ Compton was born Desariee Starr Compton in Long Beach , California , and is half Mexican American on her mother 's side . Her father is a mortician . Taylor @-@ Compton says she " grew up in that whole [ horror ] genre and visiting my dad at the mortuary . I have no problem with that stuff . Whether it was a coffin or my dad bringing his work home . " Andy Biersack from Black Veil Brides , her ex @-@ boyfriend whom she dated for six years , composed the song The Mortician 's Daughter about her . She has 8 tattoos and is known for her tomboy fashion .
Previous to acting , Taylor @-@ Compton had been a competitive swimmer and had plans to participate in the AAU Junior Olympics . She enjoys volleyball , cheerleading , dance , gymnastics and roller @-@ blading , and has several cats and dogs . Taylor @-@ Compton is a fan of horror films , especially those featuring Michael [ Myers ] , Jason [ Voorhees ] and Chucky . She also enjoys Thir13en Ghosts , Halloween 4 and Halloween 5 . She is a fan of the lead actress in the latter two films Danielle Harris ; the two later going on to appear together in the Halloween remake and its sequel . Compton also writes song lyrics .
= = Career = =
In 1998 , Taylor @-@ Compton began her acting career with an appearance in the film A.W.O.L. with David Morse , and later in the short film Thursday Afternoon . She went on to have small roles in both television and film including Ally McBeal , ER , Frasier , The Guardian and The Division . She appeared in several student films , commercials for Fuji Film and the Disney Cruise Line , and various skits on The Jay Leno Show . November 2000 saw Taylor @-@ Compton make her stage debut as the title character in a production of Annie Warbucks at The Grove Theatre in Upland , California , and a stage production of Footloose at the Simi Valley Cultural Arts Center .
In 2001 , she had a recurring role as Clara Forrester , the younger sister of Dean Forrester ( Jared Padalecki ) in the television series Gilmore Girls , appearing in a total of four episodes until 2004 . Taylor @-@ Compton was nominated for " Best Performance in a TV Series – Recurring Young Actress " for her portrayal of Clara . She made a comedic appearance in the film Four Fingers of the Dragon ( 2003 ) playing herself auditioning for a role in a fictional Kung Fu film . Later in 2004 , she appeared in the teen comedy Sleepover , which had been her first large Hollywood film role . The cast of the film was nominated for " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast " at the Young Artists Award . Sleepover did poorly at the box office . Following Sleepover , she appeared in numerous television series including Hidden Howie , Unfabulous ( 2 episodes ) , Cold Case , That 's So Raven , Charmed ( appearing in 8 episodes between 2000 and 2006 as various Fairies ) , and Without a Trace ( in which she portrayed a runaway teenager ) .
In 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton joined the cast on ABC 'S Friday Night Live . That year as well , she starred in the drama Tomorrow is Today and the horror film Wicked Little Things . Tomorrow is Today features Taylor @-@ Compton as Julie Peterson , a girl who saves the life of and befriends a hapless drifter . The film won over six awards at various festivals which included the California Independent Film Festival , the Garden State Film Festival , Method Fest Independent Film Festival , and the Rhode Island International Film Festival . She won " Best Actress " for her performance in the film at the Method Fest Independent Film Festival . Wicked Little Things was one of the films featured in After Dark 's 8 Films to Die For and saw Taylor @-@ Compton star as Sarah Tunny . Following these films , she appeared in Standoff and Close to Home .
In 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton appeared in the film An American Crime which told the true story of suburban housewife Gertrude Baniszewski , who had kept a teenage girl locked in the basement of her Indiana home during the 1960s . After losing the lead role in the Pang Brothers film The Messengers to Kristen Stewart , Taylor @-@ Compton then returned to the horror genre as Laurie Strode in Rob Zombie 's remake of the classic Halloween . She endured a long audition process , but as director Zombie explains , " Scout was my first choice . There was just something about her ; she had a genuine quality . She didn 't seem actor @-@ y . " Halloween currently stands as the highest grossing overall film in the Halloween franchise .
She starred in the television movie Love 's Unfolding Dream which premiered on November 24 , 2007 . She stars in the horror film April Fool 's Day , a remake of the 1986 film of the same name , filmed in North Carolina with a March 25 , 2008 DVD release . Taylor @-@ Compton explains on the starring in the role of Torrance : " I 'll just be playing another wholesome ' good girl ' that screams a lot . " She has another horror film in production , the 2009 film Murder World in which she will have a cameo as Carrie Lain .
In an interview conducted in July 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton reported that after completing April Fool 's Day , she wants to stay away from roles in the horror genre for her next film projects . Although she has received many horror film scripts , she believes that she " need [ s ] to move on from horror . Just drift away a little bit and do something else so I don 't get stuck in that " and although she " love [ s ] doing horror films " and are her " favorite " , she 'd " like to do other stuff in between . " She has recently been influenced by the career of Scarlett Johansson , wanting to choose scripts and roles based on personal interest as she views Johansson does . Taylor @-@ Compton went on to explain , " That 's what I kind of want to do . I love just being passionate about something rather than just caring about the money or who 's in the movie . 2009 saw Taylor @-@ Compton alongside Helen Mirren and Joe Pesci in Love Ranch . Then , she went on to star in the film Obsessed alongside Beyoncé Knowles . Her most recent film to hit theaters was Halloween II , Rob Zombie 's sequel to the 2007 remake . The film opened the same day as The Final Destination , another high profile horror film , and had disappointing box office returns as a result . In 2010 , she appeared in The Runaways where she plays Lita Ford , alongside Kristen Stewart , Dakota Fanning , and Stella Maeve .
= = = Other Work = = =
In 1998 , she appeared in The Adventures of Lily music video for " Femme Fatale " . In 2001 , Taylor Compton provided voice overs for I Am Sam , and continued with voice over work with appearances in The Core ( 2003 ) and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ( 2004 ) . The next year , she provided voice over work for the teen hero comedy Sky High . She sang the theme song " Jet Set " for her film Chicken Night ( 2001 ) . 2002 saw Taylor @-@ Compton appearing briefly in the Will Smith music video for " Black Suits Comin ' ( Nod Ya Head ) " for the Men in Black II soundtrack . She appeared in the music video for " Sweet Valentine " by the band Born the Sky in 2007 .
In 2003 , Taylor @-@ Compton had taken vocal lessons with Diane Gillespie and Vocal Power Institute . She had taken guitar , drums , and keyboard lessons , and was member a theatre group called " Shenanigans , " where she performed and took weekly tap and jazz lessons . She attended the Hollywood Pop Academy for additional vocal training .
Taylor @-@ Compton is currently working on her debut rock / pop album , in which she will sing and play drums . She cites Cyndi Lauper , Gwen Stefani , Madonna , Kelly Osbourne and the band Green Day as musical influences . Taylor @-@ Compton has been working with ERA Productions and " with a very well known punk / pop singer " , Vitamin C.
While on the set filming Halloween ( 2007 ) , Taylor @-@ Compton had received " a few pointers " from director Rob Zombie , who had also fronted a band and continues his singing career . She has stated that singing is a side project and " is just a little talent that I have on the side , and if it does something then I 'll do that , but I 'm not gonna give up acting . "
Taylor @-@ Compton has five songs that can be streamed on her official Garageband.com profile . All songs were recorded and posted for listening in 2005 . The songs featured are " Bad Girl " , the first song she wrote with her ERA producers , " Waiting for the Heartbreak " and " Where Do We Go " , written with Vitamin C , " Freak Show " , written by Adam Alvermark and produced Taylor @-@ Compton along with ERA Productions , and " Words " . She did minor modeling for the teenage clothing brand Limited Too and the cellular phone service Sprint PCS .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
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= Goin ' Home ( Archie Shepp and Horace Parlan album ) =
Goin ' Home is a studio album by American saxophonist Archie Shepp and pianist Horace Parlan . After their respective work in the avant @-@ garde jazz movement of the 1960s , Shepp and Parlan both faced career challenges as the jazz scene diverged stylistically . They left the United States for Europe during the 1970s and met each other in Denmark before recording the album on April 25 , 1977 , at Sweet Silence Studio in Copenhagen .
A jazz and gospel album , Goin ' Home features Shepp and Parlan 's interpretations of African @-@ American folk melodies and spirituals . Its title is an allusion to Shepp 's return to his African cultural roots . Shepp had never recorded spirituals before and was overcome with emotion during the album 's recording because of the historical and cultural context of the songs .
Although it surprised jazz listeners upon its release in 1977 , Goin ' Home was praised by music critics for its reverent tone and stylistic deviation from Shepp 's previous free jazz works . Shepp and Parlan were artistically satisfied with the album and subsequently recorded another album together , Trouble in Mind , in 1980 . Goin ' Home was reissued on CD by SteepleChase Records on May 3 , 1994 .
= = Background = =
After surging to the forefront of the avant @-@ garde jazz movement during the 1960s , both Archie Shepp and Horace Parlan faced career challenges during the 1970s after their style lost popularity in the jazz scene , which had split between artists who played either a tamer or a more experimental sound . Like Parlan , Shepp became a more mainstream performer , mostly playing hard bop , although he occasionally return to his free jazz sound . To support himself financially , he spent most of his time playing in Europe . In 1972 , Parlan also left the United States and eventually made his residence in Denmark , where Shepp had signed to SteepleChase Records .
Shepp became interested in recording gospel and , at the request of his producer at SteepleChase , recorded Goin ' Home with Parlan . They recorded the album on April 25 , 1977 , at Sweet Silence Studio in Copenhagen , Denmark . Shepp played tenor saxophone on six pieces and soprano saxophone on three others .
= = Music = =
According to music journalist Tom Moon , Goin ' Home is a reverent jazz and gospel album played with straightforward simplicity by Shepp and Parlan . They interpret nine traditional Negro spirituals , featuring African @-@ American folk melodies that originated from the 1920s and before . Along with Trouble in Mind and Looking at Bird in 1980 , Goin ' Home is part of a series of albums delineated in Shepp 's discography as " modular explorations of traditional musical styles " , which is itself in Shepp 's broader series of musical " portraits of the Diaspora " . The album 's title alludes to a return to African cultural roots .
Shepp viewed Goin ' Home as his attempt to cross the span of time and history between modern African Americans and the black slaves symbolized by the spirituals . In an interview for Down Beat , Shepp said that it was the first time he had recorded spirituals or made " any kind of serious statement about them " , and said that he started to cry when he started playing on the album due to " the strain , the spiritual weight of the moment " . He recalled being momentarily afraid that he would not be able to go through with the album 's recording because of his emotional state , which he explained :
The album has a melodic form , and employs pentatonic scales for melodic development , a practice common in African and African @-@ American folk music . Goin ' Home is mostly tempoless , as most of the pieces are performed in a rubato @-@ like free rhythm . Shepp and Parlan perform sudden accelerations and intended delays and halts , particularly at the end of bars , phrases , and sections in a piece . Most of the spirituals have a thirty @-@ two @-@ bar form , with the eight @-@ bar section comprising four two @-@ bar phrases wherein two choruses of the spiritual are played . Shepp and Parlan 's interpretations include few choruses from the original spirituals .
Eschewing common jazz practice , Shepp does not improvise new melodic lines within the spirituals ' harmonic framework , but plays short , impromptu passages around a melodic idea . Parlan plays piano solos on only two of the album 's pieces . Shepp contributes a tonal roughness to the songs with growled sounds , which he plays by singing or humming into his saxophone . He also uses harmonic overtones , breathy tonal weight , and expressive chromatic development of melody to add textural and timbral variety to the songs . Shepp and Parlan 's reverent takes on " Amazing Grace " and Go Down Moses " exhibit split tones and fortes .
= = Release and reception = =
Goin ' Home was released in 1977 by Danish record label SteepleChase Records . Jazz listeners were divided in their reaction to the album . According to Doug Ramsey of Texas Monthly , some listeners were surprised by Shepp 's stylistic change , while others viewed the record as a " fulfillment of promise " . Ramsey believed it revealed a " tenderness and humor " from Shepp that his 1960s work only hinted at , writing that it " disclosed an Archie Shepp that many had never known , warm rather than blistering hot , witty rather than contemptuously sardonic " . John Swenson , writing in The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide ( 1985 ) , praised Shepp 's work with Parlan and gave Goin ' Home a five @-@ star rating , finding it " particularly heartfelt . " Fernando Gonzalez of The Boston Globe called it " exquisite " , and C. Gerald Fraser of The New York Times wrote in 1987 that " this marriage of avant @-@ garde and soul " is " regarded as a classic . " Art Lange of CODA magazine praised Shepp 's " exquisite control " of his instrument , which he " quite literally " makes " able [ to ] talk " , and found the spirituals to have been " sung " rather than just performed . Lange added that the emotional aspect is more impressive than the technical skill and stated :
Both Shepp and Parlan were artistically satisfied with Goin ' Home and recorded another album together , the blues @-@ inspired Trouble in Mind , in 1980 . On May 3 , 1994 , the former album was reissued on CD by SteepleChase .
In The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide ( 1985 ) , Goin ' Home was given five stars and called " particularly heartfelt " . In a retrospective review for AllMusic , jazz critic Scott Yanow gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars and found the performances " compelling " . He said listeners who are " only familiar with Shepp 's earlier Fire Music " will see the album as a " revelation . " Moon believed its tempoless mood " gives the themes an extra shot of majesty " and found it " supremely melodic " , writing that both Shepp and Parlan " do whatever is necessary to bring the spirit to the forefront . " Richard Cook gave it four out of four stars in The Penguin Guide to Jazz ( 2002 ) . JazzTimes cited Goin ' Home as one of " the finest [ albums ] of his career " , and Tom Hull of The Village Voice cited it as SteepleChase 's best release . Phil Johnson of The Independent wrote that the album " can be listened to almost without cease . " Jazz historian Eric Nisenson called it " one of the most moving albums of the Seventies " , but qualified his praise by critiquing that Shepp , an iconic figure in free jazz , " was no longer the firebrand who had so frightened and unsettled some white critics and jazz fans . " Nisenson felt that , like Pharoah Sanders , Shepp 's " trial by fire at the heart of the Sixties avant @-@ garde had made him an unusually expressive musician , " and Goin ' Home showed that he was " finding inspiration in the entire black musical tradition . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs are traditional compositions , excepted where noted , and were arranged by Archie Shepp .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Per Grunnet – design
Freddy Hansson – engineer
Horace Parlan – piano
Flemming Rasmussen – assistant engineer
Archie Shepp – arranger , soprano saxophone , tenor saxophone
Gorm Valentin – photography
Nils Winther – photographer , producer
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= Hurricane Humberto ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Humberto was a minimal hurricane that formed and intensified faster than any other North Atlantic tropical cyclone on record before landfall . Developing on September 12 , 2007 , in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , the tropical cyclone rapidly strengthened and struck High Island , Texas , with winds of about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) early on September 13 . It steadily weakened after moving ashore , and on September 14 it began dissipating over northwestern Georgia as it interacted with an approaching cold front .
Damage was fairly light , estimated at approximately $ 50 million ( 2007 USD ) . Precipitation peaked at 14 @.@ 13 inches ( 358 @.@ 9 mm ) , while wind gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) were reported . The heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding , which damaged or destroyed dozens of homes , and closed several highways . Trees and power lines were downed , knocking out power to hundreds of thousands of customers . The hurricane caused one fatality in the State of Texas . Additionally , as the storm progressed inland , rainfall was reported throughout the Southeast United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Humberto are from the remnants of a frontal trough — the same that spawned Tropical Storm Gabrielle — that moved offshore south Florida on September 5 . The combination of a weak surface trough and an upper @-@ level low pressure system produced disorganized showers and thunderstorms from western Cuba into the eastern Gulf of Mexico . Tracking slowly west @-@ northwestward , unfavorable wind shear initially inhibited tropical cyclone development . By late on September 11 , environmental conditions became more favorable , and the following morning convection increased over the disturbance . Tracking around the western periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge , the system turned on a slow northwest drift and quickly organized . Radar imagery reported loose banding features , and buoy data indicated the presence of a surface circulation ; based on the observations , the National Hurricane Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Nine , while located roughly 60 miles ( 100 km ) southeast of Matagorda , Texas .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was forecast to strengthen slowly to reach peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Within three hours of forming , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Humberto . A small cyclone , the storm continued to organize quickly as it turned north @-@ northeastward , while radar imagery suggested the formation of an eye by early on September 13 . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , Humberto was upgraded to a hurricane at 0515 UTC on September 13 , while located about 15 miles ( 20 km ) off the coast of Texas . The hurricane made landfall a few miles to the east of High Island at around 0700 UTC . A well @-@ defined eye was maintained with strong convection around it , and Hurricane Hunters reported sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) about two hours after landfall . However , post @-@ storm analysis later determined that the winds were a bit stronger — about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) .
Based on operational estimates of a wind speed increase of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , the National Hurricane Center reported that " no tropical cyclone in the historic record has ever reached this intensity at a faster rate near landfall . " The path of the eye continued northeastward and passed over Port Arthur , Nederland , Port Neches , Groves , and Bridge City , Texas at Category 1 hurricane strength . This was the second time within two years ( following Hurricane Rita on September 24 , 2005 ) that these cities experienced a direct hit from a hurricane . By eight hours after landfall , Humberto weakened to a tropical storm as it crossed into southwestern Louisiana . Increased upper @-@ level wind shear caused the storm to weaken rapidly over land , and late on September 13 Humberto weakened to a tropical depression . Upon issuing its last advisory , the National Hurricane Center remarked on the potential for the remnants of the storm to turn southward into the Gulf of Mexico . However , the storm continued northeastward through the southeastern United States , and on September 14 , the storm began dissipating over northwestern Georgia , and shortly thereafter degenerated into a remnant low pressure area .
= = Preparations = =
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , a tropical storm warning was issued from Port O 'Connor , Texas , to Cameron , Louisiana , and a tropical storm watch was posted from Cameron to Intracoastal City , Louisiana ; after Humberto became a tropical storm , the watch was upgraded to a warning . Upon reaching hurricane status , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning from High Island , Texas , to Cameron , Louisiana . An inland tropical storm warning was declared for several parishes in southwestern Louisiana . The National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center posted a tornado watch for southwestern coastal parishes .
Prior to moving ashore , officials in Calcasieu Parish , Louisiana , advised residents in low @-@ lying or flood @-@ prone areas to consider moving to a safer location . A shelter was opened in Lake Charles , where 29 people stayed during the storm . Flood watches and warnings were issued for portions of Mississippi and Louisiana as the storm tracked across the region . Texas Governor Rick Perry , prepared state resources for the potentially impacted areas , including the deployment of 200 Texas Military Forces soldiers and six Black Hawk helicopters and two water rescue teams for search and rescue missions . The Texas State Operations Center was activated shortly after the cyclone developed .
= = Impact = =
= = = Texas = = =
A few hours prior to its development , outer rainbands from the depression began moving over portions of the Texas coast . Heavy rainfall from intense thunderstorms caused minor flooding as they crossed the coastline during the subsequent days ; precipitation in the state peaked at 14 @.@ 13 inches ( 358 @.@ 9 mm ) at East Bay Bayou , the highest recorded rainfall total in association with the hurricane . Sustained winds peaked at 69 mph ( 112 km / h ) with gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) at Sea Rim State Park ; the National Weather Service estimates gusts exceeded 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) in southwestern Jefferson County and extreme southeastern Chambers County . In the Golden Pass Ship Channel , an unofficial report of a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) wind gust was relayed to the National Hurricane Center . Upon moving ashore , Humberto produced a minor storm surge in the state , peaking at 2 @.@ 86 feet ( 0 @.@ 87 m ) at Rollover Pass ; the combination of surge and waves resulted in light beach erosion .
Hurricane Humberto left 10 homes completely destroyed in Galveston County , with an additional 19 severely damaged in the county ; several homes received minor shingle damage , and road closures left about 5 @,@ 000 houses isolated in the county . The combination of saturated grounds and strong winds uprooted many trees and downed power lines across the path of the hurricane , with at least 50 high voltage transmission poles blown down or seriously damaged ; over 120 @,@ 000 power customers in Orange and Jefferson counties lost power , with 118 @,@ 000 Entergy customers in the state without electricity . Widespread flooding occurred in Jefferson and Orange counties , and at least 20 homes in Beaumont were flooded . Additionally , several roadways were flooded . The passage of the hurricane caused one fatality in the state ; a Bridge City man was killed when his carport crashed on him outside his house . Initially , press reports indicated that the storm wrought up to $ 500 million in damage ; however , final damage estimates were about $ 50 million .
Oil production was slowed as a result of Humberto , as at least four refineries — the Valero , ExxonMobil , Total SA and Motiva Enterprises LLC plants in Port Arthur — were halted due to the loss of power . Oil prices rose above $ 80 a barrel in intraday trading on September 12 as a result , ending the next day at a record high of $ 80 @.@ 09 a barrel . Natural gas futures rose 8 percent ahead of the storm , but lost most of those gains the next day .
According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , 1 @,@ 464 residences throughout Texas were affected by Hurricane Humberto . Of these , 25 were destroyed , 96 sustained major damage and 240 sustained minor damage . The cost of individual assistance for those impacted by Humberto would cost $ 4 @,@ 776 @,@ 334 ; the cost of debris removal and other public assistance amounted to $ 6 @,@ 682 @,@ 074 . In terms of per capita income , Jefferson County sustained the most impact , decreasing by $ 22 @.@ 38 .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Tracking through the state as a weakening tropical storm , Humberto produced light to moderate winds across southwestern Louisiana . Gusts officially peaked at 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) in the state , although an unofficial reading of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) was reported in Vinton . Heavy rainfall occurred across the area , reaching a peak of 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 210 mm ) in DeRidder . The rainfall triggered minor river flooding along the Vermilion River in Lafayette . Storm surge was minor in the state , peaking at 2 @.@ 13 feet ( 0 @.@ 65 m ) in Cypremont Point ; no beach erosion was reported .
Widespread freshwater flooding occurred in Beauregard Parish , leaving homes in DeRidder flooded . High water across the southwestern portion of the state resulted in the closure of several roadways , including U.S. Route 171 and various state highways . Isolated wind damage was reported , particularly near the Texas border , with some trees and power lines blown down . A total of about 13 @,@ 000 power customers lost electricity in southwestern Louisiana . One F1 tornado briefly touched down in Vermilion Parish , blowing the roof off one home and downing trees and power lines . Damage throughout Louisiana was estimated at $ 525 @,@ 000 .
= = = Southeast United States = = =
After the circulation dissipated , the remnants of Humberto brought moderate rainfall to the southeastern states and spawned several tornadoes across portions of South Carolina and North Carolina and caused widespread damage in some locations . Heavy rains in Mississippi led to flooding in low @-@ lying areas . In Hinds County , a small rail bridge was washed out , forcing all passengers Amtrak train to take a bus to their destinations . One person was injured after driving his car into a flooded street . In Alabama , rainfall up to 5 @.@ 06 in ( 129 mm ) caused minor ponding in low @-@ lying areas but aided in short @-@ term drought relief . In northern Georgia , locally heavy rainfall led to flash flooding , resulting in several road closures . Strong thunderstorms associated with the remnants of Humberto also produced winds up to 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) and penny @-@ sized hail . Throughout North Carolina , ten F0 tornadoes were confirmed , resulting in minor damage to homes , though none caused injuries or fatalities . Heavy rains associated with the system also triggered flash flooding along some roads , resulting in their closure . In South Carolina , one F1 tornado touched down in Laurens County , causing moderate damage to several homes before lifting .
= = Aftermath = =
Hours after Humberto made landfall , Rick Perry declared Galveston , Jefferson , and Orange counties as disaster areas , which allocated state resources to assist the affected residents . The governor applied for a presidential disaster declaration on September 21 . Four Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) teams assessed the hurricane damage in the three most affected counties . Following their assessment , they determined that the damage caused by Humberto was not significant enough to require a disaster declaration . As such , Governor Rick Perry 's request from FEMA was denied . Across the Bolivar Peninsula , an estimated 1 @,@ 500 cubic yards of structural debris and 3 @,@ 000 cubic yards of tree limbs were needed to be removed in the wake of the storm .
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= Theoren Fleury =
Theoren Wallace " Theo " Fleury ( born June 29 , 1968 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player . Fleury played for the Calgary Flames , Colorado Avalanche , New York Rangers , and Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , Tappara of Finland 's SM @-@ liiga , and the Belfast Giants of the UK 's Elite Ice Hockey League . He was drafted by the Flames in the 8th round , 166th overall , at the 1987 NHL Entry Draft , and played over 1 @,@ 000 games in the NHL between 1989 and 2003 .
One of the smallest players of his generation , Fleury played a physical style that often led to altercations . As a junior , he was at the centre of the infamous Punch @-@ up in Piestany , a brawl that resulted in the disqualification of both Canada and the Soviet Union from the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . Once considered unlikely to play in the NHL due to his small size , Fleury scored over 1 @,@ 000 points in his career and won the Stanley Cup in 1989 with the Flames . He twice represented Canada at the Winter Olympics , winning a gold medal in 2002 . Throughout his career , he battled drug and alcohol addictions that ultimately forced him out of the NHL in 2003 . He played one season in the British Elite Ice Hockey League in 2005 – 06 , and made two attempts to win the Allan Cup . After an unsuccessful NHL comeback attempt with the Flames , he retired in 2009 .
Outside of hockey , Fleury overcame his addictions , operated a concrete business in Calgary with his family , and filmed a pilot for a reality television show about it . He marketed his own brand of clothing , which led him to play two professional baseball games for the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League . In 1995 , he was diagnosed with Crohn 's disease , and his annual charity golf tournament has helped raise more than $ 1 million for the Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of Canada .
Fleury co @-@ wrote Playing with Fire , a best @-@ selling autobiography released in October 2009 , in which he revealed that he had been sexually abused by former coach Graham James . Fleury filed a criminal complaint against James , who subsequently pleaded guilty to charges of sexual assault . Fleury has since become an advocate for sexual abuse victims and developed a career as a public speaker . He was a recipient of the Indspire Award in the sports category in 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Fleury was born on June 29 , 1968 , in Oxbow , Saskatchewan , the first of Wally and Donna Fleury 's three sons . Wally was a hockey player whose dreams of a professional career ended when he broke his leg playing baseball in the summer of 1963 ; the injury helped fuel a drinking problem . Donna was a quiet , religious woman who battled drug addiction for many years . Fleury is of Métis heritage , as his grandmother Mary was Cree . The Fleurys lived in Williams Lake , British Columbia , for four years , a period that saw Theo 's brother Ted born in 1970 , before settling in Russell , Manitoba , by 1973 , the year his youngest brother Travis was born . Wally worked as a truck driver and maintenance worker at the arena in Russell .
Always one of the smallest children in his class and without stable supervision at home , Fleury adopted an aggressive posture and later described himself as a bully . He turned to hockey as an outlet when he borrowed an old pair of skates and a broken stick to play his first game at the age of five . From that point on , he played hockey at every opportunity , often accompanying his father to the arena in Russell in the pre @-@ dawn hours . He was described by his teachers as a determined youth , who would repeat any activity he failed at until he got it right .
Although his mother was a Jehovah 's Witness , Fleury was raised as a Roman Catholic . He attended mass from age 6 to 12 , serving as an altar boy until the church 's priest died of a heart attack , depriving Fleury of one of his earliest positive influences . Always lacking money and a stable home , Fleury received support from the community , in particular the Peltz family in Russell , who ensured that he and his brothers were fed and bought them new clothes when required . In January 1982 , Fleury 's dreams of playing in the NHL nearly ended at the age of 13 when , during a game , he suffered a deep cut under his arm that severed his brachial artery . He missed nearly a year of contact hockey as a result . Five months after the incident , the community raised money to send him to the Andy Murray Hockey School in Brandon , Manitoba . It was there that Fleury met Graham James , who was working as a scout for the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . James told Fleury that he had the skill to play in the NHL despite his size , and promised to recruit him to play junior hockey for the Warriors when he was old enough .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Fleury began his junior career in 1983 – 84 as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with the St. James Canadians of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League , scoring 33 goals and 64 points in 22 games , an incredible pace of nearly three points per game . In 1984 – 85 he moved to the Moose Jaw Warriors , who had just relocated from Winnipeg , scoring 29 goals and 75 points in 71 games as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . He improved his totals in each of his four years in the WHL , culminating with a 68 @-@ goal , 92 @-@ assist season in 1987 – 88 . Fleury 's 160 points tied him for the league lead with Joe Sakic , and the two players shared the Bob Clarke Trophy as the WHL 's top scorers . Fleury 's 92 assists and 160 points remain team records ; he also holds the Warriors ' career records for goals ( 201 ) , assists ( 271 ) and points ( 472 ) . As of 2014 , he remains 10th all @-@ time in WHL scoring .
Always one of the smallest players in the game , Fleury learned early that he had to play an unpredictable style of game to survive against players much larger than he was . He found that the best way to protect himself was to intimidate his opponents by playing a feisty , physical game , which he said led to many retaliatory penalties and several arguments with his coaches . He recorded 235 minutes in penalties in his final year of junior , nearly 100 more than any of the other top 10 WHL scorers . Fleury retained this style of play throughout his hockey career , routinely surprising opponents who felt their size was an advantage .
Fleury twice represented Canada at the World Junior Hockey Championships . He first joined the team for the 1987 tournament in Piešťany , Czechoslovakia . The tournament is best remembered for the " Punch @-@ up in Piestany " on January 4 , 1987 , an infamous bench @-@ clearing brawl between the Canadians and the Soviet Union . Fleury scored the first goal of the game and , as part of his celebration , used his stick to mimic firing a machine gun at the Soviet bench , a move that was criticized by Canadian officials . The brawl began early in the second period with Canada leading 4 – 2 , when Pavel Kostichkin slashed Fleury , leading to a fight between the two . It quickly escalated into a line brawl involving all skaters on the ice , after which the Soviet players left their bench , followed closely by the Canadians . Both teams were disqualified from the tournament , costing Fleury and the Canadians a medal - – potentially the gold .
The International Ice Hockey Federation suspended all players involved in the brawl from participating in international tournaments for 18 months , though the bans were later reduced to 6 months on appeal . This reduction allowed Fleury to participate in the 1988 tournament in Moscow . He was named captain , finished second in team scoring with eight points in seven games , and was named a tournament all @-@ star as Canada won the gold medal .
Although he scored 129 points for the Warriors in 1986 – 87 , Fleury 's small stature led many teams to doubt that he could play in the NHL . The Calgary Flames drafted him in the 8th round , 166th overall , of the 1987 NHL Entry Draft . Upon completing his junior season in 1988 , Fleury signed his first professional contract , worth C $ 415 @,@ 000 , and joined the Flames ' International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate , the Salt Lake Golden Eagles . He scored seven points in two regular season games , then 16 more in eight playoff games as the Eagles won the Turner Cup championship .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Fleury arrived at the Flames ' 1988 training camp 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) overweight , and was assigned back to Salt Lake to begin the 1988 – 89 season . He averaged nearly two points per game , recording 37 goals and 37 assists to lead the IHL in scoring after 40 games . Mired in a slump , the Flames recalled Fleury on January 1 , 1989 , in the hope he could help their offence . He played his first NHL game against the Quebec Nordiques two nights later and recorded his first points – three assists – on January 5 against the Los Angeles Kings . He scored his first two NHL goals in a 7 – 2 victory over the Edmonton Oilers on January 7 . Fleury continued to score , and finished with 34 points in 36 games in his NHL rookie season . He added 11 points in the playoffs , helping the Flames to the first Stanley Cup championship in franchise history .
After improving to 33 goals in his first full season , Fleury broke out in 1990 – 91 , scoring 51 goals and 104 points to lead the Flames offensively . He played in the 1991 All @-@ Star Game , scoring a goal in an 11 – 5 victory by the Campbell Conference over the Wales Conference . Towards the end of the season , Fleury set a league record by scoring three shorthanded goals in one game against the St. Louis Blues . He shared the NHL Plus @-@ Minus Award with Marty McSorley , whom he tied for the league lead with + 48 . Fleury scored only two goals in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs , but after his overtime winner in game six against the Oilers he famously slid the entire length of the ice in jubilation before crashing into the boards as his teammates attempted to catch up to him . The Flames were defeated in game seven , which ended their season .
Fleury fell back to 33 goals in 1991 – 92 as the Flames missed the playoffs . That season , he made his second All @-@ Star Game appearance , recording a goal for the Campbell Conference . Fleury finished with over 100 points for the second time in his career in 1992 – 93 to lead the team in scoring , and set a franchise record by going + 9 in a 13 – 1 victory over the San Jose Sharks on February 10 , 1993 , in which he scored six points .
The 1994 – 95 NHL lockout reduced the season to 48 games from 84 . During the lockout , Fleury played for Tappara in Finland 's top league , the SM @-@ liiga . He recorded 17 points in ten games before the NHL 's labour dispute was resolved , bringing him back to Calgary . Late in the season , Fleury recorded two goals and an assist against the Oilers on March 31 , 1995 , to surpass 500 career points .
Lacking a contract prior to the 1995 – 96 season , Fleury staged a brief hold @-@ out during training camp before signing a five @-@ year , $ 12 million deal with the Flames . He agreed to take less money than he could have received on the open market out of loyalty to the franchise that had given him his NHL opportunity . He missed much of the pre @-@ season with a stomach ailment , but joined the team for the season opener . Although he felt like somebody was " stabbing a knife in [ his ] gut every five minutes " , Fleury had played every game for the Flames when he revealed in December 1995 that he had been diagnosed with Crohn 's Disease and doctors had finally found the correct medication to control it . Despite the ailment , Fleury led the team in goals , assists and points , and played in his third All @-@ Star Game , serving as Calgary 's only representative .
When Joe Nieuwendyk refused to report to the Flames prior to the 1995 season , they named Fleury interim captain . The title was made permanent when Nieuwendyk was traded in December . Fleury was reluctant to assume the captaincy , but did so out of loyalty to the team and because there was nobody else capable of taking on the role . He relinquished it two seasons later after deciding that it was harming his play and affecting his relationship with his teammates and coach Pierre Pagé .
The Flames struggled in 1996 – 97 , finishing last in the Pacific Division and missing the playoffs for only the second time since their arrival in Calgary in 1980 . Fleury again led the team in scoring , but his 29 goals were the fewest he had scored in a full season in the NHL . He was the Flames ' lone representative at the 1997 All @-@ Star Game . He scored only 27 goals in 1997 – 98 , but increased his point total from 67 to 78 while also leading the team with 197 penalties in minutes . On November 29 , 1997 , Fleury scored his 315th career goal , breaking Nieuwendyk 's franchise record . The same day , he was named to Team Canada for the 1998 Winter Olympics . Fleury participated in his fifth All @-@ Star Game that season , but the Flames again missed the playoffs .
On February 19 , 1999 , he surpassed Al MacInnis as the franchise scoring leader with his 823rd career point . He held the record for ten years until surpassed by Jarome Iginla in 2009 . The Flames , who had been struggling financially and were unable to sign Fleury to a new contract , chose to trade him less than two weeks after he broke the record rather than risk losing him to free agency . He was dealt to the Colorado Avalanche on February 28 for René Corbet , Wade Belak and Robyn Regehr . Although it was expected to a certain extent , the trade nonetheless stunned fans in Calgary . His popularity was such that during a game in 1999 , after Fleury was sent off the ice to change a bloody jersey , a fan threw his own souvenir jersey over the boards so that Fleury would not miss a shift . He put the jersey on before realizing it was autographed and handed it back .
The trade was viewed as another sign that small @-@ market Canadian teams could no longer compete in the NHL . The economics of hockey had changed such that the Flames felt that they had to deal their top player despite being just two points out of a playoff spot . Following the trade , Fleury said that any team looking to sign him to a new contract would have to pay him $ 7 million per year . In his autobiography , Playing with Fire , Fleury claims that he was offered $ 16 million over four years by the Flames before the trade , and countered with an offer of $ 25 million over five years .
= = = Colorado , New York , and Chicago = = =
Fleury made his debut for the Avalanche the day after the trade and was met with loud cheers from the Denver crowd . He scored a goal in a 4 – 3 loss to Edmonton , but also sprained his knee and missed the next two weeks . He had missed only seven games during his 11 @-@ year career in Calgary . He played in 15 regular @-@ season games for the Avalanche , scoring 10 goals and 14 assists , and another 5 goals and 12 assists in 18 playoff games before the Avalanche were eliminated by the Dallas Stars in the Western Conference Finals .
The Avalanche chose not to re @-@ sign Fleury , and he joined the New York Rangers on a three @-@ year contract worth $ 21 million that included a club option for a fourth year at $ 7 million . He touched off a wave of anger on signing with the Rangers when he claimed he was unappreciated in Calgary , comments he later stated were directed at the Flames ' owners and not the team 's fans , whom he said always supported him . Fleury 's first year in Manhattan was a disappointment . He scored only 15 goals in 1999 – 2000 , struggling under the pressure of trying to lead the Rangers into the playoffs and adapting to life in New York . After the season , he voluntarily entered a league @-@ operated program that treats substance abuse and emotional problems , though he denied that either had any effect on his play .
Fleury rebounded to score 30 goals in 2000 – 01 and participated in his seventh All @-@ Star Game . He scored his 400th NHL goal on November 4 , 2000 , in a 5 – 2 victory over the Montreal Canadiens . Fleury was leading his team , and was fourth in the league , with 74 points in 62 games , when the Rangers announced that he had again entered the league 's substance abuse program . The decision ended his season .
Prior to the 2001 – 02 season Fleury said that he continued to struggle with substance abuse and had difficulty adapting to life in Manhattan after growing up in a Canadian prairie town of 1 @,@ 500 . He played all 82 games in 2001 – 02 , but his problems affected his behavior on the ice . After receiving a major and game misconduct penalty in a game against the San Jose Sharks on December 28 , he wound up in a confrontation with the Sharks ' mascot , S.J. Sharkie , in a hallway of the HP Pavilion , reportedly breaking the rib of the mascot portrayer . Fleury himself later downplayed the incident , saying that he " nudged " Sharkie . Upon taking a penalty in a January 2002 game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Fleury left the arena rather than skate to the penalty box . He later apologized to his teammates , claiming he was deeply stressed by family problems . Two weeks later , he was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 for making an obscene gesture to fans of the New York Islanders who had been taunting him over his drug use . Towards the end of February , he lashed out against the league 's officials . He claimed they were not judging him fairly , and threatened to retire . The league dismissed his complaints . He did achieve a personal milestone during the season , however : on October 27 , 2001 , Fleury assisted on a goal by Mike York , scoring the 1,000th point of his NHL career . The Rangers presented him with a silver stick in honour of the achievement .
Following the season , the Rangers did not exercise their option , and traded Fleury 's playing rights to the San Jose Sharks , which entitled the Sharks to a compensatory draft pick if Fleury signed elsewhere . He did so with a two @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract with the Chicago Blackhawks . Two days prior to the opening of the 2002 – 03 season , he was suspended by the NHL for violating the terms of the league 's substance abuse program . The Blackhawks hired one of Fleury 's friends , also a recovering alcoholic , to ensure that he attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings and abided by the terms of the NHL 's aftercare program .
Fleury missed the first two months of the season before being reinstated . While out with teammates in January 2003 , he was involved in a drunken brawl with bouncers at a strip club in Columbus , Ohio , that left him bloodied ; he has no memory of the night and described it as among the lowest points of his life . He was not suspended , but the incident contributed to a collapse in the standings by the Blackhawks , and they placed him on waivers in March . No team claimed him , and Fleury finished the season with the Blackhawks , recording 12 goals and 21 assists in 54 games . Following the season , in April 2003 , he was suspended again by the league for violations of its substance abuse program . The suspension ended his NHL career .
= = = Senior hockey and the Belfast Giants = = =
In January 2005 , Fleury announced that he had joined his cousin Todd Holt and former NHL players Gino Odjick , Sasha Lakovic and Dody Wood in playing for the Horse Lake Thunder of the North Peace Hockey League for the Allan Cup , Canada 's national senior amateur championship . He also hoped to serve as a role model for kids on the Horse Lake First Nation . Hockey Alberta initially ruled that he was ineligible to play senior hockey in 2004 – 05 because he had been signed to a professional contract during the 2003 – 04 season . Hockey Alberta denied an appeal , citing a new policy it had put in effect to prevent NHL players from joining senior teams during the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . It reversed its decision on a second appeal after the NHL and National Hockey League Players Association both agreed that Fleury was a free agent , and not a locked @-@ out player . Fleury played his first game for the Thunder on January 22 , 2005 , scoring a goal and two assists .
Fleury remained embroiled in controversy at the 2005 Allan Cup tournament . The Thunder were repeatedly accused of paying players despite being an amateur team , and Fleury angrily denied rumours that he was secretly being paid $ 100 @,@ 000 . Tournament fans were extremely hostile towards the Thunder , and after it was eliminated in the semi @-@ finals Fleury accused them of racism and threatened to return his 2002 Olympic gold medal : " The one thing that 's really bothered me through this whole thing is the prejudice , still , in this country when it comes to native people . I 've seen it first @-@ hand in every building we go into , how these people are treated , and it 's absolutely embarrassing to be a Canadian and know that stuff is still going on . "
Fleury was convinced by a friend to move to Northern Ireland to play with the Belfast Giants of the Elite Ice Hockey League ( EIHL ) for the 2005 – 06 season . He scored three goals and added four assists and a fight in his first game , against the Edinburgh Capitals . He scored 22 goals and 52 assists in 34 games , as Belfast won the regular season league title . Described as the " most talented " player ever to play in the United Kingdom , Fleury was named the EIHL 's Player of the Year and voted a first team All @-@ Star by the British Ice Hockey Writers Association . Fleury argued with visiting fans , as well as officials , which led him not to return to Belfast in 2006 – 07 .
In late 2008 , Fleury joined his brother Ted with the Steinbach North Stars in a second bid to win the Allan Cup . He played 13 league games , scoring eight goals and 19 assists . At the 2009 Allan Cup tournament , he recorded a goal and an assist to lead the host North Stars to a 5 – 0 win in their opening game , and finished tied for the lead in tournament scoring at seven points . The North Stars lost the semi @-@ finals to the South East Prairie Thunder , 4 – 2 .
= = = NHL comeback attempt = = =
Unhappy with how his NHL career ended , Fleury hired a personal trainer in February 2009 and began an attempt to return to the NHL . By August , he petitioned Commissioner Gary Bettman to lift his suspension . He was reinstated on September 10 following a meeting with Bettman , Deputy Commissioner Bill Daly and league doctors . Fleury then accepted a try @-@ out offer from the Flames . He said he wanted to prove to himself that he could still play at the NHL level , though his skeptics pointed to his child support payments and the failure of his concrete business , as well as the planned release of his autobiography , and argued Fleury 's comeback was financially motivated .
He made his return to the NHL in an exhibition game in Calgary against the New York Islanders on September 17 on a line with Daymond Langkow and Nigel Dawes . Fleury was met with loud cheers throughout the game , and scored the only goal in a shootout to give the Flames a 5 – 4 win . After the game , he saluted the crowd as the fans chanted " Theo ! Theo ! Theo ! " Three nights later , he scored a goal and an assist in a 5 – 2 victory over the Florida Panthers .
Fleury played four exhibition games , scoring four points , before being released by the Flames . General Manager Darryl Sutter expressed his pride in Fleury 's attempt and commended his effort , but decided he was not one of the top six wingers in camp , which Sutter and Fleury had agreed was a condition of the tryout continuing . On September 28 , 2009 , Fleury announced his retirement at a news conference at the Saddledome . He thanked the Flames for allowing him to attempt the comeback , and expressed satisfaction at how his career ended . " I get to retire a Calgary Flame . I HAD to retire a Calgary Flame . It ’ s been a long journey . It ’ s time to put down some roots . And there ’ s no better place than here , " said Fleury of his decision not to seek an offer from another team .
= = = International = = =
Fleury made his debut with the Canadian senior team at the 1990 World Hockey Championships , scoring 11 points in nine games for the fourth @-@ place Canadians . He returned the following year despite a knee injury , helping Canada win the silver medal at the 1991 tournament . His 51 @-@ goal NHL season in 1990 – 91 also earned Fleury a spot at the 1991 Canada Cup , where he scored a goal and four assists in seven games for the tournament champion Canadians . Five years later , he played in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey , the successor to the Canada Cup . He finished fourth in the tournament with four goals , but Canada finished in second place after giving up four goals in the final four minutes of the championship game against the American team .
National Hockey League players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament at the 1998 games . Invited to join Canada 's " Dream Team " , Fleury described his selection as a highlight of his life . He scored a goal for Canada , who lost their semi @-@ final match @-@ up against the Czech Republic in a shootout and failed to medal . Four years later , Fleury was invited by General Manager Wayne Gretzky to participate in Canada 's selection camp for the 2002 Olympics . The invitation was controversial , as his behavioural and substance abuse issues had become increasingly public in previous months . Fleury wanted to justify Gretzky 's support and , knowing that he would be removed from consideration if he failed , refrained from drinking or taking drugs during the 2001 – 02 NHL season , later describing himself as a " dry drunk " . He earned a spot on the team and recorded two assists in six games as the Canadian hockey team won its first Olympic gold medal in 50 years . Fleury considers the championship to be the pinnacle of his career .
= = Off the ice = =
Fleury continued to battle drug and alcohol addictions , revealing in a November 2004 interview that he had not overcome the problems that ended his NHL career a year and a half earlier . He credits his second wife , Jennifer , with turning his life around after they met when he was playing for Horse Lake in 2005 . Fleury feared that Jennifer 's frustration with his drug use would cost him the relationship , and , with her help , quit drugs and drinking on September 18 , 2005 . They were married one year later and have a daughter , Skylah . Fleury also has a son and daughter , Beaux and Tatym , from his relationship with his first wife , Veronica , and a son , Josh , born in 1987 to his high school girlfriend , Shannon .
In 1994 , Fleury joined a group that involved his former junior coach , Graham James , fellow NHL player Joe Sakic , and professional wrestler Bret Hart as a minority owner of the expansion Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League . He sold his share of the team to the Flames in 1997 in the aftermath of James ' conviction for sexually abusing Sheldon Kennedy and another player . After returning from Northern Ireland , he operated Fleury 's Concrete Coatings , a concrete sealing business he started with his wife Jennifer and brother Travis , until it closed in 2009 . He filmed a pilot episode in 2007 for a reality TV series based on his concrete business called Theoren Fleury : Rock Solid : " We want to show people that if you have a dream , anything is possible with a little ambition , " Fleury said of the show . It was not picked up by any network .
The 2008 launch of clothing line " FAKE " ( Fleury 's Artistic Kustom Enterprises ) led him to approach the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League in the hope of convincing them to use his brand of practice jerseys . The conversation led to talk of Fleury playing a game for the Vipers as a publicity stunt . He made his professional baseball debut on August 9 , 2008 , at the age of 40 , hitting a single in a pinch @-@ hit appearance against the Yuma Scorpions . He started the second game at left field and struck out twice before he was replaced . " I 've had so many things happen in my life already that I sometimes surprise myself with the things I 've done , the things I 've accomplished . This was just another one of those days , " Fleury said of his appearance with the Vipers .
Fleury has organized or participated in numerous charitable causes . He launched a hockey school in the mid @-@ 1990s that ran for seven years in Calgary and another eight in Russell , and donated the proceeds to minor hockey associations . Following his diagnosis with Crohn 's disease in 1995 , Fleury joined with the Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of Canada to host an annual golf tournament in Calgary . The event has raised over $ 1 million , and is one of the organization 's largest fundraising events in the Calgary area . He participates in Flames Alumni events and volunteers with the Calgary Dream Centre , which helps people overcome addiction .
Fleury was a participant on the second season of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation figure skating reality show Battle of the Blades , aired in the fall of 2010 , and was donating his winnings to The Men 's Project , a charity that provides support for men abused in childhood . His partner was Jamie Salé and the pair finished 5th .
= = = Autobiography = = =
With the help of Kirstie McLellan Day , Fleury wrote his autobiography , Playing with Fire , which was released on October 16 , 2009 . In it , he alleged that he was sexually abused by Graham James over a period of two years . While he stated he " doesn 't want to become the poster boy for abuse by James " , Fleury hoped that speaking out might make it easier for other childhood sexual abuse victims to come forward . He blamed the abuse for turning him into a " raging , alcoholic lunatic " , and claimed to have placed a loaded gun in his mouth and contemplated suicide in 2004 . He revealed that he had spent most of his income on alcohol , drugs , gambling and women . Fleury also claimed that he failed 13 consecutive drug tests while playing for the Rangers , but that the league did not want to suspend him because he was a leading scorer . The league disputed this , and stated that its substance abuse program functioned appropriately .
Playing with Fire became the top seller on Amazon.ca within a week of its release , and Fleury stated that he had been contacted by several sexual abuse victims who were motivated by his book to seek help . He also revealed that he was contemplating a criminal complaint against James , and had begun volunteering with an organization dedicated to helping male sexual abuse victims . Fleury was surprised that his story became the top @-@ selling non @-@ fiction book in Canada ; without help , he and his wife were unable to keep up with the mail they were receiving . It is the second book about Fleury 's life , following Fury , released in 1997 , which did not discuss many of the problems he was facing at the time .
Sheldon Kennedy , who was also a victim of James , encouraged Fleury to press charges . Fleury met with Winnipeg police in January 2010 , who began an investigation when he formally filed a complaint . James ultimately pleaded guilty to charges stemming from his abuse of Fleury and his cousin Todd Holt . James was sentenced to two years in prison , a decision which sparked outrage across Canada for its perceived leniency . Fleury praised the response by Canadians and stated his desire to use it to press for changes to the legal system . Fleury is now a motivational speaker , hoping that sharing his story will encourage others to seek help for their problems .
McLellan Day adapted the autobiography into a one @-@ man play , entitled Playing with Fire : The Theo Fleury Story , which was produced by Alberta Theatre Projects in Calgary . The play made its world premiere May 1 , 2012 . Fleury and his autobiography were also the subject of a 2012 documentary by HBO Canada .
= = = Musical career = = =
In September 2015 it was announced through Fleury 's Twitter account he had been working on a Country music record to be released in the fall of 2015 . He released his first single titled " My Life 's Been a Country Song " and it reached over 20 @,@ 000 plays on Soundcloud within the first 24 hours of being released . His debut record I Am Who I Am was released on October 16 , 2015 through eOne Music Canada and has been well received by country music fanatics . The hockey star turned Country star transformation did not happen overnight as Fleury claims this project has been ongoing for the past six years with him receiving vocal and performance training from industry professionals . He collaborated with long @-@ time friends Phil Deschambault and Paddy McCallion and together they created over 30 songs worth of material that would be later cut to ten songs for the album .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Carnotaurus =
Carnotaurus / ˌkɑːrnoʊˈtɔːrəs / is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous period , between about 72 and 69 @.@ 9 million years ago . The only species is Carnotaurus sastrei . Known from a single well @-@ preserved skeleton , it is one of the best @-@ understood theropods from the Southern Hemisphere . The skeleton , found in 1984 , was uncovered in the Chubut Province of Argentina from rocks of the La Colonia Formation . Derived from the Latin carno [ carnis ] ( " flesh " ) and taurus ( " bull " ) , the name Carnotaurus means " meat @-@ eating bull " , alluding to its bull @-@ like horns . Carnotaurus is a derived member of the Abelisauridae , a group of large theropods that occupied the large predatorial niche in the southern Landmasses of Gondwana during the late Cretaceous . The phylogenetic relations of Carnotaurus are uncertain ; it may have been closer to either Majungasaurus or Aucasaurus .
Carnotaurus was a lightly built , bipedal predator , measuring 8 to 9 m ( 26 to 30 ft ) in length and weighing at least 1 @.@ 35 metric tons ( 1 @.@ 33 long tons ; 1 @.@ 49 short tons ) . As a theropod , Carnotaurus was highly specialized and distinctive . It had thick horns above the eyes , a feature unseen in all other carnivorous dinosaurs , and a very deep skull sitting on a muscular neck . Carnotaurus was further characterized by small , vestigial forelimbs and long and slender hindlimbs . The skeleton is preserved with extensive skin impressions , showing a mosaic of small , non @-@ overlapping scales measuring approximately 5 mm in diameter . The mosaic was interrupted by large bumps that lined the sides of the animal , and there are no hints of feathers .
The distinctive horns and the muscular neck may have been used in fighting conspecifics . According to separate studies , rivaling individuals may have combated each other with quick head blows , by slow pushes with the upper sides of their skulls , or by ramming each other head @-@ on , using their horns as shock absorbers . The feeding habits of Carnotaurus remain unclear : some studies suggest the animal was able to hunt down very large prey such as sauropods , while other studies find it preyed mainly on relatively small animals . Carnotaurus was well adapted for running and was possibly one of the fastest large theropods .
= = Description = =
Carnotaurus was a large but lightly built predator . The only known individual was about 8 – 9 metres ( 26 – 30 ft ) in length , making Carnotaurus one of the largest abelisaurids . Only Ekrixinatosaurus and possibly Abelisaurus may have been similar or larger in size , though the incomplete remains of these genera make size estimations imprecise . Its mass is estimated to have been 1 @,@ 350 kg ( 1 @.@ 33 long tons ; 1 @.@ 49 short tons ) 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 long tons ; 1 @.@ 7 short tons ) and 2 @,@ 100 kg ( 2 @.@ 1 long tons ; 2 @.@ 3 short tons ) in separate studies that used different estimation methods . Carnotaurus was a highly specialized theropod , as seen especially in characteristics of the skull , the vertebrae and the forelimbs . The pelvis and hindlimbs , on the other hand , remained relatively conservative , resembling those of the more basal Ceratosaurus . Both the pelvis and hindlimb bones were long and slender . The left thigh bone of the individual measures 103 cm in length , but shows an average diameter of only 11 cm .
= = = Skull = = =
The skull , measuring 59 @.@ 6 cm ( 23 @.@ 5 in ) in length , was proportionally shorter and deeper than in any other large carnivorous dinosaur . The snout was moderately broad , not as tapering as seen in more basal theropods like Ceratosaurus , and the jaws were curved upwards . As in other abelisaurids , the facial bones , especially the nasal bones , were sculptured with numerous small holes and spikes . In life , a wrinkled and possibly keratinous skin would have covered these bones . A prominent pair of horns protruded obliquely above the eyes . These horns , formed by the frontal bones , were thick , cone @-@ shaped but in cross @-@ section somewhat vertically flattened , and measured 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length . In life , they would probably have formed the bony cores of much longer keratinous horns . The proportionally small eyes were situated in the upper part of the keyhole shaped orbita ( eye sockets ) . The upper part was slightly rotated forward , probably permitting some degree of binocular vision .
The teeth were long and slender , as opposed to the usually very short teeth seen in other abelisaurids . On each side of the upper jaws there were four premaxillary and twelve maxillary teeth , while the lower jaws were equipped with fifteen dentary teeth per side . In contrast to the robust @-@ looking skull , the lower jaw was shallow and weakly constructed , with the dentary ( the foremost jaw bone ) connected to the hindmost jaw bones by only two contact points . The lower jaw was found with hyoid bones , in the position they would be in if the animal was alive . These slender bones , supporting the tongue musculature and several other muscles , are rarely found in dinosaurs because they are not connected to other bones and therefore get lost easily .
= = = Vertebrae = = =
The vertebral column consisted of ten cervical ( neck ) , twelve dorsal , six fused sacral and an unknown number of caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The neck was nearly straight , rather than having the S @-@ curve seen in other theropods , and also unusually wide , especially towards its base . The top of the neck 's spinal column featured a double row of enlarged , upwardly directed bony processes called epipophyses , creating a smooth trough on the top of the neck vertebrae . These processes were the highest points of the spine , towering above the unusually low spinous processes . The epipophyses probably provided attachment areas for a markedly strong neck musculature . A similar double row was also present in the tail , formed there by highly modified caudal ribs , in front view protruding upwards in a V @-@ shape , their inner sides creating a smooth , flat , top surface of the front tail vertebrae . The end of each caudal rib was furnished with a forward projecting hook @-@ shaped expansion that connected to the caudal rib of the preceding vertebra .
= = = Forelimbs = = =
The forelimbs were proportionally shorter than in any other large carnivorous dinosaurs , including Tyrannosaurus . The forearm was only a quarter the size of the upper arm . There were no carpalia in the hand , so that the metacarpals articulated directly with the forearm . The hand showed four basic digits , though apparently only the middle two of these ended in finger bones , while the fourth consisted of a single splint @-@ like metacarpal that may have represented an external ' spur ' . The fingers themselves were fused and immobile , and may have lacked claws . Carnotaurus differed from all other abelisaurids in having proportionally shorter and more robust forelimbs , and in having the fourth , splint @-@ like metacarpal as the longest bone in the hand . A 2009 study suggests that the arms were vestigial in abelisaurids , because nerve fibers responsible for stimulus transmission were reduced to an extent seen in today 's emus and kiwis , which also have vestigial forelimbs .
= = = Skin = = =
Carnotaurus was the first theropod dinosaur discovered with comprehensive fossil skin impressions . These impressions , found beneath the skeleton 's right side , come from different body parts , including the lower jaw , the front of the neck , the shoulder girdle , and the rib cage . The largest patch of skin corresponds to the anterior part of the tail . Originally , the right side of the skull also was covered with large patches of skin — this was not recognized when the skull was prepared , and these patches were accidentally destroyed . Still , the surface texture of much of the right side of the skull is very different from that of the left side , and probably shows some features of the scalation pattern of the head .
The skin was built up of a mosaic of polygonal , non @-@ overlapping scales measuring approximately 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) in diameter . This mosaic was divided by thin , parallel grooves . Scalation was similar across different body parts with the exception of the head , which apparently showed a different , irregular pattern of scales . There is no evidence of feathers . Uniquely for theropods , there were large knob @-@ like bumps running along the sides of the neck , back and tail in irregular rows . Each bump showed a low ridge and measured 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . They were set 8 to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) apart from each other and became larger towards the animal 's top . The bumps probably represent clusters of condensed scutes , similar to those seen on the soft frill running along the body midline in hadrosaurid ( " duck @-@ billed " ) dinosaurs . Stephen Czerkas ( 1997 ) suggested that these structures may have protected the animal 's sides while fighting members of the same species ( conspecifics ) and other theropods , arguing that similar structures can be found on the neck of the modern iguana where they provide limited protection in combat .
= = Classification = =
Carnotaurus is one of the best @-@ understood genera of the Abelisauridae , a family of large theropods restricted to the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana . Abelisaurids were the dominant predators in the Late Cretaceous of Gondwana , replacing the carcharodontosaurids and occupying the ecological niche filled by the tyrannosaurids in the northern continents . Several notable traits that evolved within this family , including shortening of the skull and arms as well as peculiarities in the cervical and caudal vertebrae , were more pronounced in Carnotaurus than in any other abelisaurid .
Though relationships within the Abelisauridae are debated , Carnotaurus is consistently shown to be one of the most derived members of the family by cladistical analyses . Its nearest relative may have been either Aucasaurus or Majungasaurus ; this ambiguity is largely due to the incompleteness of the Aucasaurus skull material . A recent review suggests that Carnotaurus was not closely related with either Aucasaurus or Majungasaurus , and instead proposed Ilokelesia as its sister taxon .
Carnotaurus is eponymous for two subgroups of the Abelisauridae : the Carnotaurinae and the Carnotaurini . Paleontologists do not universally accept these groups . The Carnotaurinae was defined to include all derived abelisaurids with the exclusion of Abelisaurus , which is considered a basal member in most studies . However , a 2008 review suggested that Abelisaurus was a derived abelisaurid instead . Carnotaurini was proposed to name the clade formed by Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus ; only those paleontologists who consider Aucasaurus as the nearest relative of Carnotaurus use this group .
= = Discovery = =
The only skeleton ( holotype MACN @-@ CH 894 ) was unearthed in 1984 by an expedition led by Argentinian paleontologist José Bonaparte . This expedition also recovered the peculiar spiny sauropod Amargasaurus . It was the eighth expedition within the project named " Jurassic and Cretaceous Terrestrial Vertebrates of South America " , which started in 1976 and which was sponsored by the National Geographic Society . The skeleton is well @-@ preserved and articulated ( still connected together ) , with only the posterior two thirds of the tail , much of the lower leg , and the hind feet being destroyed by weathering . During fossilization , the skull and especially the muzzle were crushed laterally , while the premaxilla were pushed upwards onto the nasal bones . As a result , the upward curvature of the upper jaw is artificially exaggerated in the holotype . The skeleton belonged to an adult individual , as indicated by the fused sutures in the braincase . It was found lying on its right side , showing a typical death pose with the neck bent back over the torso . Unusually , it is preserved with extensive skin impressions . In view of the significance of these impressions , a second expedition was started to reinvestigate the original excavation site , leading to the recovery of several additional skin patches .
The skeleton was collected on a farm named " Pocho Sastre " near Bajada Moreno in the Telsen Department of Chubut Province , Argentina . Because it was embedded in a large hematite concretion , a very hard kind of rock , preparation was complicated and progressed slowly . In 1985 , Bonaparte published a note presenting Carnotaurus sastrei as a new genus and species and briefly describing the skull and lower jaw . The generic name ( Latin carno [ carnis ] – " flesh " and taurus – " bull " ) refers to the bull @-@ like horns , while the specific name sastrei honors Angel Sastre , the owner of the ranch where the skeleton was found . A comprehensive description of the whole skeleton followed in 1990 . After Abelisaurus , Carnotaurus was the second member of the family Abelisauridae that was discovered . For years , it was by far the best @-@ understood member of its family , and also the best @-@ understood theropod from the Southern Hemisphere . It was not until the 21st century that similar well @-@ preserved abelisaurids were described , including Aucasaurus , Majungasaurus and Skorpiovenator , allowing scientists to re @-@ evaluate certain aspects of the anatomy of Carnotaurus . The holotype skeleton is displayed in the Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences , Bernardino Rivadavia ; replicas can be seen in this and other museums around the world . Sculptors Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas manufactured a life @-@ sized sculpture of Carnotaurus that is now on display in the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County . This sculpture , ordered by the museum during the mid @-@ 1980s , is probably the first life restoration of a theropod showing accurate skin .
= = Age and paleoecology = =
Originally , the rocks in which Carnotaurus was found were assigned to the upper part of the Gorro Frigio Formation , which was considered to be approximately 100 million years old ( Albian or Cenomanian stage ) . Later they were realized to pertain to the much younger La Colonia Formation , dating 72 to 69 @.@ 9 million years ago ( Late Cretaceous , Lower Maastrichtian stage ) . Thus , Carnotaurus was the latest South American abelisaurid known . By the Late Cretaceous , South America was already isolated from both Africa and North America .
The La Colonia Formation is exposed over the southern slope of the North Patagonian Massif . Most vertebrate fossils , including Carnotaurus , come from the formation 's middle section ( called the middle facies association ) . This part likely represents the deposits of an environment of estuaries , tidal flats or coastal plains . The climate would have been seasonal with both dry and humid periods . The most common vertebrates collected include ceratodontid lungfish , turtles , crocodiles , plesiosaurs , dinosaurs , lizards , snakes and mammals . Some of the snakes that have been found belong to the families Boidae and Madtsoidae , such as Alamitophis argentinus . Turtles are represented by at least five taxa , four from Chelidae ( Pleurodira ) and one from Meiolaniidae ( Cryptodira ) . Among the marine reptiles is the plesiosaur Sulcusuchus erraini of the family Polycotylidae . Mammals are represented with Reigitherium bunodontum , which was considered the first record of a South American docodont , and Argentodites coloniensis , possibly of Multituberculata . In 2011 , the discovery of a new enantiornithine bird from the La Colonia Formation was announced .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Function of the horns = = =
Carnotaurus is the only known carnivorous bipedal animal with a pair of horns on the frontal bone . The use of these horns is not entirely clear ; several interpretations have revolved around use in fighting conspecifics , in display , or in killing prey .
Greg Paul ( 1988 ) proposed that the horns were butting weapons and that the small orbita would have minimized the possibility of hurting the eyes while fighting . Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 ) suggested that Carnotaurus used its horns in a way similar to rams . They calculated that the neck musculature was strong enough to absorb the force of two individuals colliding with their heads frontally at a speed of 5 @.@ 7 m / s each . Fernando Novas ( 2009 ) interpreted several skeletal features as adaptations for delivering blows with the head . He suggested that the shortness of the skull might have made head movements quicker by reducing the moment of inertia , while the muscular neck would have allowed strong head blows . He also noted an enhanced rigidity and strength of the spinal column that may have evolved to withstand shocks conducted by the head and neck .
Other studies suggest that rivaling Carnotaurus did not deliver rapid head blows , but pushed slowly against each other with the upper sides of their skulls . Thus , the horns may have been a device for the distribution of compression forces without damage to the brain . This is supported by the flattened upper sides of the horns , the strongly fused bones of the top of the skull , and the inability of the skull to survive rapid head blows .
Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 ) propose that the horns might also have been used to injure or kill small prey . Though horn cores are blunt , they may have had a similar form to modern bovid horns if there was a keratinous covering . However , this would be the only reported example of horns being used as hunting weapons in animals .
= = = Jaw function and diet = = =
Analysis of the jaw design of Carnotaurus by Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 , 2004 , 2009 ) suggests that the animal was capable of quick bites , but not strong ones . Quick bites are more important than strong bites when capturing small prey , as shown by studies of modern @-@ day crocodiles . Furthermore , these researchers noted a high degree of flexibility ( kinesis ) within the skull and especially the lower jaw , somewhat similar to modern snakes . Elasticity of the jaw would have allowed Carnotaurus to swallow small prey items whole . In addition , the front part of the lower jaw was hinged , and thus able to move up and down . When pressed downwards , the teeth would have projected forward , allowing Carnotaurus to spike small prey items ; when the teeth were curved upwards , the now backward projecting teeth would have hindered the caught prey from escaping . Mazzetta and colleagues also found that the skull was able to withstand forces that appear when tugging on large prey items . Carnotaurus may therefore have fed mainly on relatively small prey , but also was able to hunt large dinosaurs .
This interpretation was questioned by François Therrien and colleagues ( 2005 ) , who found that the biting force of Carnotaurus was twice as high as that of the American alligator , which may have the strongest bite of any living tetrapod . These researchers also noted analogies with modern Komodo dragons : the flexural strength of the lower jaw decreases towards the tip linearly , indicating that the jaws were not suited for high precision catching of small prey but for delivering slashing wounds to weaken big prey . As a consequence , according to this study , Carnotaurus must have mainly preyed upon large animals , possibly by ambush .
Robert Bakker ( 1998 ) found that Carnotaurus mainly fed upon very large prey , especially sauropods . As he noted , several adaptations of the skull — the short snout , the relatively small teeth and the strong back of the skull ( occiput ) — had independently evolved in Allosaurus . These features suggest that the upper jaw was used like a serrated club to inflict wounds ; big sauropods would have been weakened by repeated attacks .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 , 1999 ) presumed that Carnotaurus was a swift runner , arguing that the thigh bone was adapted to withstand high bending moments while running . The ability of an animal 's leg to withstand those forces limits its top speed . The running adaptations of Carnotaurus would have been better than those of a human , although not nearly as good as those of an ostrich . Scientists calculate that Carnotaurus had a top speed of up to 48 – 56 km ( 30 – 35 mi ) per hour .
In dinosaurs , the most important locomotor muscle was located in the tail . This muscle , called caudofemoralis , attaches to the fourth trochanter , a prominent ridge on the thigh bone , and pulls the thigh bone backwards when contracted . Scott Persons and Phil Currie ( 2011 ) note that in the tail vertebrae of Carnotaurus the caudal ribs did not protrude horizontally ( " T @-@ shaped " ) , but were angled against the vertical axis of the vertebrae , forming a " V " . This would have provided additional space for a caudofemoralis muscle larger than in any other theropod — the muscle mass was calculated at 111 to 137 kilograms ( 245 to 302 lb ) per leg . Therefore , Carnotaurus could have been one of the fastest large theropods . While the caudofemoralis muscle was enlarged , the epaxial muscles situated above the caudal ribs would have been proportionally smaller . These muscles , called the longissimus and spinalis muscle , were responsible for tail movement and stability . To maintain tail stability in spite of reduction of these muscles , the caudal ribs bear forward projecting processes interlocking the vertebrae with each other and with the pelvis , stiffening the tail . As a consequence , the ability to make tight turns would have been diminished , because the hip and tail had to be turned simultaneously , unlike in other theropods .
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= Go Missin ' =
" Go Missin ' " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Usher . It was produced by Diplo and was released on Valentine 's Day 2013 through SoundCloud as a free download . The year before , Usher released " Climax " on Valentine 's Day , the lead single from his seventh studio album , Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . Prior to its release , the singer tweeted that he had a " special delivery from the cloud " for his fans , who responded positively to the release of " Climax " on Valentine 's Day the preceding year .
" Go Missin ' " contains similar characteristics to " Climax " ; it is a quiet storm mid @-@ tempo R & B track , and incorporates heavy bass and synthesizers . Usher utilizes his falsetto range throughout , with Billboard writing that the song 's lyrics follow Usher attempting to " convince a stranded woman at a club to come home with him " . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised Diplo 's production and Usher 's vocals .
= = Background and release = =
On February 14 , 2013 , Valentine 's Day , Usher announced through his Twitter and Facebook the release of a new single . He wrote through Twitter " You loved what I gave you last Valentine 's # Climax So here is ' Special delivery from the cloud 'Happy [ sic ] Valentine 's Day ! " . " Go Missin ' " was released on the day of its announcement through SoundCloud as a free download . The song was produced by Diplo , who previously collaborated with Usher on the track " Climax " , which was released as the lead single from the latter 's seventh studio album , Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . " Go Missin ' " was later released to Italian radio on February 22 , 2013 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Go Missin ' " has a running duration of three minutes and two seconds . It contains similar characteristics to " Climax " , in that it is a quiet storm R & B track , complimented by drum machine . It is built upon synthesizers , while incorporating bass . Usher utilizes his falsetto range throughout the song , shifting in arrangements . Billboard wrote that the song 's lyrics follow Usher attempting to " convince a stranded woman at a club to come home with him " . The Huffington Post 's Kia Makarechi described " Go Missin ' " as a " standard track " , and wrote that its lyrics contain " serial killer @-@ esque " undertones in the line : Conscience telling you you shouldn 't go , don 't listen / I 'mma take care of you for sure / Follow me right out that back door / Go missin .
= = Critical response = =
August Brown of Los Angeles Times commended the song 's production and Usher 's vocals . Brown described the track as to be " full of roiling snares and boomy bass kicks " while saying that Usher 's vocals are " so pristine " that they walk a line between " digital witch @-@ magic and the hair @-@ raising choral work of Ligeti . " About.com 's Mark Edward Nero described the collaboration as " innovative " , and thought that the track contained a " cinematic quality with delicate vocals laid over a moody , semi @-@ futuristic electronic beat " . Billboard 's David Greenwald compared " Go Missin ' " to the work of Canadian singer The Weeknd , while describing Usher 's vocals as " seductive " .
Marc Hogan of Spin wrote that despite the song not being as " immediately jaw @-@ dropping " compared to " Climax " , it still contains the same " Radiohead quiet storm style " as the latter song , with Usher utilizing his " hair @-@ raising falsetto " . Forrest Wickman of Slate magazine interpreted the song as different in terms of music and lyrics to the latter song . Wickman praised Usher 's vocals , describing them as " calculated " to make you feel " uneasy , swirling around in minor harmonies " . Rolling Stones 's Jon Dolan gave the song three out of five stars , writing that " Go Missin ' " is not as " subtle " as " Climax " , though he praised its implementation of synthesizers , saying that it gives the song a " nervous , predatory throb " .
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= You Know What You Did =
" You Know What You Did " is the first episode of the third season of The Hills . It originally aired on MTV on August 13 , 2007 . In the episode , Lauren Conrad ends her friendship with former housemate Heidi Montag after suspecting that she and her boyfriend Spencer Pratt fabricated rumors of a sex tape involving herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend Jason Wahler . The ensuing feud between the women becomes a central focus of the series , and is carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appears .
" You Know What You Did " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Sara Mast , Andrew Perry , Jason Sands , Robyn Schnieders , Sean Travis , Michael " Spike " Van Briesen , and Rick Van Meter . The episode was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who felt that the changed dynamic between Conrad and Montag was entertaining for television . It was additionally notable for Conrad 's delivery of the titular line " You know what you did ! " when speaking to Montag , which has since been recognized as an iconic moment from the series .
According to Nielsen ratings , " You Know What You Did " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers in its original airing . The episode was released on DVD on July 19 , 2008 , packaged with the third season set .
= = Plot = =
The third season of The Hills begins with Whitney Port becoming Lauren 's boss , after being promoted within Teen Vogue . On their first day returning to work , Lauren informs Whitney of false speculation regarding a sex tape involving herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend Jason Wahler . Lauren comments that she has not spoken with Heidi since she moved into an apartment with Spencer , and the women become suspicious of her possible involvement with the rumors . Meanwhile , Heidi and Spencer are planning their housewarming party ; Spencer plans on inviting several of his friends , while Heidi was only planning on inviting Lauren , Whitney , and Audrina Patridge . Visiting Audrina at Epic Records unannounced , she delivers invitations for Audrina and Lauren . Audrina accepts the invitations , although later tells her co @-@ worker that she believes that Heidi and Spencer were speaking badly of Lauren and were responsible for spreading the sex tape rumors .
Lauren and Whitney decline their invitations to the housewarming party , and instead plan an impromptu outing at the club Les Deux . Meanwhile , during the housewarming party , Jenn Bunney makes a brief appearance at the apartment , although Heidi is disappointed after realizing that Lauren will not be attending . Unaware that they will run into Heidi and Spencer , Lauren and Audrina attend a birthday party for their friend Frankie Delgado the following day . As Lauren leaves for the bathroom after Heidi gives her a letter , Heidi tells Audrina that she is unsure of the reason for the tension between them . Audrina finds Lauren in the bathroom and they read the letter together , which details Heidi 's interest in rekindling their friendship . Angered that Heidi will not acknowledge the sex tape rumors , Lauren decides to exit the club .
At the recommendation of Spencer , Heidi confronts Lauren before she is able to leave the club . Lauren and Audrina get into an argument with Heidi and Spencer outside of Les Deux , where Lauren delivers the now @-@ famous quote " You know what you did ! " , elaborating that " You started a sick little rumor about me ! You 're a sad , pathetic person . " The following morning , Heidi explains to her co @-@ worker Elodie Otto that she was unaware of said speculation , and still wants to reconcile with Lauren . Meanwhile , Lauren tells Whitney that she is saddened by the idea of losing her friend , although admits that she has benefited from their separation .
= = Production = =
" You Know What You Did " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Sara Mast , Andrew Perry , Jason Sands , Robyn Schnieders , Sean Travis , Michael " Spike " Van Briesen , and Rick Van Meter . Rumors of a sex tape involving Conrad and Wahler , in addition to stories alleging that she invaded his house to retrieve it , surfaced in April 2007 . Conrad adamantly denied both reports , commenting that " if I ever tried to get something back from Jason , it was probably just photo albums and stuff " and the producers " videotape my life five days out of the week . I don 't need additional footage , you know ? "
The president of entertainment for MTV , Brian Graden , commented that the series benefits from the media coverage it receives in between seasons , which he described as a " six @-@ month commercial for the show that doesn 't five away the narrative in full . " He elaborated that MTV wants " viewers to watch Lauren and the girls as the characters we know instead of in a show about being the stars of The Hills " ; the sex tape rumors were consequently presented like a personal conflict between the women , and was intentionally not addressed as a highly publicized controversy .
The ensuing feud between Conrad and Montag received extensive media attention since its beginning ; Conrad was doubtful of the possibility of a reconciliation , noting that " I can see us getting to not hating each other but I don 't think we would ever go back to being best friends . " When addressing speculation that the conflict was fabricated for television , Conrad stated that " I wouldn 't fight for the camera . If anything I would try not to . " In a separate interview , she revealed that she almost quit the program before the season began , stating " it wasn 't so much about the filming , but I didn 't want to do a show with the other people on it " , which was assumed to be alluding to Montag and Pratt .
= = Release and reception = =
" You Know What You Did " was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who felt that the changed dynamic between Conrad and Montag was entertaining for television . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Jennifer Armstrong provided a favorable review ; she opined that the conflict between Conrad and Montag made for the " most mature season ever " and offered a disclaimer that the term " maturity " was " being relative here , of course . " A writer for The Hollywood Gossip stated that the episode " didn 't disappoint " , and felt that the storyline clearly categorized Patridge and Port as being part of " Team Lauren " and Pratt as being part of " Team Heidi " in the " epic war " .
Virginia Heffernan from The New York Times felt that the deterioration of Conrad and Montag 's friendship was " more convincing than Friends and just about any other comedy about female relationships because — as anyone who has ever been a young woman knows — undying friendships die . " Writing for Los Angeles Times , Denise Martin was complimentary of the fact that the conflict was " unsullied " despite the extensive media coverage it received before the season began , and added that it was " better than anything you 'd get on All My Children . " Furthemore , Conrad 's delivery of the titular line " You know what you did ! " when speaking to Montag has been recognized as an iconic moment from the series ; the staff from Us Weekly ranked the scene as the most memorable event from the program when recapping highlights from its six seasons in July 2010 .
In its original broadcast in the United States on August 13 , 2007 , " You Know What You Did " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers . Consequently , it became the series ' most @-@ viewed episode at the time of its first airing ; as August 2007 , the episode was the network 's highest @-@ rated broadcast that year . It was surpassed by " Paris Changes Everything " , which served as the premiere for the second half of the season , on March 17 , 2008 ; it attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers in its original airing . In the United States , the third season was released as a four @-@ disc DVD set on July 19 , 2008 .
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= Early Winter =
" Early Winter " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . Written by Stefani and English pianist Tim Rice @-@ Oxley , the song was released in Europe as the album 's fifth and final single on January 18 , 2008 by Interscope Records . Musically , " Early Winter " is a soft rock and synthpop ballad with new wave influences . Critics found it similar to songs by English alternative rock band Keane . The lyrics of the song describe the nearing of the end of a relationship , and were speculated to be references to Stefani 's own relationship with husband Gavin Rossdale .
Upon its release , " Early Winter " received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom commended Stefani 's vocal delivery and the song 's emotional appeal . The song charted on only a few record charts , but performed well in Germany and Slovakia , where it peaked at number six on the singles and airplay chart , respectively . An accompanying music video for " Early Winter " was directed by Sophie Muller and was filmed in destinations like Budapest , Milan , and Prague . It contains scenes of Stefani in a palace @-@ like hall in various gowns and at railway stations . " Early Winter " was included in the setlist of The Sweet Escape Tour , and the performances featured a special coda section delivered by American musician and bassist Gail Ann Dorsey .
= = Background = =
" Early Winter " was written by Tim Rice @-@ Oxley , pianist of English alternative rock band Keane , and Gwen Stefani for the latter 's second solo studio album The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . The production of the song was handled by Nellee Hooper . Before working with Oxley in the studio , Stefani called him to discuss some of her ideas behind a potential song , saying " I wanted a ballad . I wanted to write ' Eyes Without a Face ' or ' Killing Me Softly ' or ' Time After Time , ' and he was like , ' OK , Cyndi Lauper , got it , ' like he was taking my order . " In the studio , Oxley played " Early Winter " on a piano , and after hearing the song , Stefani approved of it and commented that " It was so beautiful and addictive . I didn 't really attack it because it was kind of done , lyrics and everything . " After letting the song " sit with her for a bit " , she rewrote some of the lyrics .
Stefani was the first artist Oxley wrote a song for outside of Keane , and the singer remarked that " he 's like Clark Kent @-@ subtle , but Superman @-@ talented . I 'm lucky I was his first , because I 'm sure he 's going to go write with lots of girls after me . " Oxley would later collaborate with artists like Australian singer Kylie Minogue , and in an interview he talked about working with her and Stefani , saying " I 've been very lucky to work with people at the top of the industry . Both were very talented and more creative than I think they ’ re given credit for . They ’ re both very good writers and singers and they both work so hard , just grafting the whole time . Honing those pop sensibilities through writing with them was good fun " .
= = Composition and release = =
Musically , " Early Winter " is a " sleek , surging " soft rock and synthpop ballad . Similar to Stefani 's work with her band No Doubt , it is highly influenced by new wave music . Clark Collis from Entertainment Weekly termed it a " tortured and not un @-@ Keane @-@ like lament " . The lyrics of " Early Winter " are based on issues related to the end of a relationship , and Jennifer Vineyard from MTV described them to be " poignant lyrics about a couple recognizing the beginning of the end " . In the song , Stefani metaphorically compares the end of her relationship with her partner to falling leaves . It was speculated that the song was a reference to Stefani 's own relationship with English musician and husband Gavin Rossdale . " Early Winter " was chosen as the fifth and final single from The Sweet Escape , and was released in Europe as a CD single on January 25 , 2008 by Interscope Records . It was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on January 18 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club praised Stefani 's vocal delivery , saying her " nasal voice suits the whiny sentiment of the subject matter " and opining that she " sounds most commanding in songs that flirt with blush @-@ making drippiness " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy rated " Early Winter " four out of five stars , and complimented its emotional nature , naming it a " forgotten classic from an eighties movie soundtrack " and deeming it " the most affecting moment of Stefani 's solo career to date " . John Murphy from MusicOMH called the song " rather nice " and appreciated its lyrical content , although he commented that " it does sound like Stefani covering a Keane song " . Alex Miller from NME complimented Oxley 's involvement in " Early Winter " and singled it out as " one of the few potential hits " from The Sweet Escape . Mark Pytlik from Pitchfork Media picked " Early Winter " as one of the highlights from the album and favoured Stefani 's vocal delivery , noting that the song " proves that Stefani still has the ability to elevate an otherwise ordinary rock song to another level " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine complimented " Early Winter " for being " less forced and much less self @-@ conscious " in comparison to the rest of the songs on The Sweet Escape , and felt that " it 's refreshing to hear Stefani in her more natural habitat " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Early Winter " had limited chart success , and appeared on only a few charts . It narrowly missed charting inside the top twenty of the Austrian Singles Chart by peaking at number twenty @-@ two , although it stayed on the chart for nineteen weeks . " Early Winter " debuted and peaked at number six on the German Singles Chart , becoming Stefani 's second highest @-@ peaking single in the region , alongside " The Sweet Escape " ( 2006 ) . It spent fourteen weeks on the German chart . The song failed to chart on the Hungarian Singles Chart , but managed to peak at number seventeen on the airplay chart . " Early Winter " entered the Slovak Airplay Chart at number 95 and peaked at number six , and spent a total of thirty @-@ nine weeks on the chart . After debuting at number fifty @-@ two on the Swiss Singles Chart , it ascended to number twelve and spent a total of twenty weeks on the chart .
= = Promotion = =
An accompanying music video for " Early Winter " was directed by Stefani 's frequent collaborator Sophie Muller , who had previously directed the music videos of " Cool " and " Wind It Up " . Filming of the music video took place at destinations like Budapest , Milan , and Prague , where Stefani had been touring during The Sweet Escape Tour in 2007 . It opens with a black @-@ and @-@ white scene of Stefani lying on the ground in a long white gown . In the next scene , Stefani is shown walking on the street under red street lights and then holds her love interest , played by her tour backup dancer Steelo Vazquez , against the wall and talks to him . The scene then changes to Stefani walking on a street and later walking into the railway station . In the next scene , Stefani is seen singing under falling red @-@ coloured feathers in a huge palace @-@ type hall . Scenes of Stefani staring at herself in the mirror with her hair up and snow falling slowly down , with the lights turning on and off intermittently , are interspersed throughout the video . Stefani is also seen sitting on the ground and singing while crying . She is then shown at a railway station walking besides a moving train . The video ends with Stefani running out of the hall . Tamar Anitai from MTV Buzzworthy praised the video for being " acutely artful , immeasurably stylish " and commented that " Gwen ’ s managed to raise the bar on her own superlatively supreme style in her new video . "
" Early Winter " was included on the setlist of The Sweet Escape 's promotional tour of the same name . The performance of the song included a coda section , which was delivered by American musician and bassist Gail Ann Dorsey . Joan Anderman from The Boston Globe regarded " Early Winter " as a " winsome anthem " and Dorsey 's coda performance " thrilling " .
= = Track listing = =
CD single and digital download
" Early Winter " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 44
" Early Winter " ( Live ) – 6 : 53
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .
= = Charts = =
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= Blue Dragon =
Blue Dragon ( Japanese : ブルードラゴン , Hepburn : Burū Doragon ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Mistwalker and Artoon and published by Microsoft Game Studios exclusively for the Xbox 360 . Blue Dragon is based on a design by Final Fantasy series creator Hironobu Sakaguchi , who also supervised development and wrote the plot . It is both Mistwalker 's debut title and the first title to be helmed by Sakaguchi outside of Square Enix . The game was released in Japan on December 7 , 2006 , where it was sold both as a standalone title and as part of a bundle with the Xbox 360 ( including the game , the Xbox 360 system itself , and a Blue Dragon console skin ) . Other regions received only the game itself , with a release in Europe on August 24 , 2007 , and in North America on August 28 , 2007 .
Taking place in a fictional open @-@ world environment , the story of Blue Dragon focuses on five friends ( Shu , Jiro , Kluke , Zola , and Marumaro ) as they travel across the world to confront Nene , the evil ruler of the Grand Kingdom . The setting inspired separate anime and manga adaptations , although these follow the story to different degrees and feature a different cast of characters . The game follows a traditional role @-@ playing design , based around exploration and turn @-@ based combat .
Blue Dragon is the first Xbox 360 title to make use of multiple discs , spanning three discs in total . Overall , the game has received a positive reception , with an average score of 77 @.@ 48 % on the review aggregator website Game Rankings . Blue Dragon was both applauded and criticized for its adaptation of the traditional elements of role @-@ playing games .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Blue Dragon uses turn @-@ based gameplay elements seen in older Japanese role @-@ playing video games . The game world contains two major types of areas : towns , in which the player can rest and purchase items , and dungeon @-@ like areas , with numerous foes to be defeated .
= = = Exploration = = =
Players are initially able to walk between locations on the overworld , and later gain the ability to teleport to previously visited locations . The player controls a party of characters , but only one is shown when exploring the overworld . The player is able to cast magic outside of combat situations based on each character 's respective abilities . When combat begins , the entire party appears for battle . Enemies are visible to the player while exploring the game world , and can be avoided . At the same time , players can choose to engage enemies by luring them close and them activating a circle which will allow players to fight multiple monsters at a time . In some cases , specific foes will block a path or desired treasure chest and must be defeated to proceed . Other foes will pursue the player 's character once the player is spotted , but players can elude them if they flee far enough . Frequently , a single enemy or monster displayed on the screen actually represents a number of different foes of potentially different types .
Combat begins differently depending on how the player avatar makes contact with the monster . If the avatar strikes an enemy from behind , they take the advantage in battle with a " Back Attack " . Similarly , if the avatar is struck from behind , the enemy takes the advantage in a " Surprise Attack " . Players can also choose to fight several groups of monsters at once , with each combat taking place immediately after the previous one . A player who successfully employs this tactic is rewarded with bonuses . Players may use " field skills " to aid in controlling enemy encounters , such as using bombs to paralyze enemies . In rare cases , two groups of monsters may be of rival species , in which case a " Monster Fight " will occur , with both monster groups appearing at once and focusing on each other before attacking the player .
= = = Shadows = = =
The core mechanic in Blue Dragon is the use of magical " shadows " , with each playable character having a distinct shadow modeled after either a dragon , a phoenix , a bat , a minotaur , or a saber @-@ toothed tiger . Each shadow can be assigned to a single character class ( from a number of such classes ) at a time , taking on the attributes and abilities of that class . Only the active class may earn Class levels or " ranks " , but players are free to change classes at any time except in combat , allowing the group 's shadows to be customized in order to achieve the desired combination of skills .
As shadows increase in rank in a given class , they learn new skills , which can then be assigned to a limited number of skill slots to be used in combat . Shadows can be assigned previously learned skills regardless of their current class . For example , if a shadow is currently set to be an " Assassin " , but has previously learned the ability to cast " Barrier Magic " while acting as a member of the Barrier Magic class , the Barrier Magic skill can be set as an active skill . This allows mixing or hybridization , with the player able to pick and choose from among the skills learned by a given shadow .
= = = Combat = = =
Although combat in the game follows a strictly turn @-@ based formula , the turn sequence of the characters you have are calculated based on the speed statistic of the character , and in some cases characters are allowed to strike before enemies can act if they possess sufficient speed . Different attacks can take varied periods of time to execute .
Another combat timing mechanic featured in the game is the " Charge Meter " , which allows players to increase the power of spells or attacks by spending additional time preparing them . This meter is always used for spell casting , as well as when using the " Charge Attack " skill used by the " Monk " class . Although players can choose to act immediately , an ability will become more powerful the longer that the player charges the attack . However , the greater the amount of time one charges attacks , the longer the charging character must wait before the next turn . As a result of this , players can choose to charge up an ability so that the ability triggers shortly before an enemy acts , or can instead aim for the " sweet spot " , a special red area on the charging bar , indicating a charge that allows for less time until the next attack , as well as a smaller mana cost . Overall , deciding on the correct amount of charge and letting go of the button at precisely that time can greatly influence the effectiveness of each character 's attacks during combat .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Blue Dragon takes place in a fictional open @-@ world environment where every year for the past ten years , purple clouds have mysteriously appeared in the sky , signaling misfortune and disaster for people across the world . For years , a terrifying beast dubbed the " Land Shark " , and other lost technologies , such as the " sea cube " came with the purple clouds , killing thousands of people and destroying a number of villages . The world is split up into climate regions , each containing multiple kingdoms and villages , a few of which are not on the main path , but hold small stories , such as the giants , and the sheep , as well as hidden dungeons . Around the environment are multiple sources of treasure
= = = Story = = =
On an unnamed world , the legendary purple clouds arrive in Talta Village which is the home of Shu , Kluke , and Jiro . While the other villagers seek shelter , Shu and Jiro slow down the Land Shark . After encountering troubles , Kluke saves them . Together , the three trap the Land Shark in a net , but the Land Shark breaks free and rushes away , with Shu , Jiro , and Kluke dangling from its back . The Land Shark stops in an ancient ruin that the three friends explore . They discover the Land Shark is really a machine — a " Mechat " . Without warning , the mechat comes to life , only this time sailing into the sky , again carrying the three with it .
The party arrives at a giant Mechat base in the clouds and are tossed into the throne room of Nene , the apparent leader . Nene explains to them how he enjoys hearing the screams of the dying victims of the Land Shark . The party battles Nene , but are easily defeated . They are thrown out of the base and start to fall to their deaths , but a beam of light from the base catches them , and brings them back to the base . The party find three small floating spheres in the middle of the room ; a mysterious voice commands them to swallow the spheres . The party refuses , and instead hold onto the spheres for safekeeping . As they try to reach another Mechat to escape the base , they are forced to fight a large army of Nene 's robots . When the battle seems it will never end , and with the unseen voice promising them knowledge of how to pilot the Mechat , the party members eat the spheres . As they consume the spheres , a strange transformation occurs to each , changing the forms of their shadows into powerful beings that are able to destroy the robot army . The party escapes the base and crash in a desert .
After becoming familiar with their new shadows , the party travels to Talta village , befriending Marumaro on the way , who also possesses a magical shadow . Finding that the villagers from Talta have started to head towards the capital city of Jibral , the party takes off after them . Just outside Jibral , the party finds the villagers attacked by Steel @-@ Eating Tigers . They are saved by the arrival of King Jibral and his forces , including Zola . Once the villagers are brought to Jibral , the King decides to implement a plan to destroy one of Nene 's bases near Jibral using Shu and his friends along with Zola . Together , the party works with the warriors of Talta Village the Jibral Kingdom to besiege Nene 's Mechat base . After the base is destroyed , the party heads north in search of Nene . Nene captures Kluke , and places a collar around her neck which Nene alleges will explode . After reaching Nene , Zola separates from the party to buy them time to attack Nene . When the party attempts to remove Kluke 's collar , Nene absorbs the party 's shadows by placing collars on all of them . After taking their powers and placing them in himself , he removes their collars and attempts to kill them before they recover . Shu , despite being drained of magical ability , unconsciously teleports the party to the distant Devour village .
In Devour Village , they find themselves unable to escape the village without their magic , because the community is surrounded by evil trees . Shu has an epiphany and finds himself able to summon his dragon shadow without his sphere . Shu destroys the Eat Yeet in Devour Village , and the party is finally able to leave . Eventually all the party are able to summon their shadows again .
At that point , the party reunites with Zola , who supplies a Mechat for them to pursue Nene . As the party goes after Nene in the Mechat , Nene initiates an ancient machine that splits the world into two hemispheres , with thousands of isolated cubes floating between the halves . The party follows Nene to the Primitive Cube at the core of the transformation . The party journeys through the cube eventually defeating General Szabo and ultimately engaging Nene . As the party weakens Nene , it is revealed that Zola was working for Nene all along , and she was the voice that told the others to swallow the spheres . When Zola was too weak to defend herself , Nene had given her a shadow and sent her to Jibral as a spy . Zola betrays and kills Nene choosing her friends over him .
Deathroy , the small creature that has been on Nene 's shoulder removes himself from his masters body and absorbs Nene 's remaining life force . Deathroy is revealed to be Destroy , the biomechanical weapon that destroyed the legendary ancients that once tried to bring peace to the world . The party defeats Destroy , melting him in lava . The party then quickly escapes from the melting cube to rejoin their families .
= = Development = =
Blue Dragon was first revealed on February 24 , 2005 as one of two unnamed role @-@ playing games in development by Mistwalker Studios for the console which later came to be known as the Xbox 360 . In an IGN interview following the unveiling , Peter Moore stressed the importance to Microsoft of having Japanese games available on the system , commenting " ... It 's a main priority for me in the next 12 – 18 months to ensure Japanese developers are our partners . " Contributors to Blue Dragon include a number of well known Japanese figures in the gaming industry . The title 's original story was written by Hironobu Sakaguchi , the game director of the first five Final Fantasy video games . It also features art from Akira Toriyama , the creator of Dragon Ball and visual character and monster designer and illustrator of both the Dragon Quest series and Chrono Trigger .
Much of the actual software development work on the game was done at Artoon , with Takuya Matsumoto serving as director and Manabu Kusonoki responsible for the game 's world view . Matsumoto previously worked as a designer on Blinx 2 : Masters of Time and Space , while Kusonoki is known for his work at Sega , including the world of Panzer Dragoon . Near the end of November 2005 , roughly a year before the title was released in Japan , Artoon 's Naoto Ohshima indicated that the game was around 40 % complete . He also pointed out that Artoon had previously been known primarily for action titles , so that responsibility for Blue Dragon was originally somewhat frightening . Following this , a relative lack of media information for most of 2006 resulted in speculation that the title would be delayed until 2007 , but Microsoft 's Takashi Sensui confirmed in August 2006 that the game would indeed see a year @-@ end 2006 release . Blue Dragon was eventually released on three full DVD discs , making it the first Xbox 360 game to span multiple discs .
In a November 2006 interview with IGN , Sakaguchi confirmed that the sequel , Blue Dragon 2 , was in the planning stages , and would presumably start development shortly thereafter . Later in an issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump , it was announced that Blue Dragon Plus was in the works for the Nintendo DS . It is a real @-@ time simulation RPG , featuring 2D sprite graphics , and was released on September 4 , 2008 in Japan and on February 19 , 2009 in North America . In 2009 , a second Blue Dragon title was released for the DS , Blue Dragon : Awakened Shadow . The latter is more action oriented , and follows a player @-@ created character , rather than Shu .
= = = Music = = =
Blue Dragon 's score was composed and produced by Nobuo Uematsu , who is better known for composing much of the music in the popular Final Fantasy series . One of the boss themes , " Eternity " , was composed by Uematsu , with lyrics by Hironobu Sakaguchi himself , and includes vocals by English singer Ian Gillan . Blue Dragon Original Soundtrack was released on December 13 , 2006 and was arranged by Satoshi Henmi and Hiroyuki Nakayama . Music from Blue Dragon was performed live at the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concerts in 2006 . IGN praised the track " Cave " as one of the " Top 10 Nobuo Uematsu Musical Moments " . Enter Shikari also made an instrumental song , " Enter Shikari vs. Blue Dragon " for the original soundtrack .
Blue Dragon Original Soundtrack track listing
= = Manga = =
On November 12 , 2006 , Shueisha announced that a manga adaptation of Blue Dragon would be produced . Known as Blue Dragon ST ( ブルードラゴン シークレットトリック , Burū Doragon Shīkuretto Torikku , " Blue Dragon : Secret Trick " ) , the manga was done by Ami Shibata and premiered in Monthly Shōnen Jump in January 2007 . The production was ended in July 2007 with the magazine 's cancellation .
A second manga was later produced under the name Blue Dragon Ral Ω Grad , also known as Ral Grad . This adaptation was done by Tsuneo Takano and Takeshi Obata , the illustrator of Death Note . Ral Grad began serialization in issue 1 , 2007 of Weekly Shōnen Jump . Viz Media later began releasing the manga as simply " Ral Grad " in February 2008 .
= = Anime = =
An anime adaptation directed by Yukihiro Matsushita , animated by Studio Pierrot and co @-@ produced by SKY Perfect Wellthink , TV Tokyo and Pierrot was announced in November 2006 . The anime began airing April 7 , 2007 , featuring a different vocal cast than that used for the game . It also ignored most of the game 's plot . It aired on TV Tokyo , and ran for 51 episodes . A second season of Blue Dragon — Blue Dragon : Trials of the Seven Shadows ( BLUE DRAGON 天界の七竜 , Burū Doragon : Tenkai no Shichiryū ) — premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5 , 2008 .
On April 16 , 2007 , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the anime for release in North America and Europe . An edited English language dub of the series premiered in the United States on Cartoon Network , on April 5 , 2008 , where it aired on Toonami Jetstream until Jetstream was cancelled on January 30 , 2009 . Since then it has been discovered that Viz Media did make an uncut version of the Blue Dragon anime in English . This uncut version released by Manga Entertainment has had the first 24 episodes released on DVD ( so far exclusively in the UK ) over three 2 disc DVD sets with the release date of the next DVD set to be announced . These uncut episodes unlike the US DVD releases fully restores the original Japanese opening and closing , all edited scenes from the Cartoon Network version are restored including the original music , as well as having the option to view the series in Japanese with English subtitles . On July 22 , 2011 , Viz Media started streaming Blue Dragon episodes on VizAnime and Hulu . At Otakon , Viz Media representative Amy Mar said that if the streaming numbers are good , they might release the uncut episodes on physical media .
= = Reception = =
Pre @-@ orders of Blue Dragon bundled with a limited edition Xbox 360 Core system were sold out in Japan well before the December 7 , 2006 release date . Microsoft and Mistwalker initially hoped to sell over 200 @,@ 000 copies , which would break their record for sales of an Xbox 360 game in Japan . The game did manage the goal , with almost exactly 200 @,@ 000 copies sold as of December 27 , 2007 . Creator Hironobu Sakaguchi was pleased the game sold as well as it did .
Reviews for Blue Dragon were somewhat mixed , though generally favorable . On the review aggregator Game Rankings , the game had an average score of 77 % based on 62 reviews . While many reviewers praised the game for its traditional approach , a few reviewers criticized it for that very reason , with one reviewer remarking , " In fact , there is very little you can point to in Blue Dragon that hasn 't been done multiple times over before " . The story also came under scrutiny from some reviewers for being too generic and too similar to existing Japanese RPGs , with slow pacing during the beginning of the game . Eurogamer stated that the apparent lack of effort put into the facial animations for each character resulted in a limited ability to express emotion . They also noted that the mouth movements are well timed , but that the rest of the characters ' facial movements are " static " .
Game Informer commented that Blue Dragon lacked " jaw dropping " moments and was missing a nebulous " key element " to make it perfect . 1UP.com also picked up on this , adding that Blue Dragon was missing " strong characters , gripping storytelling , and excellent pacing " . X @-@ Play said that the game was very visually pleasing , but indicated that it was like any other role @-@ playing game . Though most of the reviewers criticized the game in one way or another , they all complimented it for its excellent graphics and music . Specifically , Game Informer remarked that " the characters look like sculpted figurines wandering around a world built to scale " . GameSpy complimented the title 's music and graphics saying the game had " phenomenal music ; and magnificently rendered cutscenes " .
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= Welsh cuisine =
Welsh cuisine encompasses the cooking traditions and practices of the country of Wales and the Welsh people . Whilst there are a large number of dishes that can be considered Welsh due to their ingredients and / or history , dishes such as cawl , Welsh rarebit , laverbread , Welsh cakes , bara brith and the Glamorgan sausage have all been regarded as symbols of Welsh food . There is some variation in dishes around Wales , but the most pronounced difference is in the Gower Peninsula , an isolated rural area which was heavily influenced by Somerset and Devon . There the dishes created included whitepot and often incorporated pumpkin .
While Wales has imported throughout the centuries some culinary practices and dishes from its British neighbors , uniquely Welsh cuisine grew largely from the lives of the Welsh working folk , such as farmers , shepherds , and peasants , as these Welsh working people tended to be more isolated from outside culinary influences . Welsh common folk were instead influenced by the food that they could produce based on what little ingredients they could produce or afford , all while having little or no contact with neighboring English cuisine and English society . Welsh Celts and their more recent Welsh descendants originally practiced transhumance , moving their cattle to higher elevations in the summer and back to their home base in the winter . Once they settled to homesteads , a family would have generally eaten meat from a pig primarily , keeping a cow for dairy products . Vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks were rare .
In Wales , beef and dairy cattle are raised widely . Sheep farming , however , is extensive in the country , and lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Wales . Other important produce includes seafood — especially close to the coast , where fishing culture is strong and fisheries are common . This is exemplified by the use of cockles and laverbread in Welsh cuisine . The leek , the country 's national vegetable , is also used frequently in Welsh cuisine . Since the 1970s , the rise of the gastropub and high @-@ end restaurants has given Wales five Michelin @-@ starred restaurants .
= = History = =
There are few written records of traditional Welsh foods ; recipes were instead held within families and passed down orally between the women of the family . The lack of records was highlighted by Mati Thomas in 1928 , who made a unique collection of 18th century " Welsh Culinary Recipes " as an award winning Eisteddfod entry .
Those with the skills and inclination to write Welsh recipes , the upper classes , conformed to English styles and therefore would not have run their houses with traditional Welsh cuisine . Upper @-@ class households would take on any English fashions , even adopting English names . The traditional cookery of Wales originates from the daily meals of peasant folk , unlike other cultures where meals often started in the kitchens of the gentry and would be adapted .
Historically the King of the Welsh people would travel , with his court , in a circuit , demanding tribute in the form of food from communities they visited as they went . The tribute was codified in the Laws of Hywel Dda , showing that people lived on beer , bread , meat and dairy products , with few vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks . The laws show how much value was put on different parts of Welsh life at the time , for example that wealth was measured in cattle ; they also show that the court included hunters , who would be restricted to seasonal hunting sessions .
Towards the start of the 11th century , Welsh society started to build settlements . Food would be cooked in a single cauldron over an open fire on the floor , it would likely be reheated and topped up with fresh ingredients over a number of days . Some dishes could be cooked on a bakestone , a flat stone which could be placed above a fire to heat it evenly .
Gerald of Wales , chaplain to Henry II , wrote after an 1188 tour of Wales , " The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds , milk , chees and butter . You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen , and there are no highly @-@ seasoned titbits to whet your appetite . " The medieval Welsh used thyme , savory , and mint in the kitchen , but in general herbs were much more likely to be used for medicinal purposes than culinary ones .
Towards the end of the 18th century , Welsh land owners divided up the land to allow for tenant @-@ based farming . Each small holding would include vegetable crops , as well as a cow , pigs and a few chickens . The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of unrest for the Welsh people . The Welsh food riots began in 1740 , when colliers blamed the lack of food on problems in the supply , and continued throughout Wales as a whole . The worst riots happened in the 1790s after a grain shortage , which coincided with political upheaval in the form of forced military service and high taxes on the roads , leaving farmers unable to make a profit . As a result of riots by colliers in the mid 1790s , magistrates in Glamorgan sold the rioters corn at a reduced price . At the same time they also requested military assistance from the government to stop further rioting . Due to the close @-@ knit nature of the poor communities , and the slightly higher status of the farmers above the labourers , the rioters generally blamed the farmers and corn merchants , rather than the gentry .
The majority of food riots had ended by 1801 , and there were certain political undertones to the actions , though lack of leadership meant that little came of it . By the 1870s , 60 % of Wales was owned by 570 families , most of whom did no farming . Instead , they employed workers , who were forced to vote Tory or lose their jobs .
Around the end of the 19th century , the increase in coal mining and steel works around Wales led to the immigration of Italian workers . The workers brought families who integrated their culture into Welsh society , bringing with them Italian ice cream and Italian cafes , now a staple of Welsh society .
In the 1960s , isolated communities were unable to access produce that the majority of Britain would such as peppers or aubergines . Artisan Welsh produce was limited or non @-@ existent , farms rarely made their own cheese , and Welsh wine was of poor quality . By the 1990s , historical Welsh foods were going through a revival . Farmers ' markets became more popular , Welsh organic vegetables and farm @-@ made cheese started to appear in supermarkets . Other modern Welsh characteristics are more subtle , such as supermarkets offering salty butters and laverbread or butchers labelling beef skirt as ' cawl meat ' .
Restaurants are promoting the quality of Welsh ingredients , encouraging people to purchase Welsh produce and creating new dishes using them . This has meant that Welsh products can find their way into the higher @-@ priced delicatessens of London or North America . However , the regular diet of Welsh people has been more influenced by India , China and America . The most popular dish is chicken tikka masala , followed by burgers or chow mein . As a result of the popularity of these sorts of foods , Wales has the highest fat consumption in Britain , and therefore the highest levels of obesity .
= = Regional variations = =
There are some variations in the foods that are eaten around the different areas of Wales . These variations trace their roots back to medieval cooking . Ingredients were historically limited by what could be grown ; the wetter climate in highland areas meant that crops were restricted to oats , whilst the more fertile lowland areas allowed the growth of barley or wheat . Coastal inhabitants were more likely to include seafood or seaweed in their meals , whilst those living inland would supplement their farmed cereals with the seeds of land weeds to ensure there was enough to eat .
The invasions of the Romans and Normans also had an effect on the fertile areas which were conquered . The people there learned more " sophisticated eating habits " . Conversely those who remained in wilder areas kept the traditional approaches to cooking ; tools such as the pot crane continued to be used as late as the 20th century .
The only region that has a significant difference from the rest of Wales is the Gower peninsula , whose lack of land transport links left it isolated . Instead it was strongly influenced by Somerset and Devon on the other side of the Bristol Channel . Dishes such as whitepot and ingredients such as pumpkin , rare elsewhere in Wales , became commonplace in Gower .
= = Produce = =
Welsh food can be better traced though the history of its foodstuffs than through the dishes themselves .
= = = Meat and fish = = =
There a number of local Welsh breeds of cow , including the Welsh Black , a breed which dates back to at least 1874 . Cattle farming accounts for the majority of agricultural output in Wales — in 1998 the production of beef contributed 23 % of Welsh agricultural output , whilst in 2002 25 % of agricultural output was in the production of dairy products . Welsh beef has a European Union Protected Geographical Indicator , so it must be wholly reared and slaughtered in Wales .
Pigs were the primary meat eaten by early Welsh folk , which could be preserved easily by salting . By 1700 , there were a number of different Welsh breeds of pig , with long snouts and thin backs , generally light coloured , but some were dark or spotted . Today , pigs in Wales are either farmed intensively , using the white Welsh pig or Landrace pig , or extensively , where Saddleback pig , Welsh pig or crossbreeds are farmed .
The Welsh uplands were most suited to grazing animals such as sheep and goats , and the animals became associated with Wales . Sheep @-@ farming on a large scale was introduced by Cistercian monks , largely for wool , but also for meat . By the start of the 16th century Welsh mutton was popular in the rest of the UK . Once modern synthetic fibres became more popular than wool , Welsh sheep were raised almost exclusively for meat . Towards the end of the 20th century , there were more than 11 million sheep in Wales . The most popular breed of sheep is the Welsh Mountain sheep which is notably smaller than other breeds but better @-@ suited to the Welsh landscape and only rears one lamb , rather than the lowland breeds which rear two or more ; the mountain sheep are regarded as having more flavoursome meat . Welsh farmers have started using scientific methods , such as artificial insemination or using ultrasound to scan a sheep 's depth of fat , to improve the quality of their meat .
Coastal areas of Wales , and those near rivers , produce many different forms of fish and shellfish . Traditional fishing methods , such as wade netting for salmon , remained in place for 2 @,@ 000 years . Welsh coracles , simple boats made of a willow frame and covered in animal hides , were noted by Romans and were still in use in the 20th century . Once landed , fish would generally be wind @-@ dryed and smoked , or cured with salt .
Herring , a fish which takes well to salting , became a well established catch ; the busiest harbour was Aberystwyth , which reportedly took up to 1 @,@ 000 barrels of herring in a single night in 1724 . Many other villages also fished for herring , generally between late August and December . Herring , along with mackerel , trout , salmon and sea trout , were the main fishes found in Welsh cuisine . Salmon was abundant and therefore a staple for the poor . Trout , which would dry out quickly when cooked , would be wrapped in leek leaves for cooking , or covered in bacon or oatmeal . Many fish would be served with fennel , which grew wild in abundance in Wales .
Lobster fishing was done on a small scale especially in Cardigan Bay , but was reserved almost exclusively for export . Welsh fisherman would be more likely to eat the less profitable crabs . Cockles have been harvested since Roman times and are still harvested in a traditional manner with a hand rake and scraper . Cockle picking still happens in the Gower peninsula , but due to the difficulty in getting licences and reduced yield , villages near the Carmarthen Bay no longer gather them .
= = = Dairy products = = =
As cattle were the basis of Celtic wealth , butter and cheese were generally made from cows ' milk . The Celts were amongst the earliest producers of butter in Britain , and for hundreds of years after the Romans left the country butter was the primary cooking medium and basis for sauces . Salt was an important ingredient in Welsh butter , but also in early Welsh cheeses , which would sit in brine during the cheesemaking process .
The Welsh were also early adopters of roasting cheese . An early incarnation of Welsh rarebit was being made in medieval times , and by the middle of the 15th century Rarebit was considered a national dish . The acid soil of Wales meant that the milk produced by their cattle created a soft cheese , which was not as good for roasting , so Welsh people would trade for harder cheeses such as Cheddar .
The best known Welsh cheese is Caerphilly , named in 1831 but made long before that . Originally a method for storing excess milk until it could be brought to market , it was a moist cheese that would not last very long . Production of the cheese was halted due to milk rationing after World War II , although it was still made in England . There , the cheese was produced very quickly and sold early in its maturation process , creating a dryer cheese . In the 1970s , production of Caerphilly returned to Wales and over the following few decades a variety of new cheeses have also been produced in Wales .
= = = Cereals = = =
As far back as the Iron Age , Welsh folk were using wild cereals to create a coarse bread . By the time the Romans invaded , Celtic skills with bread had progressed to the point that white or brown breads could be produced . The Roman invasion led to many Welsh people moving to the less hospitable uplands , where the only cereal crops which could be grown were oats , barley and rye . Oat and barley breads were the main breads eaten in Wales up until the 19th century , with rye bread created for medicinal purposes . Oats were used to bulk out meat or meat and vegetable stews , also known as pottage .
The Welsh also created a dish called Llymru , finely ground oatmeal soaked in water for a long time before boiling until it solidified . This blancmange styled dish became so popular outside Wales that it got a new name , flummery , as the English couldn 't pronounce the original . A similar dish , sucan , was made with less finely ground oatmeal , making a coarser product .
= = = Vegetables = = =
Celtic law made specific provision with regards to cabbages and leeks , stating that they should be enclosed by fences for protection against wandering cattle . The two green vegetables were the only ones mentioned specifically in the laws , though uncultivated plants were still likely to be used in their cooking . The leek went on to be so important to Welsh cuisine — found in many symbolic dishes including cawl and Glamorgan sausage — that it became the country 's national vegetable .
Potatoes were slow to be adopted amongst Welsh folk , despite being introduced to the UK in the 16th century ; only in the early 18th century did they become a Welsh staple , due to grain failures . Once the potato did become a staple , it was quickly found in Welsh dishes such as cawl , and traditions grew around their use . One tradition , which was still in place at the start of World War II , was that villagers could plant an 80 @-@ yard ( 73 @-@ metre ) row of potatoes in a neighbouring farmer 's field for each labourer the household could provide at the time of harvest .
= = Welsh dishes = =
Whilst there are a large number of dishes that can be considered Welsh due to their ingredients , there are some which are quintessentially Welsh . Dishes such as cawl , Welsh rarebit , laverbread , Welsh cakes , bara brith ( literally " speckled bread " ) or the Glamorgan sausage have all been regarded as symbols of Welsh food .
Cawl , pronounced in a similar way to the English word " cowl " , can be regarded as Wales ' national dish . Dating back to the 11th century , originally it was a simple broth of meat ( most likely bacon ) and vegetables , it could be cooked slowly over the course of the day whilst the family was out working the fields . It could be made in stages , over a number of days , first by making a meat stock , then by adding the vegetables on the following day . Once cooked , the fat could be skimmed from the top of the pot , then it would be served as two separate dishes , first as a soup , then as a stew . Leftovers could be topped up with fresh vegetables , sometimes over the course of weeks . During the 18th and 19th centuries , the amount of meat used in the broth was minimal ; instead it was bulked out with potatoes . Today , cawl would be much more likely to include beef or lamb for the meat , and may be served with plain oatmeal dumplings or currant dumplings known as trollies . Traditionally cawl would be eaten with a " specially @-@ carved wooden spoon " and eaten from a wooden bowl .
The predilection of the Welsh for roasted cheese led to the dish of Welsh rarebit , or Welsh rabbit , seasoned melted cheese poured over toasted bread . The cheese would need to be a harder one , such as chedder or similar . Referred to as Welsh rabbit as early as 1725 , the name is not similar to the Welsh term caws pobi . Welsh folk rarely ate rabbit due to the cost and as land owners would not allow rabbit hunting , so the term is more likely a slur on the Welsh . The name evolved from rabbit to rarebit , possibly to remove the slur from Welsh cuisine or due to simple reinterpretation of the word to make menus more pleasant .
Laverbread , or Bara Lawr , is a Welsh speciality . It is made by cooking porphyra seaweed slowly over the course of up to ten hours until it becomes a puree known as laver . The seaweed can also be cooked with oatmeal to make laverbread . It can be served with bacon and cockles as a breakfast dish , or fried in to small patties . Today , laverbread is commercially produced by washing in water , cooking for about 5 hours before chopping , salting and packaging .
The Glamorgan sausage is a Welsh vegetarian sausage . It contains no meat or skin , instead it is made with cheese , generally Caerphilly , but sometimes cheddar , along with leek or spring onion . This mixture is then coated in breadcrumbs and rolled into a sausage shape before cooking . Glamorgan sausages date back to at least the early 19th century , at which point the sausages would have contained pork fat .
Welsh cakes , or pice ar y maen meaning " cakes on the stone " , are small round spiced cakes , traditionally cooked on a bakestone , but more recently on a griddle . Once cooked , they can be eaten hot or cold , on their own or topped either with sugar or butter . The dough which is mixed with raisins , sultanas and sometimes currants , is similar to shortbread , meaning they can have the consistency of biscuits when cooked on the griddle , and slightly more like a cake when cooked in the oven .
Bara brith is a fruit loaf originating from rural Wales , where they used a mortar and pestle to grind the fresh sweet spices . Historically it was made with yeast and butter , though recently it is likely to be made with bicarbonate of soda and margarine . The fruit included would be dried raisins , currants and candied peel , which would be soaked in cold tea before cooking . Generally served sliced with butter during afternoon tea , it is often known as Welsh tea bread . Bara Brith translates to " speckled bread " , but it is also known as teisen dorth in South Wales , where sultanas are included in the recipe , or as torta negra when Welsh settlers brought it to Argentina .
= = Beverages = =
Wine and beer , especially of the home @-@ made varieties , were central to socialising in Wales , as they were in England . This remained the case even when tea gained popularity in England , supplanting the home @-@ made alcohol . Beer is now the national drink of Wales , although Welsh beers never gained the status of other British beers , such as stout or English ales . This was in part due to the breweries keeping promotion of their products to a minimum so as not to upset the temperance movement in Wales .
The temperance movement remained a strong influence though , and when new breweries were set up , the outcry led to the Welsh Sunday Closing Act in 1881 , an act that forced the closure of public houses in Wales on a Sunday . Wales ' passion for beer remained ; the Wrexham Lager Beer Company opened in 1881 , as the first lager producer in Britain . The Felinfoel Brewery made a deal with the local tin works and became the first brewery in Europe to put beer in cans .
The Welsh also have a history of producing whisky , in a similar manner to other Celtic people such as the Irish or Scottish but on a smaller scale . Distillation began for commercial purposes before 1750 , by families who went on to emigrate to America and help found the Kentucky Whiskey industry . Always a niche industry , by the late 19th century , the main whisky production in Wales was at Frongoch near Bala , Gwynedd . The distillery was bought by Scottish whisky companies and closed in 1910 when they were attempting to establish brands in England . In 1998 the Welsh Whisky Company , now known as Penderyn , was formed and whisky production began at Penderyn , Rhondda Cynon Taf in 2000 . Penderyn single malt whisky was the first whisky commercially produced in Wales for a century and went on sale in 2004 . The company also produces Merlyn Cream Liqueur , Five Vodka and Brecon Gin .
Welsh vineyards were first planted by Romans , but in the 1970s , modern vineyards were planted in South Wales with the intention of creating Welsh wine . Despite a slow start , by 2005 Wales had 20 vineyards , producing 100 @,@ 000 bottles a year , primarily white wines , but also a few reds . According to the Wine Standards Board , by September 2015 , there were 22 operational vineyards in Wales. and there were almost 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) of vines planted in Wales .
By 2005 the Welsh bottled water industry was worth as much as £ 100m . Popular brands include Brecon Carreg , Tŷ Nant , Princes Gate and Pant Du .
= = Eating out = =
The number of restaurants in Wales has significantly increased since the 1960s , when the country had very few notable places to eat out . Today , Wales is no longer considered a " gastronomic desert " ; as of 2016 , it has five Michelin starred restaurants and other award systems such as TripAdvisor and the AA have included Welsh restaurants in their lists . The most significant increase in restaurants has been at the high end , but there has been growth and improvement in quality across the whole range of Welsh eateries .
Many Welsh restaurants attempt to showcase their " Welshness " , but few include historic Welsh dishes besides cawl . Instead , they showcase their Welsh ingredients , creating new dishes from them . There has also been a rise in Asian cuisine in Wales , especially that of Indian , Chinese , Thai , Indonesian and Japanese , with a preference for spicier foods . Finally there has been a significant rise in " gastropubs " , as there has around the United Kingdom , with the first in the country credited as the The Walnut Tree in Llanddewi Skirrid .
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= Tintin in America =
Tintin in America ( French : Tintin en Amérique ) is the third volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from September 1931 to October 1932 before being published in a collected volume by Éditions du Petit Vingtième in 1932 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy who travel to the United States , where Tintin reports on organised crime in Chicago . Pursuing a gangster across the country , he encounters a tribe of Blackfoot Native Americans before defeating the Chicago crime syndicate .
Following the publication of Tintin in the Congo , Hergé conducted research for a story set in the United States , desiring to reflect his concerns regarding the treatment of Native communities by the U.S. government . Bolstered by a publicity stunt , Tintin in America was a commercial success in Belgium and was soon republished in France . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Cigars of the Pharaoh , and the series became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1945 , Tintin in America was re @-@ drawn and coloured in Hergé 's ligne @-@ claire style for republication by Casterman , with further alterations made at the request of his American publisher for a 1973 edition . The story was adapted for a 1991 episode of the Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin . Critical reception of the work has been mixed , with commentators on The Adventures of Tintin arguing that although it represents an improvement on the preceding two instalments , it still reflects many of the problems that were visible in them .
= = Synopsis = =
In 1931 , Tintin , a reporter for Le Petit Vingtième , goes with his dog Snowy on an assignment to Chicago , Illinois , to report on the city 's organised crime syndicate . He is kidnapped by gangsters and brought before mobster boss Al Capone , whose criminal enterprises in the Congo were previously thwarted by Tintin . With Snowy 's help , Tintin subdues his captors , but the police reject his claims , and the gangsters escape . After surviving attempts on his life , Tintin meets Capone 's rival Bobby Smiles , who heads the Gangsters Syndicate of Chicago . Tintin is unpersuaded by Smiles ' attempt to hire him , and after Tintin orchestrates the arrest of his gang , Smiles escapes and heads west .
Tintin pursues Smiles to the Midwestern town of Redskin City . Here , Smiles convinces a tribe of Blackfoot Native Americans that Tintin is their enemy , and when Tintin arrives , he is captured and threatened with execution . After escaping , Tintin discovers a source of underground petroleum . The U.S. army then forces the Natives off their land , and oil companies build a city on the site within 24 hours . Tintin evades a lynch mob and a wildfire before discovering Smiles ' remote hideaway cabin ; after a brief altercation , he captures the gangster .
Returning to Chicago with his prisoner , Tintin is praised as a hero , but gangsters kidnap Snowy and send Tintin a ransom note . Tracing the kidnappers to a local mansion , Tintin hides in a suit of armour and frees Snowy from the dungeon . The following day , Tintin is invited to a cannery , but it is a trap set by gangsters , who trick him into falling into the meat @-@ grinding machine . Tintin is saved when the machine workers go on strike and then apprehends the mobsters . In thanks , he is invited to a banquet in his honour , where he is kidnapped and thrown into Lake Michigan to drown . Tintin survives by floating to the surface , but gangsters posing as police capture him . He once again overwhelms them , and hands them over to the authorities . Finally , Tintin 's success against the gangsters is celebrated by a ticker @-@ tape parade , following which he returns to Europe .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was the editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels . Run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez , the paper described itself as a " Catholic Newspaper for Doctrine and Information " and disseminated a far @-@ right , fascist viewpoint . According to Harry Thompson , such political ideas were common in 1930s Belgium , and Hergé 's milieu was permeated with conservative ideas revolving around " patriotism , Catholicism , strict morality , discipline , and naivety " .
In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , about the exploits of fictional young Belgian reporter Tintin . Having been fascinated with the outdoor world of Scouting and the way of life he called " Red Indians " since boyhood , Hergé wanted to set Tintin 's first adventure among the Native Americans in the United States . However , Wallez ordered him to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union as a piece of anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) and the second had been set in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) .
Tintin in America was the third story in the series . At the time , the Belgian far right was deeply critical of the United States , as it was of the Soviet Union . Wallez — and to a lesser degree Hergé — shared these opinions , viewing the country 's capitalism , consumerism , and mechanisation as a threat to traditional Belgian society . Wallez wanted Hergé to use the story to denounce American capitalism and had little interest in depicting Native Americans , which was Hergé 's primary desire . As a result , Tintin 's encounter with the natives took up only a sixth of the narrative . Hergé sought to demystify the " cruel savage " stereotype of the Natives that had been widely perpetuated in western films . His depiction of the Natives was broadly sympathetic , yet he also depicted them as gullible and naïve , much as he had depicted the Congolese in the previous Adventure .
= = = Research = = =
Hergé attempted greater research into the United States than he had done for the Belgian Congo or Soviet Union . To learn more about Native Americans , Hergé read Paul Coze and René Thévenin 's 1928 book Mœurs et histoire des Indiens Peaux @-@ Rouges ( " Customs and History of the Redskin Indians " ) and visited Brussels ' ethnographic museum . As a result , his depiction of the Blackfoot Native Americans was " essentially accurate " , with artefacts such as tipis and traditional costume copied from photographs . To learn about Chicago and its gangsters , he read Georges Duhamel 's 1930 book Scènes de la vie future ( " Scenes from Future Life " ) . Written in the context of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , Duhamel 's work contained strong anti @-@ consumerist and anti @-@ modernist sentiment , criticising the U.S. ' s increased mechanisation and standardisation from a background of European conservatism ; this would have resonated with both Wallez and Hergé 's viewpoints . Many elements of Tintin in America , such as the abattoir scene , were adopted from Duhamel 's descriptions .
Hergé was also influenced by a special edition of radical anticonformist magazine Le Crapouillot ( The Mortar Shell ) that was published in October 1930 . Devoted to the United States , it contained a variety of photographs that influenced his depiction of the country . Hergé used its images of skyscrapers as a basis for his depiction of Chicago and adopted its account of Native Americans being evicted from their land when oil was discovered there . He was particularly interested in the articles in the magazine written by reporter Claude Blanchard , who had recently travelled the U.S. He reported on the situation in Chicago and New York City and met with Native Americans in New Mexico . Blanchard 's article discussed the gangster George Moran , whom literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès believed provided the basis for the character Bobby Smiles .
Hergé 's depiction of the country was also influenced by American cinema , and many of his illustrations were based on cinematic imagery . Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier thought that Tintin 's arrest of Smiles had been influenced by the Buffalo Bill stories , and that the idea of the gangsters taking Tintin away in their car came from Little Caesar .
One of the individuals that Hergé could have learned about through Blanchard 's article was the Chicago @-@ based American gangster Al Capone . In the preceding story , Tintin in the Congo , Capone had been introduced as a character within the series . There , he was responsible for running a diamond smuggling racket that Tintin exposed , setting up for further confrontation in Tintin in America . Capone was one of only two real @-@ life individuals to be named in The Adventures of Tintin , and was the only real @-@ life figure to appear as a character in the series . In the original version , Hergé avoided depicting him directly , either illustrating the back of his head , or hiding his face behind a scarf ; this was altered in the second version , in which Capone 's face was depicted . It is not known if Capone ever learned about his inclusion in the story , although during initial serialisation he would have been preoccupied with his trial and ensuing imprisonment .
= = = Original publication , 1931 – 32 = = =
Tintin 's in America began serialisation in Le Petit Vingtième on 3 September 1931 , under the title of Les Aventures de Tintin , reporter , à Chicago ( The Adventures of Tintin , Reporter , in Chicago ) . The use of " Chicago " over " America " reflected Wallez 's desire for the story to focus on a critique of American capitalism and crime , for which the city was internationally renowned . Part way through serialisation , as Tintin left Chicago and headed west , Hergé changed the title of the serial to Les Aventures de Tintin , reporter , en Amérique ( The Adventures of Tintin , Reporter , in America ) . The dog Snowy was given a diminished role in Tintin in America , which contained the last instance in the Adventures in which Tintin and Snowy have a conversation where they are able to understand each other . In the banquet scene , a reference is made to a famous actress named Mary Pikefort , an allusion to the real @-@ life actress Mary Pickford . That same scene also featured a prototype for the character of Rastapopoulos , who was properly introduced in the following Cigars of the Pharaoh story .
The strip 's serialisation coincided with the publication of another of Hergé 's comics set in the United States : Les aventures de " Tim " l 'écureuil au Far @-@ West ( The Adventures of Tim the Squirrel Out West ) , published in sixteen instalments by the Brussels department store L 'Innovation . Produced every Thursday , the series was reminiscent of Hergé 's earlier Totor series . Alongside these stories , Hergé was involved in producing his weekly Quick and Flupke comic strip and drawing front covers for Le Petit Vingtième , as well as providing illustrations for another of Le Vingtième Siècle 's supplements , Votre " Vingtième " Madame , and undertaking freelance work designing advertisements . In September 1931 , part way through the story 's serialisation , Hergé took a brief holiday in Spain with two friends , and in May 1932 was recalled to military service for two weeks . On 20 July 1932 , Hergé married Germaine Kieckens , who was Wallez 's secretary . Although neither of them were entirely happy with the union , they had been encouraged to do so by Wallez , who demanded that all his staff marry and who personally carried out the wedding ceremony . After a honeymoon in Vianden , Luxembourg , the couple moved into an apartment in the rue Knapen , Schaerbeek .
As he had done with the prior two Adventures , Wallez organised a publicity stunt to mark the culmination of Tintin in America , in which an actor portraying Tintin arrived in Brussels . It proved the most popular yet . In 1932 , the series was collected and published in a single volume by Les Éditions de Petit Vingtième , coinciding with their publication of the first collected volume of Quick and Flupke . A second edition was produced in France by Éditions Ogéo @-@ Cœurs @-@ Vaillants in 1934 , while that same year Casterman published an edition , the first of The Adventures of Tintin that they released . In 1936 , Casterman asked Hergé to add several new colour plates to a reprint of Tintin in America , which he agreed to . They also asked him to replace the cover with one depicting a car chase , but he refused .
= = = Second version , 1945 = = =
In the 1940s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed , so that they visually fitted in with the newer Tintin stories . Tintin in America was reformatted and coloured in 1945 and saw publication in 1946 .
Various changes were made in the second edition . Some of the social commentary regarding the poor treatment of Native Americans by the government was toned down . The name of the Native tribe was changed from the Orteils Ficelés ( " Tied Toes " ) to the Pieds Noirs ( " Black Feet " ) . Perhaps because Al Capone 's power had diminished in the intervening years , Hergé depicted Capone 's scarred face in the 1945 version . He removed the reference to Mary Pikeford from the ceremonial dinner scene and deleted two Chinese hoodlums who tried to eat Snowy . References to Belgium were also removed , allowing the story to have a greater international appeal .
= = = Later alterations and releases = = =
When the second version of the story was translated into English by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper , they made a number of alterations to the text . For instance , Monsieur Tom Hawake , whose name was a pun on tomahawk , was renamed Mr. Maurice Oyle , and the Slift factory was renamed Grynd Corp. Other changes were made to render the story more culturally understandable to an Anglophone readership ; whereas the factory originally sold its mix of dogs , cats , and rats as hare pâté — a food uncommon in Britain — the English translation rendered the mix as salami . In another instance , garlic , pepper , and salt were added to the mixture in the French version , but this was changed to mustard , pepper , and salt for the English version , again reflecting British culinary tastes .
In 1957 , Hergé considered sending Tintin back to North America for another adventure featuring the indigenous people . He decided against it , instead producing Tintin in Tibet . Although Tintin in America and much of Hergé 's earlier work displayed anti @-@ American sentiment , he later grew more favourable to American culture , befriending one of the country 's most prominent artists , Andy Warhol . Hergé himself would first visit the United States in 1971 , accompanied by his second wife Fanny Rodwell , and meet Edgar Red Cloud , the great grandson of the warrior chief Red Cloud . With a letter of recommendation from his friend Father Gall , he was invited to indulge his childhood desire to meet with real " Red Indians " — members of the Oglala Lakota on their Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota — and take part in a pow wow .
American publishers of Tintin in America were uneasy regarding the scene in which the Blackfoot Natives are forcibly removed from their land . Hergé nevertheless refused to remove it . For the 1973 edition published in the U.S. , the publishers made Hergé remove African @-@ American characters from the book , and redraw them as Caucasians or Hispanics , because they did not want to encourage racial integration among children . That same year , the original black @-@ and @-@ white version was republished in a French @-@ language collected volume with Tintin in the Land of the Soviets and Tintin in the Congo , the first part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1983 , a facsimile of the original was published by Casterman .
= = Critical analysis = =
Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier opined that Hergé had made " another leap forward " with Tintin in America , noting that while it still " rambles on " , it is " more tightly plotted " than its predecessors . They believed that the illustrations showed " marked progress " and that for the first time , several of the frames could be seen as " individual pieces of art " . Believing that it was the first work with the " intangible epic quality " they thought characterised The Adventures of Tintin , they awarded it two out of five stars . They considered Bobby Smiles to be " the first great villain " of the series , and also thought that an incompetent hotel detective featured in the comic was an anticipation of Thomson and Thompson , while another character , the drunken sheriff , anticipated Captain Haddock . The Lofficiers believed that Hergé had successfully synthesised all of the " classic American myths " into a single narrative that " withstands comparison with the vision of America " presented in Gustave Le Rouge and Gustave Guitton 's La Conspiration Des Milliardaires ( The Billionaires ' Conspiracy ) . They were of the opinion that Hergé 's depiction of the exploitation of Native Americans was an " astonishing piece of narrative " .
Harry Thompson considered the story to be " little more than a tourist ramble " across the U.S. , describing it as only " marginally more sophisticated " than its predecessors . He nevertheless thought that it contained many indicators of " greater things " , remarking that Hergé 's sympathy for the Natives was " a revolutionary attitude " for 1931 . Thompson also opined that the book 's " highlight " was on page 29 of the 1945 version , in which oil is discovered on Native land , following which they are cleared off by the U.S. army , and a complete city is constructed on the site within 24 hours . Biographer Benoît Peeters praised the strip 's illustrations , feeling that they exhibited " a quality of lightness " and showed that Hergé was fascinated by the United States despite the anti @-@ Americanism of his milieu . He nevertheless considered it " in the same mode " as the earlier Adventures , calling it " a collection of clichés and snapshots of well @-@ known places " . Elsewhere , Peeters commented that throughout the story , Tintin rushes around the country seeing as much as possible , likening him to the stereotypical American tourist .
Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline believed Tintin in America to be " more developed and detailed " than the prior Adventures , representing the cartoonist 's " greatest success " in a " long time " . Opining that the illustrations were " superior " due to Hergé 's accumulated experience , he nevertheless criticised instances where the story exhibited directional problems ; for instance , in one scene , Tintin enters the underground tunnel , but Assouline notes that while he is supposed to be travelling downward , he is instead depicted climbing up stairs . Such directional problems were also criticised by Michael Farr , who nevertheless thought the story " action @-@ packed " , with a more developed sense of satire and therefore greater depth than Soviets or Congo . He considered the depiction of Tintin climbing along the ledge of the skyscraper on page 10 to be " one of the most remarkable " illustrations in the entire series , inducing a sense of vertigo in the reader . He also opined that the depiction of the Blackfoot Natives being forced from their land was the " strongest political statement " in the series , illustrating that Hergé had " an acute political conscience " and was not the advocate of racial superiority that he has been accused of being . Comparing the 1932 and 1945 versions of the comic , Farr believed that the latter was technically superior , but had lost the " freshness " of the original .
Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University thought that in Tintin in America , Hergé had intentionally depicted the wealthy industrialists as being very similar to the gangsters . He noted that this negative portrayal of capitalists continued into later Adventures of Tintin with characters such as Basil Barazov in The Broken Ear . He considered this indicative of " a more ambivalent stance " to the right @-@ wing agenda that Hergé had formerly adhered to . Another literary critic , Tom McCarthy , concurred , believing that Tintin in America exhibited Hergé 's " left @-@ wing counter tendency " through attacking the racism and capitalist mass production of the U.S. McCarthy believed that the work exposed social and political process as a " mere charade " , much as Hergé had previously done in Tintin in the Land of the Soviets .
= = Adaptations = =
Tintin in America was adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the character of Tintin was voiced by Thierry Wermuth .
In 2002 , French artist Jochen Gerner published a socio @-@ political satire based on Tintin in America titled TNT en Amérique . It consisted of a replica of Hergé 's book with most of the images blocked out with black ink ; the only images left visible are those depicting violence , commerce , or divinity . When interviewed as to this project , Gerner stated that his pervasive use of black was a reference to " the censure , to the night , the obscurity ( the evil ) , the mystery of things not entirely revealed " .
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= Romney Literary Society =
The Romney Literary Society ( also known as the Literary Society of Romney ) existed from January 30 , 1819 , to February 15 , 1886 , in Romney , West Virginia . Established as the Polemic Society of Romney , it became the first organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . The society was founded by nine prominent men of Romney with the objectives of advancing literature and science , purchasing and maintaining a library , and improving educational opportunities .
The society debated an extensive range of scientific and social topics , often violating its own rules which banned religious and political subjects . Even though its membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region , and the organization greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas .
The society 's library began in 1819 with the acquisition of two books ; by 1861 , it had grown to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on subjects such as literature , science , history , and art . The organization also sought to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . In 1846 , the society constructed a building which housed the Romney Classical Institute and its library , both of which fell under the society 's supervision . The institute was administered by noted Presbyterian Reverend William Henry Foote . Following a dispute with the society , Foote founded a rival school in Romney , known as the Potomac Seminary , in 1850 .
The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute continued to grow in influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . The contents of the society 's library were plundered by Union Army forces , and only 400 of the library 's volumes could be recovered following the war 's end in 1865 . Reorganized in 1869 , the society took a leading role in Romney 's civil development during Reconstruction . Between 1869 and 1870 , it completed construction of Literary Hall , where the society held meetings and reassembled its library . The organization used its influence to secure the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind for the town of Romney , and offered the school its former Romney Classical Institute campus . The schools opened on September 29 , 1870 . Interest in the society waned during its final years , and its last recorded meeting was held in 1886 .
= = Establishment = =
The Romney Literary Society was organized on January 30 , 1819 , by nine prominent men of Romney in the office of Dr. John Temple , a reputable physician in the community . The society was formed with the purpose " of taking into consideration the propriety of financing a Society , having for its object the advancement of Literature and Science , the purchase of a Library by and for the use of its members ; and their further improvement by discussing before the Society such questions as shall be selected under its directors . " With its establishment , the Romney Literary Society became the first organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . The nine men at the society 's first meeting were Thomas Blair , David Gibson , James P. Jack , Samuel Kercheval , Jr . , Nathaniel Kuykendall , Charles T. Magill , James M. Stephens , John Temple , and William C. Wodrow . According to historian Hu Maxwell , these men elected Kuykendall as chairman and Magill as secretary of a committee which was charged with the drafting of a constitution for the society .
On February 4 , 1819 , the committee delivered its draft of the constitution and the society adopted the document , which provided that the organization should be known as the Polemic Society of Romney . The society 's constitution also specified that the officers should consist of a president , secretary , and treasurer , each of whom was to be selected by a ballot vote . The constitution further stipulated that each member was to pay dues of 50 cents per month , and that the society had the authority to levy further financial contributions from its members as it deemed necessary . The funds collected were to cover the society 's operating costs , and the remaining funds were to be used in purchasing books for the library . Under the constitution , the society 's meetings were to be held weekly . Following each meeting 's business session , a debate or other literary exercises were to be held consisting of topics of general interest of the members . No political or religious discussions were to take place during the debates unless they were of an abstract nature or in general terms . Profane language and " spirituous liquors " were also forbidden from the society 's meetings , with each offense being punishable with a fine of one dollar . The society 's first elected officers were Charles T. Magill as president , William C. Wodrow as secretary , and John Temple as treasurer .
= = Early debates = =
The society 's next meeting was held on February 13 , 1819 in the old Hampshire County Courthouse , where the first matter for debate was " Resolved : That a representative should be governed by instructions from his constituents . " Following the debate , the decision was rendered in favor of the affirmative . The second meeting , which was held on February 19 of that year at the Romney Academy , debated the question , " Is an education acquired at the public school or [ is ] a private tutor to be preferred ? " and the society favored the public school . At this second meeting , the first money appropriated by the society was paid to the doorkeeper for a sum of 25 cents . Also at this second meeting , the treasurer was instructed to purchase a book for use by the secretary , three candlesticks , one pair of snuffers , and three pounds of candles . On February 26 , the society argued the question , " Is a system of banking advantageous to a community ? " The debate ended under the decision that a system of banking was advantageous . The following meeting on March 6 debated a question far more psychological in nature , which was an abstract question of religion : " Can the human mind , by its own reflection , arrive at the conclusion that the soul is immortal ? " The society decided in the negative . The society also debated and decided in the negative the question , " Is a protective tariff detrimental to the interests of the country ? "
One of the society 's more spirited debates occurred in May 1822 over the question , " Is it to the interest of the people of Hampshire to encourage the canalling of the Potomac ? " While no records of the arguments survive , the society decided that the canalling of the Potomac River would be detrimental to the interests of Hampshire County . The debate took place before the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal along the Maryland shore of the Potomac River to the north of Hampshire County . The society 's consensus was that a canal on the Potomac would destroy the business of teamsters who hauled merchandise from the east along the Northwestern Turnpike . For this reason , the society and local population of Romney also objected to the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . To ensure confidentiality , the society passed a bylaw that enforced a fine of five dollars on any member who published either his own or another member 's speeches delivered before the society . As a result of this bylaw , no speeches were ever published . The society adopted a new constitution in 1824 .
= = Growth and influence = =
Over the first ten years of the society 's existence , the organization grew in membership and held meetings at least twice a month , and usually four times a month . The society debated an extensive range of subjects including scientific , religious , political , and social topics , often violating the constitution 's rules banning religious and political subjects . The society 's debates were often acrimonious and regularly spilled beyond the confines of the meetings and into the community . Between January 30 , 1819 and January 22 , 1830 , the society 's membership rolls reached 52 members ; although as few as 15 members attended the bimonthly meetings , and no more than 17 members were ever present at a meeting .
Even though the Romney Literary Society 's membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region . For this reason , the society greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas . No records of the society 's proceedings , works , or membership enrollments spanning the period between January 22 , 1830 and 1861 are extant . During this period , the society counted among its members Angus William McDonald , John Baker White , and Robert White .
= = Library collection = =
In order to fulfill one of its primary purposes of establishing a library for its members , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to acquire volumes for such a use . The society 's library began with the April 23 , 1819 appropriation for the purchase of two books : Plutarch 's Parallel Lives and Emer de Vattel 's The Law of Nations . On July 2 , 1819 , the balance of available funds in the treasurer 's account was two dollars and forty @-@ six cents , but by October 23 , there were sufficient funds to purchase the following volumes : Charles Rollin 's Ancient History , Lewis ' Roman History , and William Robertson 's History of the Reign of Charles the Fifth .
No more volumes were purchased until the end of 1820 , when the society acquired the works of Livy , Tacitus , and John Marshall 's Life of Washington . Three months later , the society purchased a bookcase for its growing collection . In April 1821 , the society further expanded its library with the acquisitions of Nathaniel Hooke 's Roman History , from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth , the works of Herodotus , Travels in Greece , Modern Europe , David Ramsay 's History of the United States , and the works of Benjamin Franklin .
In 1821 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act incorporating the organization as the " Library Society of Romney . " The society found the assembly 's charter unsatisfactory , as it specified several changes to the organization that the society had not asked for , including the change in its name . The members regarded their society as a " literary " society and not a " library " one . The society requested that the assembly amend its charter , and after several delays and debates over the new charter , the Virginia General Assembly passed a new act on February 4 , 1823 , in which the organization was rebranded as " The Literary Society of Romney . " The society maintained this long form name throughout the duration of its existence , although it was locally known as the " Romney Literary Society . "
Within the span of ten years , the society 's small library grew to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on literature , science , history , and art . These were bound in calfskin and stamped with the seal of the society . The minutes from the society 's bimonthly meetings listed the books purchased and the methods by which they were acquired . According to the Federal Writers ' Project in their Historic Romney 1762 – 1937 ( 1937 ) , the book selections and their acquisition " indicate that these men possessed real literary judgment and business ability . "
By resolutions of the society , the use of the library was for the society 's members , and was further extended to " ministers of the gospel of all denominations gratis . " Certain citizens of Romney were also granted access to the library , and enjoyed similar privileges as its members .
= = Academic patronage = =
From the organization 's foundation , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to recognize that the local subscription school systems provided only elementary and often fragmentary education and no longer satisfied the academic needs of the Romney community . The society periodically engaged in lengthy deliberations on which theories of educational advancement and popular education were preferable . Shortly after its establishment , the society commenced a movement to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . Under the guidance , leadership , and strict discipline of Dr. Henry Johnston , Romney Academy became widely renowned for its courses in " higher classics . " His successor and society member William Henry Foote introduced courses in theology , and the school 's enrollment grew to include students preparing for ministry . As the school became more renowned in the South Branch Potomac River valley , pupils came from further and further away . Thomas and Samuel Mulledy were among the early instructors at the academy , both of whom later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington , D.C.
By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities in the old stone school building behind the Hampshire County Courthouse . To remedy this , the society instituted a campaign to raise funds for a new school building . On January 6 , 1832 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise an endowment of $ 20 @,@ 000 in a lottery for educational purposes . Following a ten @-@ year lapse , the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance a lottery " for raising a sum of money not exceeding twenty thousand dollars , for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation , the purchase of library and Philosophical apparatus . " The lottery was to be conducted over a period of ten years , and sums of $ 750 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 500 were to be raised in semiannual installments . The society was successful in raising funds , and in 1845 the society solicited bids for the construction of a new building to house both the academy , the society , and the society 's library . The society also used the lottery funds to pay for books for the academy .
On February 12 , 1844 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act authorizing the society to denote the balance of the moneys raised by the lottery to the Romney Academy . The assembly further enacted another legislative act on December 12 , 1846 , authorizing the Romney Literary Society to " establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature ; and the Society map appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire , as it may deem expedient . " That same year , a new brick neoclassical building was constructed east of Romney , and the society , its library , and Romney Academy relocated to the new facility . The second story of the new building was utilized by the society , with one hall for meetings and the other hall for the society 's library . According to Maxwell , " few schools in the state of Virginia at that time had access to better libraries . " The new institute building and grounds cost the society about $ 8 @,@ 000 . Following its move to the new building , the academy was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute and its activities fell under the supervision of the society . The institute was operated under the principalship of Foote from 1846 until 1849 .
In 1849 , the society presented a new code and system of bylaws for the government of the Romney Classical Institute , which reserved to the society the power to appoint assistant teachers , fix the amount of salaries , and provide the conditions and manners of payment and reimbursement . Foote differed with the society over these matters , and he ultimately declined to accept the new bylaws and resigned his leadership position in October 1849 ; in 1850 , he established a rival institution known as the Potomac Seminary . Rather than falling under the patronage of the society , Foote 's new institution fell under the control of the Presbyterian church . Following Foote 's departure , the society selected Professor E. J. Meany to head the Romney Classical Institute . Despite the schism , the society also provided financial support from the lottery to the Potomac Seminary .
According to a " catalogue of the members and library " published on June 1 , 1849 , there were 20 registered members on the rolls who paid $ 3 each per year to the society 's library fund ; there were also eight library members who were admitted under certain regulations of the society and who paid the same fees . Members who had use of the library were provided keys and were allowed access to the library at any time . The town 's clergymen and the principal of the Romney Classical Institute were the only non @-@ members who were extended privileges to the library . The 1849 " catalogue " listed Alfred P. White as the society 's librarian and E. J. Meany remained the principal of the institute . After 1853 , the society possessed a permanent fund of $ 12 @,@ 000 , which yielded $ 720 per year , one half of which was devoted to the support of the Romney Classical Institute .
= = American Civil War and hiatus = =
The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . Following the war 's outbreak , many of the society 's members and the institute 's professors and older students joined the Confederate States Army and marched to war . During the war , the society suffered extensive losses . The Romney Classical Institute building and its library were considered legitimate plunder by Union Army forces . The society 's library was emptied and three @-@ fourths of its volumes were either scattered or destroyed . The most valuable of these volumes were never recovered following the war 's end . Its records of proceedings between 1830 and 1861 , the period during which the society engaged in most of its notable literary and philanthropic works , were also destroyed during the war .
Following the war 's end , only 400 out of the library 's nearly 3 @,@ 000 volumes could be recovered , with only 200 of those books remaining on the library 's shelves . Between 10 and 20 of the library 's recovered volumes only contained three to four of their original books . The value of the recovered volumes was degraded , as many were damaged or broken . The society members that returned home to Romney were too war @-@ weary to revive the society when they discovered the ruins of the Romney Classical Institute and its library , which had been an expensive endeavor to accumulate and took almost a half @-@ century of labor to amass . The Romney Classical Institute was not restored and was in effect disestablished on account of the war .
= = Revival = =
Following the war , the residents of Romney set about repairing public buildings and reestablishing the town 's antebellum institutions , including the Romney Literary Society . The society remained on a hiatus until May 15 , 1869 when a meeting was held by nine members , as only nine original members had responded to the call for reorganization . These nine members tasked with rebuilding the society were James L. Armstrong , David Entler , William Harper , John C. Heiskell , Andrew Wodrow Kercheval , Samuel R. Lupton , James Parsons , Alfred P. White , and Robert White . These men sought to collect what remained of the library 's books and engaged in a campaign to recruit new members , which resulted in the enrollment of 20 younger men over a period of a few years . Many of the men who had been members in 1861 had died during the war , and the recruitment of new members was essential to the revival of the society . Among the new members elected between 1869 and 1886 were John Collins Covell , Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Henry Bell Gilkeson , Howard Hille Johnson , and Christian Streit White . The society , with renewed vigor , took a lead role in Romney 's civil development during the Reconstruction Era .
Between 1869 and 1870 , the society completed construction of a new two @-@ story brick building on Lot 56 at the corner of West Main and North High Streets known as Literary Hall , where it could hold its meetings and reassemble the remaining volumes from its original library . Literary Hall was built upon the former location of the shuttered Bank of the South Branch of the Potomac . In addition to the 400 volumes that were initially recovered following the war , the society recovered several more volumes from its original library , and set about purchasing new books ; the restored library was reopened with about 700 volumes .
= = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = =
Around the time of the society 's reorganization in 1869 , the state of West Virginia considered the establishment of a school for the deaf and the blind . The society resolved to secure the new state institution for Romney . On April 12 , 1870 , the society passed a resolution by which the members agreed to deed , free of cost , the buildings and grounds of the Romney Classical Institute .
On April 20 , 1870 , the society sent Andrew Wodrow Kercheval and Robert White as representatives to the then @-@ state capital Wheeling to present their formal offer of " the grounds and buildings of the Romney Classical Institute ... to the Board of Regents , free of debt , and in good repair " on the condition that the proposed school be located in Romney . Clarksburg and Parkersburg also made offers of potential campuses to the state . The offer was made to the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Institute for the Deaf , Dumb , and Blind , as it was then known , and the society 's proposal was accepted by the regents after a brief period of deliberation . The society 's offer was the only one that included a building upon the grounds .
It was discovered by the society that in order to follow through with their proposition , it was necessary to raise more than $ 1 @,@ 000 , which was ostensibly a difficult task during the Reconstruction Era in Romney . On July 11 , 1870 , the Board of Regents passed a resolution necessitating the subscription of between $ 1 @,@ 200 and $ 1 @,@ 300 to facilitate the transaction . One hundred and eighteen individuals and firms responded to the board 's request with a total subscription of $ 1 @,@ 383 @.@ 60 . To make good on its offer , the society also made an appropriation of $ 320 on July 11 for the purpose of repairing and restoring the former Romney Classical Institute and grounds so that they were satisfactory before they were transferred to the regents . Shortly thereafter , the old institute building and 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) of property were formally transferred to the state of West Virginia .
On September 29 , 1870 , the institute , which was later known as the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , opened its doors in the old Romney Classical Institute building with 25 deaf and five blind students . Following its disestablishment in 1916 , the adjacent Potomac Academy ( formerly Potomac Seminary ) grounds were also incorporated into the campus of the Schools for the Deaf and Blind .
= = Final years = =
During a period of ten years spanning from 1870 to 1880 , much of Romney 's intellectual life centered on Literary Hall . During this time , the society met only occasionally and there were no records of meetings between March 1872 and April 1878 . The post @-@ war period of revival was short @-@ lived , as the death of the older members caused interest in the society to wane . The society 's meetings occurred less often , and the last recorded meeting of the society was held on February 15 , 1886 . During the society 's second existence , Literary Hall was used as a meeting space by the Freemasons and the Order of the Eastern Star , and the organizations continued to inhabit the hall following the society 's disestablishment until its 1974 purchase by attorney Ralph Haines . Also a local historian , Haines restored Literary Hall and used it as his law office and museum . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 and , as of 2004 , it is occasionally open to the public . The society 's remaining records , dating as early as 1819 , remain on display there .
= = Legacy = =
In describing the efforts of the Romney Literary Society , historian Hu Maxwell , in his History of Hampshire County , West Virginia From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present ( 1897 ) , stated that " the work accomplished by these few energetic citizens of Romney is astonishing . " Maxwell further asserted , " No other one thing in the history of the town has had such lasting results for good . " The society left many lasting impacts upon the town of Romney during its existence and beyond , which included the foundation of a library ; the academic and financial support and patronage of the Romney Academy , Romney Classical Institute , and the Potomac Seminary ; the civic leadership during the Reconstruction Era ; and the influence and assistance in securing the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . According to Maxwell , without the efforts of the society , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind could not have been secured for Romney , and would have likely been located elsewhere in the state .
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= Bill Stein =
William Allen " Bill " Stein ( born January 21 , 1947 in Battle Creek , Michigan ) is a retired professional baseball player and manager . His playing career spanned 17 seasons , 14 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the St. Louis Cardinals ( 1972 – 73 ) , the Chicago White Sox ( 1974 – 76 ) , the Seattle Mariners ( 1977 – 1980 ) , and the Texas Rangers ( 1981 – 85 ) . Over his career in the majors Stein batted .267 with 122 doubles , 18 triples , 44 home runs , and 311 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 959 games played . Stein played numerous fielding positions over his major league career , including third base , second base , first base , left field , right field , and shortstop . He also spent significant time as a pinch hitter .
= = Bio = =
Stein was drafted out of Southern Illinois University during the 1969 Major League Baseball draft by the St. Louis Cardinals . He made his professional debut that season in their minor league organization . On September 6 , 1972 , Stein made his MLB debut with the Cardinals . During the 1973 season , St. Louis traded him to the California Angels , who just a few months later , traded him to the Chicago White Sox . Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners from the White Sox in the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft . He came to his final team , the Texas Rangers , by way of free agency . After his playing career , Stein managed in the New York Mets minor league organization for four seasons ( 1988 – 1991 ) . He managed the non @-@ affiliated Bend Bucks in 1991 , and joined the Clinton Giants in 1992 , who were minor league affiliates of the San Francisco Giants at the time . He also managed the independent league Tyler WildCatters in 1994 .
= = Early life = =
Stein was born on January 21 , 1947 , in Battle Creek , Michigan . Stein attended Brevard Community College when he was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles during the 33rd round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft . Stein did not sign with the Orioles . He began attending Southern Illinois University in 1969 . As a member of the school 's baseball team , he batted .396 and was named an All @-@ American by the American Baseball Coaches Association . Stein was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals during the fourth round of the 1969 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Playing career = =
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
In 1969 , Stein began his professional baseball career in the St. Louis Cardinals minor league organization . The Cardinals assigned him to the Tulsa Oilers , who were their Triple @-@ A affiliates at the time . With the Oilers , Stein batted .295 with 24 runs scored , 54 hits , 11 doubles , five triples , one home run , and 20 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 62 games played . Defensively , Stein played 31 games at second base , 14 games at third base , and five games at shortstop . During the 1970 season , the Cardinals assigned Stein to the Double @-@ A level to play with the Arkansas Travelers of the Texas League . In 114 games played that year , he batted .289 with 124 hits , 21 doubles , two triples , and eight home runs . In the field , Stein played second base and outfield . In 1971 , Stein was promoted to the Triple @-@ A level . He spent the entire season with the Tulsa Oilers , where he batted .272 with 50 runs scored , 106 hits , 106 hits , 22 doubles , four triples , eight home runs , and 67 RBIs in 103 games played . Stein pitched a game that season , after Tulsa 's starting pitcher was ejected from the game after throwing the ball at the umpire . In six innings , he gave @-@ up eight hits , and three runs ( all earned ) . He played the majority of the season in the outfield , but also spent limited time at third base , first base , and shortstop .
To start the 1972 season , Stein was a member of the Triple @-@ A Tulsa Oilers . With Tulsa that year , he batted .278 with 100 hits , 26 doubles , four triples , five home runs , and 36 RBIs in 103 games played . Stein was a September call @-@ up for the St. Louis cardinals that year . He made his debut in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) on September 6 , 1972 , against the Philadelphia Phillies . He got his first hit in that game , which was a home run in the ninth inning . He played 14 games in the majors that year , batting .314 with two runs scored , 11 hits , one triple , two home runs , and three RBIs . Defensively in the majors , he was positioned at third base , left field , and right field .
During spring training in 1973 , the Sarasota Herald @-@ Tribune labeled Stein as the Cardinals candidate for pinch hitting off the bench . He made the Cardinals Opening Day roster that year . He made his season debut on April 6 as a pinch hitter , going hitless in one at @-@ bat against the Pittsburgh Pirates . His first hit of the season came on April 17 , against the Pirates . In August , Stein was sent down to the minor leagues and was replaced on the Cardinals major league roster by outfielder Héctor Cruz . In the minors , he played with the Triple @-@ A Tulsa Oilers , where he batted .289 with 23 hits , two doubles , and one triple in 21 games played . While in the majors that season , Stein compiled a .218 batting average with four runs scored , 12 hits , two doubles , and two RBIs in 32 games played . On defense with the Cardinals , he played right field , left field , third base , and first base .
= = = Chicago White Sox = = =
On September 25 , Stein was traded by the St. Louis Cardinals to the California Angels in exchange for Jerry DaVanon . California then traded Stein to the Chicago White Sox on April 3 , 1974 , before he made an appearance in the Angels organization . In return , the White Sox sent Steve Blateric to California . Stein started the 1974 season in the White Sox minor league system with the Triple @-@ A Iowa Oaks . In 135 games with Iowa , he batted .326 with 107 runs scored , 178 hits , 32 doubles , eight triples , 16 home runs , and 76 RBIs . Stein led the American Association in hits ; was second in runs scored , plate appearances ( 594 ) , at @-@ bats ( 554 ) , and doubles ; and was tied for second in triples . He was called up by Chicago in September . Stein made his season debut on September 13 , against the California Angels , getting no hits in four at @-@ bats . His first hit of the season came the day after , against California . In the majors that year , Stein batted .276 with five runs scored , 12 hits , one double , and five RBIs in 13 games played .
Stein spent his first full season in the majors during the 1975 season . His season debut came on April 16 , against the Texas Rangers , where in one at @-@ bat he went hitless . In June , Stein was named the starting third baseman after Bill Melton , who was Chicago 's regular third baseman , was benched for poor hitting . Stein also played back @-@ up for second baseman Jorge Orta over the season . On July 20 , in the second game of a doubleheader against the Milwaukee Brewers , Stein hit his first career grand slam . On the season , Stein batted .270 with 23 runs scored , 61 hits , seven doubles , one triple , three home runs , and 21 RBIs in 76 games played . In the field , he played 28 games at second base , 24 games at second base , and one game in left field . Stein also played 18 games that year at the designated hitter spot in the lineup .
Stein played his final season with the Chicago White Sox in 1976 . On August 17 , in the first game of a doubleheader against the Boston Red Sox , he hit a game @-@ winning single in the ninth inning to score Pat Kelly . In August , United Press International noted that it was the first time in his major leaue career that Stein was getting a chance to start regularly . During the season , he compiled a .268 batting average with 32 runs scored , 105 hits , 15 doubles , two triples , four home runs , and 36 RBIs in 117 games played . Stien played 58 games at second base , 58 games at third base , one game at first base , one game in right field , and one game at shortstop . He was also the designated hitter in one game during that season .
= = = Seattle Mariners = = =
During the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft , Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners , who took him with their third pick in the draft . Stein stated he was " glad " that the Mariners drafted him , because he did not like playing at Comiskey Park , the home of his previous team , the Chicago White Sox . He was profiled by the Associated Press during spring training in 1977 , and was interviewed about his new team and his unique versatility in the field . Stein mentioned to the reporter that although he had played a wide verity of positions in the past , he hoped he would get a chance to be the Mariners starting third baseman . In a win against the Boston Red Sox on May 3 , Stein hit two home runs in the same game . In June , Stein commented on how he liked starting every day at third base for the Mariners . The Mariners manager , Darrell Johnson , Praised Stein for playing " good ball " with Seattle . On July 8 , in a game against the Minnesota Twins , Stein had another two @-@ home run performance , his second of the season . In early @-@ September , Stein got hit in the shoulder by a baseball , which was later revealed to have caused a hairline fracture . With the Mariners that year , he batted .259 with 53 runs scored , 144 hits , 26 doubles , five triples , 13 home runs , and 67 RBIs in 151 games played . Defensively , the vast majority of his games ( 147 ) were played at third base , but he also played limited time at shortstop . He led the American League in putouts by a third baseman with 146 . Stein was also fifth in the league in defensive games at third base .
Before the start of the 1978 season , Stein re @-@ signed with the Seattle Mariners . His contract meant he was now signed through the 1980 season . In May 1978 , he bruised his left hand , which caused him to miss some playing time . On August 25 , he broke up Dennis Martínez 's potential no @-@ hitter in the seventh inning of a game against the Baltimore Orioles . On August 28 , in a game against the Boston Red Sox , Stein had a season @-@ high four hits . On the season , he batted .261 with 41 runs scored , 105 hits , 24 doubles , four triples , four home runs , and 37 RBIs in 114 games played . In the field , Stein played 67 games at third base , 17 games at second base , and three games at shortstop . His 24 errors at third base was second in the American League .
Early into the 1979 season , Stein was placed on the disabled list after suffering a rib injury . Charlie Beamon , Jr. was called up from the minor leagues to replace Stein during his injury . In late June , the Mariners activated Stein from the disabled list . By the time he had returned , the Mariners had already positioned Dan Meyer at his position , so Stein filled in at second base during his first game back . That year , Stein batted .248 with 28 runs scored , 62 hits , nine doubles , two triples , seven home runs , and 27 RBIs in 88 games played . As a fielder , he played 67 games at third base , 17 games at second base , and three games at shortstop .
Stein 's final season with the Seattle Mariners would come in 1980 . On April 29 , against the Minnesota Twins , Stein had a season high four hit game . He matched that high on July 26 , against the Toronto Blue Jays . On July 28 , Stein broke up a no @-@ hit bid by Cleveland Indians pitcher Len Barker . In his final season with the Mariners , Stein batted .268 with 16 runs scored , 53 hits , five doubles , one triple , five home runs , and 27 RBIs in 67 games played . Defensively , he played 34 games at third base , 14 games at second base , and eight games at first base . He also played five games that season as Seattle 's designated hitter .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
In December 1980 , Stein was signed as a free agent by the Texas Rangers . Stein made his Rangers debut on April 14 , 1981 , against the Cleveland Indians . In that game , he got one hit in two at @-@ bats . In May , Stein set an American League record by recording seven consecutive pinch hits . Through June , Stein had a .441 batting average . On the season , Stein batted .330 with 21 runs scored , 38 hits , six doubles , two home runs , and 22 RBIs in 53 games played . In the field , he played 20 games at first base , seven games at third base , seven games in left field , three games at second base , one game in right field , and one game at shortstop .
On April 16 , 1982 , in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers , Stein hit a game @-@ winning double in the top of the ninth inning . In June , while playing against his former team , the Seattle Mariners , Stein praised their pitching staff . In 85 games that year , Stein batted .239 , the lowest average of his career since the 1972 season where he played with the St. Louis Cardinals . He also compiled 14 runs scored , 44 hits , eight doubles , one home run , and 16 RBIs . In the field , he played 34 games at second base , 28 games at third base , six games at shortstop , two games at first base , and one game in left field . Stein also was the designated hitter during three games .
In March 1983 , Stein praised the Texas Rangers new manager , Doug Rader , for working on the game in a " serious " way . On May 18 , in a game against the Cleveland Indians , Stein was brought in as a pinch hitter during the 14th inning , and proceeded to get the game @-@ winning hit for the Rangers . With Texas that year , he batted .310 with 21 runs scored , 72 hits , 15 doubles , one triple , two home runs , and 33 RBIs in 78 games played . Stein played the majority of his games at second base , but also played first base and third base . He was used as the Rangers designated hitter in six contests that year . After the season , Stein spoke out against a transaction that the Rangers made , trading Jim Sundberg to the Milwaukee Brewers , calling him a " mainstay of the organization " .
In 1984 , the Associated Press stated that Stein was one of the American League 's best pinch hitters . Early into the season , he injured his wrist , which caused him to miss some playing time . In mid @-@ June , the Rangers activated him from the disabled list . On the season , Stein batted .279 with three runs scored , 12 hits , one double and three RBIs in 27 games played . Stein played 11 games at second base , three games at first base , and three games at third base . He also spent four games as the Rangers designated hitter .
Before the 1985 season , it was announced that the Texas Rangers had traded Stein to the Pittsburgh Pirates in exchange for a player to be named later , pending a physical . The Pirates later canceled the trade after team doctors discovered a " probable disc problem " in his back . Rumors then circulated that it was possible that Steins ' career would be ended by the injury . However , Stein did play 44 games with the Rangers that season , batting .253 with five runs scored , 20 hits , three doubles , one triple , one home run , and 12 RBIs . He played 11 games at third base , eight games at first base , three games at second base , and three games in right field . Stein was the team 's designated hitter in six games that year . In his final season in the majors , he earned a salary of $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 550 @,@ 046 inflation adjusted ) . At the end of the season , Texas announced that it would not re @-@ sign Stein . Through an agent , Stein commented that if he could not play for Texas in the upcoming season , he would retire .
= = Coaching career = =
In 1987 , Stein coached the Rockledge High School baseball team , leading them a district title with a 17 – 11 record . Stein was hired as the manager of the Class A @-@ Short Season Little Falls Mets of the New York – Penn League in 1988 . Little Falls were minor league affiliates of the New York Mets . In his first professional season as a manager , Stein led Little Falls to a 39 – 36 record . Stein commented that when he became a manager it was difficult to learn pitching after all the years of being a position player . In 1989 , the New York Mets fired Butch Hobson , the manager of the Class @-@ A Columbia Mets , and promoted Stein to that position . At the helm of Colombia that year , Stein led them to a 73 – 67 record . He also served as a player @-@ coach with the Orlando Juice of the Senior Professional Baseball Association in 1989 .
Stein continued to manage the Columbia Mets in 1990 , leading them to an 83 – 60 record . The Mets had the best record in the South Atlantic League that season . In 1991 , Stein was hired to be the manager of the Bend Bucks of the Northwest League . The non @-@ affiliated Bucks had a record of 30 – 46 with Stein as the manager . He was hired to be the manager of the Clinton Giants in 1992 . Clinton was the Class @-@ A affiliate of the San Francisco Giants at the time . Stein led Clinton to a 59 – 79 record that year . After considering taking a year off of baseball in 1994 , Stein eventually accepted the managerial position with the independent league Tyler WildCatters .
He recently relocated and lives in Palm Coast Florida , where he has been an outstanding infielder and intimidating hitter in the Flagler ( County ) Senior Softball League .
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= Ranavalona I =
Ranavalona I ( born Rabodoandrianampoinimerina ; 1778 – August 16 , 1861 ) , also known as Ramavo and Ranavalo @-@ Manjaka I , was sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar from 1828 to 1861 . After positioning herself as queen following the death of her young husband and second cousin , Radama I , Ranavalona pursued a policy of isolationism and self @-@ sufficiency , reducing economic and political ties with European powers , repelling a French attack on the coastal town of Foulpointe , and taking vigorous measures to eradicate the small but growing Malagasy Christian movement initiated under Radama I by members of the London Missionary Society . She made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana ( forced labor as tax payment ) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 Merina soldiers , whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the realm . The combination of regular warfare , disease , difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33 @-@ year reign .
Although greatly obstructed by Ranavalona 's policies , French and British political interests in Madagascar remained undiminished . Divisions between traditionalist and pro @-@ European factions at the queen 's court created opportunities that European intermediaries exploited in an attempt to hasten the succession of Ranavalona 's son , Radama II . The young prince disagreed with many of his mother 's policies and was amenable to French proposals for the exploitation of the island 's resources , as expressed in the Lambert Charter he concluded with a French representative in 1855 . These plans were never successful , however , and Radama II was not to take the throne until 1861 , when Ranavalona died aged 83 .
Ranavalona 's European contemporaries generally condemned her policies and characterized her as a tyrant at best and insane at worst . These negative characterizations persisted in foreign scholarly literature until the mid @-@ 1970s . Recent academic research has recast Ranavalona 's actions as those of a queen attempting to expand her empire while protecting Malagasy sovereignty against the encroachment of European cultural and political influence .
= = Early life = =
Princess Ramavo was born in 1778 at the royal residence at Ambatomanoina , about 16 kilometers ( 10 mi ) east of Antananarivo , to Prince Andriantsalamanjaka and Princess Rabodonandriantompo . When Ramavo was still a young girl , her father alerted King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) to an assassination plot planned by Andrianjafy , the king 's uncle , whom Andrianampoinimerina had forced from the throne at the royal city of Ambohimanga . In return for saving his life , Andrianampoinimerina betrothed Ramavo to his son , Prince Radama , whom the king designated as his heir . He furthermore declared that any child from this union would be first in the line of succession after Radama .
Despite her elevated rank among the royal wives , Ramavo was not the preferred wife of Radama and did not bear him any children . Upon Andrianampoinimerina 's death in 1810 , Radama succeeded his father as king and followed royal custom by executing a number of potential opponents among Ramavo 's relatives , an act that may have strained their relationship . Unable to find satisfaction in her loveless marriage , the neglected Ramavo and other court ladies spent most days socializing and drinking rum with David Griffiths and his fellow missionaries in Griffiths ' home . These visits established a deep friendship between Ramavo and Griffiths that would endure for three decades .
= = = Accession to the throne = = =
When Radama died without leaving any descendants on July 27 , 1828 , according to local custom , the rightful heir was Rakotobe , the eldest son of Radama 's eldest sister . An intelligent and amiable young man , Rakotobe was the first pupil to have studied at the first school established by the London Missionary Society in Antananarivo on the grounds of the royal palace . Radama died in the company of two trusted courtiers who were favorable to the succession of Rakotobe . However , they hesitated to report the news of Radama 's death for several days , fearing possible reprisals against them for having been involved in denouncing one of the king 's rivals , whose family had a stake in the succession after Radama . During this time , another courtier , a high @-@ ranking military officer named Andriamamba , discovered the truth and collaborated with other powerful officers - Andriamihaja , Rainijohary and Ravalontsalama - to support Ramavo 's claim to the throne .
These officers hid Ramavo and one of her friends in a safe location , then secured the support of several influential power brokers , including judges and the keepers of the sampy ( royal idols ) . The officers then rallied the army behind Ramavo , such that on August 11 , 1828 , when she declared herself the successor to Radama on the pretense that he himself had decreed it , there could be no immediate resistance . Ramavo took the throne name Ranavalona ( " folded " , " kept aside " ) , then followed royal custom by systematically capturing and putting to death her political rivals , including Rakotobe , his family and other members of Radama 's family , much as Radama had done to the queen 's own family upon his succession to the throne . Her coronation ceremony took place on June 12 , 1829 .
By succeeding her husband , Ranavalona became the first female sovereign of the Kingdom of Imerina since its founding in 1540 . Her rise to power occurred in a cultural milieu that favored men over women in the political sphere . In the traditional culture of Imerina , rulers were specially endowed with the power to innovate in circumvention of established norms and customs . Sovereigns often mobilized innovation through the creation of new forms of kinship , the traditional basis of the political order . Women , however , were associated with the household , a rigid kinship unit in opposition to the innovating role and power of the sovereign , and so were not viewed as suited to rule . Although female rulers had once been common among the Vazimba , described in oral histories as the original inhabitants of Madagascar , this tradition ended in the central highlands with the reign of Andriamanelo ( 1540 @-@ 1575 ) , founder of the Kingdom of Imerina and successor to his Vazimba mother , Queen Rafohy ( 1530 @-@ 1540 ) .
= = Reign = =
Ranavalona 's 33 @-@ year reign was characterized by her effort to strengthen the domestic authority of the Kingdom of Imerina over subjugated provinces and preserve the political and cultural sovereignty of Madagascar . These policies were enacted in a context of increasing European influence within her kingdom and competing French and English bids for domination over the island . Early in her reign , the queen took incremental steps to distance Madagascar from the purview of European powers , first putting an end to a friendship treaty with Britain , then placing increasing restrictions on the activities of the missionaries of the London Missionary Society , who operated schools where basic education and trade skills were taught in addition to the Christian religion . In 1835 she forbade the practice of Christianity among the Malagasy population , and within a year nearly all foreigners had left her territory .
Putting an end to most foreign trade relationships , the queen pursued a policy of self @-@ reliance , made possible through frequent use of the long @-@ standing tradition of fanompoana — forced labor in lieu of tax payments in money or goods . Ranavalona continued the wars of expansion conducted by her predecessor , Radama I , in an effort to extend her realm over the entire island , and imposed strict punishments on those who were judged as having acted in opposition to her will . Due in large part to loss of life throughout the years of military campaigns , high death rates among fanompoana workers , and harsh traditions of justice under her rule , the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2 @.@ 5 million between 1833 and 1839 , and from 750 @,@ 000 to 130 @,@ 000 between 1829 and 1842 in Imerina . These statistics have contributed to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona 's rule in historical accounts .
= = = Government = = =
In the tradition of many of her royal Merina predecessors , the queen ruled from the royal Rova compound in Antananarivo . Between 1839 and 1842 , Jean Laborde built the queen a new residence called Manjakamiadana , which became the largest structure on the Rova grounds . The residence was made entirely from wood and bore most of the features of a traditional home of the Merina andriana ( aristocratic class ) , including a central pillar ( andry ) to support the roof . In other ways it showcased distinctly European innovations , as it contained three floors entirely surrounded by wooden verandas and incorporated dormers in the shingled roof . The palace would eventually be encased in stone in 1867 by James Cameron of the London Missionary Society during the reign of Ranavalona II . The original wooden palace of Ranavalona and virtually all other structures of the historic Rova compound were destroyed in a 1995 fire , leaving only the stone shell to mark where her palace had once stood .
In many respects , Ranavalona 's rule was a continuation of precedent established under Radama I. Both monarchs encouraged the introduction of new technologies and forms of knowledge from abroad , supported the establishment of an industrialized economy , and adopted measures to professionalize the army . Both viewed foreigners with ambivalence , establishing close personal relationships and drawing upon their expertise while enforcing restrictions on their activities to avert destabilizing changes to existing cultural and political systems . In addition , both contributed to the further development of a complex political bureaucracy that enabled the Merina court to govern remote provinces across an island larger than the Netherlands , Belgium and France combined .
Ranavalona maintained the tradition of ruling with the support of advisers drawn largely from the aristocratic class . The queen 's most powerful ministers were also her consorts . Her first chief adviser was a young army officer from Namehana named Andriamihaja , who served as First Minister from 1829 to 1830 . Major @-@ General Andriamihaja most likely fathered the queen 's only son , Prince Rakoto ( later King Radama II ) , who was born eleven months after the death of his official father , King Radama I. In the early years of Ranavalona 's reign , Andriamihaja was the leader of her court 's progressive faction , who favored maintaining the relations with Europe initiated under Radama . The conservative faction was led by the brothers Rainimaharo and Rainiharo , the latter being the official guardian of one of the most powerful royal sampy . These talismans were believed to embody and channel the supernatural powers of the kingship and had played a major role in the spiritual life of the Merina people since at least the 16th century reign of Ralambo . The conservative faction conspired to reduce Andriamahaja 's progressive influence over the queen , and in September 1830 they managed to persuade her while highly intoxicated to sign his death warrant for charges of witchcraft and treason . He was immediately captured in his home and killed .
Following Andriamihaja 's death , the influence of Radama 's old guard of progressives was eclipsed by that of conservative advisers at court , who grew ever closer to the queen , eventually resulting in Ranavalona 's marriage to sampy guardian and conservative figurehead Field Marshal Rainiharo ( also called Ravoninahitriniarivo ) of Ilafy in 1833 . Rainiharo gained initial access to the court through his father , Andriantsilavonandriana , a hova ( commoner ) who had exceptionally been accorded the privilege of joining King Andrianampoinimerina 's inner circle of noble advisers . Field Marshal Rainiharo served as the queen 's First Minister from 1830 to 1832 , then Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief from 1832 to 1852 . Upon Rainiharo 's death , the queen wed another conservative , Field Marshal Andrianisa ( also called Rainijohary ) , who remained Ranavalona 's husband until her death in 1861 . He served as Prime Minister from 1852 to 1862 before being exiled to the royal city of Ambohimanga for his part in a plot against the queen 's son , Radama II .
Traditionally , Merina sovereigns relied on the pronouncement of kabary ( oratory ) in public gatherings to communicate policy and reaffirm the relationship between sovereign and public . Due in part to her lack of experience in public speaking and politics , Ranavalona preferred to direct and inform her subordinates through letters that she dictated to missionary @-@ educated court scribes . She strengthened her relationship with the public through occasional kabary and fulfilled the traditional role of the Merina sovereign as bestower of hasina ( ancestral blessings ) by enacting traditional rituals , including the fandroana ( new year ritual of renewal ) , tributes to the royal idols , and offerings of vodiondry and jaka beef at customary occasions . Ranavalona innovated on these traditional rituals by increasing their complexity and symbolism to imbue them with added significance .
= = = Preservation and expansion of realm = = =
Queen Ranavalona continued the military incursions initiated under Radama I to pacify neighboring kingdoms and maintain their submission to Merina rule . These policies had a strongly negative effect on economic and population growth during her reign . Fanompoana labor among the population of Imerina could include conscription into the military , enabling the queen to raise a standing army that was estimated at 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 soldiers . This army , which was sent on repeated expeditions into neighboring provinces , exacted harsh penalties against communities resistant to Merina domination . Mass executions were common , and those who were spared their lives were commonly brought back to Imerina as slaves ( andevo ) and their valuables seized as booty to increase the wealth of the Crown . Approximately one million slaves entered Imerina from coastal areas between 1820 and 1853 , constituting one @-@ third of the total population in the central highlands and two @-@ thirds of all residents in Antananarivo .
According to Madagascar historian Gwyn Campbell , the number of non @-@ Merina who died in violent conflict during the military campaigns of Ranavalona and her predecessor Radama from 1816 to 1853 was estimated at about 60 @,@ 000 . Additionally , a considerable proportion of the population not killed in battle in the subjugated provinces eventually died from famine as a consequence of scorched earth policies . Deaths among the Merina soldiers engaged in military actions were also high , estimated at about 160 @,@ 000 for the period 1820 – 1853 . A further 25 – 50 % of the queen 's soldiers stationed in lowland areas were estimated to have died each year due to diseases such as malaria . Although prevalent in the coastal parts of the island , malaria was uncommon in the high @-@ altitude zone around Antananarivo , and Merina soldiers possessed little natural resistance against it . An average of 4 @,@ 500 soldiers died each year for the greater part of Ranavalona 's reign , contributing to severe depopulation in Imerina .
= = = = Tangena ordeal = = = =
One of the chief measures by which Ranavalona maintained order within her realm was through the traditional practice of trial by the ordeal of tangena . A poison was extracted from the nut of the native tangena ( Tanghinia venenifera ) shrub and ingested , with the outcome determining innocence or guilt . If nobles or freemen were compelled to undergo the ordeal , the poison was typically administered to the accused only after dog and rooster stand @-@ ins had already died from the poison 's effects , while among members of the slave class ( andevo ) , the ordeal required them to immediately ingest the poison themselves . The accused would be fed the poison along with three pieces of chicken skin : if all three pieces of skin were vomited up then innocence was declared , but death or a failure to regurgitate all three pieces of skin indicated guilt . According to 19th @-@ century Malagasy historian Raombana , in the eyes of the greater populace , the tangena ordeal was believed to represent a sort of celestial justice in which the public placed their unquestioning faith , even to the point of accepting a verdict of guilt in a case of innocence as a just but unknowable divine mystery .
Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes , including theft , Christianity and especially witchcraft , for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory . On average , an estimated 20 to 50 percent of those who underwent the ordeal died . In the 1820s , the tangena ordeal caused about 1 @,@ 000 deaths annually . This average rose to around 3 @,@ 000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861 . In 1838 , it was estimated that as many as 100 @,@ 000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal , constituting roughly 20 percent of the population . Although outlawed in 1863 , the ordeal continued to be practiced secretly in Imerina and openly in other parts of the island .
= = = = Repression of Christianity = = = =
Following a visit by Radama I to Madagascar 's first formal school , established in Toamasina in 1818 by members of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) , the king invited the first Christian artisan missionaries to the capital city to share their knowledge . Beginning in December 1820 , LMS missionaries established workshops in Antananarivo to teach brick @-@ making , European carpentry and other practical skills , and developed a network of public schools where numeracy and English were taught alongside literacy using portions of the Malagasy language Bible . Despite high attendance at the schools , the LMS were initially unsuccessful in converting pupils to Christianity . Near the end of Radama 's reign , the king came to regard the few Malagasy who had been converted as irreverent toward royal authority . He forbade Malagasy people from being baptized or attending Christian services .
Ranavalona 's succession initially resulted in a relaxation of state control over Christianity . A printing press , which was imported by LMS missionaries at the end of Radama 's reign , was only effectively put into operation in 1828 . The press was in heaviest use during the first several years of Ranavalona 's reign , when thousands of hymnals and other materials were transcribed and printed . Translation of the New Testament was completed in the second year of her reign , and 3 @,@ 000 copies were printed and distributed between 1829 and 1830 . From the beginning of her reign , Ranavalona forbade the distribution of books within the military to prevent subversion and preserve discipline . She allowed missionaries free rein in operating the printing press , however , and exempted from military service all Malagasy personnel trained to operate the press . In 1835 , translation of the Old Testament was completed and the first copies were printed . The freedom allowed to LMS and Malagasy Christians to print religious materials and teach religion in the state schools during the first six years of Ranavalona 's reign allowed the religion to become firmly established among a small but growing group of converts in and around the capital . In 1831 Ranavalona authorized Malagasy attendance at church services , administration of the sacrament , and baptism of her subjects . Within a year , the first 100 Malagasy were baptized out of an estimated 200 practicing Christians total ; these converts were drawn from all social classes , including slaves , commoners , respected elders , court officials and even sampy guardians , who were considered the bulwarks of traditional culture .
The conversion of major religious , political and social leaders sparked a backlash that led Ranavalona to become increasingly wary of the political and cultural effects of Christianity , which she saw as leading the Malagasy to forsake the ancestors and their traditions . In October and November 1831 the queen enacted a ban on Christian marriages , church services and baptisms for soldiers and members of government studying in the Missionary schools , and in December extended the ban on church service attendance to all Malagasy . From 1832 to 1834 , baptisms and church services continued , increasingly in secret . During this time , several Christians each year were charged with witchcraft and exiled or made to undergo the tangena ordeal , and Ranavalona requested the departure of three missionaries , retaining only those whose particular technical skills she viewed as valuable to the state . In 1835 , the queen attempted to shut down the press without directly targeting the LMS by banning Malagasy personnel from working at the printing house . The LMS missionaries , capitalizing on the absence of legal decrees against their own work at the press , managed to continue independently printing and distributing materials .
In a kabary speech on February 26 , 1835 , Queen Ranavalona formally forbade the practice of Christianity among her subjects . In her discourse , she was careful to differentiate between her own people , for whom the new religion was forbidden and its practice a capital offense , and foreigners , to whom she permitted freedom of religion and conscience . She furthermore acknowledged the valuable intellectual and technological contributions that European missionaries had made to the advancement of her country , and invited them to continue working to that end on the condition that their proselytizing would cease :
" To the English or French strangers : I thank you for the good that you have done in my land and my kingdom , where you have made known European wisdom and knowledge . Do not worry yourselves — I will not change the customs and rites of our ancestors . Nevertheless , whoever breaks the laws of my kingdom will be put to death — whoever he may be . I welcome all wisdom and all knowledge which are good for this country . It would be a waste of time and effort to grab the customs and rites of my ancestors . Concerning religious practice — baptism or assemblies — it is forbidden for my people who inhabit this land to take part whether on Sunday or during the week . Concerning you , foreigners , you can practice according to your own manners and customs . Nevertheless , if skilled handiwork and other practical skills exist , which can profit our people , exercise these skills that good will come . These are my instructions which I make known to you . "
The majority of the London Missionary Society missionaries , whose primary activity was teaching Christian theology and literacy at their newly established schools using the Bible as the principal Malagasy @-@ language text , departed the island . James Cameron and other key missionaries preferred to leave rather than remain on the island without authorization to proselytize . The last two remaining missionaries chose to continue teaching practical skills in the hope that the restrictions might loosen , but one year later , after receiving indirect information that the government desired their departure , they shuttered the LMS mission and left Madagascar .
Pursuant to the February 26 decree , those who possessed a Bible , worshiped in congregation or continued to profess adherence to Christianity were fined , jailed , manacled , subjected to trial by ordeal , or executed . Lurid accounts of the execution and torture of Christians were reported by missionaries with informants on the island who placed emphasis on what they perceived as the savagery of the Queen 's actions . For instance , they reported the public execution of fifteen Christian leaders near the Queen 's palace who were dangled on ropes 150 feet above a rock @-@ filled ravine before the ropes were cut upon their refusal to renounce Christianity . The Andohalo cathedral was constructed on this outcropping to commemorate early Malagasy Christians martyred at the site . The precise number of Malagasy citizens put to death for religious reasons during Ranavalona 's reign is difficult to state with certainty . British missionary to Madagascar W.E. Cummins ( 1878 ) places the number executed at between sixty and eighty . Far more were required to undergo the tangena ordeal , condemned to hard labor or stripped of their land and property , and many of these died . Persecution of Christians intensified in 1840 , 1849 and 1857 ; in 1849 , deemed the worst of these years by Cummins , 1 @,@ 900 people were fined , jailed or otherwise punished for their Christian faith , of whom 18 were executed .
= = = Protection of sovereignty = = =
Ranavalona 's reign was marked by a struggle between France and Britain to secure control over Madagascar . The French , who held several small islands off Madagascar , were interested in gaining control over the main island but this move was opposed by the British who had an interest in maintaining a safe passage to India . Ranavalona pursued a policy of self @-@ reliance to limit the influence of these foreign powers .
Shortly after taking the throne , Ranavalona annulled the Anglo @-@ Merina treaty that had been concluded between Radama and British envoys , and refused to continue receiving annual payments from Britain in exchange for adherence to the stipulations of the treaty . The most significant of these conditions was the kingdom 's non @-@ participation in the international slave trade , which had historically been a major source of revenue for the kingdoms of Imerina , Betsimisaraka , Sakalava and others across the island . One consequence of the termination of the Anglo @-@ Merina friendship treaty was an end to the delivery of British weaponry , which rendered the queen vulnerable to designs against her from foreign powers and pockets of local resistance alike . This vulnerability was underscored in 1829 when a fleet of six French ships launched an unprovoked attack against the fort of Foulpointe and the nearby town of Ivondro on the eastern coast of Madagascar . The queen 's army successfully repelled the French at the next port , forcing the ships to Île Sainte @-@ Marie , where they engaged a diplomatic envoy sent from Antananarivo by Ranavalona . The protracted negotiations ensured the French suffered from the malaria prevalent in coastal areas , until the increasing casualties forced the ships ' withdrawal from Ranavalona 's territory .
It came to the Queen 's attention that Frenchman Jean Laborde , who had been shipwrecked off Madagascar in 1832 , was knowledgeable in the production of cannons , muskets and gunpowder . Ranavalona provided him with the labor and materials to establish factories that met the material needs of her army , thereby ending the kingdom 's dependence on Europe for modern weaponry .
= = = = Foreign plots = = = =
The French were eager to hasten Radama II 's succession in the interest of capitalizing on the Lambert Charter , an 1855 agreement between French representative Joseph @-@ François Lambert and Radama that could only come into effect upon the prince 's succession . The charter guaranteed Lambert and his business associates first rights to the exploitation of many of the island 's commodities and natural resources . According to a British account , Lambert conspired with Jean Laborde and local leaders to persuade Radama II to sign a document written in French — a language in which the prince was not fluent — which Lambert orally translated as containing only an account of the excessive pressures the Queen 's policies were placing on her subjects . Radama , who was sympathetic toward the commoners and interested in easing their burden but suspicious about the letter 's true purpose , reluctantly signed the document under intense pressure from the French . He was not told the letter included a request for French military intervention that could have potentially brought Madagascar under French rule . France did not however intend to take such an action without the accord of their ally , Britain , whose influence had been so well @-@ established on the island , and refused to intercede on behalf of the prince . In the meantime , Radama , who had been made to swear on the Bible not to speak of the letter to anyone , had grown concerned enough to contact a British diplomat , thereby revealing the true circumstances under which the letter had been signed . The British refused to cooperate in the French plot , and an attack was averted . According to Lambert , however , the prince had indeed been an enthusiastic partner in the bid to end Ranavalona 's reign , and his own true feelings about the endeavor had been deliberately misrepresented through a British campaign of propaganda .
Having failed to gain the backing of a European state power to place Radama on the throne and bring the treaty into effect , Lambert decided to instigate a coup d 'état independently . He traveled to Ranavalona 's court in May 1857 in the company of the celebrated 19th @-@ century Austrian globetrotter Ida Pfeiffer , who became an unwitting participant in the plot . She documented her perspective on these events in one of her late works . According to Pfeiffer , Radama and Lambert had planned to dethrone the queen on June 20 , when ministers and soldiers loyal to Radama would infiltrate the Rova grounds and declare loyalty to the prince and support for a political transition . Pfeiffer blamed the failure of the plot on Rainilaiarivony , then Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the army who reportedly had been unable to ensure the presence of soldiers in the courtyard who were loyal to Radama . According to a British account , however , Radama himself was credited with warning the queen of the plot , in which his cooperation was merely a ploy to entrap the conspirators . This British view claims that Ranavalona deliberately allowed the plot to unfold almost to its conclusion in order to ascertain the loyalties of her members of government . After the plot 's discovery , the Europeans were largely confined to their houses on the palace grounds and prohibited from receiving visitors , until an order was issued to immediately and permanently quit the queen 's territory in late July .
= = Succession and death = =
While the queen had designated her son , Radama II , as her successor , Rainimaharo and the conservative faction knew of his progressive leanings and tried instead to ensure the queen 's nephew , Ramboasalama , would come to power and maintain loyalties to them and their political agenda . The progressive brothers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony , who were the queen 's co @-@ prime minister and head of the army respectively at the time of her death , supported the succession of Radama and were able to exercise greater influence than Ramboasalama , particularly in ensuring the support of the army for the prince 's claim to the throne . As Ranavalona lay on her death bed , Radama took precautions to ensure his succession would be uncontested , surrounding his residence at the Rova of Antananarivo with several hundred soldiers and sending a member of Ramboasalama 's family to bring him to the Rova to swear a public oath of allegiance to the new king , to whom he submitted .
On August 16 , 1861 , Ranavalona died in her sleep at the Manjakamiadana palace in the Rova of Antananarivo . Twelve thousand zebu were slaughtered and their meat distributed to the populace in her honor , and the official mourning period lasted nine months . Her body was laid in a coffin made of silver piastres in a tomb at the royal city of Ambohimanga . During her funeral , a spark accidentally ignited a nearby barrel of gunpowder destined for use in the ceremony , causing an explosion and fire that killed a number of bystanders and destroyed three historic royal residences in the Nanjakana section of the compound where the event was held . In 1897 , French colonial authorities disinterred and moved the queen 's body and the remains of other Merina sovereigns to the tombs at the Rova of Antananarivo in an attempt to desanctify Ambohimanga . Her bones were placed within the tomb of Queen Rasoherina . Her son , Prince Rakoto , succeeded her as King Radama II .
= = Legacy = =
Ranavalona 's traditionalist policies were abruptly reversed under the reign of her son , King Radama II . A widespread epidemic of " spirit possession " throughout Imerina followed Radama 's public conversion to Christianity and was popularly attributed to the outraged spirit of Ranavalona I.
The queen 's foreign contemporaries strongly condemned her policies and viewed them as the actions of a tyrant or even a madwoman , a characterization that persisted in Western historical literature until the 1970s . Although Ranavalona has traditionally been depicted as a cruel and xenophobic tyrant , in more recent historical analyses she is commonly viewed as an astute politician who effectively protected the political and cultural sovereignty of her nation from European encroachment . In Madagascar today , the Malagasy of the central highlands hold complex and diverse views ranging across this spectrum . Most condemn her reign , in line with negative depictions of Ranavalona in current Malagasy history textbooks ; this view is most common among Malagasy Christians . Others admire her effort to preserve Malagasy traditions and independence . The majority , regardless of their feelings toward her domestic policies , consider her a remarkable figure in Malagasy history and commend her strength as a ruler in a period of tension with European powers .
A fictionalized account of Ranavalona and her court appears in the novel Flashman 's Lady by George MacDonald Fraser . The main character , an English soldier and agent named Harry Paget Flashman , becomes Ranavalona 's military adviser and lover .
= = Honours = =
= = = National honours = = =
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Hawk ( 1828 ) .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Richard Buxton ( botanist ) =
Richard Buxton ( 15 January 1786 – 2 January 1865 ) was a British shoemaker and amateur botanist . Born in Prestwich , Lancashire , to a family who lived in humble circumstances , he taught himself to read , and learned the basic principles of botany . Although living as a pauper for most of his life , in 1849 he published A Botanical Guide to the Flowering Plants , Ferns , Mosses and Algæ , Found Indigenous Within Sixteen Miles of Manchester , which became one of the standard texts on the flora then commonly found in the Manchester area . According to his obituary in the Journal of Botany , British and Foreign , Buxton was one of " nature 's gentlemen " and " his true and correct pronunciation of scientific terms have caused many who heard him to believe he was an accomplished classical scholar " . He was acknowledged by the geologist Edward William Binney as " the most profound thinker of his class " .
= = Early life = =
The second of seven children , Richard Buxton was born on 15 January 1786 at Sedgley Hall Farm in the parish of Prestwich , near Manchester , Lancashire . His parents were John and Anne Buxton ( née Horton ) , both from Derbyshire . When he was two years old his family fell on hard times , left their farm and moved to Bond Street in Ancoats , Manchester . John Buxton worked as a labourer for the rest of his life .
Richard was a sickly child and his parents ' reduced circumstances meant that his education was somewhat sporadic . In his early years he wandered through the fields and brick yards where he lived , picking wildflowers . His favourites were Germander Speedwell , Creeping Tormentil and Common Chickweed . At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a bat maker ( the maker of children 's small leather shoes ) named James Heap , in Port Street , Manchester . About 18 months later he went to work with James Hyde , with whom he stayed for a number of years .
= = Later life = =
At the age of 16 , Buxton was illiterate , but with the aid of The Common Spelling Book he taught himself to read . He was unable to understand or pronounce all words correctly and so procured a copy of Jones Pronouncing Dictionary . He read more books , such as A History of England and Goldsmith 's History of Greece and Rome . Reading occupied all his spare time , although when trade was good he had to work from 6 : 00 am until 9 : 00 pm . He earned about 14 to 15 shillings ( 70p @-@ 75p ) a week , a good wage for the time , but as cloth was superseding leather in making the tops of children shoes , this did not last .
When he was 18 , Buxton returned to work with his old master , James Heap , as a journeyman . Heap often took Buxton on country walks in his spare time . The two collected herbs for diet drinks , either for Heap 's use or to share with his neighbours . They often found plants of whose names they were ignorant , and so Buxton bought a copy of Culpeper 's Complete Herbal . However , as he found the supposedly medicinal properties of the plants fanciful and the descriptions inaccurate , he soon became dissatisfied with it . In 1808 he procured a copy of the superior Meyrick 's Herbal , from which he learned the first principles of the Linnaean system . Buxton soon outgrew this book , and began to borrow or buy as many books on botany as he could . Botanical practice at the time was to collect and dry plants , but as he disliked dead plants and preferred not to remove specimens that could be enjoyed by others , his botanical studies were confined to making observations .
From 1821 to 1826 the pressures of work took him away from his botanical rambles , but in spring 1826 he made more frequent excursions . In June that year he was " botanising " on Kersal Moor when he met John Horsefield , a handloom weaver from Whitefield , who was president of the Prestwich Botanical Society and president of the general botanical meetings held at a number of different places in Lancashire . Buxton had long wished to meet a man such as Horsefield , who was not merely a country herbalist but an excellent scientific botanist . At that time in Lancashire many amateur , working class , naturalists pursued their interests in their spare time , and a number of local societies had been formed . Horsefield introduced him to other local botanists such as James Percival , Thomas Heywood and John Shaw with whom , during the summer of 1826 , he made a number of excursions to Mere Clough in Prestwich , Clifton Moss and Baguley Moor .
For several years , for a variety of reasons , Buxton 's study of botany fell by the wayside , but in 1833 he attended a botanical meeting in Prestwich , where he met his old acquaintances . He became a regular attendee at local botanical meetings , including one at Blackley , where he met James Crowther . They became firm friends and , in search of plants , explored Chorlton , Withington , Didsbury and many other regions of Lancashire , Cheshire , Derbyshire , Yorkshire and Wales .
In 1839 Buxton was invited to join the natural history class at the Manchester Mechanics ' Institute where he helped compile the Flora Mancuniensis ( 1840 ) along with Leo Hartley Grindon , George Crozier and James Crowther under the editorship of John Bland Wood . He became an acknowledged expert on mosses , and William Hooker , director of the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew was so impressed with his skills that he hoped to employ him as a herbarium assistant . Although this never came about , Hooker gave Buxton a number of botanical books and , at some point , Buxton accepted the position of President of the Manchester Working Men 's Botanical Society .
In 1849 , aged 62 , he published a book : A Botanical Guide to the Flowering Plants , Ferns , Mosses and Algæ , Found Indigenous Within Sixteen Miles of Manchester , written with the help of other local botanists and geologist Edward William Binney . Peppered with snatches of poetry and including some autobiographical details , the book gives a complete description of all the plants then found in the area . It encourages other working @-@ class people to explore the " many delightful walks by pleasant streams and through green woods in summertime " and requests landowners " at least to preserve the old footpaths which cross their fields and woods if they should decline to allow fresh ones to be made " .
As Buxton 's trade fell into decline he tried to survive by working as a botanical collector and delivering newspapers , but eventually had to rely on a fund set up by Binney for ‘ the relief and encouragement of scientific men in humble life ’ . This situation was compounded when the proceeds from the second edition of his book , published in 1859 , were less than anticipated because of competition from Grindon 's Manchester Flora published in the same year .
= = Death = =
Buxton died on 2 January 1865 at Limekiln Lane , Ardwick , aged 78 and was buried at St Mary 's , Prestwich , on 5 January . In his obituary in the Manchester Courier , an unnamed " eminent man of science " described him as " probably one of the best British botanists , so far as flowering plants are concerned , that Lancashire has produced " .
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= 2012 Formula One season =
The 2012 Formula One season was the 63rd season of FIA Formula One motor racing . It featured the 2012 FIA Formula One World Championship , a motor racing series for Formula One cars , recognised by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) — the governing body of motorsport — as the highest class of competition for open @-@ wheel racing cars . The championship was contested over twenty rounds , which started in Australia on 18 March and ended in Brazil on 25 November . The 2012 season saw the return of the United States Grand Prix , which was held at the Circuit of the Americas , a purpose @-@ built circuit in Austin , Texas . After being cancelled in 2011 due to civil protests , the Bahrain Grand Prix also returned to the calendar .
The early season was tumultuous , with seven different drivers winning the first seven races of the championship ; a record for the series . It was not until the European Grand Prix in June that a driver , Ferrari 's Fernando Alonso , won his second race of the year , and with it , emerged as a championship contender . Alonso maintained his hold on the championship lead for the next seven races , taking his third win in Germany and finishing on the podium in the United Kingdom , Italy and Singapore . However , costly first @-@ lap retirements in Belgium and Japan allowed his rivals to catch up , and defending World Champion Sebastian Vettel — like Alonso , a two @-@ time title winner — took the lead in the sixteenth race of the season . Vettel , too , encountered difficulties throughout the season ; contact with a backmarker left him to finish outside the points in Malaysia , while alternator failures at the European and Italian Grands Prix cost him valuable points and exclusion from qualifying in Abu Dhabi led him to start from the pit lane . Vettel entered the final race of the season with a thirteen @-@ point lead over Alonso . Alonso needed a podium finish to stand any chance of becoming World Drivers ' Champion , but in a race of attrition that finished under the safety car , Vettel finished in sixth place , scoring enough points to win his third consecutive championship , becoming just the third driver in the sport 's sixty @-@ three year history to do so . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Red Bull Racing secured their third consecutive title when Sebastian Vettel finished second at the United States Grand Prix .
In addition to seeing seven drivers win the first seven races , the 2012 season broke several records . The calendar for the season included twenty races , breaking the previous record of nineteen , which was first set in 2005 . Six current or former World Drivers ' Champions — Sebastian Vettel , Fernando Alonso , Jenson Button , Lewis Hamilton , Kimi Räikkönen , and Michael Schumacher — started the season , breaking the record of five established in 1970 .
= = Teams and drivers = =
The following twelve teams and twenty @-@ five race drivers competed in the 2012 Formula One World Championship . The FIA published a provisional entry list on 30 November 2011 , and the grid was finalised on 17 February .
= = = Team changes = = =
At the November 2011 meeting of the Formula One Commission in Geneva , several teams were given permission to change their constructor names — the name recognised by the FIA as the entity that effectively owns the team , and to which all results for that team are credited — with final approval from the World Motorsports Council granted in December of that year :
Lotus became known as Caterham , reflecting team principal Tony Fernandes 's purchase of Caterham Cars .
Renault changed its constructor name to Lotus after Lotus Cars expanded its title sponsorship program to include teams in Formula One and support series GP2 and GP3 .
Virgin became Marussia , following increased ownership of the team by Russian sports car manufacturer Marussia Motors .
As a result of the name changes , Team Lotus and Lotus Renault GP declared that their ongoing dispute over the use of the Lotus name was over after they had reached an " amicable conclusion " . Although the exact terms of the settlement were kept confidential , the joint statement detailed the transfer of the rights to the Lotus and Team Lotus names to Group Lotus 's ownership .
Williams announced that they would be using Renault engines for the 2012 and 2013 seasons , with an option to use Renault engines again in 2014 under the next generation of engine regulations . Renault had previously supplied engines to Williams from 1989 to 1997 , when the team won four World Drivers ' Championships and five World Constructors ' Championships . Following their worst season in their thirty @-@ year history — in which they finished ninth in the World Constructors ' Championship with just five points — the team underwent a technical review , employing former McLaren designer Mike Coughlan ( having served his suspension for his role in the 2007 Formula One espionage controversy ) as Chief Designer , and promoting Jason Somerville to Head of Aerodynamics . Likewise , Marussia ( then known as Virgin Racing ) underwent a restructuring , splitting with Wirth Research mid @-@ season after a technical review by Marussia Motors and the board of directors . The team also announced a technical partnership with McLaren that granted them access to McLaren 's testing facilities as well as the purchase of Wirth Research facilities .
In the week before the 2011 Indian Grand Prix , Force India announced that the Sahara Group had purchased a 42 @.@ 5 % stake in the team , valued at US $ 100 million . The investment gave the Sahara Group and team principal Vijay Mallya an equal stake in the team , with team director Michiel Mol controlling the remaining 15 % of the team . Under the terms of the sale , the Sahara Group became Force India 's naming @-@ rights sponsor . Mercedes GP also changed the name of their team , announcing that they were to become known as Mercedes AMG . The new name originates from AMG , Mercedes @-@ Benz 's performance and luxury road car brand .
HRT team principal Colin Kolles formally left his position , with the team citing the relocation of their headquarters to Spain as the reason for the separation . Former Minardi driver Luis Pérez @-@ Sala took Kolles 's place as team principal . In January 2012 , the team relocated to a new facility in Valencia before settling at a permanent facility in Caja Mágica , Madrid .
Peter Sauber formally stepped down from his position as team principal of Sauber F1 in the week before the Korean Grand Prix , appointing the team 's CEO , Monisha Kaltenborn as his successor . Kaltenborn 's appointment made her the first female team principal in the sport 's sixty @-@ three year history .
= = = Driver changes = = =
The 2012 season saw several driver changes . Lotus chose not to take up an option on Vitaly Petrov 's contract , and did not offer Bruno Senna a new contract . Petrov and Senna were replaced by 2007 World Drivers ' Champion Kimi Räikkönen — returning to the sport after two seasons competing in the World Rally Championship — and reigning GP2 Series champion Romain Grosjean , who also returned to the sport after a two @-@ year absence . Petrov later replaced Jarno Trulli at Caterham ; Trulli 's replacement meant that the opening race of the season would be the first race since the 1973 German Grand Prix to take place without an Italian driver on the grid . Senna joined Williams , the team having previously attempted to secure Räikkönen for the season . Senna replaced Rubens Barrichello , who left Formula One after a record @-@ breaking nineteen seasons . He later moved to IndyCar for the 2012 season , joining KV Racing Technology .
Like Räikkönen and Grosjean , Nico Hülkenberg also returned to Formula One , joining Force India alongside Paul di Resta . Adrian Sutil left the team , having spent six years with both Force India and its previous incarnations , Spyker and Midland . He initially sought a drive with Williams , before negotiations collapsed in December 2011 . Sutil was later the subject of criminal action , charged with grievous bodily harm after allegedly assaulting a senior Renault team member with a glass in a Shanghai nightclub following the 2011 Chinese Grand Prix . Sutil was found guilty , and was sentenced to an eighteen @-@ month suspended jail sentence and ordered to pay a € 200 @,@ 000 fine . Despite this , Sutil rejoined Force India for the 2013 season .
Scuderia Toro Rosso did not retain Jaime Alguersuari or Sébastien Buemi , instead choosing to replace them with Daniel Ricciardo and 2011 Formula Renault 3 @.@ 5 Series runner @-@ up Jean @-@ Éric Vergne . Ricciardo had previously served as the team 's test and reserve driver before being placed at HRT for the 2011 British Grand Prix , while Vergne had completed a limited testing schedule for the team in the second half of the 2011 season . Sébastien Buemi became Red Bull Racing 's testing and reserve driver and will contest the 24 Hours of Le Mans with Toyota , driving a TS030 Hybrid . Alguersuari was offered a seat at HRT , but turned it down and instead joined tyre supplier Pirelli as their test driver , developing tyre compounds for use in racing alongside former Virgin Racing driver Lucas di Grassi .
Pedro de la Rosa and Narain Karthikeyan returned to Formula One with HRT . De la Rosa had been without a full @-@ time drive since the 2010 Italian Grand Prix , having spent the majority of the 2011 season as a test driver for McLaren and making one appearance racing for Sauber ; Karthikeyan was dropped by the team before the 2011 British Grand Prix in favour of Ricciardo . He , too , made a one @-@ race appearance at the Indian Grand Prix , before leaving the team until the 2012 season began . Vitantonio Liuzzi , who drove for HRT in 2011 , joined the Indian i1 Super Series . The series was later postponed until 2013 , but Liuzzi was unable to retain his seat with the team . At the launch of the HRT F112 in March , Liuzzi was confirmed as one of the team 's testing and reserve drivers alongside both former GP2 Series driver Dani Clos and Ma Qinghua , the first ever Chinese driver to step into a Formula 1 car .
Jérôme d 'Ambrosio left Marussia ( then known as Virgin Racing ) after the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix . He later joined Lotus F1 as their third driver . Charles Pic — who placed fourth in the 2011 GP2 Series driving for Addax — joined Marussia , replacing d 'Ambrosio .
= = = = Mid @-@ season changes = = = =
The season only saw one driver change , which was brought about when Lotus driver Romain Grosjean was found by race stewards to be responsible for causing a multi @-@ car pile @-@ up at the start of the Belgian Grand Prix . He was given a one @-@ race ban and a € 50 @,@ 000 fine for his role in the collision , forcing him to miss the Italian Grand Prix . He was replaced by the team 's testing and reserve driver , Jérôme d 'Ambrosio . Grosjean returned to the team for the next round in Singapore .
= = Season calendar = =
= = = Calendar changes = = =
= = = = New and returning races = = = =
After the 2011 Bahrain Grand Prix was cancelled , the race was reinstated for the 2012 season with a provisional date in October . The final version of the calendar brought the race forward to April .
The German Grand Prix returned to Hockenheim after the 2011 German Grand Prix was held at the Nürburgring , in line with the event 's policy of alternating between venues .
In May 2010 , it was announced that Austin , Texas would host the return of the United States Grand Prix , the first since Indianapolis in 2007 . Known as the Circuit of the Americas , the venue will be a brand @-@ new , purpose @-@ built permanent circuit designed by event promoter Tavo Hellmund and 1993 Grand Prix Motorcycle World Champion Kevin Schwantz with the assistance of German architect and circuit designer Hermann Tilke . In November 2011 , Bernie Ecclestone expressed " minor " doubt over the race going ahead after what he described as " disagreements inside the [ management ] company " and gave the circuit owners and race organisers a deadline of 7 December – coinciding with the meeting of the FIA World Motorsports Council and the release of the final 2012 calendar – to sort out their differences or else risk losing the event entirely . The final calendar included the race , with Ecclestone confirming that a new arrangement had been made , and that the event organisers had paid their circuit sanctioning fees for 2012 . The race was originally scheduled to be held in June , but was moved back to become the penultimate event of the season in response to concerns over the heat of the Texas summer and its effects on teams , drivers and spectators , and the failure of race organisers to meet a key deadline for the race sanctioning fees .
= = = = Failed races = = = =
The Turkish Grand Prix was removed from the calendar after Formula One Management and the event organisers could not agree on a renewed contract . In August 2011 , organisers of the race revealed that they were negotiating with Bernie Ecclestone to resume their place on the calendar . However , the race was removed from the calendar later that month .
= = Changes = =
= = = Rule changes = = =
= = = = Technical regulations = = = =
The 2011 season saw teams running " off @-@ throttle blown diffusers " , which created downforce by forcing fuel through the engine to produce exhaust gases and directing it over the diffuser when the driver was not applying the throttle . This concept was originally banned in incremental phases , with increasingly restrictive rules on what teams could and could not do , with a full ban to be applied from the 2011 British Grand Prix onwards . However , the incremental ban was controversial , with several teams applying for and receiving permission to circumvent the total ban . After discussion between the FIA and engine manufacturers , the original regulations were restored , with the full ban delayed until 2012 . The regulations in 2012 governed the design of the exhaust with the teams agreeing to strict constraints on the position of the exhaust tailpipe . This resulted in the exhaust exiting the bodywork much higher up than in 2011 , and no longer in the vicinity of the diffuser . Several teams , including Williams and Mercedes used the Young Driver Tests in Abu Dhabi as an opportunity to test parts for the 2012 season in the face of the ban . In October 2011 , a clarification to the amended rules was issued , effectively banning " exotic " engine maps ; in November , further amendments were introduced , completely banning the practice of blowing exhaust gasses over parts of the car to improve downforce , following a bid by several teams to allow it under certain conditions . Further amendments were made in February 2012 when Mercedes alerted the FIA to a loophole in the regulations that would allow teams to continue using a partially blown diffuser . The FIA responded by re @-@ writing the software governing the engine 's Electronic Control Unit to close the loophole .
At the German Grand Prix in July , Red Bull Racing were referred to race stewards after FIA Technical Delegate Jo Bauer noted that their engine maps had the potential to violate the technical regulations . Red Bull stood accused of manipulating the relationship between the torque produced by the Red Bull RB8 and the degree to which the throttle was open — particularly in medium @-@ speed corners — thereby allowing more air to pass through the exhaust and over the diffuser , generating more downforce . Red Bull were cleared of wrongdoing , as , in the stewards ' words , they had not technically broken any rules , but the FIA announced plans to rewrite the regulations governing throttle mapping so as to outlaw the practice entirely ahead of the Hungarian Grand Prix one week later . The rule changes required teams to submit an engine map used during one of the first four races of the season , which became known as the " reference map " . Any subsequent changes to the throttle map would require the approval of the FIA , provided that the torque output above 6 @,@ 000 rpm was within two percent of the output specified on the reference map . Further changes would be allowed at races with " exceptional atmospheric conditions " , as designated by the FIA .
In January 2012 , the FIA banned the use of " reactive ride @-@ height " . The system , first proposed by Lotus in 2010 ( but not applied until 2012 ) , used hydraulic cylinders located in the brake calipers and suspension push @-@ rods to make minute adjustments to the ride height of the car , thereby keeping the ride height at an optimal level throughout the race and providing stability during braking . The FIA initially approved the device as being legal , and several teams , including Ferrari and Williams , submitted plans to the FIA for their own versions of the device before it was banned one week later . The FIA later confirmed that the reactive ride @-@ height systems violated Article 3 @.@ 15 of the technical regulations , which states that " any aerodynamic effect created by the suspension should be incidental to its primary function " and " any device that influences the car 's aerodynamics must remain immobile in relation to the sprung part of the car " and further noted that the system 's primary purpose was achieving aerodynamic gains as opposed to providing stability under braking , and that the use of reactive ride @-@ heights could also be challenged under Article 10 @.@ 2 of the technical regulations , which govern suspension systems .
Technical regulations for 2012 include the reprofiling of the car 's nose . The pre @-@ 2012 regulations allowed the nose to be as high as 62 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 24 @.@ 6 in ) above ground , but the revisions to the sporting code lowered the maximum allowable height to 55 centimetres ( 22 in ) 150mm ahead of the front bulkhead . This resulted in cars being launched with a " platypus " nose , as teams designed cars with a visible change in height along the nose assembly of the car . Mercedes AMG team principal Ross Brawn explained the distinctive nose shape as having come about from " several teams " wanting to use their 2011 chassis as the basis for their 2012 cars .
Drivers were no longer permitted to have a " joker " gearbox change . Prior to 2012 , drivers were entitled to change their gearboxes once over the course of the season without incurring a five @-@ place grid penalty . This system was abandoned in 2012 , with drivers only being allowed to change gearboxes once every five races .
Starting in 2012 , all cars were required to pass their mandatory FIA crash tests before being allowed to take part in pre @-@ season testing . Previously , passing the crash tests was only a requirement prior to the first race of the season . Crash tests for the 2012 season will also be more rigorous than in previous years .
At the meeting for the Formula One Commission in Geneva in November 2011 , the use of helium in air guns used to change tyres during pit stops was banned . Despite increasing the rotation speed of the air guns by up to 30 % , the practice of using helium was deemed to be too expensive to continue for the competitive gains it offered .
At the 2012 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix , the FIA banned the use of " trick brake " devices , which used a bi @-@ metallic strip that changed shape when heated by the brakes to open or close off braking ducts and improving braking efficiency under certain conditions . This was deemed to be in breach of Article 11 @.@ 4 of the Sporting Regulations , which states that the only permissible changes to the braking system while a car is moving must be directly controlled by the driver .
= = = = Sporting regulations = = = =
After being banned in 2009 , in @-@ season testing returned in 2012 , with a test held at Mugello on 1 May ahead of the European leg of the 2012 championship . As teams were only be permitted to do fifteen days of testing over the course of the season , the pre @-@ season winter testing schedule was cut back to accommodate the Mugello test .
At the September 2011 meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council , representatives of the member organisations voted to amend the rules for double @-@ waved yellow flags in all FIA @-@ sanctioned championships . The amendment means that double @-@ waved flags will be shown when a track marshal is working on or beside the circuit .
Tyre supplier Pirelli revised their tyre compounds for the 2012 season in an effort to encourage teams to use each of the compounds supplied for individual races . Pirelli predicted that the changes would translate into 0 @.@ 7 seconds ' difference per lap between the harder and softer compounds , down from 1 @.@ 5 seconds per lap in 2011 . According to Pirelli , the hardest tyre compound available is just 31 % harder than the softest compound on offer ; by comparison , the hardest tyres used in 2011 were 70 % harder than the softest .
Faced with several constructors applying for name changes , teams requested a clearer definition of what constitutes a " constructor " . Under the rules set out in the Sixth Concorde Agreement , several teams have been forced to compete under names that do not necessarily reflect their ownership – such as Sauber competing as " BMW Sauber " in 2010 , despite BMW withdrawing from the sport at the end of the 2009 season – in order to preserve their status as a current constructor and their claim to a share of the television rights paid to teams that placed in the top ten in the final World Constructors ' Championship standings .
At the final meeting of the World Motorsports Commission in December 2011 , a series of amendments to the sporting regulations were published . Chief among these is the re @-@ introduction of a rule that will allow all lapped traffic under the safety car ( which remained the Mercedes @-@ Benz SLS AMG introduced in 2010 . ) to be released from the queue before the car returns to pit lane , allowing the drivers to unlap themselves and to ensure a clean restart .
Drivers were not permitted to leave the confines of the circuit without a justifiable reason , following a spate of incidents in 2011 when drivers were sighted using access roads around the circuit to shorten their reconnaissance and in @-@ laps in order to preserve their fuel and tyres . Similarly , drivers will not be allowed to return to the normal racing line should they choose a defensive line going into a corner .
Races were run to a maximum four @-@ hour time limit to prevent the indefinite suspension of a race . This will stop the theoretical possibility of a race lasting more than eight hours . This rule was introduced in response to the rain @-@ interrupted 2011 Canadian Grand Prix , which set a record for the longest race in Formula One history , at four hours , four minutes and thirty @-@ nine seconds .
Any driver in the pit lane when a race is suspended was permitted to return to the circuit and take up the position on the grid that they were running in at the time of the suspension .
At the 2012 British Grand Prix in July , the FIA disabled the use of the Drag Reduction System ( DRS ) during a race while yellow flags were being shown in the same sector as the DRS zone . The move followed an incident at the European Grand Prix in which Michael Schumacher was observed to activate his DRS while yellow flags were being shown .
= = = Other changes = = =
In July 2011 , a joint broadcasting deal for Formula One in the United Kingdom was announced between Sky Sports and the BBC . The announcement was controversial , being met with highly negative reactions from fans and observers as it had previously been believed that the terms of the Concorde Agreement prevented Formula One from being broadcast exclusively on pay @-@ per @-@ view , but the Agreement did not prevent a shared broadcast such as the proposal made by Sky Sports and the BBC . The controversial nature of the broadcast deal led to the Culture , Media and Sport Committee of the House of Commons calling Bernie Ecclestone and " senior BBC figures " including director @-@ general Mark Thompson to answer questions over the details of the broadcasting arrangement .
In December 2011 , Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Ferrari exited FOTA , the Formula One Teams Association , following prolonged debate over the implementation of the controversial Resource Restriction Agreement , though Red Bull team principal Christian Horner reaffirmed his team 's commitment to cost @-@ cutting measures and highlighting the team 's concerns over certain loopholes in the Resource Restriction Agreement that they felt teams and manufacturers would willingly exploit . One week later , Sauber also left the organisation , though the Swiss team did not publicly give a reason for ending their membership . In February 2012 , Red Bull Racing 's sister team Scuderia Toro Rosso was also reported as having left the organisation since the first schism in December .
= = Race summaries = =
= = = Pre @-@ season testing — Jerez de la Frontera and Barcelona = = =
The 2012 season was preceded by three test sessions ; one at Jerez de la Frontera and two in Barcelona . These sessions gave the teams and drivers the opportunity to familiarise themselves with their cars , though the teams downplayed the accuracy of testing times as being representative of the running order for the season . At the second test in Barcelona , Lotus F1 discovered a critical fault in the build of their chassis that forced them to miss four days of running , while both HRT and Marussia were unable to complete any mileage with their 2012 cars after both the HRT F112 and Marussia MR01 failed their crash tests , though both teams were able to complete shakedowns of their cars .
= = = Round 1 – Australia = = =
The season began in Australia . Jenson Button took an early lead from pole @-@ sitter Lewis Hamilton and the Red Bull cars while the rest of the field was bottle @-@ necked by contact in the first corner . Button remained unchallenged throughout , even after a mid @-@ race safety car to retrieve the stricken Caterham of Vitaly Petrov . Button went on to take his third victory at the Melbourne circuit , ahead of Sebastian Vettel , who profited from the safety car to pass Hamilton . McLaren team principal Martin Whitmarsh later admitted that Button was " more than marginal " on fuel after the team made a mistake in calculating their fuel loads for the race , forcing Button to use a " severe fuel @-@ saving mode " from the eighth lap of the race . Hamilton came under threat from Mark Webber in the late stages of the race , but held on to secure third place . Webber finished fourth – his best result in his home Grand Prix – while Fernando Alonso finished fifth , having endured pressure from Pastor Maldonado for the last half of the race . Maldonado 's race ended when he crossed onto the astroturf on the final lap and spun into the wall . Kimi Räikkönen finished seventh after a poor qualifying session saw him start the race seventeenth , taking advantage of a chaotic final lap to make up two places , while Felipe Massa and Bruno Senna both retired after a bizarre collision that saw their cars tangled up in one another . HRT failed to qualify for the race for the second consecutive season after drivers Pedro de la Rosa and Narain Karthikeyan failed to set a lap time within 107 % of the fastest qualifying time .
= = = Round 2 – Malaysia = = =
McLaren locked out the front row of the grid for the second race in succession , with Lewis Hamilton once again on pole . Both HRT cars qualified for the race , but filled out the final row of the grid almost two seconds behind Marussia 's Charles Pic in twenty @-@ second position . In the race , Hamilton made a better start than Jenson Button , but his lead was short @-@ lived ; heavy rain interrupted the race , forcing the suspension of the Grand Prix . When the race restarted an hour later , Button was involved in contact with Narain Karthikeyan that forced him to make an unscheduled stop for a new front wing , while Hamilton had a slow pit stop and was held in the lane while other cars passed . Fernando Alonso inherited the lead , with Sauber 's Sergio Pérez a surprise second , having made an early stop for extreme wet weather tyres and then taking advantage of a rush to the pit lane to position himself in third at the restart . As the race wore on , Pérez began to quickly catch Alonso on a drying track . Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for dry @-@ weather tyres on lap 38 , triggering another round of stops . Sauber and Pérez initially looked as if they had left their stop too late when Pérez emerged from the pits five seconds behind Alonso , but he began catching the two @-@ time World Champion at the same rate as he had before . Pérez closed to within half a second with seven laps to go , but ran wide at turn 14 and lost five seconds , later admitting that it was his mistake . He was unable to close the gap , and Alonso went on to win the race by two seconds , the win giving him a five @-@ point lead in the championship . Pérez was second , taking his first podium and Sauber 's best ever result as an independent team . Hamilton finished third ahead of Mark Webber and Kimi Räikkönen , while Button had to settle for fourteenth . Bruno Senna finished in sixth , scoring more points in a single race than his team scored in 2011 . Sebastian Vettel finished outside the points after making contact with Karthikeyan and developing a puncture .
= = = Round 3 – China = = =
The championship resumed three weeks later in China , with the lead @-@ in period to the race marked by Lotus F1 protesting the legality of Mercedes 's rear wing design . The FIA rejected the protest , and with Mercedes allowed to continue racing with their car unchanged , Nico Rosberg took his — and the team 's — first pole position since their return to Formula One in 2010 , while a penalty to Lewis Hamilton for a gearbox change promoted Michael Schumacher to second on the grid . Schumacher would ultimately retire from the race after the first round of stops when it was discovered that one of his wheels had not been attached properly . Rosberg took an early lead in the race , and while his attempt to complete the race with only two pit stops came under threat from second @-@ placed Jenson Button , a mistake by Button 's pit crew during his final stop handed Rosberg a nineteen @-@ second advantage over Kimi Räikkönen . Räikkönen was attempting a similar two @-@ stop strategy , but his tyres wore out seven laps from the end of the race , and he lost eleven positions in a single lap . This forced Rosberg to drive conservatively to preserve his tyres while Button recovered from his disastrous pit stop to pass Sebastian Vettel for second . Button was held up by the incumbent World Champion long enough for Rosberg to preserve his tyres , and he became the 103rd person to win a Grand Prix . The result was also Mercedes 's first win as a constructor since Juan Manuel Fangio won the 1955 Italian Grand Prix . Button was second , with Hamilton scoring his third consecutive third place , giving him a two @-@ point championship lead over Button ; Fernando Alonso , who had been leading the championship before the race , finished ninth . After two retirements in the opening rounds of the championship , Romain Grosjean scored his first points in Formula One by finishing sixth .
= = = Round 4 – Bahrain = = =
In the face of ongoing media speculation and public pressure to cancel the race due to ongoing political instability in Bahrain , the FIA released a statement at the Chinese Grand Prix confirming that the Bahrain Grand Prix would go ahead as planned . The week preceding the Grand Prix saw a renewed wave of protests against the government 's attempts use the race to " tell the outside world that the whole thing is back to normal " , while human rights organisations including Amnesty International criticised the decision to hold the race amid the violent crackdowns . Three days before the race , a group of Force India mechanics travelling in an unmarked hire car were involved in a petrol bombing incident at an impromptu roadblock and were briefly exposed to tear gas fired by security forces . There were no injuries or damage , but two of the mechanics involved chose to leave the country . The team later announced their intentions to race despite the incident .
Sebastian Vettel qualified on pole , his first since the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix . Heikki Kovalainen qualified sixteenth , the second time Caterham ( and its predecessor , Team Lotus ) advanced beyond the first qualifying period in dry conditions . Vettel went on to win the race — becoming the fourth winner in as many races — after spending much of the race defending against Kimi Räikkönen . Having started eleventh , Räikkönen used an extra set of soft tyres to move up through the field . His team @-@ mate , Romain Grosjean , finished third . Grosjean had initially shown the pace to challenge Vettel 's lead , but unlike Räikkönen , he did not have an extra set of fresh tyres , and lost touch with the reigning World Champion after the first set of stops . Lewis Hamilton finished eighth , once again hampered by slow pit stops . He was later involved in an altercation with Nico Rosberg that saw Rosberg referred to the stewards for forcing Hamilton beyond the boundary of the circuit while defending his position , but he escaped without penalty . Hamilton went on to finish eighth , while team @-@ mate Jenson Button was forced to retire two laps from the end of the race after reporting an unusual vibration from the differential . Daniel Ricciardo was involved in early contact that saw the Australian driver slide down the order from sixth at the start to fifteenth by the end of the race , having spent most of the Grand Prix caught behind Vitaly Petrov . Vettel 's win gave him a four @-@ point lead in the championship over Hamilton , while Mark Webber 's fourth consecutive fourth place secured third overall . Red Bull Racing took the lead from McLaren in the World Constructors ' Championship , while Lotus 's double podium moved them into third overall .
The decision to hold the race despite the ongoing protests made it one of the most controversial Grands Prix in the sport 's sixty @-@ year history .
= = = Mid @-@ season test – Mugello = = =
Starting on 1 May , the teams conducted a three @-@ day test at the Mugello Circuit in Italy ahead of the Spanish Grand Prix . The test gave teams the opportunity to assess major aerodynamic upgrades before racing them . HRT elected not to take part in the test , instead choosing to concentrate on establishing themselves at their new headquarters in Madrid . Both Lotus 's trackside operations director Alan Permane and Red Bull Racing driver Mark Webber questioned the value of testing at the Mugello circuit as the characteristics of the circuit were unlike any of the circuits the championship was due to visit after the test , while Caterham driver Vitaly Petrov was critical of the choice of Mugello as a testing venue as he felt it was not safe enough for Formula One . Petrov 's comments came shortly after Fernando Alonso crashed on the final morning of the test . Red Bull Racing and Lotus team principals Christian Horner and Éric Boullier were also critical of the test as they felt that the costs of conducting in @-@ season testing outweighed any benefits , with Horner stating his opposition to continuing mid @-@ season testing in the future .
= = = Round 5 – Spain = = =
Following criticism over the sensitivity of their tyre compounds , tyre supplier Pirelli announced changes to their tyre allocation for the Spanish Grand Prix , making pit strategy the focal point of the Grand Prix . Pirelli would later diagnose the problems with the tyre compounds as originating from developing them on a testing chassis that was two years out @-@ of @-@ date at the time . Lewis Hamilton took his third pole of the season , edging out Williams driver Pastor Maldonado by half a second , while Maldonado 's team @-@ mate Bruno Senna was eliminated early when he spun . Hamilton was later excluded from the qualifying results after his car did not have enough fuel to return to the pits for scrutineering , promoting Maldonado to pole position and moving Hamilton to the back of the grid . Fernando Alonso took the lead of the race at the first corner , but Maldonado reclaimed it during the second round of pit stops , when his team forced Ferrari to pit early while Alonso was held up by the Marussia of Charles Pic . Maldonado maintained a lead of seven seconds over Alonso , but a mistake by his crew during the third pit stop cost him time and left him vulnerable to the Ferrari driver in the final stint of the race . Meanwhile , third @-@ placed Kimi Räikkönen moved to an ambitious strategy that would see him attempt to force Maldonado and Alonso to race beyond the life expectancy of their tyres , allowing him to swoop in at the last minute to steal first place . Räikkönen 's strategy failed as Maldonado withstood pressure from Alonso for fifteen laps , winning the race by three seconds . It was Williams 's first win in one hundred and thirty Grand Prix starts ; their previous race win was Juan Pablo Montoya 's victory at the 2004 Brazilian Grand Prix . Lewis Hamilton recovered from twenty @-@ fourth on the grid to finish eighth , while Sebastian Vettel overcame a drive @-@ through penalty and an unscheduled stop for a technical fault that forced his team to replace his front wing to make a late move on Nico Rosberg for sixth place that would preserve his championship lead .
= = = Round 6 – Monaco = = =
For the second consecutive race , the fastest driver in qualifying did not start the race from pole . Michael Schumacher set the fastest time , but a five @-@ place grid penalty left him sixth overall . Two hours before the race , protests against parts introduced onto the floor of the Red Bull RB8 left team principal Christian Horner with a choice : to change the offending parts and start both cars from the pit lane , guaranteeing that any result the team recorded would be preserved ; or to leave the parts on the car , allowing both drivers to start the race from the positions they qualified in , but risking a post @-@ race exclusion . Horner ultimately chose the latter option , and Mark Webber started from pole , establishing an early lead over Nico Rosberg as a first @-@ corner accident eliminated four cars . The race was run under the constant threat of rain , with drivers trying to extend the life of their tyres to avoid being forced to make an additional stop and falling down the order . The rain never materialised , though Jean @-@ Éric Vergne was observed using a set of intermediate tyres late in the race . The variety of strategies used by the front @-@ runners resulted in the last ten laps being contested with the top six cars running nose @-@ to @-@ tail . Webber visibly faded in the final laps , but held on when the following cars were momentarily pinned behind the slow @-@ moving Heikki Kovalainen . Webber won the race — his second on the streets of Monaco — with Rosberg second and Fernando Alonso third , the result giving Alonso a three @-@ point lead in the championship . Red Bull Racing maintained their lead in the Constructors ' Championship as rival teams chose not to follow through on the threat of their pre @-@ race protest , while Kovalainen finished thirteenth to see Caterham overtake Marussia for tenth place . Elsewhere , Spanish Grand Prix winner Pastor Maldonado was given a ten @-@ place grid penalty for an incident that saw him clip Sergio Pérez . Combined with a five @-@ place penalty for changing his gearbox , Maldonado started from the back row of the grid where he was eliminated in the first @-@ corner accident .
= = = Round 7 – Canada = = =
One week before the Canadian Grand Prix , the FIA declared the floor used by Red Bull in Monaco to be illegal , forcing the team to change the offending parts for the Canadian Grand Prix . Despite the ruling , the team 's results were kept intact . The team was also forced to change the design of their axles , after FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting felt that holes in the axles contravened the technical regulations . Nevertheless , Sebastian Vettel comfortably took pole position by three @-@ tenths of a second . Vettel controlled the early phase of the race , but was caught and passed by Lewis Hamilton before the first round of stops , while Fernando Alonso slipped through shortly afterwards . All three drivers were using a two @-@ stop strategy at the time , but as Hamilton made his second stop , both Alonso and Vettel shifted to a one @-@ stop strategy , with Alonso 's team resorting to discussing strategy options in his native Spanish to prevent their rivals from overhearing their plans . Hamilton had twenty laps to make up a twelve @-@ second deficit , and he easily reeled Vettel in ; in response , Red Bull pitted the reigning World Champion , and Vettel fell to fifth . Hamilton 's next target was Alonso , whose tyres lost all grip and he fell victim to Hamilton , Romain Grosjean , Sergio Pérez and Vettel in quick succession . Hamilton won the race , becoming the seventh winner in seven races and taking a two @-@ point lead in the championship . Grosjean 's second place saw Lotus take third place in the Constructors ' Championship from Ferrari . Both Grosjean and Pérez expressed surprise at finishing on the podium , while 2011 winner Jenson Button finished sixteenth in what he described as his " worst race in years " and Michael Schumacher suffered a hydraulics failure that left his drag reduction system ( DRS ) device jammed in the open position .
= = = Round 8 – Europe = = =
Fernando Alonso became the first man to win two races in 2012 at the European Grand Prix in Valencia , scoring his first home win since the 2006 Spanish Grand Prix . Starting eleventh , he was forced to navigate his way through traffic , narrowly avoiding early contact between Bruno Senna and Kamui Kobayashi as Sebastian Vettel broke free of the field to establish a twenty @-@ second lead by the first round of stops . Vettel 's lead was quashed when Heikki Kovalainen and Jean @-@ Éric Vergne made contact , triggering the deployment of the safety car to clear debris from the circuit . Alonso found himself third at the restart and pounced on a mistake by second @-@ placed Romain Grosjean to lead the chase against Vettel . Vettel pulled away once more , but his lead was short @-@ lived as he lost drive and his engine shut down on lap 33 . Grosjean attempted to challenge Alonso , but was forced out of the race with an alternator problem seven laps later , leaving Alonso in the lead , four seconds clear of Lewis Hamilton and Kimi Räikkönen . As the race entered the final laps , Räikkönen forced his way past Hamilton to secure second place , but Pastor Maldonado 's attempts to take third place ended with Hamilton in the barrier and a broken nose for the Williams driver . Maldonado finished tenth , but was given a post @-@ race drive @-@ through penalty and was classified twelfth . Meanwhile , Michael Schumacher and Mark Webber had started to carve their way through the field by virtue of a late pit stop and easily picked off the minor points positions and taking advantage of the Maldonado — Hamilton collision to finish third and fourth behind Alonso and Räikkönen . It was Schumacher 's first podium since the 2006 Chinese Grand Prix . Alonso 's win cemented a twenty @-@ point lead in the championship , whilst Vettel 's retirement relegated him to fourth overall , twenty @-@ six points behind Alonso .
= = = Round 9 – Great Britain = = =
Difficult conditions greeted the teams upon their arrival at the Silverstone Circuit , as parts of the Midlands received a month 's rainfall in the space of two days . The torrential rain lasted throughout the weekend , forcing qualifying to be suspended for ninety minutes , before race day dawned clear . The circuit was declared dry , allowing the drivers to start on the tyre compound of their choice , with Alonso on the harder tyre streaking away at the start while Paul di Resta crashed at Aintree on the first lap after making contact with Romain Grosjean . As the leaders settled into a rhythm , Pastor Maldonado and Sergio Pérez collided at Brooklands , prompting an angry response from the Mexican driver . Perez 's team mate Kamui Kobayashi also ran into trouble , locking his tyres as he entered his pit box and hitting three members of his pit crew , though none were seriously injured . The race was ultimately decided by the choice of tyre in the first stint as Alonso moved onto the softer option and Webber onto the harder prime for the final phase of the race . Webber caught Alonso with five laps to go , passing him on the Wellington Straight . Webber held on for his second win of the season , with Vettel third and Felipe Massa in fourth , his best result since achieving a podium in South Korea in 2010 . The result meant Webber closed to within thirteen points of Alonso 's championship lead , with both drivers breaking away from third @-@ placed Vettel . After showing early promise in the wet conditions , McLaren went backwards in the dry , losing second place in the Constructors ' Championship to Ferrari and third to Lotus .
= = = Round 10 – Germany = = =
Limited running in practice and a wet qualifying session meant that teams had to improvise their strategies at the Hockenheimring . Fernando Alonso controlled much of the race from pole position , only relinquishing the lead when he pitted , and he went on to take his third victory of the season . Lewis Hamilton 's one hundredth Grand Prix started with a disaster when he picked up a puncture on the third lap and spent most of the race at the tail end of the field before retiring on lap 56 with a suspension problem . Confusion briefly reigned when Hamilton , in seventeenth place at the time , began lapping faster than the leaders and sought to unlap himself . Sebastian Vettel later claimed that this was a ploy by McLaren to force both him and Alonso to drive defensively against Hamilton , slowing them down enough to allow team @-@ mate Jenson Button to leap @-@ frog them at the second round of stops ; Vettel lost a position to Button , but Alonso was unaffected , as Ferrari pitted him before Hamilton could interfere with his race . Button briefly looked as if he had the pace to pass Alonso for the race lead , but the race was deadlocked in the final twenty laps , and Button began to fade in the final five laps of the race . The race was marked by another technical dispute regarding Red Bull Racing , who were referred to the stewards by FIA Technical Delegate Jo Bauer for what he felt was an illegal engine map in use on the Red Bull RB8 . The stewards elected to take no action against Red Bull , stating that the team had not violated any of the technical regulations , but noted that they did not accept all of the arguments presented by the team when asked to explain . The stewards were less forgiving of Vettel , who ran wide at the hairpin while trying to pass Button and could only complete the pass outside the limits of the circuit . Vettel had twenty seconds added to his race time as a penalty , demoting him to fifth overall . With Button promoted to second , Kimi Räikkönen inherited third place and Kamui Kobayashi was classified a career @-@ best fourth .
= = = Round 11 – Hungary = = =
As the championship moved into the second half of the season , Fernando Alonso maintained a thirty @-@ four point lead over his nearest rival , Mark Webber , with Sebastian Vettel a further ten points behind . Alonso 's outlook for the race was dour , qualifying sixth and pinning his hopes on a wet race as Lewis Hamilton continued McLaren 's mid @-@ season resurgence , returning to pole position for the first time since the Malaysian Grand Prix . Following an aborted start triggered by Michael Schumacher lining up in the wrong grid position and then shutting his engine off in the confusion , Hamilton and Grosjean lead the field away . After prematurely moving Jenson Button onto a three @-@ stop strategy , McLaren gave Hamilton the order to hold position as the tight confines of the Hungaroring circuit forced the teams to try to make up positions in the pits . This was evidenced by Kimi Räikkönen , who inherited the lead after the first set of stops and produced a series of fast laps that allowed him to rejoin in second , coming dangerously close to team @-@ mate Grosjean under brakes as he emerged from the pit lane . Despite taking two seconds out of Hamilton 's lead within five laps of rejoining the race , Räikkönen was powerless to reel Hamilton in any further . Hamilton won the race , the nineteenth of his career , with Räikkönen second and Grosjean in third . Hamilton 's victory brought with it twenty @-@ five points that put him back in championship contention , while a late decision by Red Bull to move Mark Webber onto a three @-@ stop strategy saw the Australian slip further behind Fernando Alonso , as the Spaniard extended his championship lead to forty points .
= = = Round 12 – Belgium = = =
The championship resumed one month later in Belgium . Jenson Button qualified on pole and broke away at the start while a four @-@ car pile @-@ up started behind him when Romain Grosjean made contact with Lewis Hamilton and they both slammed into Fernando Alonso and Sergio Pérez , eliminating all four on the spot and triggering the safety car . Kamui Kobayashi 's car was also damaged , and Pastor Maldonado was spun around amidst the chaos . Grosjean was later given a one @-@ race ban for causing the collision , becoming the first driver in eighteen years to be banned from racing . Maldonado retired shortly after the restart with a broken front wing after making contact with Timo Glock , while Narain Karthikeyan spun off at Stavelot mid @-@ way through the race when his wheel came loose . Button controlled the race from the front and was unchallenged throughout , while Sebastian Vettel clawed his way up to second from tenth on the grid . Kimi Räikkönen started and finished third , let down by a conservative pit strategy that forced him to make a second stop late in the race in order to use both compounds of tyre as per the rules — even when it became apparent that Button and Vettel were racing on a one @-@ stop strategy — and Nico Hülkenberg finished in a career @-@ best fourth place . Button 's win allowed him to regain precious ground on the championship fight , while Alonso 's retirement from the race and Vettel 's second place moved the reigning World Champion to within twenty @-@ four points of the championship lead . Scuderia Toro Rosso scored their first points since the Malaysian Grand Prix , with Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and Daniel Ricciardo finishing eighth and ninth respectively . Further down the order , Caterham was summoned to the stewards on charges of an unsafe pit release when Heikki Kovalainen was released directly into the path of Karthikeyan and the team was given a € 10 @,@ 000 fine for the incident .
= = = Round 13 – Italy = = =
The final race in Europe took place at Monza . Ferrari 's early bid to put Fernando Alonso on pole position by way of using Felipe Massa to offer him a slipstream ended in disaster when Alonso 's rear anti @-@ roll bar failed in the final period of qualifying , leaving the championship leader marooned in tenth while Lewis Hamilton took pole . Hamilton asserted early control over the race , and while Ferrari made significant ground early on to be running second and third — despite losing the data uplink between their cars and the pit wall that provided them with telemetry — it was Sergio Pérez who proved to be Hamilton 's biggest challenge . Starting outside the top ten , Pérez elected to start on the harder compound tyres and complete one stop , producing fastest lap after fastest lap as McLaren 's confidence was broken when Jenson Button 's car was paralysed by a fuel pressure problem . Hamilton would ultimately prevail , but he was forced to push in the final few laps to maintain his lead , and won the race by four seconds as Pérez claimed his third podium of the season with second place . Alonso went on to finish third , benefiting from Button 's retirement and a drive @-@ through penalty for Sebastian Vettel when the reigning World Champion forced him so wide through the Curva Grande that Alonso was forced off the circuit . Bruno Senna later criticised the race stewards for not penalising Paul di Resta for a similar altercation on the approach to the Variante della Roggia early in the race . Meanwhile , with Romain Grosjean serving his suspension , Lotus enlisted former Marussia F1 driver Jérôme d 'Ambrosio as their second driver for the weekend . He qualified sixteenth , and went on to finish thirteenth overall .
Red Bull Racing suffered a double retirement , with Vettel falling victim to another alternator failure and Mark Webber spinning violently at the Ascari chicane , with the resultant damage to his tyres sending vibrations through the car that forced him to retire . This allowed Hamilton to leapfrog both drivers and Kimi Räikkönen — who finished the race fifth — to take second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , with the result enabling McLaren to close the gap to Red Bull in the World Constructors ' Championship .
= = = Round 14 – Singapore = = =
As the teams returned to Asia , the focus shifted to the championship race . Lewis Hamilton put himself in the ideal position to take the fight to Fernando Alonso , qualifying on pole whilst Alonso could only manage fifth place . In the physically most demanding race of the year , the teams jostled for position through the first phase of the Grand Prix , trying to position themselves for the final ten laps . Just as the drivers established a rhythm , Hamilton 's gearbox failed , forcing him out of the race and handing the lead to Sebastian Vettel . The race was shortened by two laps to fit the two @-@ hour time limit for a Grand Prix following a pair of lengthy safety car interventions ; first , Narain Karthikeyan understeered into the barriers under the grandstands on lap 30 , forcing the safety car to be deployed . The drivers had little opportunity to get comfortable on the restart , as Michael Schumacher misjudged his braking point at the end of the Esplanade Bridge , careening into the back of Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and triggering the safety car for the second time in an accident that was a near mirror @-@ image of his collision with Sergio Pérez in 2011 . He was later given a ten @-@ place grid penalty for the Japanese Grand Prix . Vettel controlled the race from the second restart , beating Jenson Button to the line , for his second win of the season and his first since the Bahrain Grand Prix five months previously . Alonso completed the podium , retaining his championship lead after defending from Paul di Resta late in the race . Elsewhere , a string of retirements — including a late engine problem for Bruno Senna , which left the Brazilian with minor burns to his back — and a series of altercations involving Mark Webber , Nico Hülkenberg , Kamui Kobayashi and Sergio Pérez as they fought over the minor points positions allowed Timo Glock to finish twelfth , the result seeing Marussia retake tenth position in the World Constructors ' Championship from Caterham .
= = = Round 15 – Japan = = =
Fernando Alonso 's luck finally ran out in Japan ; having spent most of the season profiting from poor results from his rivals when he needed them the most , Alonso was the victim of a dramatic first corner clash , spinning out when he made contact with Kimi Räikkönen and paving the way for his championship rivals to make considerable inroads into his twenty @-@ nine point championship lead . Mark Webber was also caught up in the opening lap melee when he was hit by Romain Grosjean ; Webber was forced to pit straight away , while Grosjean was given a ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalty for causing yet another first lap incident . Bruno Senna also ran afoul of the stewards , hitting Nico Rosberg whilst trying to avoid Grosjean and Webber and earning a drive @-@ through penalty for his troubles while Rosberg retired on the spot . Sergio Pérez added his name to the growing list of early retirements when he slid off at the hairpin under brakes and into the gravel trap whilst trying to force his way past a struggling Lewis Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel won the race from pole position , having led every lap of the race and setting the fastest lap time in the process to complete his second Grand Chelem . Felipe Massa finished second , his first podium result since the 2010 Korean Grand Prix , whilst Kamui Kobayashi claimed the first podium of his career — and the first podium for a Japanese driver at the Suzuka Circuit since Aguri Suzuki finished third in 1990 — after withstanding late pressure from Jenson Button .
With Alonso retiring and Vettel taking a full twenty @-@ five points for victory , the championship fight became as close as it had been all season long .
= = = Round 16 – Korea = = =
Sebastian Vettel 's momentum continued one week later in Korea , winning his third consecutive race and taking a six @-@ point championship lead as Fernando Alonso finished third . Vettel overcame pole @-@ sitter Mark Webber at the start , and was aided in building up a lead by first @-@ lap contact between Jenson Button , Nico Rosberg and Kamui Kobayashi that saw Button and Rosberg retire with damage from the collision ; Rosberg pulled over on the approach to the third turn , forcing a protracted yellow flag period as marshalls attempted to retrieve his car . With the sporting regulations banning overtaking while yellow flags were shown , the field was effectively thinned out in the opening laps as drivers were unable to pass one another . Tyre management became the focus of the race , as drivers reported heavy graining , particularly on the right @-@ front tyre , which bore most of the load over a lap of the circuit . Vettel ignored six radio calls from his pit wall cautioning him that a tyre failure was imminent , only backing off just enough in the final few laps to secure victory over Webber by six seconds . The team later denied that there had ever been a problem with Vettel 's tyres . Further down the order , Scuderia Toro Rosso 's Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and Daniel Ricciardo fought their way from sixteenth and twenty @-@ first on the grid to finish eighth and ninth , while Romain Grosjean drove a conservative race to finish seventh , having been warned beforehand by the stewards that another first @-@ lap altercation would likely result in his disqualification from the race . Lewis Hamilton 's day went from bad to worse when an anti @-@ roll bar on his McLaren failed , while the car handled its tyres so poorly that he was forced to make an unscheduled stop in order to make it to the finish , only to tear up a length of astroturf that wreaked havoc on his downforce and he slid down to tenth place , narrowly fending off an opportunistic charge from Sergio Pérez to take the final World Championship point on offer . Button 's retirement and Hamilton 's single point meant that McLaren lost second place in the World Constructors ' Championship to Ferrari , and Hamilton admitted that his bid to be the 2012 World Drivers ' Champion was over .
= = = Round 17 – India = = =
Ferrari 's strategy for staying in the championship battle saw them introduce upgrades to the F2012 at every remaining race in the season , starting with an extensive revision for the Indian Grand Prix , but whatever advantage they offered was still not enough for Fernando Alonso to catch Sebastian Vettel . Vettel dominated the weekend , setting the fastest time in every practice session before qualifying on pole , and leading every lap of the sixty @-@ lap race , though he was denied his third Grand Chelem when Jenson Button set the fastest lap of the race on the final lap . Fernando Alonso finished second , conceding another seven championship points to Vettel . The Ferrari driver rounded up both McLaren drivers at the start of the race and proceeded to chase down Mark Webber for second , only overtaking the Australian on the long back straight when his car developed a KERS fault fifteen laps from the end that it never recovered from . Webber held off a late challenge from Lewis Hamilton to complete the podium . Further down the order , Kimi Räikkönen finished seventh after spending most of the race trapped behind Felipe Massa , and later claimed that mistakes on Saturday had robbed him of a podium on Sunday , while Pedro de la Rosa retired from the race when he suffered a brake failure that saw him spin into the barriers at Turn 4 . The race was marked by a series of explosive punctures after cars made light contact with one another ; Michael Schumacher 's right @-@ rear tyre deflated on the first lap when he made contact with Jean @-@ Éric Vergne at the first corner ; Sergio Pérez suffered a puncture under similar circumstances when he glanced Daniel Ricciardo 's front wing , with the loose rubber damaging the floor of Pérez 's car enough that he was forced into retirement ; and Pastor Maldonado also had a tyre punctured when he and Kamui Kobayashi touched at speed on the approach to Turn 5 , forcing the Venezuelan to run wide onto the tarmac run @-@ off , but suffering no lasting damage .
= = = Round 18 – Abu Dhabi = = =
Sebastian Vettel 's dominant run was derailed in Abu Dhabi when his car was found to have insufficient fuel after qualifying and he was subsequently moved to the back of the grid . As Lewis Hamilton led the race away from the start , Vettel started from pit lane and took advantage of a chaotic opening corner that saw Nico Hülkenberg , Paul di Resta , Romain Grosjean and Bruno Senna tangle ; Hülkenberg was forced out , while di Resta and Grosjean pitted with damage . Vettel began to round up the HRTs , Marussias and Caterhams , but his early progress came at the expense of his front wing endplate when he made contact with Senna at Turn 8 switchback . He chose not to pit for the time being , as the race was interrupted by the intervention of the safety car . Nico Rosberg , who had been forced to pit with damage to his front wing , was in the process of overtaking Narain Karthikeyan as Karthikeyan 's car began to fail and the Indian quickly slowed . Rosberg , caught unawares by Karthikeyan 's troubles , was launched over the back of the HRT and into the barrier . During the safety car period , Vettel was forced to pit when he swerved to avoid Daniel Ricciardo and crashed into the polystyrene bollard marking the start of the DRS zone , further damaging his wing . Red Bull Racing took the opportunity to pit him early , with the downside being that Vettel would have to do 42 laps on the soft tyre when supplier Pirelli predicted they could only do 36 . Meanwhile , Hamilton suffered another mechanical failure while leading the race , and was once again forced out , handing the lead to Kimi Räikkönen while Fernando Alonso inherited second . Vettel began to work his way through the field again , but was forced to make a second stop when his tyres started losing grip . He was saved by the second appearance of the safety car moments later , brought about when di Resta forced Sergio Pérez wide ; as Pérez rejoined the circuit , he cut back across the front of Grosjean and the two made contact , which in turn forced Grosjean into the path of Mark Webber . Grosjean and Webber retired , whilst Pérez was given a stop @-@ go penalty . When racing resumed , Räikkönen began to rebuild his lead over Alonso , who was being harried by Jenson Button ; Button himself was being harried by Vettel in fourth . Button and Vettel 's duel allowed Alonso to break free , and he started chasing down Räikkönen in the last five laps . Räikkönen held on to secure his — and Lotus F1 's — first victory of the season . Alonso was second , while Vettel caught and passed Button to complete the podium , keeping a ten @-@ point championship lead in the process . With both Alonso and Vettel finishing on the podium with him , Räikkönen 's win was not enough to keep him in contention for the World Drivers ' Championship , leaving the title to be fought out between Alonso and Vettel over the final two races of the season .
= = = Round 19 – United States = = =
Despite its troubled construction period , the Circuit of the Americas passed its final FIA inspection on 25 September , allowing the race to go ahead . Sebastian Vettel took his sixth pole position of the season , whilst Alonso struggled throughout qualifying to start the race ninth , which became eighth when Romain Grosjean received a grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change . Amid concerns that drivers starting from even @-@ numbered grid slots would suffer from a lack of grip as they were located off the racing line , Ferrari deliberately broke the seal on Felipe Massa 's gearbox , thereby giving him a five @-@ place grid penalty and promoting Alonso to seventh and the clean side of the grid . Ferrari 's fears were not without merit as the drivers starting from even @-@ number spaces fell behind at the start of the race . Vettel quickly converted pole position into a steady race lead as Lewis Hamilton fought to regain second place from Mark Webber . Moments after Hamilton caught him on lap 17 , the Australian suffered yet another alternator problem , and coasted to a halt . Red Bull Racing team principal Christian Horner later admitted that the team 's perpetual alternator problems were a serious concern with just one race left in the championship , a World Championship at stake and very little time to diagnose and correct the problem . With Webber now out of the running , Hamilton then turned his attentions on Vettel and steadily closed the gap to the lead , overtaking the World Championship leader on lap 42 when Vettel got caught behind Narain Karthikeyan in the meandering first sector , which allowed Hamilton to pass Vettel along the long back straight . Hamilton held onto the lead for the final fourteen laps , but with Vettel never more than a second and a half behind him , Hamilton could not afford to relax , and he won the race by just six tenths of a second . Alonso recovered from seventh to finish third — marking the first time that he , Hamilton and Vettel had stood on the podium together in the one hundred races all three had contested together — and forcing the title fight to extend to the final round in Brazil . Further down the order , Massa overcame his gearbox penalty to finish fourth , while Jenson Button fell from twelfth on the grid to sixteenth at the end of the first lap , using an alternative strategy to claw his way back up to fifth . Michael Schumacher , on the other hand , went backwards ; after qualifying fifth , his Mercedes chewed through its tyres , forcing him to make a second stop that sent him plummeting down the order to finish sixteenth , and a clutch problem during his stop deprived Kimi Räikkönen of the chance to compete with Alonso for the final podium place . Both Marussia drivers out @-@ qualified the Caterhams for the first time , only for Timo Glock and Charles Pic be out @-@ raced by Heikki Kovalainen and Vitaly Petrov , but the Russian team held onto tenth place in the World Constructors ' Championship . Despite losing Webber to an alternator failure , Red Bull collected enough points to secure their third consecutive World Constructors ' Championship title .
= = = Round 20 – Brazil = = =
The final race of the season was run in conditions that were never quite wet enough for drivers to use wet tyres , but never quite dry enough for slick tyres to provide enough grip . While Jenson Button and Lewis Hamilton fought over the race lead , Sebastian Vettel was involved in a first @-@ lap clash with Bruno Senna that damaged his exhaust and spun him around , relegating him to last place . Senna retired on the spot , as did Sergio Pérez , who was caught in the crossfire . The race was one of attrition , with Pastor Maldonado and Romain Grosjean also crashing out early . Button seized the lead from Hamilton , but soon found himself under pressure from Nico Hülkenberg and lost the lead to the German driver on lap 18 , and second place to Hamilton shortly thereafter . The field stabilised themselves after the first round of stops , with Vettel in the lower points and Fernando Alonso running fourth when he needed a podium to stand any chance of being champion . Hülkenberg spun on lap 48 and lost the lead to Hamilton , but caught the McLaren on lap 54 as they encountered lapped traffic . The two made contact in the first corner , forcing Hamilton out of the race and earning Hülkenberg a drive @-@ through penalty for causing an avoidable accident . In the wake of their collision , Button re @-@ took the lead and held on to the end of the race . Meanwhile , the rain intensified , prompting teams to scramble for tyres . Hülkenberg 's penalty and Hamilton 's retirement promoted Alonso to the podium , which became second place when team @-@ mate Felipe Massa yielded for him . A slow stop for Vettel relegated him to twelfth and swinging the balance of power in Alonso 's favour . In the last ten laps of the race , Vettel began to make his way back up the order until he was seventh , just enough to secure the title , but leaving him vulnerable if the damage he received on the first lap — which by now had left a long crack running along the floor of his car — got worse . Vettel 's seventh became sixth when Michael Schumacher moved aside to let Vettel through . Two laps from the end of the race , Paul di Resta crashed heavily as he came onto the main straight , forcing the deployment of the safety car . Button won the race , with Alonso second and Massa third , but Vettel 's sixth place was enough to secure his third consecutive World Drivers ' Championship . Kimi Räikkönen finished the season third overall , having benefited from Hamilton 's retirement to hold onto the place following a bizarre incident in which he left the circuit and attempted to rejoin by taking to the support paddock pit lane , only to find the way blocked and forcing him to double back and find another way onto the circuit . In his final race in Formula One , Schumacher 's seventh place saw him finish the season in thirteenth place overall ; his worst performance over a season since he contested six rounds during the 1991 season . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari secured second place from McLaren with two cars on the podium , while Kamui Kobayashi 's ninth place was not enough for Sauber to take sixth from Mercedes , and Marussia lost tenth place to Caterham when Vitaly Petrov secured the team 's best result of the season with eleventh place . Nikolai Fomenko , Marussia 's director of engineering , later claimed that Charles Pic had deliberately let Petrov through , as Pic had announced his move to Caterham for the 2013 season two days before the race ; however , no action was taken by the FIA in response to these claims .
= = = Post @-@ season controversy = = =
Three days after the Brazilian Grand Prix , reports began to surface suggesting that Sebastian Vettel 's championship was under threat and that Ferrari would be filing a formal protest against the race results . The challenge centred on a pass Vettel made on Jean @-@ Éric Vergne early in the race . At the time , the first sector of the circuit was under yellow flag conditions following the spin and retirement of Pastor Maldonado at Curva do Sol , the Interlagos circuit 's third corner , which feeds onto the back straight . Vettel overtook Vergne along the straight , which led to claims that the pass was illegal because of the yellow flags . Intense media speculation suggested that the challenge threatened Vettel 's championship because as the race finished behind the safety car , any post @-@ race penalty had the potential to demote him in the race standings , and Vettel would not have enough points to secure the title . Ferrari wrote to the FIA , requesting clarification on the matter . The FIA reviewed the incident and declared that Vettel 's pass was legal as a green flag was being shown by a marshal adjacent to the pit exit , meaning the track was green from that point onward ; the confusion had been caused by a digital board showing a yellow flag on the exit of Curva do Sol some one hundred metres before the marshalling post . Both Ferrari and Red Bull Racing announced that they were satisfied with the ruling , thereby preserving Vettel 's championship .
= = Results and standings = =
= = = Grands Prix = = =
= = = Drivers ' standings = = =
Points were awarded to the top 10 classified finishers .
Notes :
† – Drivers did not finish the Grand Prix , but were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .
= = = Constructors ' standings = = =
Notes :
† – Cars did not finish the Grand Prix , but were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .
Official FIA results for the Constructors ' Championship identified the constructors as " Red Bull Racing " , " Scuderia Ferrari " , " Vodafone McLaren Mercedes " , etc .
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= Typhoon Shanshan ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Shanshan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Luis , was a strong typhoon that affected parts of East Asia in late September 2006 . The 13th named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , Typhoon Shanshan was also the seventh typhoon of the year operationally recognised by the Japan Meteorological Agency . In post @-@ operational analysis Shanshan became the eighth typhoon of the year when Typhoon Maria was added to the list . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Shanshan the 13th tropical storm and eighth typhoon of the season , a Category 4 @-@ equivalent typhoon in terms of 1 @-@ minute average wind speed . The name Shanshan was submitted to the naming list by Hong Kong and is a girls ' given name .
Shanshan wreaked havoc in Japan , with reports that it caused a tornado which derailed a train . It made landfall first in the Yaeyama Islands , where it caused heavy rains , and later in Kyūshū . The outer bands of Shanshan also affected South Korea . Shanshan also knocked power out to thousands of homes in the two countries , and killed at least eleven people . Damage amounted to $ 2 @.@ 5 billion ( 2006 USD ) , making Shanshan the sixth costliest disaster worldwide in 2006 .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 9 , 2006 , the Japan Meteorological Agency identified a tropical depression with 25 @-@ knot 10 @-@ minute average sustained winds about 500 kilometres ( 300 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Yap , near latitude 14 @.@ 0 ° N longitude 139 @.@ 0 ° E. Later that day , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) picked up on the tropical depression and started issuing track forecasts for the system .
As the system continued to move northwestward , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 14W on the morning of September 10 . Later that day , the tropical depression moved into the PAGASA Area of Responsibility , and was named Luis . As the system continued to strengthen , the JMA upgraded the depression to a storm at 1200 UTC and named it Shanshan , a girls ' given name submitted by Hong Kong . The HKO did the same at the same time , upgrading the depression to a storm .
The storm quickly strengthened , being upgraded twice by the JMA on September 11 , at 0600 UTC to a severe tropical storm and at 1800 UTC to a typhoon , becoming the seventh official typhoon of the season . It then took on a more north @-@ northwesterly track , weakening while undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle on September 14 . However , it restrengthened , reaching its maximum intensity of 110 knots ( 205 km / h , 125 mph ) from the JMA and 120 knots ( 220 km / h , 140 mph ) from the JTWC before passing Iriomote on September 15 . Originally expected by the JTWC to pass to the east of Okinawa Island , a subtropical high @-@ pressure ridge south of the main Japanese islands forced the storm to take a more westward track , pushing it towards Taiwan . Shortly later , Shanshan passed directly over Iriomote .
PAGASA issued their final advisory later on September 16 . Peak intensity for Typhoon Luis as reported by PAGASA while it was in their area of responsibility was only 80 knots ( 150 km / h , 95 mph ) . Shanshan made landfall on September 17 on the island of Kyūshū . The HKO issued their final track forecast on the weakening typhoon later that day as it passed out of their area of responsibility , with the peak intensity while within HKO 's area of responsibility set at 185 km / h ( 115 mph , 100 kt ) . The JTWC declared the system extratropical shortly after .
The JMA downgraded the typhoon to a severe tropical storm at 0000 UTC September 18 . Just before crossing the island of Hokkaidō , according to the JMA 's best @-@ track graphic , Severe Tropical Storm Shanshan became extratropical . The extratropical storm was tracked by the JMA in their high seas marine warnings until September 22 .
= = Preparations = =
In anticipation of Typhoon Shanshan , the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau issued a marine warning for all ships in the areas around the north and the east coasts of the island and in the Bashi Channel . Tourists were also asked to avoid the areas due to fears over large waves . The Zhejiang provincial government in the People 's Republic of China also asked all fishermen to return to port and ordered local authorities to help with evacuations of people from areas threatened by the typhoon .
In Japan , the United States military and its navy took precautions against the approaching storm . Okinawa was put under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness ( TCCOR ) 1 @-@ E , which means that all outdoor activities are prohibited as there are sustained winds of at least 50 knots ( 95 km / h , 60 mph ) in force , on September 16 , with over 100 flights into and out of Naha International Airport on the island cancelled . Kadena Air Base moved various aircraft to other undisclosed locations in the Pacific . Sasebo Naval Base declared TCCOR 1 @-@ E on September 17 . The USS Harpers Ferry ( LSD @-@ 49 ) and USS Juneau ( LPD @-@ 10 ) both left the base , while the USS Patriot ( MCM @-@ 7 ) was moved to a wet berth . Only one vessel , the USS Tortuga ( LSD @-@ 46 ) remained in port for repairs , because authorities thought that the ship could withstand the storm . Elsewhere in Japan , some flights and Shinkansen bullet trains were delayed or cancelled . In Miyazaki and Hiroshima prefectures , evacuation orders were issued for almost 170 families . In Kyūshū , 10 @,@ 000 people voluntarily evacuated their houses for higher ground . The island 's seven main airports were closed , causing 41 @,@ 900 passengers to be stranded when 357 flights were cancelled . Ahead of an expected landfall on Hokkaidō , the JMA warned residents of the possibility of high winds .
Typhoon warnings were issued for Jeju and the southern and eastern coasts of South Korea ahead of the storm . Passenger ships normally serving Jeju Island remained in port . In Busan , ports were closed , and in Ulsan , 1 @,@ 600 ships remained in port . In South Gyeongsang Province , authorities banned departures from the port at Tongyeong , stranding over 16 @,@ 000 fishing boats . The Korean Coast Guard said that a total of 52 @,@ 000 ships remained at ports across the nation . Mount Jiri was also closed ahead of the storm 's passage through Korea , which was expected to bring up to 100 mm ( 4 inches ) of rain .
= = Impact = =
= = = South Korea = = =
In South Korea , Jeju Island reported 100 mm ( 4 inches ) of rain by September 16 , well before the typhoon hit , while Busan had reported 60 mm ( 2 inches ) . Shanshan knocked out electricity to nearly 4 @,@ 000 homes in southeastern South Korea . A ship off Ulleungdo sank , but no casualties were reported from that incident . A sailor died when trying to dock boats on Jeju @-@ do .
= = = Japan = = =
Shanshan 's effects on Japan and its outlying Pacific islands were widespread . On Iriomote , a peak gust of 69 @.@ 9 metres per second ( 251 km / h , 157 mph ) was recorded , the strongest ever on record since records started in 1972 . On Ishigaki , Okinawa , a peak gust of 67 @.@ 0 m / s ( 241 km / h , 150 mph ) was reported , with rainfall rates of up to 50 mm per hour ( 2 inches per hour ) reported . Over 25 @,@ 000 homes on Ishigaki lost power after 182 utility poles were downed by the storm , and at least 12 people on the island were injured . Eight vessels were reported to have capsized .
At Kadena Air Base , 2 inches ( 50 mm ) of rain were reported , with a maximum gust of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) recorded . Naha International Airport on Okinawa reported a recorded maximum wind gust to 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) . In Motobu , Okinawa , high waves damaged the local port and swept 30 cargo containers to sea , while in Okinawa City , six injuries were reported . One building in the city suffered a wall collapse , and at least 70 houses were damaged .
Off Kyūshū , a Maldives @-@ registered car ferry capsized , killing one crew member . A train was derailed , possibly due to a tornado , injuring five people . On the island , an electrician in Fukuoka Prefecture died after an industrial container at his firm fell on top of him , crushing him . A glass entrance of a supermarket in Nobeoka broke on impact with flying debris , killing one person . Elsewhere in the prefecture , a 42 @-@ year @-@ old man died in his bedroom when it was crushed , while an elderly woman farmer died when she was hit by a fallen tree outside a greenhouse . Three other deaths were confirmed on the island .
Meanwhile , in Hiroshima Prefecture , a 50 @-@ year @-@ old firefighter was killed when he drowned after being swept away by rising flood waters . A journalist went missing in similar circumstances , and was found dead a few days later . In all , Typhoon Shanshan killed 11 people and injured over 260 others . Shanshan is also credited with US $ 4 @.@ 9 million worth of net losses in the third financial quarter for IPC Holdings , Ltd .
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= Type II supernova =
A Type II supernova ( plural : supernovae or supernovas ) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star . A star must have at least 8 times , and no more than 40 – 50 times , the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) to undergo this type of explosion . It is distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in its spectrum . Type II supernovae are mainly observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions , but not in elliptical galaxies .
Stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements . Unlike the Sun , massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium , albeit at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures , causing increasingly shorter stellar life spans . The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing , maintaining stellar equilibrium . The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements , starting with hydrogen and then helium , progressing up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced . Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output , so no further fusion can take place , leaving the nickel @-@ iron core inert . Due to the lack of energy output creating outward pressure , equilibrium is broken and the core is compressed by the overlying mass of the star .
When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression . A cataclysmic implosion of the core takes place within seconds . Without the support of the now @-@ imploded inner core , the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a velocity of up to 23 % of the speed of light and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion kelvin . Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta @-@ decay , releasing about 1046 joules ( 100 foe ) in a ten @-@ second burst . The collapse of the inner core is halted by neutron degeneracy , causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward . The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity , forming a supernova explosion . The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which the production of elements heavier than iron occurs . Depending on initial size of the star , the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole . Because of the underlying mechanism , the resulting nova is also described as a core @-@ collapse supernova .
There exist several categories of Type II supernova explosions , which are categorized based on the resulting light curve — a graph of luminosity versus time — following the explosion . Type II @-@ L supernovae show a steady ( linear ) decline of the light curve following the explosion , whereas Type II @-@ P display a period of slower decline ( a plateau ) in their light curve followed by a normal decay . Type Ib and Ic supernovae are a type of core @-@ collapse supernova for a massive star that has shed its outer envelope of hydrogen and ( for Type Ic ) helium . As a result , they appear to be lacking in these elements .
= = Formation = =
Stars far more massive than the sun evolve in more complex ways . In the core of the star , hydrogen is fused into helium , releasing thermal energy that heats the sun 's core and provides outward pressure that supports the sun 's layers against collapse in a process known as stellar or hydrostatic equilibrium . The helium produced in the core accumulates there since temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse . Eventually , as the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , fusion starts to slow down , and gravity causes the core to contract . This contraction raises the temperature high enough to initiate a shorter phase of helium fusion , which accounts for less than 10 % of the star 's total lifetime . In stars with fewer than eight solar masses , the carbon produced by helium fusion does not fuse , and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf . White dwarf stars , if they have a near companion , may then become Type Ia supernovae .
A much larger star , however , is massive enough to create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse when the star contracts at the end of the helium @-@ burning stage . The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center , with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas , surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium , surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple @-@ alpha process , surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements . As a star this massive evolves , it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops , and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion , reigniting to halt collapse .
= = Core collapse = =
The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released through fusion , which is dependent on the binding energy that holds together these atomic nuclei . Each additional step produces progressively heavier nuclei , which release progressively less energy when fusing . In addition , from carbon @-@ burning onwards , energy loss via neutrino production becomes significant , leading to a higher rate of reaction than would otherwise take place . This continues until nickel @-@ 56 is produced , which decays radioactively into cobalt @-@ 56 and then iron @-@ 56 over the course of a few months . As iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per nucleon of all the elements , energy cannot be produced at the core by fusion , and a nickel @-@ iron core grows . This core is under huge gravitational pressure . As there is no fusion to further raise the star 's temperature to support it against collapse , it is supported only by degeneracy pressure of electrons . In this state , matter is so dense that further compaction would require electrons to occupy the same energy states . However , this is forbidden for identical fermion particles , such as the electron – a phenomenon called the Pauli exclusion principle .
When the core 's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , degeneracy pressure can no longer support it , and catastrophic collapse ensues . The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70 @,@ 000 km / s ( 23 % of the speed of light ) as it collapses toward the center of the star . The rapidly shrinking core heats up , producing high @-@ energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration . As the core 's density increases , it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay , producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos . Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter , they can escape from the core , carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse , which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds . As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star , some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star 's outer layers , beginning the supernova explosion .
For Type II supernovae , the collapse is eventually halted by short @-@ range repulsive neutron @-@ neutron interactions , mediated by the strong force , as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons , at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus . When the collapse stops , the infalling matter rebounds , producing a shock wave that propagates outward . The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core . This reduces the energy of the shock , which can stall the explosion within the outer core .
The core collapse phase is so dense and energetic that only neutrinos are able to escape . As the protons and electrons combine to form neutrons by means of electron capture , an electron neutrino is produced . In a typical Type II supernova , the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion Kelvin , 104 times the temperature of the sun 's core . Much of this thermal energy must be shed for a stable neutron star to form , otherwise the neutrons would " boil away " . This is accomplished by a further release of neutrinos . These ' thermal ' neutrinos form as neutrino @-@ antineutrino pairs of all flavors , and total several times the number of electron @-@ capture neutrinos . The two neutrino production mechanisms convert the gravitational potential energy of the collapse into a ten @-@ second neutrino burst , releasing about 1046 joules ( 100 foe ) .
Through a process that is not clearly understood , about 1 % , or 1044 joules ( 1 foe ) , of the energy released ( in the form of neutrinos ) is reabsorbed by the stalled shock , producing the supernova explosion . Neutrinos generated by a supernova were observed in the case of Supernova 1987A , leading astrophysicists to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct . The water @-@ based Kamiokande II and IMB instruments detected antineutrinos of thermal origin , while the gallium @-@ 71 @-@ based Baksan instrument detected neutrinos ( lepton number = 1 ) of either thermal or electron @-@ capture origin .
When the progenitor star is below about 20 M ☉ – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star . Above this mass , the remnant collapses to form a black hole . The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about 40 – 50 M ☉ . Above that mass , a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion , although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain .
= = Theoretical models = =
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter . This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions . The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty picojoules ( tens to hundreds of MeV ) . The per @-@ particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct . But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model . In particular , Earth @-@ based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae , but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles , and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects . The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force , which is believed to be well understood . However , the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force , which is much less well understood .
The major unsolved problem with Type II supernovae is that it is not understood how the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock wave which causes the star to explode . From the above discussion , only one percent of the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion , but explaining how that one percent of transfer occurs has proven very difficult , even though the particle interactions involved are believed to be well understood . In the 1990s , one model for doing this involved convective overturn , which suggests that convection , either from neutrinos from below , or infalling matter from above , completes the process of destroying the progenitor star . Heavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture , and from the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the " neutrinosphere " , seeding the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than the material from which the star originally formed .
Neutrino physics , which is modeled by the Standard Model , is crucial to the understanding of this process . The other crucial area of investigation is the hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying star ; how it behaves during the core collapse determines when and how the " shock wave " forms and when and how it " stalls " and is reenergized .
In fact , some theoretical models incorporate a hydrodynamical instability in the stalled shock known as the " Standing Accretion Shock Instability " ( SASI ) . This instability comes about as a consequence of non @-@ spherical perturbations oscillating the stalled shock thereby deforming it . The SASI is often used in tandem with neutrino theories in computer simulations for re @-@ energizing the stalled shock .
Computer models have been very successful at calculating the behavior of Type II supernovae when the shock has been formed . By ignoring the first second of the explosion , and assuming that an explosion is started , astrophysicists have been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and of the expected light curve from the supernova .
= = Light curves for Type II @-@ L and Type II @-@ P supernovae = =
When the spectrum of a Type II supernova is examined , it normally displays Balmer absorption lines – reduced flux at the characteristic frequencies where hydrogen atoms absorb energy . The presence of these lines is used to distinguish this category of supernova from a Type I supernova .
When the luminosity of a Type II supernova is plotted over a period of time , it shows a characteristic rise to a peak brightness followed by a decline . These light curves have an average decay rate of 0 @.@ 008 magnitudes per day ; much lower than the decay rate for Type Ia supernovae . Type II are sub @-@ divided into two classes , depending on the shape of the light curve . The light curve for a Type II @-@ L supernova shows a steady ( linear ) decline following the peak brightness . By contrast , the light curve of a Type II @-@ P supernova has a distinctive flat stretch ( called a plateau ) during the decline ; representing a period where the luminosity decays at a slower rate . The net luminosity decay rate is lower , at 0 @.@ 0075 magnitudes per day for Type II @-@ P , compared to 0 @.@ 012 magnitudes per day for Type II @-@ L.
The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be caused , in the case of Type II @-@ L supernovae , by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen envelope of the progenitor star . The plateau phase in Type II @-@ P supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of the exterior layer . The shock wave ionizes the hydrogen in the outer envelope – stripping the electron from the hydrogen atom – resulting in a significant increase in the opacity . This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from escaping . When the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine , the outer layer becomes transparent .
= = Type IIn supernovae = =
The " n " denotes narrow , which indicates the presence of intermediate or very narrow width H emission lines in the spectra . In the intermediate width case , the ejecta from the explosion may be interacting strongly with gas around the star – the circumstellar medium . The estimated circumstellar density required to explain the observational properties is much higher than that expected from the standard stellar evolution theory . It is generally assumed that the high circumstellar density is due to the high mass @-@ loss rates of the SN IIn progenitors . The estimated mass @-@ loss rates are typically higher than 10 − 3 M ⊙ yr − 1 . There are indications that they originate as stars similar to Luminous blue variables with large mass losses before exploding . SN 1998S and SN 2005gl are famous examples of Type IIn ; SN 2006gy , an extremely energetic supernova , may be another example .
= = Type IIb supernovae = =
A Type IIb supernova has a weak hydrogen line in its initial spectrum , which is why it is classified as a Type II . However , later on the H emission becomes undetectable , and there is also a second peak in the light curve that has a spectrum which more closely resembles a Type Ib supernova . The progenitor could have been a giant star which lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to interactions with a companion in a binary system , leaving behind the core that consisted almost entirely of helium . As the ejecta of a Type IIb expands , the hydrogen layer quickly becomes more transparent and reveals the deeper layers . The classic example of a Type IIb supernova is Supernova 1993J , while another example is Cassiopeia A. The IIb class was first introduced ( as a theoretical concept ) by Ensman & Woosley 1987 .
= = Hypernovae ( collapsars ) = =
Hypernovae are a rare type of supernova substantially more luminous and energetic than standard supernovae . Examples are 1997ef ( type Ic ) and 1997cy ( type IIn ) . Hypernovae are produced by more than one type of event : relativistic jets during formation of a black hole from fallback of material onto the neutron star core , the collapsar model ; interaction with a dense envelope of circumstellar material , the CSM model ; the highest mass pair instability supernovae ; possibly others such as binary and quark star model .
Stars with initial masses between about 25 and 90 times the sun develop cores large enough that after a supernova explosion , some material will fall back onto the neutron star core and create a black hole . In many cases this reduces the luminosity of the supernova , and above 90 M ☉ the star collapses directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion . However , if the progenitor is spinning quickly enough the infalling material generates relativistic jets that emit more energy than the original explosion . They may also be seen directly if beamed towards us , giving the impression of an even more luminous object . In some cases these can produce gamma @-@ ray bursts , although not all gamma @-@ ray bursts are from supernovae .
In some cases a type II supernova occurs when the star is surrounded by a very dense cloud of material , most likely expelled during luminous blue variable eruptions . This material is shocked by the explosion and becomes more luminous than a standard supernova . It is likely that there is a range of luminosities for these type IIn supernovae with only the brightest qualifying as a hypernova .
Pair instability supernovae occur when an oxygen core in an extremely massive star becomes hot enough that gamma rays spontaneously produce electron @-@ positron pairs . This causes the core to collapse , but where the collapse of an iron core causes endothermic fusion to heavier elements , the collapse of an oxygen core creates runaway exothermic fusion which completely unbinds the star . The total energy emitted depends on the initial mass , with much of the core being converted to 56Ni and ejected which then powers the supernova for many months . At the lower end stars of about 140 M ☉ produce supernovae that are long @-@ lived but otherwise typical , while the highest mass stars of around 250 M ☉ produce supernovae that are extremely luminous and also very long lived ; hypernovae . More massive stars die by photodisintegration . Only population III stars , with very low metallicity , can reach this stage . Stars with more heavy elements are more opaque and blow away their outer layers until they are small enough to explode as a normal type Ib / c supernova . It is thought that even in our own galaxy , mergers of old low metallicity stars may form massive stars capable of creating a pair instability supernova .
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= Pulveroboletus ravenelii =
Pulveroboletus ravenelii , commonly known as Ravenel 's bolete or the powdery sulfur bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1853 , the widely distributed species is known from Asia , Australia , North America , Central America , and South America . Mycorrhizal with oak , the fungus fruits on the ground singly , scattered , or in groups in woods . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have convex to flat , yellowish to brownish @-@ red caps up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter . On the cap underside , the pore surface is bright yellow before turning dingy yellow to grayish brown with age ; it stains greenish blue then grayish brown after injury . A cottony and powdery partial veil remains as a ring on the stipe . The mushrooms are edible , and have been used in traditional Chinese medicine and for mushroom dyeing .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Boletus ravenelii by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1853 . Specimens were sent to them by American botanist Henry William Ravenel , who collected them in South Carolina . They considered the bolete " a most splendid species closely allied to B. hemichrysus , and , like that , remarkable for the pulverulent veil . " The specific epithet honors Ravenel . William Alphonso Murrill transferred the fungus to the genus Pulveroboletus in 1909 , giving it the name by which it is known today . The mushroom is commonly known as " Ravenel 's bolete " or the " powdery sulfur bolete " .
= = Description = =
The cap is rounded to convex before flattening with age , and attains a diameter of 1 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Its margin is curved inward when young , and usually has hanging remnants of the partial veil . The surface is dry and initially coated with fine particles , while later it develops fine hairs or small scales that are pressed down flat on the surface ; in maturity the surface usually develops fine cracks or wrinkles . It is bright yellow , later turning to orange @-@ red to brownish red . The flesh is white to pale yellow , and , when cut , will slowly stain pale blue , then dingy yellow to pale brown . Its flesh has been described variously as indistinct , or bitter tasting with an odor of hickory leaves . The pore surface is bright yellow before turning dingy yellow to grayish brown with age . It stains greenish blue then grayish brown after being bruised or injured . The pores , which number about 1 – 3 per millimeter , are angular to almost circular . The tubes comprising the pore surface are 5 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) deep . The yellow stem measures 4 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and is roughly equal in width throughout or somewhat thicker near the base . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , and , above the level of the base , the surface is covered with minute hairs pressed flat against the surface . The partial veil , also bright yellow , is cottony and powdery , and remains as a ring on the upper portion of the stem , although in some specimens it merges gradually with the stipe surface and becomes inconspicuous . There is white mycelium at the stipe base .
Pulveroboletus ravenelii produces an olive @-@ grey to olive @-@ brown spore print . Spores are elliptical to oval , smooth , and measure 8 – 10 by 4 – 5 μm . The hyphal tissue in the hymenophore is inamyloid and bilateral , meaning it diverges downward from the flesh toward the edge of the hymenophore , away from a central strand . The tubes have scattered cystidia on the walls ( pleurocystidia ) and abundant cystidia on the edges ( cheilocystidia ) . The hyphae in the cap cuticle are arranged as an ixotrichodermium – long and typically multi @-@ celled , with erect hyphae embedded in a gelatinous matrix . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Pulveroboletus ravenelii grow on the ground singly , scattered , or in groups in woods under conifers . Preferred mycorrhizal plant hosts include pine , hemlock , and rhododendron . Fruiting occurs from July to October . In North America , it is distributed from eastern Canada extending south to the Gulf of Mexico , and west to Texas , Michigan , and California . The bolete was reported from a Mexican beech ( Fagus mexicana ) forest in Hidalgo , Mexico in 2010 . It has also been recorded from Costa Rica and Colombia . In Asia , it has been found in Indonesia and China . It has also been recorded from northeast Australia .
= = Uses = =
Pulveroboletus ravenelii mushrooms are edible . They have been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat lumbago , numbed limbs , and as an antihemorrhagic . Bioactive compounds that have been identified from the fruit bodies include pulveravin A , pulveravin B , vulpinic acid , and pulverolide . Mushrooms are also used in mushroom dyeing to produce the colors yellow , gold , greenish yellow , orange , or olive , depending on the mordant used .
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= Johnny 's Theme =
" Johnny 's Theme " is an instrumental jazz song played as the opening theme of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from the show 's inception in 1962 through its finale in 1992 . The piece was composed by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson , based on a previous composition by Anka . It was performed by The Tonight Show Band , which released an arrangement by Tommy Newsom in 1986 as part of its Grammy Award @-@ winning eponymous debut album . The single release also garnered a Grammy nomination .
" Johnny 's Theme " has since been released in cover versions and on compilation albums . It has appeared in several films , and been played live in concert by school bands and by amateur and professional musicians , including Doc Severinsen 's Big Band .
= = Development and evolution = =
= = = 1959 : Two songs = = =
" Johnny 's Theme " began life as " Toot Sweet " , a pop instrumental composed in 1959 by Paul Anka and recorded by Tutti 's Trumpets . It was released on Disney 's Buena Vista label as the B @-@ side to The Camarata Strings ' single " Lost In a Fog " .
" Tutti " Camarata , who was Annette Funicello 's producer at the time , asked Anka to write some songs for Funicello 's first album to follow her work on The Mickey Mouse Club . Anka added lyrics to " Toot Sweet " and published them under the title " It 's Really Love " , and the song was released as part of Annette Sings Anka . He recorded his own version of " It 's Really Love " that same year for the French film Faibles Femmes ; it was released on seven @-@ inch EPs in France , Italy and Spain .
= = = 1962 : Johnny Carson = = =
When Johnny Carson , a fan of jazz music , was preparing to take over as the permanent host of The Tonight Show starting in October 1962 , he recognized that he would need a theme song . Carson and Anka had worked together in England on the television special An Evening with Paul Anka in 1961 ; when they happened to meet up again in New York City the following year , Carson manager Al Bruno mentioned needing a theme .
Anka created a new instrumental arrangement for " It 's Really Love " and sent a demo to Carson and Ed McMahon , who were in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , making preparations for the show . McMahon said " it was the first time either one of us heard [ the song ] — and magic . "
= = = 1962 – 92 : The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson = = =
Shortly after sending the demo , Anka received a telephone call and was told that Tonight Show bandleader Skitch Henderson was angry because Carson wanted to use a theme song written by " a 20 @-@ year @-@ old kid " . Anka said he then offered to let Carson write and publish new lyrics in order to claim a songwriter 's credit , along with half of the royalties every time the song was played . Those lyrics were never used on the show . Anka estimated that " Johnny 's Theme " was played live on Carson 's Tonight Show more than 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 times over the course of 30 years . As its original composer , Anka also was paid each time the song was broadcast , earning each man an average of about US $ 200 @,@ 000 per year .
The song was retired along with Carson in 1992 ; his iteration of The Tonight Show was called " the last widely public big @-@ band forum " . Incoming bandleader Branford Marsalis composed a more " funky " theme for successor Jay Leno because " a swing tune doesn 't reflect Jay at all [ and ] jazz doesn 't come to mind either . "
= = Releases = =
Henry Mancini and his orchestra recorded a 2 : 44 arrangement of " Johnny 's Theme " in 1972 for the German EP Theme from Nicholas and Alexandra . A version also appeared as part of Mancini 's 2010 compilation Big Screen , Little Screen . Paul Anka produced a recording by Top Brass for Buddah Records in 1973 . Lawrence Welk and his orchestra performed the song for their 1976 album Nadia 's Theme .
Doc Severinsen and the band recorded " Johnny 's Theme " and 12 other tracks for their album The Tonight Show Band , released in 1986 . Amherst Records also released the track as a single , titled " Johnny 's Theme ( The Tonight Show Theme ) " , which debuted at # 27 on the Radio & Records Jazz Top 30 chart . The song has been released on compilations of television themes , the 1995 compilation 25 Years of Chrysalis Music , and The Very Best of Doc Severinsen ( 1998 ) .
= = Reception = =
" Johnny 's Theme " earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Instrumental Performance , losing to " Top Gun Anthem " at the awards presentation in 1987 . The Tonight Show Band was honored for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Big Band .
= = Legacy = =
In 2005 , Doc Severinsen , Carson 's bandleader starting in 1967 , said the song worked so well because it was " accessible . People could understand what it was , and it was associated with Johnny . " Larry King called it " one of the most familiar themes in American television history . " Paul Anka said the song was played for only a short time each night , " but everybody knows it . Simplicity is indeed royal . "
The Washington Post in 2008 said the days of the television theme song were fading into nostalgia , though they " used to abound " , with or without lyrics . For example , " Anka 's Tonight Show theme was inseparable from late night and Johnny Carson . "
" Johnny 's Theme " has been included in numerous films , including This Is My Life , Isn 't She Great and Talk to Me . The song has been performed live by musicians at varying skill levels , from student to professional . Iowa State Cyclones men 's basketball coach Johnny Orr came onto the court pumping his fist as the pep band played " Johnny 's Theme " before games at the Hilton Coliseum . Orr 's tenure ran from 1980 to 1994 .
Doc Severinsen has kept the song alive on tour . His Big Band opened its shows by playing the theme in its entirety , " just to let you know who we are . " Severinsen and The Roots played " Johnny 's Theme " during a 2015 episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon .
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= Blue Velvet ( film ) =
Blue Velvet is a 1986 American mystery film , written and directed by David Lynch . Blending psychological horror with film noir , the film stars Kyle MacLachlan , Isabella Rossellini , Dennis Hopper and Laura Dern . The title is taken from Bobby Vinton 's 1963 song of the same name . Although initially receiving a divided critical response , the film is now widely acclaimed as one of the greatest films of the 1980s , and earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director . As an example of a director casting against the norm , Blue Velvet is also noted for re @-@ launching Hopper 's career and for providing Rossellini with a dramatic outlet beyond the work as a fashion model and a cosmetics spokeswoman , something for which she had until then been known .
After the commercial and critical failure of Lynch 's Dune ( 1984 ) , he made attempts at developing a more " personal story " , somewhat characteristic of the surrealist style he displayed in his debut Eraserhead ( 1977 ) . The screenplay of Blue Velvet had been passed around multiple times in the late 1970s and early 1980s , with many major studios declining it because of its strong sexual and violent content . The independent studio De Laurentiis Entertainment Group , owned at the time by Italian film producer Dino De Laurentiis , agreed to finance and produce the film .
Since its initial theatrical release , Blue Velvet has achieved cult status , generated significant academic attention with regard to its thematic symbolism and is widely regarded as one of Lynch 's best works . The film is consistently ranked among the greatest American films of all time by various publications , including Sight & Sound , Time Magazine , Entertainment Weekly and BBC Magazine . In 2008 , Blue Velvet was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the greatest mystery films ever made .
= = Plot = =
Jeffrey Beaumont ( Kyle MacLachlan ) returns to his logging home town of Lumberton , North Carolina from Oak Lake College after his father suffers a near @-@ fatal stroke . While walking home from the hospital , he cuts through a vacant lot and discovers a severed ear . Jeffrey takes the ear to police detective John Williams ( George Dickerson ) and becomes reacquainted with the detective 's daughter , Sandy ( Laura Dern ) . She tells him details about the ear case and a suspicious woman , Dorothy Vallens ( Isabella Rossellini ) , who may be connected to the case . Increasingly curious , Jeffrey enters Dorothy 's apartment by posing as an exterminator , and while Dorothy is distracted by a man dressed in a yellow suit at her door ( whom Jeffrey later refers to as the Yellow Man ) , Jeffrey steals her spare key .
Jeffrey and Sandy attend Dorothy 's nightclub act , in which she sings " Blue Velvet " , and leave early so Jeffrey can sneak into her apartment to snoop . He hurriedly hides in a closet when she returns home . However , Dorothy , wielding a knife , discovers him and threatens to kill him . Believing his curiosity is merely sexual and aroused by his voyeurism , Dorothy makes Jeffrey undress at knifepoint and begins to fellate him before their encounter is interrupted by a knock at the door . Dorothy hides Jeffrey in the closet . From there he witnesses the visitor , Frank Booth ( Dennis Hopper ) , inflict his bizarre sexual proclivities — which include inhaling an unidentified gas ( possibly amyl nitrite ) , dry humping , and sadomasochism — upon Dorothy . Frank is an extremely foul @-@ mouthed , violent sociopath whose orgasmic climax is a fit of both pleasure and rage . He continually refers to her as " Mommy " and to himself as both the " Daddy " and the " Baby " , who " want to fuck . " Frank has kidnapped Dorothy 's husband and son to force her to perform sexual favors ; to " Do it for van Gogh . " When Frank leaves , a sad and desperate Dorothy tries to seduce Jeffrey again and demands that he hit her , but when he refuses , she tells him to leave . When Jeffrey moves to leave , she asks him to stay , though he leaves anyway .
Jeffrey relays his experience to Sandy , asking her why there are people like Frank . Sandy in turn tells him of a wonderful dream she had about robins that she interprets as a sign of hope for humanity . Jeffrey and Sandy find themselves attracted to each other , though Sandy has a boyfriend .
Jeffrey again visits Dorothy 's apartment and she tells him that although she knows nothing about him , she has been yearning for him . Jeffrey attends another of Dorothy 's performances at the club , where she sings the same song . At the club , Jeffrey spots Frank in the audience fondling a piece of blue velvet fabric he cut from Dorothy 's robe . Jeffrey follows Frank and spends the next few days spying on him . Shortly afterwards , two men that Jeffrey calls the Well @-@ Dressed Man and the Yellow Man exit an industrial building that Frank frequently visits . Jeffrey concludes the men are criminal associates of Frank , and tells his new findings to Sandy . The two briefly kiss , though she feels uncomfortable about going any further . Jeffrey immediately visits Dorothy again , and the two have sex . However , when he refuses to hit her , she pressures him , becoming more emotional . In a blind rage he knocks her backwards and is instantly horrified , but Dorothy derives pleasure from it .
Afterwards , Frank catches Dorothy and Jeffrey together and forces them both to accompany him to the apartment of Ben ( Dean Stockwell ) , his suave , effeminate partner in crime who is holding Dorothy 's son . Ben lip @-@ syncs a performance of Roy Orbison 's " In Dreams " , sending Frank into maudlin sadness , then rage . Frank takes Jeffrey to a lumber yard and when he molests Dorothy , Jeffrey stands up to Frank by punching him . Frank 's cronies drag Jeffrey out of the car and Frank kisses Jeffrey 's face , intimidates him , and then savagely beats him to the overture of " In Dreams " . Jeffrey wakes the next day at the same place and walks home , overcome with guilt and despair . He goes to the police station , where he notices that Sandy 's father 's partner is the Yellow Man — an officer named Lieutenant Detective Tom Gordon ( Fred Pickler ) . Later , at Sandy 's home , her father is amazed by Jeffrey 's story , but warns Jeffrey to stop his amateur sleuthing lest he endanger himself and the investigation . Jeffrey and Sandy go to a dance together and profess their love , only to be confronted by Sandy 's boyfriend . A confrontation is averted when the group finds Dorothy — naked , battered , and distressed — on Jeffrey 's front lawn . Barely conscious , Dorothy reveals her intimacy with Jeffrey , causing Sandy to become upset and to slap Jeffrey , although she later forgives him .
Jeffrey insists on returning to Dorothy 's apartment and tells Sandy to immediately send the police there , including her father . At Dorothy 's apartment , Jeffrey finds Dorothy 's husband ( Don Vallens ) , who is dead from a gunshot to the head and identifiable by his missing ear , as well as the Yellow Man ( Gordon ) , who bears a gruesome head wound and appears to have suffered a crude lobotomy . When Jeffrey tries to leave , he sees the Well @-@ Dressed Man coming up the stairs and recognizes him as Frank in disguise . Jeffrey talks to Detective Williams over the Yellow Man 's police radio , but lies about his location inside the apartment . Frank enters the apartment and brags about hearing Jeffrey 's location over his own police radio . While Frank searches for him in the wrong room , Jeffrey retrieves the Yellow Man 's gun and hides in the same closet in which he hid during his first visit to the apartment . Frank fires sporadically , knocking over the dead Yellow Man , who had still been standing up , and when he opens the closet door , Jeffrey fatally shoots him in the head . Detective Williams , gun drawn , enters with Sandy a moment later . Jeffrey and Sandy now go ahead with their relationship and note the unusual appearance of robins in their town . A montage sequence ends the film , which shows Dorothy and her son reunited .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The film 's story originated from three ideas that crystallized in the filmmaker 's mind over a period of time starting as early as 1973 . The first idea was only " a feeling " and the title Blue Velvet , Lynch told Cineaste in 1987 . The second idea was an image of a severed , human ear lying in a field . " I don 't know why it had to be an ear . Except it needed to be an opening of a part of the body , a hole into something else ... The ear sits on the head and goes right into the mind so it felt perfect " , Lynch remarked in an interview . The third idea was Bobby Vinton 's classic rendition of the song Blue Velvet and " the mood that came with that song a mood , a time , and things that were of that time . " Lynch eventually spent two years writing two drafts , which , he stated , were not very good . The problem with them , Lynch has said , was that " there was maybe all the unpleasantness in the film but nothing else . A lot was not there . And so it went away for a while . "
After completing The Elephant Man ( 1980 ) , Lynch met producer Richard Roth over coffee . Roth had read and enjoyed Lynch 's Ronnie Rocket script , but did not think it was something he wanted to produce . He asked Lynch if the filmmaker had any other scripts , but the director only had ideas . " I told him I had always wanted to sneak into a girl 's room to watch her into the night and that , maybe , at one point or another , I would see something that would be the clue to a murder mystery . Roth loved the idea and asked me to write a treatment . I went home and thought of the ear in the field . " Production was announced in August 1984 . Lynch wrote two more drafts before he was satisfied with the script of the film . Conditions at this point were ideal for Lynch 's film : he had cut a deal with Dino De Laurentiis that gave him complete artistic freedom and final cut privileges , with the stipulation that the filmmaker take a cut in his salary and work with a budget of only $ 6 million . This deal meant that Blue Velvet was the smallest film on the De Laurentiis ' slate . Consequently , Lynch would be left mostly unsupervised during production . " After Dune I was down so far that anything was up ! So it was just a euphoria . And when you work with that kind of feeling , you can take chances . You can experiment . " Because the material was completely different from anything that would be considered mainstream at the time , Laurentiis had to start his own company to distribute it .
The cast of Blue Velvet included several then @-@ relatively unknown actors . Isabella Rossellini had gained some exposure before the film for her Lancôme ads in the early 1980s and for being the daughter of actress Ingrid Bergman and Italian film director Roberto Rossellini . Dennis Hopper was the biggest " name " in the film , having starred in Easy Rider ( 1969 ) , while Kyle MacLachlan had played the central role in Lynch 's critical and commercial failure Dune ( 1984 ) , a science fiction epic based on the novel . MacLachlan later became a recurring collaborator with Lynch , who remarked : " Kyle plays innocents who are interested in the mysteries of life . He 's the person you trust enough to go into a strange world with . " Dennis Hopper — said to be Lynch 's third choice — accepted the role , reportedly having exclaimed , " I 've got to play Frank ! I am Frank ! " as Hopper confirmed in the Blue Velvet " making @-@ of " documentary The Mysteries of Love , produced for the 2002 special edition . For the role of Dorothy Vallens , Lynch met Isabella Rossellini at a restaurant , and she accepted the role . Laura Dern , then just nineteen years old , was cast after various successful actresses at the time turned it down , including Molly Ringwald .
The scene in which Dorothy appears naked outside was inspired by a real @-@ life experience Lynch had during childhood when he and his brother saw a naked woman walking down a neighborhood street at night . The experience was so traumatic to the young Lynch that it made him cry , and he had never forgotten it . Principal photography of Blue Velvet began in February 1986 and completed in April . The film was shot at EUE / Screen Gems studio in Wilmington , North Carolina , which also provided the exterior scenes of Lumberton . The scene with a raped and battered Dorothy proved to be particularly challenging . Several townspeople arrived to watch the filming with picnic baskets and rugs , against the wishes of Rossellini and Lynch . However , they continued filming as normal , and when Lynch yelled cut , the townspeople had left . As a result , police told Lynch they were no longer permitted to shoot in any public areas of Wilmington .
Lynch 's original rough cut ran for approximately four hours . He was contractually obligated to deliver a two @-@ hour movie by De Laurentiis and cut many small subplots and character scenes . He also made cuts at the request of the MPAA . For example , when Frank slaps Dorothy after the first rape scene , the audience was supposed to see Frank actually hitting her . Instead , the film cuts away to Jeffrey in the closet , wincing at what he has just seen . This cut was made to satisfy the MPAA 's concerns about violence . Lynch thought that the change only made the scene more disturbing . Lynch announced in a radio interview on January 18 , 2011 , that footage from the deleted scenes , long thought lost , had been discovered . It later appeared on the 2011 special edition Blu @-@ ray disc release of the film . The final cut produced by Lynch runs for just under two hours .
= = Interpretation = =
Despite Blue Velvet 's initial appearance as a mystery , the film operates on a number of thematic levels . The film owes a large debt to 1950s film noir , containing and exploring such conventions as the femme fatale ( Dorothy Vallens ) , a seemingly unstoppable villain ( Frank Booth ) , and the questionable moral outlook of the hero ( Jeffrey Beaumont ) , as well as its unusual use of shadowy , sometimes dark cinematography . Blue Velvet represents and establishes Lynch 's famous " askew vision , " and introduces several common elements of Lynch 's work , some of which would later become his trademarks , including distorted characters , a polarized world , and debilitating damage to the skull or brain . Perhaps the most significant " Lynchian " trademark in the film is the depiction of unearthing a dark underbelly in a seemingly idealized small town ; Jeffrey even proclaims in the film that he is " seeing something that was always hidden " , alluding to the film 's plot central idea . Lynch 's characterization of films , symbols , and motifs have become well @-@ known , and his particular style , characterised largely in Blue Velvet for the first time , has been written about extensively using descriptions like " dreamlike " , " ultraweird " , " dark " , and " oddball " . Red curtains also show up in key scenes , specifically in Dorothy 's apartment , which have since become a Lynch trademark . The film has been compared to Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) because of its stark treatment of psychotic evil . The premise of both films is curiosity , leading to an investigation that draws the lead characters into a hidden , voyeuristic underworld of crime .
The film 's thematic framework hearkens back to Poe , James , and early gothic fiction , as well as films such as Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) and The Night of the Hunter ( 1955 ) and the entire notion of film noir . Lynch has called it a " film about things that are hidden — within a small city and within people . " Like many other Lynch films , Blue Velvet is immersed in pop culture imagery , both from the 1950s and the 1960s , as well as the 1980s .
Feminist psychoanalytic film theorist Laura Mulvey argues that Blue Velvet establishes a metaphorical Oedipal family — " the child " , Jeffrey Beaumont , and his " parents " , Frank Booth and Dorothy Vallens — through deliberate references to film noir and its underlying Oedipal theme . The resulting violence , she claims , can be read as symbolic of domestic violence within real families . For instance , Frank 's violent acts can be seen to reflect the different types of abuse within families , and the control he has over Dorothy might represent the hold an abusive husband has over his wife . Michael Atkinson reads Jeffrey as an innocent youth who is both horrified by the violence inflicted by Frank , but also tempted by it as the means of possessing Dorothy for himself . Atkinson takes a Freudian approach to the film ; considering it to be an expression of the traumatised innocence which characterises Lynch 's work . He claims that " Dorothy represents the sexual force of the mother [ figure ] because she is forbidden and because she becomes the object of the unhealthy , infantile impulses at work in Jeffrey 's subconscious " .
= = = Symbolism = = =
Symbolism is used very heavily in Blue Velvet . The most consistent symbolism in the film is an insect motif introduced at the end of the first scene , when the camera zooms in on a well @-@ kept suburban lawn until it unearths a swarming underground nest of disgusting bugs . This is generally recognized as a metaphor for the seedy underworld that Jeffrey will soon discover under the surface of his own suburban , Reaganesque paradise . The severed ear he finds is being overrun by black ants . The bug motif is recurrent throughout the film , most notably in the bug @-@ like gas mask that Frank wears , but also the excuse that Jeffrey uses to gain access to Dorothy 's apartment : he claims to be an insect exterminator . One of Frank 's sinister accomplices is also consistently identified through the yellow jacket he wears , possibly reminiscent of the name of a type of wasp . Finally , a robin eating a bug on a fence becomes a topic of discussion in the last scene of the film . The robin , mentioned earlier by Sandy when she recounted her dream , represents love conquering evil .
The severed ear that Jeffrey discovers is also a key symbolic element , leading Jeffrey into danger . Indeed , just as Jeffrey 's troubles begin , the audience is treated to a nightmarish sequence in which the camera zooms into the canal of the severed , decomposing ear . Notably , the camera does not reemerge from the ear canal until the end of the film . When Jeffrey finally comes through his hellish ordeal unscathed , the ear canal shot is replayed , only in reverse , zooming out through Jeffrey 's own ear as he relaxes in his yard on a summer day .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Blue Velvet soundtrack was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti ( who makes a brief cameo appearance as the pianist at the Slow Club where Dorothy performs ) . The soundtrack makes heavy usage of vintage pop songs , such as Bobby Vinton 's " Blue Velvet " and Roy Orbison 's " In Dreams " , juxtaposed with an orchestral score inspired by Shostakovich . During filming , Lynch placed speakers on set and in streets and played Shostakovich to set the mood he wanted to convey . The score makes direct quotations from Shostakovich 's 15th Symphony , which Lynch had been listening to regularly while writing the screenplay . Lynch had originally opted to use " Song To The Siren " by This Mortal Coil during the scene in which Sandy and Jeffrey share a dance , however he could not obtain the rights for the song at the time . He would go onto use this song in Lost Highway , eleven years later .
Entertainment Weekly ranked Blue Velvet 's soundtrack on its list of the 100 Greatest Film Soundtracks , at the 100th position . Critic John Alexander wrote , " the haunting soundtrack accompanies the title credits , then weaves through the narrative , accentuating the noir mood of the film " . Lynch worked with music composer Angelo Badalamenti for the first time in this film and asked him to write a score that had to be " like Shostakovich , be very Russian , but make it the most beautiful thing but make it dark and a little bit scary " . Badalamenti 's success with Blue Velvet would lead him to contribute to all of Lynch 's future full @-@ length films until Inland Empire . Also included in the sound team was long time Lynch collaborator Alan Splet , a sound editor and designer who had won an Academy Award for his work on The Black Stallion ( 1979 ) , and been nominated for Never Cry Wolf ( 1983 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Blue Velvet premiered in competition at the Montréal World Film Festival in August 1986 , and at the Toronto Film Festival on September 12 , 1986 , and a few days later in the United States . It debuted commercially in both countries on September 19 , 1986 , in 98 theatres across the United States . In its opening weekend , the film grossed a total of $ 789 @,@ 409 . It eventually expanded to another fifteen theatres , and domestically grossed a total of $ 8 @,@ 551 @,@ 228 . It was also released internationally , in Australia , most of West Germany , China , Canada , Hong Kong , and Japan , followed by subsequent video releases . The film performed well overseas , grossing $ 900 @,@ 000 in Australia , and $ 450 @,@ 139 in Hong Kong .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Blue Velvet received critical acclaim in the United States upon its release and currently has a " certified fresh " score of 94 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 62 reviews with an average rating of 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 . The critical consensus states " If audiences walk away from this subversive , surreal shocker not fully understanding the story , they might also walk away with a deeper perception of the potential of film storytelling . " The film also has a score of 75 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics indicating " Generally favorable reviews . "
Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post said " the film showcases a visual stylist utterly in command of his talents " and that Angelo Badalamenti " contributes an extraordinary score , slipping seamlessly from slinky jazz to violin figures to the romantic sweep of a classic Hollywood score " , but claimed that Lynch " isn 't interested in communicating , he 's interested in parading his personality . The movie doesn 't progress or deepen , it just gets weirder , and to no good end . " The New York Times critic Janet Maslin expressed her admiration for the film , and directed much praise toward the performances of Hopper and Rossellini : " Mr. Hopper and Miss Rossellini are so far outside the bounds of ordinary acting here that their performances are best understood in terms of sheer lack of inhibition ; both give themselves entirely over to the material , which seems to be exactly what 's called for . " She called it " an instant cult classic . " Maslin concluded by saying that Blue Velvet " is as fascinating as it is freakish . It confirms Mr. Lynch 's stature as an innovator , a superb technician , and someone best not encountered in a dark alley . " Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times called the film " the most brilliantly disturbing film ever to have its roots in small @-@ town American life . " She called it " shocking , visionary , rapturously controlled . "
Looking back in his Guardian / Observer review , critic Philip French wrote , " The film is wearing well and has attained a classic status without becoming respectable or losing its sense of danger . " Peter Travers , film critic for Rolling Stone , named Blue Velvet the best film of the 1980s , and referred to the film as an " American masterpiece . " Film critic Gene Siskel included Blue Velvet on his list of the best films of 1986 , at the fifth spot .
But Blue Velvet was not without its detractors . A general criticism from U.S. critics was the film 's often vulgar approach to sexuality and violence , which they claimed detracted from the film 's serious side . One of the film 's detractors , Roger Ebert , film critic of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , supported that view ; although he praised Isabella Rossellini 's performance as being " convincing and courageous " , he criticized how she was depicted in the film , even accusing David Lynch of misogyny : " degraded , slapped around , humiliated and undressed in front of the camera . And when you ask an actress to endure those experiences , you should keep your side of the bargain by putting her in an important film " . During an online Q & A session in 2007 , Ebert said he still had negativity regarding how Rossellini was depicted but said he should re @-@ visit Blue Velvet and that David Lynch was a good director . In a tweet honoring David Lynch 's birthday , Ebert later revealed though he views Lynch as a great director , his feelings remain unchanged about Blue Velvet .
= = = Accolades = = =
Lynch was nominated for a Best Director Oscar for the film . Isabella Rossellini won an Independent Spirit Award for the Best Female Lead in 1987 . David Lynch and Dennis Hopper won a Los Angeles Film Critics Association award in 1987 for Blue Velvet in categories Best Director ( Lynch ) and Best Supporting Actor ( Hopper ) . In 1987 , National Society of Film Critics awarded Best Film , Best Director ( David Lynch ) , Best Cinematography ( Frederick Elmes ) , and Best Supporting Actor ( Dennis Hopper ) awards .
= = Legacy = =
Although it initially gained a relatively small theatrical audience in North America and was met with controversy over its artistic merit , Blue Velvet soon became the center of a " national firestorm " in 1986 , and over time achieved status as an American classic . In the late 1980s , and early 1990s , after its release on videotape , the film became a widely known cult film , well known for its dark depiction of a suburban America . Followed by myriad VHS , Laserdisc and DVD releases , the film became increasingly well @-@ known among American audiences . It marked the entrance of David Lynch into the Hollywood mainstream and the comeback of Dennis Hopper after a significant hiatus from work . Hopper 's performance and the character of Frank Booth itself has left an imprint on popular culture , with countless tributes , cultural references and parodies . The success of the film alone has helped propel Hollywood mainstream toward more graphic displays of previously censored themes , a similar case to Psycho ( 1960 ) , to which Blue Velvet has been frequently compared . It has become one of the most significant , well @-@ recognized films of its era , spawning countless imitations and parodies in media . The film 's dark , stylish and erotic production design has served as a benchmark for a number of films , parodies and even Lynch 's own later work , notably Twin Peaks ( 1990 – 91 ) , and Mulholland Drive ( 2001 ) . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine cited it as one of the most " influential American films " , as did Michael Atkinson , who dedicated a book to the film 's themes and motifs .
Blue Velvet now frequently appears in various critical assessments of all @-@ time great films , also ranked as one of the greatest films of the 1980s , one of the best examples of American surrealism and one of the finest examples of David Lynch 's work . In a poll of two American critics ranking the " most outstanding films of the decade " , Blue Velvet was placed third and fourth , behind Raging Bull ( 1980 ) , E.T. The Extra Terrestrial ( 1982 ) and the German film Wings of Desire ( 1987 ) . An Entertainment Weekly book special released in 1999 ranked Blue Velvet at thirty @-@ seventh greatest films of all time . The film was ranked by The Guardian in its list of the 100 Greatest Films . Film Four 's ranked it on their list of 100 Greatest Films . In a 2007 poll of the online film community held by Variety , Blue Velvet came in at the ninety @-@ fifth greatest film of all time . Total Film ranked Blue Velvet as one of the all @-@ time best films in both a critics list and a public poll , in 2006 and 2007 , respectively . In December 2002 , a UK film critics poll in Sight & Sound ranked the film fifth on their list of the 10 Best Films of the Last 25 Years . In a special Entertainment Weekly issue , 100 new film classics were chosen from 1983 to 2008 : Blue Velvet was ranked at fourth .
In addition to Blue Velvet 's various " all @-@ time greatest films " rankings , the American Film Institute has awarded the film three honors in its lists : ninety @-@ sixth on 100 Years ... 100 Thrills in 2001 , selecting cinema 's most thrilling moments and ranked Frank Booth thirty @-@ sixth of the 50 greatest villains in 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains in 2003 . In June 2008 , the AFI revealed its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . Blue Velvet was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the mystery genre . Premiere magazine listed Frank Booth , played by Dennis Hopper , as the fifty @-@ fourth on its list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time , calling him one of " the most monstrously funny creations in cinema history " . The film was ranked eighty @-@ fourth on Bravo Television 's four @-@ hour program 100 Scariest Movie Moments ( 2004 ) . It is frequently sampled musically and an array of bands and solo artists have taken their names and inspiration from the film . In August 2012 , Sight & Sound unveiled their latest list of the 250 greatest films of all time , with Blue Velvet ranking at sixty @-@ ninth .
Blue Velvet was also nominated for the following AFI lists :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" In Dreams "
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition )
Blue Velvet was released on Blu @-@ ray on November 8 , 2011 , in a special 25th anniversary edition featuring never @-@ before @-@ seen deleted scenes . The film had previously been released on DVD in 1999 and 2002 by MGM Home Entertainment . In early 2015 , it was announced that a feature @-@ length documentary film entitled " Blue Velvet Revisited " , made up exclusively of behind the scenes footage , was in production for Autumn 2015 release . The film is based on extensive unreleased footage shot on set in 1985 by German filmmaker Peter Braatz , at David Lynch 's invitation . Cult With No Name , Tuxedomoon and John Foxx were commissioned to provide the soundtrack for the film ( which was released in October 2015 ) , and a collection of previously unreleased photos is also to be published .
Inspired by the film , baroque pop singer Lana Del Rey recorded a cover version of Bobby Vinton 's classic rendition of the song " Blue Velvet " in 2012 . Used to endorse clothing line H & M , a music video accompanied the track and aired as a television commercial . Filmed in Post @-@ war Americana , the video drew influence from Lynch and Blue Velvet . In the video , Del Rey plays the role of Dorothy Vallens , performing a private concert similar to the scene where Ben ( Dean Stockwell ) pantomimes " In Dreams " for Frank Booth . Del Rey 's version , however , has her lip @-@ synching " Blue Velvet " when a little person dressed as Frank Sinatra approaches and unplugs a hidden victrola , revealing Del Rey as a fraud . When Lynch heard of the music video , he praised it , telling Artinfo : " Lana Del Rey , she 's got some fantastic charisma and — this is a very interesting thing — it 's like she 's born out of another time . She 's got something that 's very appealing to people . And I didn 't know she was influenced by me ! "
" Now It 's Dark " , a song by American heavy metal band Anthrax on their 1988 album State of Euphoria , was directly inspired by the film , and specifically the character of Frank Booth . The same phrase appeared in the liner notes of Rush 's album Roll the Bones , and drummer Neil Peart later explained that " The phrase occurs in David Lynch 's comedy classic Blue Velvet . "
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= Is Google Making Us Stupid ? =
" Is Google Making Us Stupid ? What the Internet is doing to our brains " ( alternatively " Is Google Making Us Stoopid ? " ) is a magazine article by technology writer Nicholas G. Carr highly critical of the Internet 's effect on cognition . It was published in the July / August 2008 edition of The Atlantic magazine as a six @-@ page cover story . Carr 's main argument is that the Internet might have detrimental effects on cognition that diminish the capacity for concentration and contemplation . Despite the title , the article is not specifically targeted at Google , but more at the cognitive impact of the Internet and World Wide Web . Carr expanded his argument in The Shallows : What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains , a book published by W. W. Norton in June 2010 .
The essay was extensively discussed in the media and the blogosphere , with reactions to Carr 's argument being polarised . At the Britannica Blog , a part of the discussion focused on the apparent bias in Carr 's argument toward literary reading . In Carr 's view , reading on the Internet is generally of a shallower form in comparison with reading from printed books in which he believes a more intense and sustained form of reading is exercised . Elsewhere in the media , the Internet 's impact on memory retention was discussed ; and , at the online scientific magazine Edge , several argued that it was ultimately the responsibility of individuals to monitor their Internet usage so that it does not impact their cognition .
While long @-@ term psychological and neurological studies have yet to yield definitive results justifying Carr 's argument , a few studies have provided glimpses into the changing cognitive habits of Internet users . A UCLA study led some to wonder whether a breadth of brain activity — which was shown to occur while users performed Internet searches in the study 's functional MRI scans — actually facilitated reading and cognition or possibly overburdened the mind ; and what quality of thought could be determined by the additional presence of brain activity in regions known to control decision @-@ making and complex reasoning skills .
= = Background = =
Prior to the publication of Carr 's Atlantic essay , critics had long been concerned about the potential for electronic media to supplant literary reading . In 1994 , American academic Sven Birkerts published a book titled The Gutenberg Elegies : The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age , consisting of a collection of essays that declaimed against the declining influence of literary culture — the tastes in literature that are favored by a social group — with a central premise among the essays asserting that alternative delivery formats for the book are inferior to the paper incarnation . Birkerts was spurred to write the book after his experience with a class he taught in the fall of 1992 , where the students had little appreciation for the literature he had assigned them , stemming from , in his opinion , their inaptitude for the variety of skills involved in deep reading . In " Perseus Unbound " , an essay from the book , Birkerts presented several reservations toward the application of interactive technologies to educational instruction , cautioning that the " long @-@ term cognitive effects of these new processes of data absorption " were unknown and that they could yield " an expansion of the short @-@ term memory banks and a correlative atrophying of long @-@ term memory " .
In 2007 , developmental psychologist Maryanne Wolf took up the cause of defending reading and print culture in her book Proust and the Squid : The Story and Science of the Reading Brain , approaching the subject matter from a scientific angle in contrast to Birkerts ' cultural @-@ historical angle . A few reviewers were critical of Wolf for only touching upon the Internet 's potential impact on reading in her book ; however , in essays published concurrent with the book 's release she elaborated upon her worries . In an essay in The Boston Globe , Wolf expressed her grave concern that the development of knowledge in children who are heavy users of the Internet could produce mere " decoders of information who have neither the time nor the motivation to think beneath or beyond their googled universes " , and cautioned that the web 's " immediacy and volume of information should not be confused with true knowledge " . In an essay published by Powell 's Books , Wolf contended that some of the reading brain 's strengths could be lost in future generations " if children are not taught first to read , and to think deeply about their reading , and only then to e @-@ read " . Preferring to maintain an academic perspective , Wolf firmly asserted that her speculations have not yet been scientifically verified but deserved serious study .
In Carr 's 2008 book The Big Switch : Rewiring the World , From Edison to Google , the material in the final chapter , " iGod " , provided a basis for his later Atlantic magazine article titled " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " The inspiration to write " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " came from the difficulties Carr found he had in remaining engaged with not only books he had to read but even books that he found very interesting . This is sometimes called deep reading , a term coined by academic Sven Birkerts in his book The Gutenberg Elegies and later defined by developmental psychologist Maryanne Wolf with an added cognitive connotation .
= = Synopsis = =
At the start of the essay , Carr says that his recent difficulties with concentrating while reading books and long articles may be due to spending a lot of time on the Internet . He posits that regular Internet usage may have the effect of diminishing the capacity for concentration and contemplation . He prefaces his argument with a couple of anecdotes from bloggers on their changing reading habits , as well as the findings of a 2008 University College London study titled " Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future " which suggests the emergence of new types of reading . He cites Maryanne Wolf , an expert on reading , for her expertise on the role of media and technology in learning written languages . Carr raises the point that unlike speech , which is an innate ability hardwired into the human brain , the ability to read has to be taught in order for the brain to rearrange its original parts for the task of interpreting symbols into words . He acknowledges that his argument does not yet have the backing of long @-@ term neurological and psychological studies . Carr further draws on Wolf 's work , particularly her 2007 book Proust and the Squid , to relate his argument to the way in which neural circuits in the reading brain are specifically shaped by the demands particular to each written language , such as Chinese , Japanese , and alphabet @-@ based scripts . Therefore , Carr purports that the neural circuitry shaped by regular Internet usage can also be expected to be different from that shaped by the reading of books and other page @-@ based written material .
Carr begins his argument by reasoning how the capacity to concentrate may be weakened by regular Internet usage . He mentions a historical example involving Friedrich Nietzsche 's usage of a typewriter , a fairly new technology in the 1880s . According to German scholar Friedrich A. Kittler , Nietzsche 's prose style changed when he started using a typewriter , which he had adopted because of his developing difficulty with writing by hand due to failing eyesight . Carr proceeds to explain that scientific research in the field of neuroplasticity as of 2008 has demonstrated that the brain 's neural circuitry can in fact be rewired . In the humanities , sociologist Daniel Bell coined the term " intellectual technologies " to describe those technologies that extend the brain 's cognitive faculties , and Carr states that he believes that the human brain adopts the qualities of these intellectual technologies . In discussing the mechanical clock , Carr deliberates upon the benefits and losses that are characteristic of new technologies . Then , Carr ventures that the cognitive impact of the Internet may be far more encompassing than any other previous intellectual technology because the Internet is gradually performing the services of most intellectual technologies , thus replacing them . Carr finally contends that the prevalent style of presentation for much of the Internet 's content may significantly hinder the capacity to concentrate due to the many distractions that often surround the Internet 's content , in the form of ads and obtrusive notifications . Additionally , he claims that these detrimental effects on concentration are compounded by traditional media because they are gradually adopting a style of presentation for their content that mimics the Internet , in order to remain competitive as consumer expectations change .
Carr also theorizes that the capacity to contemplate may diminish as computer algorithms unburden an Internet user 's brain of much of the painstaking knowledge work — the manipulation of abstract information and knowledge — that was previously done manually . In comparing the Internet with Frederick Winslow Taylor 's management system for industrial efficiency , Carr makes the point that back then some workers complained that they felt they were becoming mere automatons due to the systemic application of Taylorism — a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflow processes , improving labor productivity . Carr selects Google as a prime example of a company in which computer engineers and software designers have applied Taylorism to the knowledge industry , delivering increasingly robust information that may have the effect of minimizing opportunities to ponder ambiguities . Additionally , he argues that the Internet 's dominant business model is one that thrives as companies either collect information on users or deliver them advertisements , therefore companies capitalize on users who move from link to link rather than those who engage in sustained thought .
Finally , Carr places his skepticism in a historical context , reflecting upon how previous detractors of technological advances have fared . While often correct , Carr points out that skepticisms such as Socrates ' concerns about written language and the 15th @-@ century Venetian editor Hieronimo Squarciafico 's concerns about printed works failed to anticipate the benefits that these technologies might hold for human knowledge . As an afterthought , a 2005 essay by playwright Richard Foreman is excerpted for its lament of the waning of the " highly educated and articulate personality " .
= = Reception = =
Carr 's essay was widely discussed in the media both critically and in passing . While English technology writer Bill Thompson observed that Carr 's argument had " succeeded in provoking a wide @-@ ranging debate " , Damon Darlin of The New York Times quipped that even though " [ everyone ] has been talking about [ the ] article in The Atlantic magazine " , only " [ s ] ome subset of that group has actually read the 4 @,@ 175 @-@ word article , by Nicholas Carr . " The controversial online responses to Carr 's essay were , according to Chicago Tribune critic Steve Johnson , partly the outcome of the essay 's title " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " , a question that the article proper doesn 't actually pose and that he believed was " perfect fodder for a ' don 't @-@ be @-@ ridiculous ' blog post " ; Johnson challenged his readers to carefully consider their online responses in the interest of raising the quality of debate .
Many critics discussed the merits of Carr 's essay at great length in forums set up formally for this purpose at online hubs such as the Britannica Blog and publisher John Brockman 's online scientific magazine Edge , where the roster of names quickly took on the semblance of a Who 's Who of the day 's Internet critics . Calling it " the great digital literacy debate " , British @-@ American entrepreneur and author Andrew Keen judged the victor to be the American reader , who was blessed with a wide range of compelling writing from " all of America 's most articulate Internet luminaries " .
Book critic Scott Esposito pointed out that Chinese characters are incorrectly described as ideograms in Carr 's essay , an error that he believed undermined the essay 's argument . The myth that Chinese script is ideographic had been effectively debunked in scholar John DeFrancis ' 1984 book The Chinese Language : Fact and Fantasy ; DeFrancis classifies Chinese as a logosyllabic writing system . Carr acknowledged that there was a debate over the terminology of ' ideogram ' , but in a response to Esposito he explained that he had " decided to use the common term " and quoted The Oxford American Dictionary to demonstrate that they likewise define Chinese characters as instances of ideograms .
Writer and activist Seth Finkelstein noted that predictably several critics would label Carr 's argument as a Luddite one , and he was not to be disappointed when one critic later maintained that Carr 's " contrarian stance [ was ] slowly forcing him into a caricature of Luddism " . Then , journalist David Wolman , in a Wired magazine piece , described as " moronic " the assumption that the web " hurts us more than it helps " , a statement that was preceded by an overview of the many technologies that had been historically denounced ; Wolman concluded that the solution was " better schools as well as a renewed commitment to reason and scientific rigor so that people can distinguish knowledge from garbage " .
Several prominent scientists working in the field of neuroscience supported Carr 's argument as scientifically plausible . James Olds , a professor of computational neuroscience , who directs the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study at George Mason University , was quoted in Carr 's essay for his expertise , and upon the essay 's publication Olds wrote a letter to the editor of The Atlantic in which he reiterated that the brain was " very plastic " — referring to the changes that occur in the organization of the brain as a result of experience . It was Olds ' opinion that given the brain 's plasticity it was " not such a long stretch to Carr 's meme " . One of the pioneers in neuroplasticity research , Michael Merzenich , later added his own comment to the discussion , stating that he had given a talk at Google in 2008 in which he had asked the audience the same question that Carr asked in his essay . Merzenich believed that there was " absolutely no question that our brains are engaged less directly and more shallowly in the synthesis of information , when we use research strategies that are all about ' efficiency ' , ' secondary ( and out @-@ of @-@ context ) referencing ' , and ' once over , lightly ' " . Another neuroscientist , Gary Small , director of UCLA 's Memory & Aging Research Center , wrote a letter to the editor of The Atlantic in which he stated that he believed that " brains are developing circuitry for online social networking and are adapting to a new multitasking technology culture " .
= = = Testimonials and refutations = = =
In the media , there were many testimonials and refutations given by journalists for the first part of Carr 's argument regarding the capacity for concentration ; treatments of the second part of Carr 's argument regarding the capacity for contemplation , were , however , far rarer . Although columnist Andrew Sullivan noted that he had little leisure time at his disposal for contemplation compared with when he grew up , the anecdotes provided by journalists that indicated a deficiency in the capacity to contemplate were described only in the context of third parties , such as columnist Margaret Wente 's anecdote about how one consultant had found a growing tendency in her clients to provide ill @-@ considered descriptions for their technical problems .
Columnist Leonard Pitts of The Miami Herald described his difficulty sitting down to read a book , in which he felt like he " was getting away with something , like when you slip out of the office to catch a matinee " . Technology evangelist Jon Udell admitted that , in his " retreats " from the Internet , he sometimes struggled to settle into " books , particularly fiction , and particularly in printed form " . He found portable long @-@ form audio to be " transformative " , however , because he can easily achieve " sustained attention " , which makes him optimistic about the potential to " reactivate ancient traditions , like oral storytelling , and rediscover their powerful neural effects " .
Also writing in The Atlantic , a year after Carr , the futurist Jamais Cascio argued that human cognition has always evolved to meet environmental challenges , and that those posed by the internet are no different . He described the ' skimming ' referred to by Carr as a form of attention deficit caused by the immaturity of filter algorithms : " The trouble isn ’ t that we have too much information at our fingertips , but that our tools for managing it are still in their infancy ... many of the technologies that Carr worries about were developed precisely to help us get some control over a flood of data and ideas . Google isn ’ t the problem ; it ’ s the beginning of a solution . " . Cascio and Carr 's articles have been discussed together in several places . Pew Research used them to form a tension @-@ pair question survey that was distributed to noted academics . Most responded in detail ; concurring with the proposition " Carr was wrong : Google does not make us stupid " . In The Googlisation of Everything , Vaidhyanathan tended to side with Carr . However , he thought both arguments relied too much on determinism : Carr in thinking that an over @-@ reliance on internet tools will inevitably cause the brain to atrophy , and Cascio in thinking that getting smarter is the necessary outcome of the evolutionary pressures he describes . In From Gutenberg to Zuckerberg Naughton noted that , while many agreed Carr had hit on an important subject , his conclusions were not widely supported .
Firmly contesting Carr 's argument , journalist John Battelle praised the virtues of the web : " [ W ] hen I am deep in search for knowledge on the web , jumping from link to link , reading deeply in one moment , skimming hundreds of links the next , when I am pulling back to formulate and reformulate queries and devouring new connections as quickly as Google and the Web can serve them up , when I am performing bricolage in real time over the course of hours , I am ' feeling ' my brain light up , I and [ sic ] ' feeling ' like I 'm getting smarter " . Web journalist Scott Rosenberg reported that his reading habits are the same as they were when he " was a teenager plowing [ his ] way through a shelf of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky " . In book critic Scott Esposito 's view , " responsible adults " have always had to deal with distractions , and , in his own case , he claimed to remain " fully able to turn down the noise " and read deeply .
= = Analysis = =
In critiquing the rise of Internet @-@ based computing , the philosophical question of whether or not a society can control technological progress was raised . At the online scientific magazine Edge , Wikipedia co @-@ founder Larry Sanger argued that individual will was all that was necessary to maintain the cognitive capacity to read a book all the way through , and computer scientist and writer Jaron Lanier rebuked the idea that technological progress is an " autonomous process that will proceed in its chosen direction independently of us " . Lanier echoed a view stated by American historian Lewis Mumford in his 1970 book The Pentagon of Power , in which Mumford suggested that the technological advances that shape a society could be controlled if the full might of a society 's free will were employed . Lanier believed that technology was significantly hindered by the idea that " there is only one axis of choice " which is either pro- or anti- when it comes to technology adoption . Yet Carr had stated in The Big Switch that he believed an individual 's personal choice toward a technology had little effect on technological progress . According to Carr , the view expressed by Mumford about technological progress was incorrect because it regarded technology solely as advances in science and engineering rather than as an influence on the costs of production and consumption . Economics were a more significant consideration in Carr 's opinion because in a competitive marketplace the most efficient methods of providing an important resource will prevail . As technological advances shape society , an individual might be able to resist the effects but his lifestyle will " always be lonely and in the end futile " ; despite a few holdouts , technology will nevertheless shape economics which , in turn , will shape society .
= = = A focus on literary reading = = =
The selection of one particular quote in Carr 's essay from pathologist Bruce Friedman , a member of the faculty of the University of Michigan Medical School , who commented on a developing difficulty reading books and long essays and specifically the novel War and Peace , was criticized for having a bias toward narrative literature . The quote failed to represent other types of literature , such as technical and scientific literature , which had , in contrast , become much more accessible and widely read with the advent of the Internet . At the Britannica Blog , writer Clay Shirky pugnaciously observed that War and Peace was " too long , and not so interesting " , further stating that " it would be hard to argue that the last ten years have seen a decrease in either the availability or comprehension of material on scientific or technical subjects " . Shirky 's comments on War and Peace were derided by several of his peers as verging on philistinism . In Shirky 's defense , inventor W. Daniel Hillis asserted that , although books " were created to serve a purpose " , that " same purpose can often be served by better means " . While Hillis considered the book to be " a fine and admirable device " , he imagined that clay tablets and scrolls of papyrus , in their time , " had charms of their own " . Wired magazine editor Kevin Kelly believed that the idea that " the book is the apex of human culture " should be resisted . And Birkerts differentiated online reading from literary reading , stating that in the latter the reader is directed within themselves and enters " an environment that is nothing at all like the open @-@ ended information zone that is cyberspace " in which he feels psychologically fragmented .
= = = Coping with abundance = = =
Several critics theorized about the effects of the shift from scarcity to abundance of written material in the media as a result of the technologies introduced by the Internet . This shift was examined for its potential to lead individuals to a superficial comprehension of many subjects rather than a deep comprehension of just a few subjects . According to Shirky , an individual 's ability to concentrate had been facilitated by the " relatively empty environment " which had ceased to exist when the wide availability of the web proliferated new media . Although Shirky acknowledged that the unprecedented quantity of written material available on the web might occasion a sacrifice of the cultural importance of many works , he believed that the solution was " to help make the sacrifice worth it " . In direct contrast , Sven Birkerts argued that " some deep comprehension of our inheritance [ was ] essential " , and called for " some consensus vision among those shapers of what our society and culture might be shaped toward " , warning against allowing the commercial marketplace to dictate the future standing of traditionally important cultural works . While Carr found solace in Shirky 's conceit that " new forms of expression " might emerge to suit the Internet , he considered this conceit to be one of faith rather than reason . In a later response , Shirky continued to expound upon his theme that " technologies that make writing abundant always require new social structures to accompany them " , explaining that Gutenberg 's printing press led to an abundance of cheap books which were met by " a host of inventions large and small " , such as the separation of fiction from non @-@ fiction , the recognition of talents , the listing of concepts by indexes , and the practice of noting editions .
= = = Impact of the web on memory retention = = =
As a result of the vast stores of information made accessible on the web , one hundred critics pointed to a decrease in the desire to recall certain types of information , indicating , they believed , a change in the process of recalling information , as well as the types of information that are recalled . According to Ben Worthen , a Wall Street Journal business technology blogger , the growing importance placed on the ability to access information instead of the capacity to recall information straight from memory would , in the long term , change the type of job skills that companies who are hiring new employees would find valuable . Due to an increased reliance on the Internet , Worthen speculated that before long " the guy who remembers every fact about a topic may not be as valuable as the guy who knows how to find all of these facts and many others " . Evan Ratliff of Salon.com wondered if the usage of gadgets to recall phone numbers , as well as geographical and historical information , had the effect of releasing certain cognitive resources that in turn strengthened other aspects of cognition . Drawing parallels with transactive memory — a process whereby people remember things in relationships and groups — Ratliff mused that perhaps the web was " like a spouse who is around all the time , with a particular knack for factual memory of all varieties " . Far from conclusive , these ruminations left the web 's impact on memory retention an open question .
= = Themes and motifs = =
= = = Effect of technology on the brain 's neural circuitry = = =
In the essay , Carr introduces the discussion of the scientific support for the idea that the brain 's neural circuitry can be rewired with an example in which philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche is said to have been influenced by technology . According to German scholar Friedrich A. Kittler in his book Gramophone , Film , Typewriter , Nietzsche 's writing style became more aphoristic after he started using a typewriter . Nietzsche began using a Malling @-@ Hansen Writing Ball because of his failing eyesight which had disabled his ability to write by hand . The idea that Nietzsche 's writing style had changed for better or worse when he adopted the typewriter was disputed by several critics . Kevin Kelly and Scott Esposito each offered alternate explanations for the apparent changes . Esposito believed that " the brain is so huge and amazing and enormously complex that it 's far , far off base to think that a few years of Internet media or the acquisition of a typewriter can fundamentally rewire it . " In a response to Esposito 's point , neuroscientist James Olds stated that recent brain research demonstrated that it was " pretty clear that the adult brain can re @-@ wire on the fly " . In The New York Times it was reported that several scientists believed that it was certainly plausible that the brain 's neural circuitry may be shaped differently by regular Internet usage compared with the reading of printed works .
Although there was a consensus in the scientific community about how it was possible for the brain 's neural circuitry to change through experience , the potential effect of web technologies on the brain 's neural circuitry was unknown . On the topic of the Internet 's effect on reading skills , Guinevere F. Eden , director of the Center for the Study of Learning at Georgetown University , remarked that the question was whether or not the Internet changed the brain in a way that was beneficial to an individual . Carr believed that the effect of the Internet on cognition was detrimental , weakening the ability to concentrate and contemplate . Olds cited the potential benefits of computer software that specifically targets learning disabilities , stating that among some neuroscientists there was a belief that neuroplasticity @-@ based software was beneficial in improving receptive language disorders . Olds mentioned neuroscientist Michael Merzenich , who had formed several companies with his peers in which neuroplasticity @-@ based computer programs had been developed to improve the cognitive functioning of kids , adults and the elderly . In 1996 , Merzenich and his peers had started a company called Scientific Learning in which neuroplastic research had been used to develop a computer training program called Fast ForWord that offered seven brain exercises that improved language impairments and learning disabilities in children . Feedback on Fast ForWord showed that these brain exercises even had benefits for autistic children , an unexpected spillover effect that Merzenich has attempted to harness by developing a modification of Fast ForWord specifically designed for autism . At a subsequent company that Merzenich started called Posit Science , Fast ForWord @-@ like brain exercises and other techniques were developed with the aim of sharpening the brains of elderly people by retaining the plasticity of their brains .
= = = HAL in 2001 : A Space Odyssey = = =
In Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , astronaut David Bowman slowly disassembles the mind of an artificial intelligence named HAL by sequentially unplugging its memory banks . Carr likened the emotions of despair expressed by HAL as its mind is disassembled to his own , at the time , cognitive difficulties in engaging with long texts . He felt as if someone was " tinkering with [ his ] brain , remapping the neural circuitry , reprogramming the memory " . HAL had also been used as a metaphor for the " ultimate search engine " in a PBS interview with Google co @-@ founder Sergey Brin as noted in Carr 's book The Big Switch , and also Brin 's TED talk . Brin was comparing Google 's ambitions of building an artificial intelligence to HAL , while dismissing the possibility that a bug like the one that led HAL to murder the occupants of the fictional spacecraft Discovery One could occur in a Google @-@ based artificial intelligence . Carr observed in his essay that throughout history technological advances have often necessitated new metaphors , such as the mechanical clock engendering the simile " like clockwork " and the age of the computer engendering the simile " like computers " . Carr concluded his essay with an explanation as to why he believed HAL was an appropriate metaphor for his essay 's argument . He observed that HAL showed genuine emotion as his mind was disassembled while , throughout the film , the humans onboard the space station appeared to be automatons , thinking and acting as if they were following the steps of an algorithm . Carr believed that the film 's prophetic message was that as individuals increasingly rely on computers for an understanding of their world their intelligence may become more machinelike than human .
= = Developing view of how Internet use affects cognition = =
After the publication of Carr 's essay , a developing view unfolded in the media as sociological and neurological studies surfaced that were relevant to determining the cognitive impact of regular Internet usage . Challenges to Carr 's argument were made frequently . As the two most outspoken detractors of electronic media , Carr and Birkerts were both appealed to by Kevin Kelly to each formulate a more precise definition of the faults they perceived regarding electronic media so that their beliefs could be scientifically verified . While Carr firmly believed that his skepticism about the Internet 's benefits to cognition was warranted , he cautioned in both his essay and his book The Big Switch that long @-@ term psychological and neurological studies were required to definitively ascertain how cognition develops under the influence of the Internet .
Scholars at University College London conducted a study titled " Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future " , the results of which suggested that students ' research habits tended towards skimming and scanning rather than in @-@ depth reading . The study provoked serious reflection among educators about the implications for educational instruction .
In October 2008 , new insights into the effect of Internet usage on cognition were gleaned from the results , reported in a press release , of a study conducted by UCLA 's Memory and Aging Research Center that had tested two groups of people between the ages of 55 and 76 years old ; only one group of which were experienced web users . While they had read books or performed assigned search tasks their brain activity had been monitored with functional MRI scans , which revealed that both reading and web search utilize the same language , reading , memory , and visual regions of the brain ; however , it was discovered that those searching the web stimulated additional decision @-@ making and complex reasoning regions of the brain , with a two @-@ fold increase in these regions in experienced web users compared with inexperienced web users . Gary Small , the director of the UCLA center and lead investigator of the UCLA study , concurrently released the book iBrain : Surviving the Technological Alteration of the Modern Mind , co @-@ authored with Gigi Vorgan , with the press release .
While one set of critics and bloggers used the UCLA study to dismiss the argument raised in Carr 's essay , another set took a closer look at the conclusions that could be drawn from the study concerning the effects of Internet usage . Among the reflections concerning the possible interpretations of the UCLA study were whether greater breadth of brain activity while using the Internet in comparison with reading a book improved or impaired the quality of a reading session ; and whether the decision @-@ making and complex reasoning skills that are apparently involved in Internet search , according to the study , suggest a high quality of thought or simply the use of puzzle solving skills . Thomas Claburn , in InformationWeek , observed that the study 's findings regarding the cognitive impact of regular Internet usage were inconclusive and stated that " it will take time before it 's clear whether we should mourn the old ways , celebrate the new , or learn to stop worrying and love the Net " .
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= Jon Lieber =
Jonathan Ray Lieber ( born April 2 , 1970 ) is a former Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher . He stands 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) tall and weighs 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) . He played for the Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1994 – 1998 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 1999 – 2002 and 2008 ) , New York Yankees ( 2004 ) , and Philadelphia Phillies ( 2005 – 2007 ) . He batted left @-@ handed and threw right @-@ handed , and utilized a fastball , a slider , and a changeup for his pitches . In a 14 @-@ season career , Lieber compiled a 131 – 124 record with 1 @,@ 553 strikeouts and a 4 @.@ 27 ERA in 2 @,@ 198 innings pitched .
Lieber attended the University of South Alabama , helping them win the Sun Belt Conference Championship . He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the second round of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft , but he was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates the following season before even throwing a pitch in the major leagues . He made his debut in 1994 and was named the Pirates ' Opening Day starter in 1995 , but it was not until 1997 that he became a full @-@ time major league starter . He was traded to the Chicago Cubs following the 1998 season . In 2000 , he led the National League ( NL ) with 251 innings pitched . He had his best season in 2001 , winning 20 games while losing just six . Lieber underwent Tommy John surgery in 2002 and missed the entire 2003 season . In 2004 , he pitched for the New York Yankees , reaching the playoffs for the only time in his career . He signed with the Philadelphia Phillies in 2005 and tied for fifth in the NL with 17 wins . Injuries cut into his playing time over the next three years ; he finished his career as a reliever with the Cubs in 2008 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Lieber was born in Council Bluffs , Iowa . He graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School in Council Bluffs in 1988 . Lieber initially attended Iowa Western Community College in 1989 and 1990 before transferring to the University of South Alabama . Over the next two years , Lieber experienced great success for South Alabama . He posted 12 – 5 records for them both of his years there , and he led the team in earned run average ( ERA ) and strikeouts both years . He was selected by the Chicago Cubs in the ninth round of the 1991 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft , but he did not sign . In 1992 , he helped South Alabama win the Sun Belt Conference Championship .
Lieber received several honors following his senior season . These included the Sun Belt Conference Player of the Year award , a third @-@ team All @-@ America selection by the American Baseball Coaches Association , an all @-@ region award , and an all @-@ league award ( his second ) . In 2013 , he was inducted into the Mobile Sports Hall of Fame . He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the second round of the 1992 draft , and this time , he signed .
= = = Minor Leagues ( 1992 – 94 ) = = =
Lieber began his professional career with the A short season Eugene Emeralds of the Northwest League . In five starts with the Emeralds , he had a 3 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 16 ERA , 23 strikeouts , 22 walks , and 26 hits allowed in 31 innings pitched . He also appeared in seven games ( six starts ) for the Baseball City Royals of the A @-@ Advanced Florida State League , posting a 3 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 65 ERA , 19 strikeouts , eight walks , and 45 hits allowed in 31 innings pitched .
In 1993 , the Royals switched their A @-@ Advanced affiliate to the Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Carolina League . Lieber began the season with Wilmington , posting a 9 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 67 ERA , 89 strikeouts , nine walks , 125 hits allowed , and 114 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 17 games ( 16 starts ) . He was promoted to the AA Memphis Chicks of the Southern League on July 11 , where he posted a 2 – 1 record and a 6 @.@ 86 ERA in four starts . On July 31 , seeking pitching help as they contended for the playoffs , the Royals traded Lieber and Dan Miceli to the Pittsburgh Pirates for their closer , Stan Belinda . The Pirates assigned Lieber to the Southern League 's Carolina Mudcats ; in six starts , he had a 4 – 2 record , a 3 @.@ 97 ERA , 28 strikeouts , 10 walks , and 39 hits allowed in 34 innings pitched .
Lieber made three starts with the Mudcats in 1994 , posting a 2 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 29 ERA , 21 strikeouts , two walks , and 13 hits allowed in 21 innings . He also made three starts for the Buffalo Bisons of the Triple @-@ A American Association , posting a 1 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 69 ERA , 21 strikeouts , one walk , and 16 hits allowed in 21 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1994 – 98 ) = = =
Lieber was called up by the Pirates in May 1994 to join their starting rotation . In his first major league start on May 15 , he gave up one run in six innings but took the loss as the Philadelphia Phillies defeated the Pirates 1 – 0 . He earned his first career win five days later , pitching eight shutout innings in a 6 – 0 victory over the Montreal Expos . In 17 starts with the Pirates , Lieber had a 6 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 73 ERA , 71 strikeouts , 25 walks , and 116 hits allowed in 108 2 ⁄ 3 innings .
Following Lieber 's rookie season , Pirates ' manager Jim Leyland named Lieber the team 's Opening Day starter for 1995 . Like many of the young Pirates ' pitchers that year , Lieber struggled ; he was optioned to the Calgary Cannons of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League on June 18 after going 2 – 7 with a 7 @.@ 48 ERA . In 14 starts with Calgary , Lieber had a 1 – 5 record , a 7 @.@ 01 ERA , 34 strikeouts , 19 walks , and 122 hits allowed in 77 innings pitched . He was recalled by the Pirates on September 5 when rosters expanded but was used mostly as a relief pitcher for the rest of the year . In 21 games ( 12 starts ) , Lieber compiled a 4 – 7 record , a 6 @.@ 32 ERA , 45 strikeouts , 14 walks , and 103 hits allowed in 72 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
Lieber remained in the bullpen to begin the 1996 season . In his first 34 games , he posted a 4 @.@ 21 ERA . In July , he returned to the starting rotation following the release of Zane Smith . As a starter , Lieber posted a 7 – 2 record with a 3 @.@ 91 ERA , emerging as the Pirates ' ace by the end of the year . In 51 games ( 15 starts ) in 1996 , Lieber posted a 9 – 5 record , a 3 @.@ 99 ERA , 94 strikeouts , 28 walks , and 156 hits allowed in 142 innings pitched .
Lieber became the Pirates ' Opening Day starter again in 1997 . On June 30 , he threw his only complete game of the year , striking out 10 while allowing one run on five hits in a 3 – 1 victory over the Chicago White Sox . Lieber was inconsistent in 1997 , amassing several winning streaks and several losing streaks during the season . In 33 games ( 32 starts ) , he had an 11 – 14 record , a 4 @.@ 49 ERA , 160 strikeouts , 51 walks , and 193 hits allowed in 188 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was third in the NL in losses ( behind Mark Leiter 's 17 and teammate Steve Cooke 's 15 ) ; however , he tied Mike Hampton for the most runs batted in by a major league pitcher with eight .
In 1998 , Lieber was the Pirates ' fourth starter . He had a 5 – 10 record over his first 17 starts , partly because he received 15 total runs of support in the losses over that time . Lieber had an 8 – 13 record with a 3 @.@ 90 ERA before getting placed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career on August 21 due to a left oblique muscle strain . He returned from the DL on September 15 but posted a 10 @.@ 80 ERA over his last two starts . In 29 games ( 28 starts ) , Lieber posted an 8 – 14 record , a 4 @.@ 11 ERA , 138 strikeouts , 40 walks , and 182 hits allowed in 171 innings pitched . He was tied with seven other pitchers for fifth in the league in losses . Following the season , Lieber was traded to the Chicago Cubs for Brant Brown .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
Lieber began 1999 as the Cubs ' third starter . Prior to the All @-@ Star break , he had an 8 – 3 record with a 3 @.@ 26 ERA ( seventh @-@ best in the NL ) . From April 29 to May 8 , he was on the DL with a right eye contusion . He threw his first major league shutout on May 14 , striking out seven in a 9 – 0 victory over the Atlanta Braves . Lieber went 0 – 8 with a 5 @.@ 71 ERA in his first 13 starts following the All @-@ Star Break before earning wins in his final two starts of the year . In 31 starts , Lieber compiled a 10 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 07 ERA , and 46 walks in 203 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was tied for tenth in the league with 226 hits allowed ( along with teammate Steve Trachsel ) , but he finished eighth in the league with 186 strikeouts and tied with six other players for ninth in the league with three complete games .
In 2000 , Lieber was the Cubs ' Opening Day starter . From June 28 to August 14 , he won a career @-@ high six consecutive decisions . On July 3 , he threw a shutout , allowing two hits in a 3 – 0 victory over the Pirates . In his next start , on July 8 , he had 12 strikeouts and threw a complete game in a 9 – 2 win over the White Sox . Lieber was 12 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 12 ERA through his first 29 starts ; however , he went 0 – 4 in September with a 5 @.@ 88 ERA . In 35 starts ( tied for the NL lead with Randy Johnson , Kevin Millwood , Tom Glavine , and Greg Maddux ) , Lieber had a 12 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 41 ERA , and 54 walks . He tied Darryl Kile for ninth in the league with 192 strikeouts , he led the league with 251 innings pitched , he ranked third in the league with 248 hits allowed ( behind Liván Hernández 's 254 and José Lima 's 251 ) , and he tied Maddux for third with six complete games ( behind Johnson 's and Curt Schilling 's eight ) .
Lieber 's most productive season came in 2001 . On May 24 , he one @-@ hit the Cincinnati Reds , 3 – 0 , ending the team 's NL @-@ record streak of 208 games in a row without being shut out , throwing just 78 pitches . From June 16 to July 15 , he won six straight games . He was named an All @-@ Star for the first and only time in his career . In his final start of the season on October 3 , he allowed five runs in six innings but still earned his 20th win of the season as the Cubs beat the Reds 13 – 7 . In 34 starts , Lieber recorded a career @-@ high 20 victories to go with just six losses , posted a 3 @.@ 80 ERA , and struck out 148 as opposed to 41 walks . His 20 wins ranked fourth in the league ( behind Matt Morris 's and Schilling 's 22 and Johnson 's 21 ) , his 232 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ranked fifth in the league , and his five complete games tied for second in the league with Javier Vázquez ( behind Johnson 's six ) . He finished fourth in the NL Cy Young Award vote , behind Johnson , Schilling , and Morris .
Lieber 's 2002 season was curtailed by right elbow problems , which plagued him all year . On August 1 , facing the San Diego Padres , Lieber allowed two runs in seven innings but received a no @-@ decision in an 8 – 7 Cubs ' victory . He was placed on the DL with right elbow tendinitis the next day , and he underwent Tommy John surgery on August 8 , ending his season . In 21 starts , Lieber compiled a 6 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 70 ERA , 87 strikeouts , 12 walks , and 153 hits allowed in 141 innings pitched . He still managed to tie Randy Wolf , Brett Tomko , Pedro Astacio , and teammate Matt Clement for tenth in the league with three complete games . After the season , he became a free agent .
While on the Cubs , Lieber became the only Major League pitcher to give up a hit to a one handed player when he gave up not just one hit , but two to Jim Abbott , also allowing Abbott to drive in three RBIs .
= = = Other teams ( 2004 – 08 ) = = =
Lieber signed a two @-@ year contract with the New York Yankees following the 2002 season . He missed the 2003 season recovering from his injury , although he did make two minor league rehab appearances . Lieber began the 2004 season on the DL with a strained abductor muscle in his right thigh . He returned to the major leagues on May 1 , allowing three runs in seven innings in a 12 – 4 victory over the Kansas City Royals . Through August 1 , he had a 7 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 06 ERA . From then on , Lieber went 7 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 21 ERA . On September 14 , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the Boston Red Sox and allowed three runs in 8 1 ⁄ 3 innings in a 14 – 4 victory . In 27 starts , Lieber posted a 14 – 8 record , a 4 @.@ 33 ERA , 102 strikeouts , 18 walks , and 216 hits allowed in 176 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His 14 wins tied with eight other pitchers for eighth in the American League ( AL ) and tied with Javier Vázquez for the most by a Yankee as well as being the largest win total by an ex @-@ 20 game winner returning from a full @-@ season layoff since 1946 .
Dave Caldwell of the New York Times wrote on September 3 that Lieber would " probably end up in the bullpen " in the playoffs , but less than a month later , Mark Feinsand of MLB.com wrote that Lieber " has suddenly become one of the most important cogs in the Yankees ' postseason machine " due an injury to Kevin Brown and late @-@ season struggles by Vázquez . Lieber started Game 2 of the AL Division Series against the Minnesota Twins . He allowed three runs over 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings and was in line for the win , but he received a no @-@ decision in a 12 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 Yankee victory . The Yankees won the series in four games . In Game 2 of the AL Championship Series against the Red Sox , Lieber allowed one run and three hits in seven innings , earning the win in a 3 – 1 victory . In Game 6 , he allowed four runs in 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings and took the loss in a 4 – 2 defeat . The Red Sox become the first MLB team in history to overcome a 3 – 0 series deficit , winning in seven games . 2004 would be Lieber 's only playoff experience , as well as his only stint in the AL .
Before the 2005 season , Lieber signed as a free agent with the Philadelphia Phillies for three years and $ 24 million with a team option for the fourth year . He was named the Phillies ' Opening Day starter in 2005 . He won his first four starts with the team . From May 12 through June 30 , Lieber had a 3 – 7 record and a 7 @.@ 48 ERA . 8 – 8 by the end of that stretch , he managed to post a 9 – 5 record and a 3 @.@ 32 ERA to finish the season . Lieber gave up one run in eight innings on July 21 but took the loss as the Los Angeles Dodgers defeated the Phillies 1 – 0 . On September 22 , he threw eight shutout innings in a 4 – 0 victory over the Braves . Lieber finished the season with a 17 – 13 record , a 4 @.@ 20 ERA , 149 strikeouts , 41 walks , and 223 hits allowed in 218 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Lieber led the team with 17 wins , which tied with Andy Pettitte for fifth in the league . He tied with six other pitchers for the league lead with 35 starts .
Lieber lost his first four starts of the season in 2006 for the first time in his career . On May 13 , he took a perfect game into the seventh inning against Cincinnati before allowing a two @-@ out single to Adam Dunn ; he threw 8 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 2 – 0 victory . He was on the DL from May 30 to July 6 with a groin injury . Before going on the DL , he had a 3 – 5 record and a 5 @.@ 79 ERA . He posted a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in his first five starts after returning from the DL , but he posted a 3 @.@ 38 in his final 11 starts . On August 16 , he threw his first shutout since 2001 against the New York Mets , allowing five hits in a 3 – 0 victory . In 27 starts , Lieber compiled a 9 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 93 ERA , 100 strikeouts , 24 walks , and 196 hits allowed in 168 innings pitched .
Lieber began 2007 on the DL with a strained right oblique , and when he was activated on April 9 , he was placed in the bullpen . After two relief outings , he returned to the rotation on April 20 when Brett Myers was moved to the bullpen . On June 9 , he struck out 11 and allowed three hits in a 4 – 0 shutout of the Royals . At the time , he was 3 – 4 with a 3 @.@ 72 ERA , but he allowed 14 runs ( 13 earned ) over his next two starts , both losses . On June 23 , Lieber was placed on the DL with a ruptured tendon in his right foot , which ended his tenure with the Phillies . In 14 games ( 12 starts ) , he had a 3 – 6 record , a 4 @.@ 73 ERA , 54 strikeouts , 22 walks , and 91 hits allowed in 78 innings . The Phillies reached the playoffs , but Lieber was left off their postseason roster because of his injury .
On January 16 , 2008 , Lieber signed a one @-@ year contract with the Chicago Cubs . He competed for the starting rotation but failed to earn a spot and was placed in the bullpen as the Cubs ' long reliever . From July 18 to September 1 , he was on the DL with a right foot injury . He appeared in his final major league game on September 5 , giving up four runs in two innings in a 10 – 2 loss to Cincinnati . In 26 games ( one start ) , Lieber posted a 2 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 05 ERA , 27 strikeouts , six walks , and 59 hits allowed in 46 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . The Cubs reached the playoffs , but Lieber was left off the playoff roster for the second year in a row .
Lieber retired after the 2008 season wanting to spend more time with his family . In his 14 @-@ year career , Lieber had a 131 – 124 record , a 4 @.@ 27 ERA , 1 @,@ 553 strikeouts , 422 walks , 2 @,@ 388 hits allowed , and 2 @,@ 198 innings pitched in 401 games ( 327 starts ) . His strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio of 3 @.@ 680 ranks 11th all @-@ time among major league pitchers as of 2013 .
= = = Pitching style = = =
Lieber threw three pitches : a fastball , a slider , and a changeup . The slider was the pitch Lieber often used to get outs and was most successful against right @-@ handed batters . The changeup darted away from batters . Lieber was not a hard thrower ( his fastball was in the low 90 mph range ) ; he relied on controlling his pitches to have success .
= = = Personal = = =
Lieber married Jessica Conway on September 18 , 1992 . The couple has one daughter : Jillian ( born October 22 , 1997 ) , and three sons : Jared ( born July 27 , 2000 ) , Justin ( born May 8 , 2003 ) , and Jonah ( born June 1 , 2007 ) . They live in Mobile , Alabama . Lieber enjoys hunting as a hobby .
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= Destiny Fulfilled =
Destiny Fulfilled is the fifth and final studio album by American R & B trio Destiny 's Child . It was released on November 10 , 2004 in by Columbia Records and Sony Urban Music . A comeback release , it marked the return of Destiny 's Child after the group went into hiatus , which allowed each member to release solo albums . Unlike their previous material , this record saw each member equally contributing to the songwriting and production . Destiny 's Child further worked with frequent collaborators such as Rockwilder , Swizz Beatz and Rodney Jerkins as well as several new producers .
For the album 's theme , the members drew inspiration from the conversations they had during the first week of recording when they discussed about the happenings in their lives while being apart . Composed mostly of mid @-@ tempo songs and ballads that are subsequent continuations of each other , altogether telling one complete story , Destiny Fulfilled is an R & B album . It was released to generally mixed reviews among music critics who criticized its mid @-@ tempo ballads and lyrical content . The album was commercially successful ; it reached number two on the US Billboard 200 , and has since been certified triple platinum in that region . It was also successful in different countries worldwide receiving certifications in Australia , Canada , Germany and the United Kingdom among others .
As part of the album 's promotion , the group performed songs from it on numerous award ceremonies and televised appearances in the US and Europe . They further embarked on the tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in 2005 with 67 dates across four continents worldwide . Destiny Fulfilled spawned four singles — the lead single " Lose My Breath " , " Soldier " , " Girl " and " Cater 2 U " . After the tour , the band disbanded which made Destiny Fulfilled their last studio album .
= = Background = =
While recording their third studio album Survivor in late 2000 , Beyoncé announced that Destiny 's Child would be on a hiatus that would allow each member to release a solo album , which they hoped would further increase interest in the group . The idea of solo releases emanated from the group 's manager , Beyoncé 's father , Mathew Knowles . Kelly Rowland further explained in an interview that Destiny 's Child has been present in the media for a long time and they wanted to " give the public eye a rest from DC for a minute " . During that same interview , she acknowledged that the trio would return to the studio in fall 2003 to start with the work on a new album .
Two members of the group , Beyoncé and Rowland each released one album , while Michelle Williams released two . While each member achieved domestic success , Beyoncé 's had been regarded as the most successful with the release of Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , which enjoyed international commercial success and acclaim . This , along with their other ongoing projects , led to speculation over the disbandment of Destiny 's Child . Amidst rumors and speculations , Rowland announced in 2004 their return to the studio to record what would become their fourth and final album . The group claimed that the reunion was destined to happen , and that their affinity to each other kept them together .
Right in the making of the album , they planned to part ways after their fourteen @-@ year career to facilitate their continued pursuit in individual aspirations . Beyoncé has noted that their destinies were already fulfilled ; however , Destiny 's Child claimed that naming the album Destiny Fulfilled was not a coincidence of sort . Beyoncé has said that " the group felt it still had something to offer musically " with the album before adding : " We did this record for ourselves , not to sell a million the first week out ... That doesn 't mean as much to us as just the fact that three friends got back together to do another record . That was our destiny . " . Rowland commented : " We were like , ' You know what , we 're getting older and we want to end on a high note . ' We want to give our fans a great final record " . Beyoncé , also commented regarding the finality of their career : " Who knows what will happen in three , five or 10 years ? The main thing is that we maintain our friendship and that we do it because we want to – not because it 's a good business move . "
= = Production and recording = =
Production of the album began in summer of 2004 with Destiny 's Child taking help from frequent collaborators including Rockwilder , Swizz Beatz and Rodney Jerkins . The group worked on the album within a period of three weeks . Jerkins , who had worked with Beyoncé for her solo album Dangerously in Love , concerned how he would manage the production , saying , " How is this going to work ? ' Cause Beyoncé , she blew up solo , so how 's it going to work in a group together ? " . He stated that once he got inside the studio , however , his skepticism vanished as he saw the group 's " excitement being back in the studio together " , calling the process " natural " . The members of the group stated that the first week of recording was spent solely on conversations about the happenings in their lives while being apart from each other as they hadn 't spent quaility time for a long period . This further inspired them to record the conversations and use it as the main theme of the record .
Differing from Survivor in that previously Beyoncé had taken an active role in writing and producing , Destiny Fulfilled saw each member contributing inputs culled from personal experiences and individual opinions and points of view not dependent from the others ' . In most cases , producers of the album would send them a CD containing a track that would be the group 's basis in the songwriting process ; without the producer 's supervision of which part to sing , that formed a new direction of their style different from their previous records . The traditional approach where each member sang one verse and chimed in the chorus was replaced ; in some songs in Destiny Fulfilled , their vocals were alternated in every line of the lyrics , a technique similar to hip hop artists . Destiny 's Child took the role of executive producing alongside their manager , Mathew Knowles . Beyoncé , who vocally produced the songs , commented that it was important for her to make sure their voices were audible and identifiable . Taking it as one of her goals , the group decided to focus on mid @-@ tempo songs and on few dance numbers and ballads — which they considered people cannot sing with . Beyoncé elaborated " We wanted to make sure that the songs would be something that we were proud of 10 years from now , 20 years from now . We wanted it to be something that people can really feel an emotion to . Up @-@ tempo songs can do that , but they more make you wanna dance . " As Rowland was recently engaged in the time of the writing of the album , it further influenced her songwriting . She also cited that being apart from the group had an impact on the album as well : " All of us have been in three different places ... so there 's a lot to talk about , a lot that 's gone on , personally . I think it 's important to talk about that on this new record , to put what we 've been going through separately into the new record . "
= = Composition = =
During an interview with MTV , Beyoncé stated that the songs put altogether tell a complete story and noted that each song was a subsequent continuation to the next one . She concluded , " [ The album continues with ] this whole journey of this group of women trying to find love . And truly they find it because they love themselves and find it in themselves . It 's friendship , it 's love , it 's maturity and growth , and it 's everything that we wanted it to be . " For the music of the album , the group tried challenging themselves , working with different arrangements , trying to create an original sound ; to succeed in this , they were influenced by The Emotions , Jodeci and SWV mixing elements of their music . Destiny Fulfilled is predominantly an R & B concept album tracing a woman 's relationship journey . Critics further found elements of soul music , dance and hip @-@ hop . The album is mostly composed of mid and slowtempo balladry following the opening two songs ; Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian felt that the ballads showcased " the girliness in the trio , musically and lyrically " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine found elements of middle of the road music in the ballads .
The album opens with the up @-@ tempo dance song " Lose My Breath " , a track detailing a man full of empty promises to a woman . It is musically complete with military , marching @-@ band drums and keyboard stabs and the backing track contains various sound effects . " Soldier " , the second track with T.I. and Lil Wayne , the only featured artists on the album , contains elements from Southern hip hop and Crunk & B. Unsatisfied and unfulfilled with the lover from the opening song , the protagonists ask for a decent soldier , further singing about finding a gangster . After finding the soldier , the third song , the R & B number " Cater 2 U " , lyrically is about submissively serving the man considered as such . Inspired by him , the protagonists sing about doing various things to make him happy musically accompanied by synthesizer as the song builds a crescendo .
The fourth song " T @-@ Shirt " is complete with inorganic drum sounds , guitar and backwards loop as the trio sings about sleeping in bed with their man 's T @-@ shirt , " craving his presence , and inhailing his scent " . " Is She the Reason " is an R & B ballad which was noted to have a similar chord progression to materials by The Beatles , which lyrically speaks on being in competition with another woman for her mans love & attention . It contains a trumpet @-@ laden sample from Melba Moore 's song " I Don 't Know No One Else to Turn To " . The next song , " Girl " was noted for its Motown influence and a theme talking about friendship . " If " , complete with strings , lyrically talks about men who don 't appreciate their female lovers until their relationship ends and they realize their mistakes . " Free " was described as a " soul classic from 1975 " with critics also noting elements of 1970s funk music , as the trio speaks on being " set free " after being in a relationship where her lover never tending to her desires like she does for him . The midtempo number " Through with Love " was noted for having an " angry " nature as it talks about a break @-@ up . It contains an undulating piano line as the members of the group sing with restrained vocals and later religious redemption with elements of gospel . In " Love " , " capital L kicks the daylights out of the forces of fear , doubt and disappointment " , as the group " thank [ s ] God for love " . They further sing about how people " can 't truly love another until [ they ] love God and then [ themselves ] " . They further proclaim that they have found love and are " madly in it " .
= = Release and promotion = =
The track listing of Destiny Fulfilled was revealed on October 15 , 2004 . The album was first released in Japan on November 10 , 2004 . It was released on November 16 , 2004 , in North America via Columbia Records . Although the original release was intended to be one day earlier , Columbia Records was concerned about " potential for Internet leaks and ' burned ' CD counterfeits " that could " lead consumers to experience inferior and incomplete versions of the album " which led to the postponement of Destiny Fulfilled .
The group performed " Lose My Breath " on ABC 's 2004 National Football League " Opening Kickoff " special after its online release on September 9 , 2004 , to break their yearlong hiatus . On October 25 , 2004 , they appeared at the Radio Music Awards in Las Vegas performing the song with an a cappella jazz opening . The following month they performed three songs from their previous albums and finished with " Lose My Breath " on The Oprah Winfrey Show where they also sat down for an interview with Oprah Winfrey . On November 8 , 2004 , the trio appeared on Total Request Live ( TRL ) and performed the song along with " Say My Name " . They went to the German entertainment TV show Wetten , dass .. ? on November 13 , 2004 , and performed " Lose My Breath " . At BET 's 106 & Park Destiny 's Child performed " Soldier " on November 15 , 2004 . They also performed the song on CBS 's The Early Show on December 8 , 2004 . In early February 2005 they gave another performance of " Soldier " at the British show Top of the Pops . At the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 , they sang both " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " . They performed the latter song again at the 2005 ESPY Awards on July 13 with the ceremony being aired on ESPN four days later . " Cater 2 U " was performed on June 28 during the 2005 BET Awards in Los Angeles .
When the advanced release date of the album was announced , the group confirmed the initial dates of their worldwide tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in connection with Destiny Fulfilled 's promotion . Promotions of the tour were aired over the radio and television across the United States and the group further collaborated with McDonald 's , which served as its sponsor . The tour 's set list included songs from Destiny Fulfilled as well as Destiny 's Child 's previous albums and songs from the solo albums of each member performed individually . Numerous costume changes occurred throughout the show ; the concert exhibited products from Beyoncé 's clothing line from the House of Deréon , a company she co @-@ founded with her mother Tina Knowles . A performance from the tour was filmed in Atlanta on July 15 , 2005 , and the DVD Destiny 's Child Live in Atlanta chronicling the concert was released on March 28 , 2006 .
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single , " Lose My Breath " , premiered on AOL Music on September 9 , 2004 and it was released on September 21 . Its high @-@ mark debut at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 prior to its release gave the album an early boost . The single peaked at number three on the chart for the week ending November 6 , 2004 giving the group their ninth top ten single . " Lose My Breath " topped the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending January 8 , 2005 and was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 28 , 2005 selling 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was also successful across Europe , peaking at number one on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for the week ending December 4 , 2004 spending four consecutive weeks on top . It managed to top the charts in Belgium , Ireland , Italy and Switzerland and it further appeared in the top ten in almost every other chart . The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) used the song as the music for their introductory montage at the 2004 NBA Playoffs and through the first few weeks of the 2005 NBA Playoffs .
" Soldier " , released on December 7 , 2004 , peaked at the third position on the Billboard Hot 100 chart becoming the band 's tenth top ten single on that chart . It further became the second single from the album to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending February 26 , 2005 . The RIAA gave it a gold certification for selling 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . " Soldier " further peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart , number 3 on the ARIA Charts in Australia and appeared in the top 20 in many European countries . The third single from the album , " Girl " was released on May 2 , 2005 in the UK and on May 17 in the US . It was successful on the ARIA Chart peaking at number five and number six both on the UK Singles Chart and the New Zealand Singles Chart in addition to appearing in other European charts . In the US , it peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart becoming the lowest charting single there from the album . The fourth and final single from Destiny Fulfilled was " Cater 2 U " released in the US and Italy only beginning on June 14 , 2005 . It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs further being certified gold by the RIAA .
= = Critical reception = =
Destiny Fulfilled received mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 52 based on 17 reviews . Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe magazine complimented the production of the album , saying that it " showcases advanced production values " with " impressive " songwriting and vocal abilities and concluded that it " offers divine satisfaction " . A writer of Billboard felt that Destiny Fulfilled worked as " a testament to Beyoncé 's evolving multiple talents " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised Rowland 's and Williams ' abilities as vocalists and their contributions to the choruses , but felt that Beyoncé " steals every song on Destiny Fulfilled " further commending her for sounding " larger than life even when she 's quiet " ; however he concluded , " as a whole , the album winds up sounding too reserved and heavy @-@ handed , which makes it a disappointment " . Andy Battaglia of The A.V. Club wrote in his review that " Destiny Fulfilled sounds distant and detached " further criticizing its mid @-@ tempo ballads for sounding " uninterrupted at best , uninspired at worst " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times commented that it is " a surprisingly perfunctory disc that never quite justifies its existence " . Alan Ranta of Tiny Mix Tapes doubted Beyoncé 's lyrical sincerity , saying , " the success of this album depends once again on the complete suspension of die @-@ hard fans ' disbelief that Beyoncé ' Your Ad Here ' Knowles could ever actually truly love another human being as much as she loves herself and her possessions . "
Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian commented that the lead vocals of the songs were likely to be sung by each member equally , noting that it made the album a " democratic " one ; however she criticized them for squandering " the extent of their talents " on the album . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly also noticed its " overall air of democracy at work " and noted that Destiny Fulfilled " often moves at a molasses @-@ like pace , weighted down with a preponderance of exquisitely executed but ultimately dull ballads " . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone magazine echoed his comments , saying , " In all but a couple of songs , the verses are divided into three sections , with Beyonce leading things off , followed by Rowland , then Williams " . She noted that after a couple of upbeat songs , " the album slumps into an endless string of overwrought R & B ballads where the only saving grace is ... these ladies can harmonize like nobody 's business . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine has commented that the ballads of the album build into " the same sort of standoffish sexual supply @-@ and @-@ demand bartering that has marred their worst tracks " . Most of the critics questioned why Beyoncé had to return to Destiny 's Child after achieving the most success among the members of the group . Henderson lambasted Beyoncé to performing again with the group with the " full intention " of taking advantage to bolster her " divette " status to superstardom . In May 2006 , Destiny Fulfilled was listed at number 24 on a list titled " The 50 Worst Albums Ever ! " complied by Q magazine .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album won in the category for Favorite Soul / R & B Album at the 2005 American Music Awards where Destiny 's Child also won the Favorite Soul / R & B Band award . At the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards Destiny Fulfilled received an award for Best R & B / Soul Album while " Soldier " received Best R & B / Soul Single . The album was nominated in the category for Best Contemporary R & B Album at the 48th Grammy Awards in 2006 but it lost to Mariah Carey 's The Emancipation of Mimi . Its singles " Soldier " and " Cater 2 U " further received nominations in three different categories at the same ceremony . The previous year , " Lose My Breath " was nominated in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo Or Group at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the album debuted at number 19 on the Billboard 200 for the week ending November 27 , 2004 for amassing sales of 61 @,@ 000 copies prior to a whole tracking week . In its first official week of sales , Destiny Fulfilled sold over 497 @,@ 000 copies , with an increase of 713 % compared to its early sales ; the album 's chart position rocketed to number two on the Billboard 200 for the week ending December 4 , 2004 . In the same week , it debuted at number one on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart becoming the group 's second chart topper following Survivor in 2001 . After being removed from the top position for three consecutive weeks , Destiny Fulfilled returned to number one for the week ending January 1 , 2005 . On January 14 , 2005 it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . It emerged as the seventh best @-@ selling album and third best @-@ selling R & B album in 2005 . As of October 2009 , the album has sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . It was ranked at number 133 on the decade @-@ end chart of the best @-@ selling albums in that country for the period between 2000 and 2009 . The album peaked at number 3 on the Canadian Albums Chart and was awarded platinum certification by Music Canada selling 100 @,@ 000 copies .
In the UK , Destiny Fulfilled debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart on November 27 , 2004 which also became its peak position in that country . Having spent a total of 21 weeks on the chart , it became the group 's third album to enter the top ten in the UK until 2005 and the fourth one in their entire career . On November 19 , 2004 , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it platinum for selling 300 @,@ 000 copies . On the Irish Albums Chart , Destiny Fulfilled debuted and peaked at number 6 on November 18 , 2004 becoming Destiny 's Child third consecutive top ten album in Ireland . It was also successful in other European countries , peaking at number 3 on the German Albums Chart , further being certified platinum in that region . In France , Destiny Fulfilled peaked at number nine in its first week on November 14 , 2004 . It was last seen on the country 's albums chart at number 163 on September 3 , 2005 .
On the Australian ARIA Albums Chart , Destiny Fulfilled debuted at number 11 on November 28 , 2004 , a position which later became its peak . Spending a total of 31 weeks through 2004 and 2005 ascending and descending the chart , the album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies in that region . In New Zealand , Destiny Fulfilled peaked at number 21 on April 25 , 2005 and the Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) awarded it with a gold certification for 7 @,@ 500 copies sold . In Japan , the album debuted and peaked at number four on the Oricon chart due to the success of " Lose My Breath " which reached number one on the singles chart there . The album has sold over 625 @,@ 000 copies there and was certified double platinum by Oricon making it Destiny 's Child 's biggest success there to date . It won in the category Rock / Pop Album of the Year International at the 19th Japan Gold Disc Award in 2005 organized by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Destiny Fulfilled was named the eighth best @-@ selling album of 2004 worldwide by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) .
= = Disbandment = =
In a visit at the Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona , Spain on July 11 , 2005 , Rowland announced before 16 @,@ 000 spectators that Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It would be Destiny 's Child last tour together , revealing their formal disbandment . After their final North American leg , the group parted ways . In a statement released to MTV , the band said that the tour had provided them the opportunity to depart from Destiny 's Child on a " high note " . They also talked about the moment when the group started their musical endeavor and their realizations of pursuing individual careers after working together for several years . Destiny 's Child thanked fans for their support while not closing the chance of seeing them continuing each member 's goals in music , film , and television . In another interview they explained that their disbandment was planned during the making of the album . While in the studio , they discussed individual aspirations and realized that remaining as a group would prevent them in pursuing those interests . Rowland revealed that they wanted to break up while they were still successful and " friends [ with each other ] " . Beyoncé , however , emphasized that Destiny Fulfilled would not be their last album and disclosed the idea of a possible reunion .
= = Track listings = =
Wal @-@ Mart exclusive DVD
A Wal @-@ Mart exclusive DVD titled " Fan Pack " was released on November 9 , 2004 a week before the release of Destiny Fulfilled . It was available at Wal @-@ Mart only for a limited time .
Notes
" Is She the Reason " samples " I Don 't Know No One Else to Turn To " as performed by Melba Moore .
" Girl " samples " Ocean of Thoughts and Dreams " as written by Don Davis and Eddie Robinson and performed by The Dramatics .
" Game Over " samples " Flashback " as performed by Dee Dee Sharp .
" If " samples " Inseparable " as written by Chuck Jackson and Marvin Yancy and performed by Natalie Cole .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Destiny Fulfilled .
Production
Vocal producers : Sean Garrett , Solange Knowles , Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams
Vocal editing : Sam Thomas , Rommel Nino Villanueva
Mixing : Andrew Dawson , Vincent Dilorenzo , Tony Maserati , Dave Pensado , Dexter Simmons , Phil Tan
A & R : Theresa LaBarbera Whites , Huy Nguyen
Production coordination : Candice Childress
Design : Alice Butts , Ian Cuttler
Art direction : Alice Butts , Ian Cuttler
Photography : Fabrizio Ferri
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= Moses Hardy =
Moses Hardy ( January 6 , 1894 – December 7 , 2006 ) was , at age 112 , the last surviving black veteran of World War I and one of the last surviving American veterans of that war . The son of former slaves , Hardy was born in 1894 and lived a religious and farming life until he signed up to serve overseas in World War I in July 1918 . He served in the segregated 805th infantry , which was assigned a variety of manual labor and support tasks . Hardy himself served as a scout , supplying the front line troops when necessary . Though Hardy did experience combat , he was never seriously injured and rarely discussed his experiences concerning the fighting . Instead , he preferred to recount stories about the food , the bravery of the soldiers and the weather in France .
After the war , he took on a variety of jobs including school bus driver , farmer , deacon and cosmetics salesman , the latter of which he performed well past his 100th birthday . He received the Victory Medal , a special medal from the Mississippi National Guard and the French Légion d 'honneur . In 1999 , the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi . At the time of his death , at the age of 112 , he was recognized as the oldest combat veteran ever , the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and the second @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran in the world .
= = Early life = =
Hardy was born in Aberdeen , Mississippi in 1894 . Hardy 's parents , Morris Hardy — born in the 1840s — and Nancy Hardy , were former slaves who after the Civil War had purchased 265 acres ( 1 @.@ 07 km2 ) of land in Mississippi from a Chickasaw Native American for a dollar . The Hardy family was a deeply religious one , and Moses would later recount that Exodus 20 : 12 , which instructed one to honor their parents , was his favorite Bible passage and one which he lived by . Hardy was married once , to a woman by the name of Fannie Marshall , with whom he would end up having eight children .
= = Military career = =
Hardy 's service in France lasted from July 1918 to July 1919 , and included thirty @-@ nine combat days . As an African American , he served in a segregated army unit , the 805th Pioneer Infantry , which was commanded by white officers . Although the unit 's purpose was to provide support for engineer regiments , it was also an infantry unit that was equipped to fight if necessary . The unit focused mainly of the tasks of stevedores , such as unloading cargo from ships , but also performed other manual labor tasks , such as cooking and organizing burials . Hardy 's outfit was armed solely with rifles , instead of standard @-@ issue machine guns . After the war , Hardy 's division was responsible for cleaning up the battlefields and removing the dead .
Hardy himself admitted to his family that he was " scared to death " when he first arrived overseas , but believed that the soldiers were fed something to make them brave , which he referred to as " brave pills " . After a short time in the military , he claimed that he was not afraid of anything that he experienced from then on . Even in the heat of battle , Hardy professed that he would get " wound up " at times , but never frightened . He recalled many strange experiences with food and drink , such as getting used to drinking green water from canteens and eating hardtacks , which he found to be surprisingly filling . To go with this , there was often little more than small tins of ham or chicken and occasionally coffee to drink and pudding or pie for dessert . Hardy also witnessed many of his friends get killed in action , and relied on his faith in God to get him through the toughest times .
Hardy often acted as a scout who would help bring supplies to troops on the front line . On September 25 , 1918 , he was present at the Meuse River during a mustard gas attack and , at some point during the war , he received an injury to his knee . Hardy rarely spoke about the fighting itself , and preferred to talk about France 's weather when asked about his experiences overseas .
= = Post @-@ World War I = =
Throughout the years , he received the Victory Medal , the Occupational Medal from the Mississippi Army National Guard , an honourable discharge ( which he had not received upon leaving the army ) and the French Légion d 'honneur . In 1999 , when he was 105 years old , the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi . At the time , he was known as the oldest living World War I veteran , as Emiliano Mercado del Toro had not yet been discovered . He was interviewed by Treehouse Productions in 2006 as part of their Living History Project , a radio tribute to the last surviving World War I veterans that was hosted by Walter Cronkite . Though he could not speak coherently , his son Haywood Hardy , himself 80 years old at the time , recalled some of the stories that his father had told him .
Hardy did not serve in World War II and instead drove a school bus , farmed and sold linaments and wigs for " Lucky Heart " cosmetics until his retirement . He reportedly continued to go door @-@ to @-@ door for several years past his centenary , even resorting to phone sales when his children hid the keys of his 1972 Chevrolet Caprice . The youngest of his eight children , Jean Dukes , was born in the late 1940s . He also served as a deacon and superintendent of a Sunday School class at Mount Olive Church for over 75 years . His son claimed that , until about four years before he died , his father was healthy enough to drive his car into town every day . Hardy 's longevity was also credited to a daily meal that consisted of cabbage , corn bread , butter milk , potatoes and Dr Pepper , and the fact that he never drank alcohol or smoked in his life . Until a few years before his death , it was claimed that Hardy had never had a seriously ill day in his life and that he never took medicine , as it only made him sick . Hardy lived on his own until 2004 when his legs weakened and he found it almost impossible to walk . He was placed in a rest home , but was still able to feed himself and pass the days watching The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Price Is Right .
At the time of his death , he was the oldest United States combat veteran ever , the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and had outlived at least three of his eight children . It was reported that he had several dozen grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren . He was also ranked as the sixth @-@ oldest living verified person in the world , the second @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran behind only del Toro and the last African American one . Although he suffered from mild dementia in his later years , he was reported to have been completely lucid through his final days and his death was attributed to natural causes .
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= Fresh Blood ( Supernatural ) =
" Fresh Blood " is the seventh episode of the paranormal drama Supernatural 's third season on The CW , and is the show 's fifty @-@ first episode overall . The episode was written by Sera Gamble and directed by Kim Manners ; it was first broadcast on November 15 , 2007 . The narrative follows the series ' protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they have their final confrontation with hunter Gordon Walker ( Sterling K. Brown ) , who has been turned into a vampire .
It also features the demise of recurring antagonist Gordon Walker . Brown , who was forced to leave the show due to commitments to the Lifetime Television series Army Wives , was horrified at Gordon 's actions in the episode . Mercedes McNab of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel fame made a cameo appearance , and was also busy filming the television series Reaper during the episode 's production .
The episode received ratings near the season average , and garnered generally positive reviews from critics . Brown 's performance was praised , as well as the twist in his character 's storyline . Also applauded were both Sam 's confrontation with Dean over his recent reckless behavior and the resulting reconciliation at the episode 's end . Many critics found the presence of character Bela Talbot ( Lauren Cohan ) in the episode to be pointless , while the critic for TV Guide enjoyed McNab 's cameo and wished it had been longer .
= = Plot = =
Hunter Gordon Walker ( Brown ) , who believes that Sam Winchester ( Padalecki ) will one day turn evil and become involved in a demonic war against humanity , escapes from prison . He tracks down Bela Talbot ( Cohan ) — a thief and frequent thorn in the Winchesters ' sides — and threatens to kill her unless she reveals the location of the brothers . She refuses at first , but eventually acquiesces in exchange for a priceless mojo bag . Meanwhile , Sam and Dean ( Ackles ) capture the vampire Lucy ( McNab ) , who has previously taken two victims . They interrogate her , and discover that another vampire named Dixon spiked her drink with his own blood at a club , transforming her . Dixon had taken her back to his home , but she escaped to feed . Lucy , still believing that she has only been drugged , is then killed by Dean , as there is no known cure for vampirism .
The brothers locate and confront Dixon , but are interrupted by Gordon and fellow hunter Kubrick . Sam and Dean escape , but in the mayhem , Dixon kidnaps Gordon . The vampire later explains to Gordon that hunters killed his nest , and now he wants to rebuild his family . Though Dixon had planned on using Gordon as food , the hunter 's continuous taunting prompts him to feed him his blood . When the brothers — having been informed by Bela of Gordon 's location , which she discovered via Ouija board — arrive at Dixon 's hideout , they discover that the vampiric Gordon has escaped . Elsewhere , Gordon returns to Kubrick . He requests that he be allowed to live long enough to deal with Sam . Despite this , Kubrick attempts to kill him , so Gordon retaliates by punching into his guts .
As night approaches , the brothers have not been able to find Gordon . Dean decides to go after Gordon while Sam stays hidden , but Sam refuses . He then confronts Dean about his reckless behavior since his deal with a Crossroads Demon , which left him only a year to live . Dean claims that he is not scared of his impending death , but Sam challenges this . Dean eventually relents , agreeing to behave more like his old self again . The two then prepare to wait out the night .
Gordon later calls Sam and Dean , threatening to kill a young woman if they do not meet him . They head to the location and find the woman , but Gordon uses a roller door to separate the brothers . The woman is revealed to be a vampire turned by Gordon , and Dean is forced to shoot her with the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything . He then attempts to help Sam , but Gordon prepares to bite him . Sam prevents this and garrotes Gordon with a razor wire , decapitating the vampire . Sam and Dean later stop on the side of the road to check a rattling noise made by the Impala . Sam is confused when Dean starts explaining the engine 's problem . Dean , however , reasons that Sam should know how to fix the car when his remaining time runs out , and also notes that , as his older brother , he should be showing him the ropes .
= = Production = =
= = = Guest stars = = =
" Fresh Blood " featured the final guest appearance by Sterling K. Brown as the vampire hunter Gordon Walker . The character 's story arc for the season was intended to be longer , but Brown 's commitments to the Lifetime Television series Army Wives limited his return to only two appearances . The episode was " really hard " for the actor ; though he was fine with the character dying , the idea of Gordon turning an innocent girl into a vampire was " horrific " to him . Although Gordon 's actions in previous episodes were questionable , Brown had always believed the character to be " ultimately good " . On this change , Brown commented , " His endgame is to kill Sam , and anyone else who has to experience detrimental effects because of that is not a concern of his . That was tough for me to process and get on board with . " However , series creator Eric Kripke reasoned that the character was now a monster and should follow his instincts instead of logic . The writer of " Fresh Blood " , Sera Gamble , also penned Gordon 's initial episode and helped Kripke conceptualize the character . She felt that she " lucked out " in being able to write the character 's final appearance , and found there to be " something so satisfying about turning him into a vampire and chopping his head off with a razor wire " .
Mercedes McNab , well known for portraying the vampire Harmony Kendall on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel , guest starred as the recently turned vampire Lucy . Although hesitant to play another vampire , McNab came to realize that the character was less of a vampire and more of a " girl who woke up and was basically drugged or was changed and didn 't know what was going on " . The actress also noted that Harmony was generally used for comic relief , whereas Lucy was intended to be " serious and more dramatic " . Her previous experience with director Kim Manners on the television series The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr. also influenced her decision . Because many of her recent characters tended to die , McNab was delighted by Lucy 's offscreen death . The actress was also working on an episode of Reaper during the filming of " Fresh Blood " , and the Supernatural production staff was able to fit her into the shooting schedule . The actress found them to be " really helpful " in making sure that her scenes did not take too long to film . Her portion of the opening scene only took a few hours to shoot , allowing her to return to Reaper the next morning .
Michael Massee returned as the hunter Kubrick , who believes himself to be on a mission from God to kill Sam Winchester . Massee discussed his character with Brown beforehand , and envisioned him as a long @-@ time friend of Gordon who could be depended upon . Brown described Kubrick as a " well @-@ meaning ... sweet guy " , and noted that his wife had a " visceral response " to the character 's death when later viewing the episode . Matthew Humphreys portrayed the vampire Dixon , and considers him a " deeply misunderstood " character . The actor found it " easy to rationalize what he did " because Dixon was at odds with how to start his own family as a vampire , and he maintains that the character had no evil intentions behind his actions . Humphreys hopes to one day return to the role .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . The opening sequence was filmed outside at night , though the subsequent scene — Lucy 's interrogation and execution — occurred in a motel set constructed on a sound stage . Atypical to the series , the motel room did not have a noticeable theme . Production designer John Marcynuk commented , " That motel room was essentially a killing floor for the boys ... and it was kind of a cold interrogation scene , so we tried to keep it not so friendly . When you walked through it , it definitely felt like a place [ where ] a murder had been committed . It wouldn 't have been the first time a murder had been committed in that room , either . It was the type of place where bad things happen . " Marcynuk took a different approach for Gordon 's death scene , utilizing green tones and a cool color palette to create a greater visual contrast with the blood .
= = = Effects = = =
To lend a strong air of realism to Gordon 's death , the scene was created by combining various special effects during filming with post @-@ production visual effects . Plastic razor wire with blood tubing aided in the initial phases of the decapitation ; it would slightly sink into Brown 's neck as pressure was applied , forcing out the fake blood . For the aftermath , Brown laid down on the floor , and the visual effects department removed his head from the shot and recreated it as a three @-@ dimensional model . The department decided to " push it a little bit farther " by having the head rocking into place and the mouth twitching , but Standards and Practices found it too graphic and forced them to remove the motion . Established in the first season episode " Dead Man 's Blood " were the shark @-@ like teeth of vampires , and the design has been subtly improved with each vampire episode . Though the special effects makeup department used molds of the actors ' mouths to create the fanged acrylic dentures , McNab noted that it was very difficult to speak while wearing them . Blood @-@ like makeup around the actors ' mouths helped to round out the vampiric visages .
= = = Music = = =
The synthesized orchestral score of the episode was written by Christopher Lennertz . He feels that " people associate the sound of violins with vampires " due to the " connection with Eastern Europe and counts " , and thus used a " very violin @-@ heavy " score for the episode , avoiding woodwinds , brass , and piano .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
In its original broadcast , " Fresh Blood " was viewed by an estimated 2 @.@ 88 million viewers . The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide praised the episode , commenting that " it was really nice to get an enjoyable episode high on intensity , brotherly interaction , blood and gore " . Although she had grown a " tad bit weary " of the character 's continuous attempts to kill Sam , she was still " really sorry to see Sterling and Gordy go " . Charles felt that his transformation was a " good twist " , and liked that his " black @-@ and @-@ white beliefs " remained the same even after becoming a vampire . She also enjoyed the character of Lucy and her " really sad " ending , and wished that McNab 's role had been larger . It was noted that the " brotherly interaction was front and center " , and Charles was " beyond happy " that Sam confronted Dean about is behavior . The " moment that [ she had ] been waiting for all season long " finally came to be when Dean took Sam seriously and actually listened to him instead of replying with sarcasm . Charles also deemed the final scene with the brothers to be " just heartbreaking " . Likewise , Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune not only gave the episode an A + , but ranked it as the sixth @-@ best episode of the 2007 @-@ 2008 television season . She praised writer Sera Gamble and director Kim Manners for " creating the best bonding scene we 've had all season " , and lauded Padalecki and Ackles for " making us care so much and believe so fully that a scene like this can leave us gasping " .
Brett Love of TV Squad posited that Gordon 's return in the " great " episode was " well worth the wait " . He noted that the revelation that Lucy was just an innocent girl was a " nice twist " , and deemed it a " great choice " to have Gordon turned into a vampire . Love was sad to see Gordon depart from the series , finding the " outstanding " Brown to be " so intense and committed " to the role . However , he considered Bela 's appearance to be unnecessary , and pointed out the implausibility of it being easier for Gordon to track down Bela than it would have been to just track down the Winchesters . Like Love , Julie Pyle of Airlock Alpha believed Bela 's appearance " [ felt ] forced " . She was saddened by the deaths of Gordon and Kubrick , and had hoped that their storylines would have been further explored . Pyle also criticized the episode 's lighting , commenting , " With the added gore this season , the show should seem darker . Instead , it 's like ' Supernatural Lite ' . " While Maureen Ryan of Chicago Tribune found the concept of Gordon hunting down Sam to be " inspired " , she noted that " ' Fresh Blood ' didn 't do much for [ her ] " .
= = = Analysis = = =
Recalling the demon Azazel 's comments about the recently resurrected Sam in the episode " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " — that what came back may not be " one hundred percent pure Sam " — Don Williams of BuddyTV questioned if something really is wrong with Sam . Williams added Gordon 's death to his list of Sam 's recent out @-@ of @-@ character actions , which already included Sam 's brutal execution of Jake Talley in " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " and his killing of the Crossroads Demon in " Bedtime Stories " . However , he did point out that both characters " kind of deserved to bite the dust " . Peterson , too , noted the " cold , dead look in Sam 's eyes " after the killing . On the other hand , Padalecki posited that the " darker side of Sam " was depicted when he killed Gordon " with pure hatred " , but reasoned that Sam was thinking , " He 's a vampire ! He 's killing people ; it 's time for him to go . "
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= Spanish conquest of Guatemala =
The Spanish conquest of Guatemala was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas , in which Spanish colonisers gradually incorporated the territory that became the modern country of Guatemala into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain . Before the conquest , this territory contained a number of competing Mesoamerican kingdoms , the majority of which were Maya . Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as " infidels " who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified , disregarding the achievements of their civilization . The first contact between the Maya and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailing from Panama to Santo Domingo was wrecked on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511 . Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519 , making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast . The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair ; the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries .
Pedro de Alvarado arrived in Guatemala from the newly conquered Mexico in early 1524 , commanding a mixed force of Spanish conquistadors and native allies , mostly from Tlaxcala and Cholula . Geographic features across Guatemala now bear Nahuatl placenames owing to the influence of these Mexican allies , who translated for the Spanish . The Kaqchikel Maya initially allied themselves with the Spanish , but soon rebelled against excessive demands for tribute and did not finally surrender until 1530 . In the meantime the other major highland Maya kingdoms had each been defeated in turn by the Spanish and allied warriors from Mexico and already subjugated Maya kingdoms in Guatemala . The Itza Maya and other lowland groups in the Petén Basin were first contacted by Hernán Cortés in 1525 , but remained independent and hostile to the encroaching Spanish until 1697 , when a concerted Spanish assault led by Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi finally defeated the last independent Maya kingdom .
Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly . The Spanish viewed the taking of prisoners as a hindrance to outright victory , whereas the Maya prioritised the capture of live prisoners and of booty . The indigenous peoples of Guatemala lacked key elements of Old World technology such as a functional wheel , horses , iron , steel , and gunpowder ; they were also extremely susceptible to Old World diseases , against which they had no resistance . The Maya preferred raiding and ambush to large @-@ scale warfare , using spears , arrows and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades ; the Xinca of the southern coastal plain used poison on their arrows . In response to the use of Spanish cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes .
= = Historical sources = =
The sources describing the Spanish conquest of Guatemala include those written by the Spanish themselves , among them two of four letters written by conquistador Pedro de Alvarado to Hernán Cortés in 1524 , describing the initial campaign to subjugate the Guatemalan Highlands . These letters were despatched to Tenochtitlan , addressed to Cortés but with a royal audience in mind ; two of these letters are now lost . Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez was Pedro de Alvarado 's cousin ; he accompanied him on his first campaign in Guatemala and in 1525 he became the chief constable of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , the newly founded Spanish capital . Gonzalo wrote an account that mostly supports that of Pedro de Alvarado . Pedro de Alvarado 's brother Jorge wrote another account to the king of Spain that explained it was his own campaign of 1527 – 1529 that established the Spanish colony . Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote a lengthy account of the conquest of Mexico and neighbouring regions , the Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España ( " True History of the Conquest of New Spain " ) ; his account of the conquest of Guatemala generally agrees with that of the Alvarados . His account was finished around 1568 , some 40 years after the campaigns it describes . Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación , in which he details his crossing of what is now Guatemala 's Petén Department . Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote a highly critical account of the Spanish conquest of the Americas and included accounts of some incidents in Guatemala . The Brevísima Relación de la Destrucción de las Indias ( " Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies " ) was first published in 1552 in Seville .
The Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish who accompanied them in their invasion of Guatemala wrote their own accounts of the conquest ; these included a letter to the Spanish king protesting at their poor treatment once the campaign was over . Other accounts were in the form of questionnaires answered before colonial magistrates to protest and register a claim for recompense . Two pictorial accounts painted in the stylised indigenous pictographic tradition have survived ; these are the Lienzo de Quauhquechollan , which was probably painted in Ciudad Vieja in the 1530s , and the Lienzo de Tlaxcala , painted in Tlaxcala .
Accounts of the conquest as seen from the point of view of the defeated highland Maya kingdoms are included in a number of indigenous documents , including the Annals of the Kaqchikels , which includes the Xajil Chronicle describing the history of the Kaqchikel from their mythical creation down through the Spanish conquest and continuing to 1619 . A letter from the defeated Tz 'utujil Maya nobility of Santiago Atitlán to the Spanish king written in 1571 details the exploitation of the subjugated peoples .
Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán was a colonial Guatemalan historian of Spanish descent who wrote La Recordación Florida , also called Historia de Guatemala ( History of Guatemala ) . The book was written in 1690 and is regarded as one of the most important works of Guatemalan history , and is the first such book to have been written by a criollo author . Field investigation has tended to support the estimates of indigenous population and army sizes given by Fuentes y Guzmán .
= = Background to the conquest = =
Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile and Leon in 1492 . Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule . In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands , the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . They heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and , in 1519 , Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast . By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish . A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico , extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the king of Spain via the Council of the Indies . Hernán Cortés received reports of rich , populated lands to the south and dispatched Pedro de Alvarado to investigate the region .
= = = Preparations for conquest = = =
In the run up to the announcement that an invasion force was to be sent to Guatemala , 10 @,@ 000 Nahua warriors had already been assembled by the Aztec emperor Cuauhtémoc to accompany the Spanish expedition . Warriors were ordered to be gathered from each of the Mexica and Tlaxcaltec towns . The native warriors supplied their own weapons , including swords , clubs and bows and arrows . Alvarado 's army left Tenochtitlan at the beginning of the dry season , sometime between the second half of November and December 1523 . As Alvarado left the Aztec capital , he led about 400 Spanish and approximately 200 Tlaxcaltec and Cholultec warriors and 100 Mexica , meeting up with the gathered reinforcements on the way . When the army left the Basin of Mexico , it may have included as many as 20 @,@ 000 native warriors from various kingdoms although the exact numbers are disputed . By the time the army crossed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , the massed native warriors included 800 from Tlaxcala , 400 from Huejotzingo , 1600 from Tepeaca plus many more from other former Aztec territories . Further Mesoamerican warriors were recruited from the Zapotec and Mixtec provinces , with the addition of more Nahuas from the Aztec garrison in Soconusco .
= = Guatemala before the conquest = =
In the early 16th century the territory that now makes up Guatemala was divided into various competing polities , each locked in continual struggle with its neighbours . The most important were the K 'iche ' , the Kaqchikel , the Tz 'utujil , the Chajoma , the Mam , the Poqomam and the Pipil . All were Maya groups except for the Pipil , who were a Nahua group related to the Aztecs ; the Pipil had a number of small city @-@ states along the Pacific coastal plain of southern Guatemala and El Salvador . The Pipil of Guatemala had their capital at Itzcuintepec . The Xinca were another non @-@ Maya group occupying the southeastern Pacific coastal area . The Maya had never been unified as a single empire , but by the time the Spanish arrived Maya civilization was thousands of years old and had already seen the rise and fall of great cities .
On the eve of the conquest the highlands of Guatemala were dominated by several powerful Maya states . In the centuries preceding the arrival of the Spanish the K 'iche ' had carved out a small empire covering a large part of the western Guatemalan Highlands and the neighbouring Pacific coastal plain . However , in the late 15th century the Kaqchikel rebelled against their former K 'iche ' allies and founded a new kingdom to the southeast with Iximche as its capital . In the decades before the Spanish invasion the Kaqchikel kingdom had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the K 'iche ' . Other highland groups included the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , the Mam in the western highlands and the Poqomam in the eastern highlands .
The kingdom of the Itza was the most powerful polity in the Petén lowlands of northern Guatemala , centred on their capital Nojpetén , on an island in Lake Petén Itzá . The second polity in importance was that of their hostile neighbours , the Kowoj . The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza , around the eastern lakes : Lake Salpetén , Lake Macanché , Lake Yaxhá and Lake Sacnab . Other groups are less well known and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Kejache , the Icaiche , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Mopan , the Manche Ch 'ol and the Yalain . The Kejache occupied an area north of the lake on the route to Campeche , while the Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén . The Manche territory was to the southwest of the Mopan . The Yalain had their territory immediately to the east of Lake Petén Itzá .
= = = Native weapons and tactics = = =
Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder . The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows , fire @-@ sharpened poles , flint @-@ headed spears and two @-@ handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian , similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . Pedro de Alvarado described how the Xinca of the Pacific coast attacked the Spanish with spears , stakes and poisoned arrows . Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it ; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish . The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic , and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans . In response to the use of cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads , lining them with fire @-@ hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds , a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses .
= = Conquistadors = =
The conquistadors were all volunteers , the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory , in the form of precious metals , land grants and provision of native labour . Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned in Europe . The initial incursion into Guatemala was led by Pedro de Alvarado , who earned the military title of Adelantado in 1527 ; he answered to the Spanish crown via Hernán Cortés in Mexico . Other early conquistadors included Pedro de Alvarado 's brothers Gómez de Alvarado , Jorge de Alvarado and Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras ; and his cousins Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez , Hernando de Alvarado and Diego de Alvarado . Pedro de Portocarrero was a nobleman who joined the initial invasion . Bernal Díaz del Castillo was a petty nobleman who accompanied Hernán Cortés when he crossed the northern lowlands , and Pedro de Alvarado on his invasion of the highlands . In addition to Spaniards , the invasion force probably included dozens of armed African slaves and freemen .
= = = Spanish weapons and tactics = = =
Spanish weaponry and tactics differed greatly from that of the indigenous peoples of Guatemala . This included the Spanish use of crossbows , firearms ( including muskets and cannon ) , war dogs and war horses . Among Mesoamerican peoples the capture of prisoners was a priority , while to the Spanish such taking of prisoners was a hindrance to outright victory . The inhabitants of Guatemala , for all their sophistication , lacked key elements of Old World technology , such as the use of iron and steel and functional wheels . The use of steel swords was perhaps the greatest technological advantage held by the Spanish , although the deployment of cavalry helped them to rout indigenous armies on occasion . The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour . The conquistadors applied a more effective military organisation and strategic awareness than their opponents , allowing them to deploy troops and supplies in a way that increased the Spanish advantage .
In Guatemala the Spanish routinely fielded indigenous allies ; at first these were Nahua brought from the recently conquered Mexico , later they also included Maya . It is estimated that for every Spaniard on the field of battle , there were at least 10 native auxiliaries . Sometimes there were as many as 30 indigenous warriors for every Spaniard , and it was the participation of these Mesoamerican allies that was particularly decisive . In at least one case , encomienda rights were granted to one of the Tlaxcalan leaders who came as allies , and land grants and exemption from being given in encomienda were given to the Mexican allies as rewards for their participation in the conquest . In practice , such privileges were easily removed or sidestepped by the Spanish and the indigenous conquistadors were treated in a similar manner to the conquered natives .
The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as mountains and forests .
= = Impact of Old World diseases = =
Epidemics accidentally introduced by the Spanish included smallpox , measles and influenza . These diseases , together with typhus and yellow fever , had a major impact on Maya populations . The Old World diseases brought with the Spanish and against which the indigenous New World peoples had no resistance were a deciding factor in the conquest ; the diseases crippled armies and decimated populations before battles were even fought . Their introduction was catastrophic in the Americas ; it is estimated that 90 % of the indigenous population had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact .
In 1519 and 1520 , before the arrival of the Spanish in the region , a number of epidemics swept through southern Guatemala . At the same time as the Spanish were occupied with the overthrow of the Aztec empire , a devastating plague struck the Kaqchikel capital of Iximche , and the city of Q 'umarkaj , capital of the K 'iche ' , may also have suffered from the same epidemic . It is likely that the same combination of smallpox and a pulmonary plague swept across the entire Guatemalan Highlands . Modern knowledge of the impact of these diseases on populations with no prior exposure suggests that 33 – 50 % of the population of the highlands perished . Population levels in the Guatemalan Highlands did not recover to their pre @-@ conquest levels until the middle of the 20th century . In 1666 pestilence or murine typhus swept through what is now the department of Huehuetenango . Smallpox was reported in San Pedro Saloma , in 1795 . At the time of the fall of Nojpetén in 1697 , there are estimated to have been 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a large number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war .
= = Timeline of the conquest = =
= = Conquest of the highlands = =
The conquest of the highlands was made difficult by the many independent polities in the region , rather than one powerful enemy to be defeated as was the case in central Mexico . After the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish in 1521 , the Kaqchikel Maya of Iximche sent envoys to Hernán Cortés to declare their allegiance to the new ruler of Mexico , and the K 'iche ' Maya of Q 'umarkaj may also have sent a delegation . In 1522 Cortés sent Mexican allies to scout the Soconusco region of lowland Chiapas , where they met new delegations from Iximche and Q 'umarkaj at Tuxpán ; both of the powerful highland Maya kingdoms declared their loyalty to the king of Spain . But Cortés ' allies in Soconusco soon informed him that the K 'iche ' and the Kaqchikel were not loyal , and were instead harassing Spain 's allies in the region . Cortés decided to despatch Pedro de Alvarado with 180 cavalry , 300 infantry , crossbows , muskets , 4 cannons , large amounts of ammunition and gunpowder , and thousands of allied Mexican warriors from Tlaxcala , Cholula and other cities in central Mexico ; they arrived in Soconusco in 1523 . Pedro de Alvarado was infamous for the massacre of Aztec nobles in Tenochtitlan and , according to Bartolomé de las Casas , he committed further atrocities in the conquest of the Maya kingdoms in Guatemala . Some groups remained loyal to the Spanish once they had submitted to the conquest , such as the Tz 'utujil and the K 'iche ' of Quetzaltenango , and provided them with warriors to assist further conquest . Other groups soon rebelled however , and by 1526 numerous rebellions had engulfed the highlands .
= = = Subjugation of the K 'iche ' = = =
Pedro de Alvarado and his army advanced along the Pacific coast unopposed until they reached the Samalá River in western Guatemala . This region formed a part of the K 'iche ' kingdom , and a K 'iche ' army tried unsuccessfully to prevent the Spanish from crossing the river . Once across , the conquistadors ransacked nearby settlements in an effort to terrorise the K 'iche ' . On 8 February 1524 Alvarado 's army fought a battle at Xetulul , called Zapotitlán by his Mexican allies ( modern San Francisco Zapotitlán ) . Although suffering many injuries inflicted by defending K 'iche ' archers , the Spanish and their allies stormed the town and set up camp in the marketplace . Alvarado then turned to head upriver into the Sierra Madre mountains towards the K 'iche ' heartlands , crossing the pass into the fertile valley of Quetzaltenango . On 12 February 1524 Alvarado 's Mexican allies were ambushed in the pass and driven back by K 'iche ' warriors but the Spanish cavalry charge that followed was a shock for the K 'iche ' , who had never before seen horses . The cavalry scattered the K 'iche ' and the army crossed to the city of Xelaju ( modern Quetzaltenango ) only to find it deserted . Although the common view is that the K 'iche ' prince Tecun Uman died in the later battle near Olintepeque , the Spanish accounts are clear that at least one and possibly two of the lords of Q 'umarkaj died in the fierce battles upon the initial approach to Quetzaltenango . The death of Tecun Uman is said to have taken place in the battle of El Pinar , and local tradition has his death taking place on the Llanos de Urbina ( Plains of Urbina ) , upon the approach to Quetzaltenango near the modern village of Cantel . Pedro de Alvarado , in his third letter to Hernán Cortés , describes the death of one of the four lords of Q 'umarkaj upon the approach to Quetzaltenango . The letter was dated 11 April 1524 and was written during his stay at Q 'umarkaj . Almost a week later , on 18 February 1524 , a K 'iche ' army confronted the Spanish army in the Quetzaltenango valley and were comprehensively defeated ; many K 'iche ' nobles were among the dead . Such were the numbers of K 'iche ' dead that Olintepeque was given the name Xequiquel , roughly meaning " bathed in blood " . In the early 17th century , the grandson of the K 'iche ' king informed the alcalde mayor ( the highest colonial official at the time ) that the K 'iche ' army that had marched out of Q 'umarkaj to confront the invaders numbered 30 @,@ 000 warriors , a claim that is considered credible by modern scholars . This battle exhausted the K 'iche ' militarily and they asked for peace and offered tribute , inviting Pedro de Alvarado into their capital Q 'umarkaj , which was known as Tecpan Utatlan to the Nahuatl @-@ speaking allies of the Spanish . Alvarado was deeply suspicious of the K 'iche ' intentions but accepted the offer and marched to Q 'umarkaj with his army .
The day after the battle of Olintepeque , the Spanish army arrived at Tzakahá , which submitted peacefully . There the Spanish chaplains Juan Godinez and Juan Díaz conducted a Roman Catholic mass under a makeshift roof ; this site was chosen to build the first church in Guatemala , which was dedicated to Concepción La Conquistadora . Tzakahá was renamed as San Luis Salcajá . The first Easter mass held in Guatemala was celebrated in the new church , during which high @-@ ranking natives were baptised .
In March 1524 Pedro de Alvarado entered Q 'umarkaj at the invitation of the remaining lords of the K 'iche ' after their catastrophic defeat , fearing that he was entering a trap . He encamped on the plain outside the city rather than accepting lodgings inside . Fearing the great number of K 'iche ' warriors gathered outside the city and that his cavalry would not be able to manoeuvre in the narrow streets of Q 'umarkaj , he invited the leading lords of the city , Oxib @-@ Keh ( the ajpop , or king ) and Beleheb @-@ Tzy ( the ajpop k 'amha , or king elect ) to visit him in his camp . As soon as they did so , he seized them and kept them as prisoners in his camp . The K 'iche ' warriors , seeing their lords taken prisoner , attacked the Spaniards ' indigenous allies and managed to kill one of the Spanish soldiers . At this point Alvarado decided to have the captured K 'iche ' lords burnt to death , and then proceeded to burn the entire city . After the destruction of Q 'umarkaj and the execution of its rulers , Pedro de Alvarado sent messages to Iximche , capital of the Kaqchikel , proposing an alliance against the remaining K 'iche ' resistance . Alvarado wrote that they sent 4000 warriors to assist him , although the Kaqchikel recorded that they sent only 400 .
= = = San Marcos : Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón = = =
With the capitulation of the K 'iche ' kingdom , various non @-@ K 'iche ' peoples under K 'iche ' dominion also submitted to the Spanish . This included the Mam inhabitants of the area now within the modern department of San Marcos . Quetzaltenango and San Marcos were placed under the command of Juan de León y Cardona , who began the reduction of indigenous populations and the foundation of Spanish towns . The towns of San Marcos and San Pedro Sacatepéquez were founded soon after the conquest of western Guatemala . In 1533 Pedro de Alvarado ordered de León y Cardona to explore and conquer the area around the Tacaná , Tajumulco , Lacandón and San Antonio volcanoes ; in colonial times this area was referred to as the Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón . De León marched to a Maya city named Quezalli by his Nahuatl @-@ speaking allies with a force of fifty Spaniards ; his Mexican allies also referred to the city by the name Sacatepequez . De León renamed the city as San Pedro Sacatepéquez in honour of his friar , Pedro de Angulo . The Spanish founded a village nearby at Candacuchex in April that year , renaming it as San Marcos .
= = = Kaqchikel alliance = = =
On 14 April 1524 , soon after the defeat of the K 'iche ' , the Spanish were invited into Iximche and were well received by the lords Belehe Qat and Cahi Imox . The Kaqchikel kings provided native soldiers to assist the conquistadors against continuing K 'iche ' resistance and to help with the defeat of the neighbouring Tz 'utuhil kingdom . The Spanish only stayed briefly in Iximche before continuing through Atitlán , Escuintla and Cuscatlán . The Spanish returned to the Kaqchikel capital on 23 July 1524 and on 27 July ( 1 Q 'at in the Kaqchikel calendar ) Pedro de Alvarado declared Iximche as the first capital of Guatemala , Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( " St. James of the Knights of Guatemala " ) . Iximche was called Guatemala by the Spanish , from the Nahuatl Quauhtemallan meaning " forested land " . Since the Spanish conquistadors founded their first capital at Iximche , they took the name of the city used by their Nahuatl @-@ speaking Mexican allies and applied it to the new Spanish city and , by extension , to the kingdom . From this comes the modern name of the country . When Pedro de Alvarado moved his army to Iximche , he left the defeated K 'iche ' kingdom under the command of Juan de León y Cardona . Although de León y Cardona was given command of the western reaches of the new colony , he continued to take an active role in the continuing conquest , including the later assault on the Poqomam capital .
= = = Conquest of the Tz 'utujil = = =
The Kaqchikel appear to have entered into an alliance with the Spanish to defeat their enemies , the Tz 'utujil , whose capital was Tecpan Atitlan . Pedro de Alvarado sent two Kaqchikel messengers to Tecpan Atitlan at the request of the Kaqchikel lords , both of whom were killed by the Tz 'utujil . When news of the killing of the messengers reached the Spanish at Iximche , the conquistadors marched against the Tz 'utujil with their Kaqchikel allies . Pedro de Alvarado left Iximche just 5 days after he had arrived there , with 60 cavalry , 150 Spanish infantry and an unspecified number of Kaqchikel warriors . The Spanish and their allies arrived at the lakeshore after a day 's hard march , without encountering any opposition . Seeing the lack of resistance , Alvarado rode ahead with 30 cavalry along the lake shore . Opposite a populated island the Spanish at last encountered hostile Tz 'utujil warriors and charged among them , scattering and pursuing them to a narrow causeway across which the surviving Tz 'utujil fled . The causeway was too narrow for the horses , therefore the conquistadors dismounted and crossed to the island before the inhabitants could break the bridges . The rest of Alvarado 's army soon reinforced his party and they successfully stormed the island . The surviving Tz 'utujil fled into the lake and swam to safety on another island . The Spanish could not pursue the survivors further because 300 canoes sent by the Kaqchikels had not yet arrived . This battle took place on 18 April .
The following day the Spanish entered Tecpan Atitlan but found it deserted . Pedro de Alvarado camped in the centre of the city and sent out scouts to find the enemy . They managed to catch some locals and used them to send messages to the Tz 'utujil lords , ordering them to submit to the king of Spain . The Tz 'utujil leaders responded by surrendering to Pedro de Alvarado and swearing loyalty to Spain , at which point Alvarado considered them pacified and returned to Iximche . Three days after Pedro de Alvarado returned to Iximche , the lords of the Tz 'utujil arrived there to pledge their loyalty and offer tribute to the conquistadors . A short time afterwards a number of lords arrived from the Pacific lowlands to swear allegiance to the king of Spain , although Alvarado did not name them in his letters ; they confirmed Kaqchikel reports that further out on the Pacific plain was the kingdom called Izcuintepeque in Nahuatl , or Panatacat in Kaqchikel , whose inhabitants were warlike and hostile towards their neighbours .
= = = Kaqchikel rebellion = = =
Pedro de Alvarado rapidly began to demand gold in tribute from the Kaqchikels , souring the friendship between the two peoples . He demanded that their kings deliver 1000 gold leaves , each worth 15 pesos .
A Kaqchikel priest foretold that the Kaqchikel gods would destroy the Spanish , causing the Kaqchikel people to abandon their city and flee to the forests and hills on 28 August 1524 ( 7 Ahmak in the Kaqchikel calendar ) . Ten days later the Spanish declared war on the Kaqchikel . Two years later , on 9 February 1526 , a group of sixteen Spanish deserters burnt the palace of the Ahpo Xahil , sacked the temples and kidnapped a priest , acts that the Kaqchikel blamed on Pedro de Alvarado . Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo recounted how in 1526 he returned to Iximche and spent the night in the " old city of Guatemala " together with Luis Marín and other members of Hernán Cortés 's expedition to Honduras . He reported that the houses of the city were still in excellent condition ; his account was the last description of the city while it was still inhabitable .
The Spanish founded a new town at nearby Tecpán Guatemala ; Tecpán is Nahuatl for " palace " , thus the name of the new town translated as " the palace among the trees " . The Spanish abandoned Tecpán in 1527 , because of the continuous Kaqchikel attacks , and moved to the Almolonga Valley to the east , refounding their capital on the site of today 's San Miguel Escobar district of Ciudad Vieja , near Antigua Guatemala . The Nahua and Oaxacan allies of the Spanish settled in what is now central Ciudad Vieja , then known as Almolonga ( not to be confused with Almolonga near Quetzaltenango ) ; Zapotec and Mixtec allies also settled San Gaspar Vivar about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Almolonga , which they founded in 1530 .
The Kaqchikel kept up resistance against the Spanish for a number of years , but on 9 May 1530 , exhausted by the warfare that had seen the deaths of their best warriors and the enforced abandonment of their crops , the two kings of the most important clans returned from the wilds . A day later they were joined by many nobles and their families and many more people ; they then surrendered at the new Spanish capital at Ciudad Vieja . The former inhabitants of Iximche were dispersed ; some were moved to Tecpán , the rest to Sololá and other towns around Lake Atitlán .
= = = Siege of Zaculeu = = =
Although a state of hostilities existed between the Mam and the K 'iche ' of Q 'umarkaj after the rebellion of the Kaqchikel against their former K 'iche ' allies prior to European contact , when the conquistadors arrived there was a shift in the political landscape . Pedro de Alvarado described how the Mam king Kayb 'il B 'alam was received with great honour in Q 'umarkaj while he was there . The expedition against Zaculeu was apparently initiated after K 'iche ' bitterness at their failure to contain the Spanish at Q 'umarkaj , with the plan to trap the conquistadors in the city having been suggested to them by the Mam king , Kayb 'il B 'alam ; the resulting execution of the K 'iche ' kings was viewed as unjust . The K 'iche ' suggestion of marching on the Mam was quickly taken up by the Spanish .
At the time of the conquest , the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul ( also spelled Chinabjul ) , now the city of Huehuetenango , but Zaculeu 's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest . The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras , brother of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado , in 1525 , with 40 Spanish cavalry and 80 Spanish infantry , and some 2 @,@ 000 Mexican and K 'iche ' allies . Gonzalo de Alvarado left the Spanish camp at Tecpán Guatemala in July 1525 and marched to the town of Totonicapán , which he used as a supply base . From Totonicapán the expedition headed north to Momostenango , although it was delayed by heavy rains . Momostenango quickly fell to the Spanish after a four @-@ hour battle . The following day Gonzalo de Alvarado marched on Huehuetenango and was confronted by a Mam army of 5 @,@ 000 warriors from nearby Malacatán ( modern Malacatancito ) . The Mam army advanced across the plain in battle formation and was met by a Spanish cavalry charge that threw them into disarray , with the infantry mopping up those Mam that survived the cavalry . Gonzalo de Alvarado slew the Mam leader Canil Acab with his lance , at which point the Mam army 's resistance was broken , and the surviving warriors fled to the hills . Alvarado entered Malacatán unopposed to find it occupied only by the sick and the elderly . Messengers from the community 's leaders arrived from the hills and offered their unconditional surrender , which was accepted by Alvarado . The Spanish army rested for a few days , then continued onwards to Huehuetenango only to find it deserted . Kayb 'il B 'alam had received news of the Spanish advance and had withdrawn to his fortress at Zaculeu . Alvarado sent a message to Zaculeu proposing terms for the peaceful surrender of the Mam king , who chose not to answer .
Zaculeu was defended by Kayb 'il B 'alam commanding some 6 @,@ 000 warriors gathered from Huehuetenango , Zaculeu , Cuilco and Ixtahuacán . The fortress was surrounded on three sides by deep ravines and defended by a formidable system of walls and ditches . Gonzalo de Alvarado , although outnumbered two to one , decided to launch an assault on the weaker northern entrance . Mam warriors initially held the northern approaches against the Spanish infantry but fell back before repeated cavalry charges . The Mam defence was reinforced by an estimated 2 @,@ 000 warriors from within Zaculeu but was unable to push the Spanish back . Kayb 'il B 'alam , seeing that outright victory on an open battlefield was impossible , withdrew his army back within the safety of the walls . As Alvarado dug in and laid siege to the fortress , an army of approximately 8 @,@ 000 Mam warriors descended on Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north , drawn from those towns allied with the city . Alvarado left Antonio de Salazar to supervise the siege and marched north to confront the Mam army . The Mam army was disorganised , and although it was a match for the Spanish and allied foot soldiers , it was vulnerable to the repeated charges of the experienced Spanish cavalry . The relief army was broken and annihilated , allowing Alvarado to return to reinforce the siege . After several months the Mam were reduced to starvation . Kayb 'il B 'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in the middle of October 1525 . When the Spanish entered the city they found 1 @,@ 800 dead Indians , and the survivors eating the corpses of the dead . After the fall of Zaculeu , a Spanish garrison was established at Huehuetenango under the command of Gonzalo de Solís ; Gonzalo de Alvarado returned to Tecpán Guatemala to report his victory to his brother .
= = = Conquest of the Poqomam = = =
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . At the Spanish approach , the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city . The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , possibly from Chinautla , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry , forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river , allowing the inhabitants to come and go .
Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners , Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets , each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city , and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their allies . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .
= = = Resettlement of the Chajoma = = =
There are no direct sources describing the conquest of the Chajoma by the Spanish but it appears to have been a drawn @-@ out campaign rather than a rapid victory . The only description of the conquest of the Chajoma is a secondary account appearing in the work of Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán in the 17th century , long after the event . After the conquest , the inhabitants of the eastern part of the kingdom were relocated by the conquerors to San Pedro Sacatepéquez , including some of the inhabitants of the archaeological site now known as Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) . The rest of the population of Mixco Viejo , together with the inhabitants of the western part of the kingdom , were moved to San Martín Jilotepeque . The Chajoma rebelled against the Spanish in 1526 , fighting a battle at Ukub 'il , an unidentified site somewhere near the modern towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez and San Pedro Sacatepéquez .
In the colonial period , most of the surviving Chajoma were forcibly settled in the towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez , San Pedro Sacatepéquez and San Martín Jilotepeque as a result of the Spanish policy of congregaciones ; the people were moved to whichever of the three towns was closest to their pre @-@ conquest land holdings . Some Iximche Kaqchikels seem also to have been relocated to the same towns . After their relocation some of the Chajoma drifted back to their pre @-@ conquest centres , creating informal settlements and provoking hostilities with the Poqomam of Mixco and Chinautla along the former border between the pre @-@ Columbian kingdoms . Some of these settlements eventually received official recognition , such as San Raimundo near Sacul .
= = = El Progreso and Zacapa = = =
The Spanish colonial corregimiento of San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán was established in 1551 with its seat in the town of that name , now in the eastern portion of the modern department of El Progreso . Acasaguastlán was one of few pre @-@ conquest centres of population in the middle Motagua River drainage , due to the arid climate . It covered a broad area that included Cubulco , Rabinal , and Salamá ( all in Baja Verapaz ) , San Agustín de la Real Corona ( modern San Agustín Acasaguastlán ) and La Magdalena in El Progreso , and Chimalapa , Gualán , Usumatlán and Zacapa , all in the department of Zacapa . Chimalapa , Gualán and Usumatlán were all satellite settlements of Acasaguastlán . San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán and the surrounding area were reduced into colonial settlements by friars of the Dominican Order ; at the time of the conquest the area was inhabited by Poqomchi ' Maya and by the Nahuatl @-@ speaking Pipil . In the 1520s , immediately after conquest , the inhabitants paid taxes to the Spanish Crown in the form of cacao , textiles , gold , silver and slaves . Within a few decades taxes were instead paid in beans , cotton and maize . Acasaguastlán was first given in encomienda to conquistador Diego Salvatierra in 1526 .
= = = Chiquimula = = =
Chiquimula de la Sierra ( " Chiquimula in the Highlands " ) , occupying the area of the modern department of Chiquimula to the east of the Poqomam and Chajoma , was inhabited by Ch 'orti ' Maya at the time of the conquest . The first Spanish reconnaissance of this region took place in 1524 by an expedition that included Hernando de Chávez , Juan Durán , Bartolomé Becerra and Cristóbal Salvatierra , amongst others . In 1526 three Spanish captains , Juan Pérez Dardón , Sancho de Barahona and Bartolomé Becerra , invaded Chiquimula on the orders of Pedro de Alvarado . The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands , but the rebellion was quickly put down in April 1530 . However , the region was not considered fully conquered until a campaign by Jorge de Bocanegra in 1531 – 1532 that also took in parts of Jalapa . The afflictions of Old World diseases , war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of eastern Guatemala , to the extent that indigenous population levels never recovered to their pre @-@ conquest levels .
= = = Campaigns in the Cuchumatanes = = =
In the ten years after the fall of Zaculeu various Spanish expeditions crossed into the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and engaged in the gradual and complex conquest of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al . The Spanish were attracted to the region in the hope of extracting gold , silver and other riches from the mountains but their remoteness , the difficult terrain and relatively low population made their conquest and exploitation extremely difficult . The population of the Cuchumatanes is estimated to have been 260 @,@ 000 before European contact . By the time the Spanish physically arrived in the region this had collapsed to 150 @,@ 000 because of the effects of the Old World diseases that had run ahead of them .
= = = = Uspantán and the Ixil = = = =
After the western portion of the Cuchumatanes fell to the Spanish , the Ixil and Uspantek Maya were sufficiently isolated to evade immediate Spanish attention . The Uspantek and the Ixil were allies and in 1529 , four years after the conquest of Huehuetenango , Uspantek warriors were harassing Spanish forces and Uspantán was trying to foment rebellion among the K 'iche ' . Uspantek activity became sufficiently troublesome that the Spanish decided that military action was necessary . Gaspar Arias , magistrate of Guatemala , penetrated the eastern Cuchumatanes with sixty Spanish infantry and three hundred allied indigenous warriors . By early September he had imposed temporary Spanish authority over the Ixil towns of Chajul and Nebaj . The Spanish army then marched east toward Uspantán itself ; Arias then received notice that the acting governor of Guatemala , Francisco de Orduña , had deposed him as magistrate . Arias handed command over to the inexperienced Pedro de Olmos and returned to confront de Orduña . Although his officers advised against it , Olmos launched a disastrous full @-@ scale frontal assault on the city . As soon as the Spanish began their assault they were ambushed from the rear by more than two thousand Uspantek warriors . The Spanish forces were routed with heavy losses ; many of their indigenous allies were slain , and many more were captured alive by the Uspantek warriors only to be sacrificed on the altar of their deity Exbalamquen . The survivors who managed to evade capture fought their way back to the Spanish garrison at Q 'umarkaj .
A year later Francisco de Castellanos set out from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( by now relocated to Ciudad Vieja ) on another expedition against the Ixil and Uspantek , leading eight corporals , thirty @-@ two cavalry , forty Spanish infantry and several hundred allied indigenous warriors . The expedition rested at Chichicastenango and recruited further forces before marching seven leagues northwards to Sacapulas and climbed the steep southern slopes of the Cuchumatanes . On the upper slopes they clashed with a force of between four and five thousand Ixil warriors from Nebaj and nearby settlements . A lengthy battle followed during which the Spanish cavalry managed to outflank the Ixil army and forced them to retreat to their mountaintop fortress at Nebaj . The Spanish force besieged the city , and their indigenous allies managed to scale the walls , penetrate the stronghold and set it on fire . Many defending Ixil warriors withdrew to fight the fire , which allowed the Spanish to storm the entrance and break the defences . The victorious Spanish rounded up the surviving defenders and the next day Castellanos ordered them all to be branded as slaves as punishment for their resistance . The inhabitants of Chajul immediately capitulated to the Spanish as soon as news of the battle reached them . The Spanish continued east towards Uspantán to find it defended by ten thousand warriors , including forces from Cotzal , Cunén , Sacapulas and Verapaz . The Spaniards were barely able to organise a defence before the defending army attacked . Although heavily outnumbered , the deployment of Spanish cavalry and the firearms of the Spanish infantry eventually decided the battle . The Spanish overran Uspantán and again branded all surviving warriors as slaves . The surrounding towns also surrendered , and December 1530 marked the end of the military stage of the conquest of the Cuchumatanes .
= = = = Reduction of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al = = = =
In 1529 the Chuj city of San Mateo Ixtatán ( then known by the name of Ystapalapán ) was given in encomienda to the conquistador Gonzalo de Ovalle , a companion of Pedro de Alvarado , together with Santa Eulalia and Jacaltenango . In 1549 , the first reduction ( reducción in Spanish ) of San Mateo Ixtatán took place , overseen by Dominican missionaries , in the same year the Q 'anjob 'al reducción settlement of Santa Eulalia was founded . Further Q 'anjob 'al reducciones were in place at San Pedro Soloma , San Juan Ixcoy and San Miguel Acatán by 1560 . Q 'anjob 'al resistance was largely passive , based on withdrawal to the inaccessible mountains and forests from the Spanish reducciones . In 1586 the Mercedarian Order built the first church in Santa Eulalia . The Chuj of San Mateo Ixtatán remained rebellious and resisted Spanish control for longer than their highland neighbours , resistance that was possible owing to their alliance with the lowland Lakandon Ch 'ol to the north . The continued resistance was so determined that the Chuj remained pacified only while the immediate effects of the Spanish expeditions lasted .
In the late 17th century , the Spanish missionary Fray Alonso de León reported that about eighty families in San Mateo Ixtatán did not pay tribute to the Spanish Crown or attend the Roman Catholic mass . He described the inhabitants as quarrelsome and complained that they had built a pagan shrine in the hills among the ruins of pre @-@ Columbian temples , where they burnt incense and offerings and sacrificed turkeys . He reported that every March they built bonfires around wooden crosses about two leagues from the town and set them on fire . Fray de León informed the colonial authorities that the practices of the natives were such that they were Christian in name only . Eventually , Fray de León was chased out of San Mateo Ixtatán by the locals .
In 1684 , a council led by Enrique Enríquez de Guzmán , the governor of Guatemala , decided on the reduction of San Mateo Ixtatán and nearby Santa Eulalia , both within the colonial administrative district of the Corregimiento of Huehuetenango .
On 29 January 1686 , Captain Melchor Rodríguez Mazariegos , acting under orders from the governor , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán , where he recruited indigenous warriors from the nearby villages , 61 from San Mateo itself . It was believed by the Spanish colonial authorities that the inhabitants of San Mateo Ixtatán were friendly towards the still unconquered and fiercely hostile inhabitants of the Lacandon region , which included parts of what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas and the western part of the Petén Basin . To prevent news of the Spanish advance reaching the inhabitants of the Lacandon area , the governor ordered the capture of three of San Mateo 's community leaders , named as Cristóbal Domingo , Alonso Delgado and Gaspar Jorge , and had them sent under guard to be imprisoned in Huehuetenango . The governor himself arrived in San Mateo Ixtatán on 3 February , where Captain Rodríguez Mazariegos was already awaiting him . The governor ordered the captain to remain in the village and use it as a base of operations for penetrating the Lacandon region . The Spanish missionaries Fray de Rivas and Fray Pedro de la Concepción also remained in the town . Governor Enriquez de Guzmán subsequently left San Mateo Ixtatán for Comitán in Chiapas , to enter the Lacandon region via Ocosingo .
In 1695 , a three @-@ way invasion of the Lacandon was launched simultaneously from San Mateo Ixtatán , Cobán and Ocosingo . Captain Rodriguez Mazariegos , accompanied by Fray de Rivas and 6 other missionaries together with 50 Spanish soldiers , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán . Following the same route used in 1686 , they managed on the way to recruit 200 indigenous Maya warriors from Santa Eulalia , San Juan Solomá and San Mateo itself . On 28 February 1695 , all three groups left their respective bases of operations to conquer the Lacandon . The San Mateo group headed northeast into the Lacandon Jungle .
= = Pacific lowlands : Pipil and Xinca = =
Before the arrival of the Spanish , the western portion of the Pacific plain was dominated by the K 'iche ' and Kaqchikel states , while the eastern portion was occupied by the Pipil and the Xinca . The Pipil inhabited the area of the modern department of Escuintla and a part of Jutiapa ; the main Xinca territory lay to the east of the main Pipil population in what is now Santa Rosa department ; there were also Xinca in Jutiapa .
In the half century preceding the arrival of the Spanish , the Kaqchikel were frequently at war with the Pipil of Izcuintepeque ( modern Escuintla ) . By March 1524 the K 'iche had been defeated , followed by a Spanish alliance with the Kaqchikel in April of the same year . On 8 May 1524 , soon after his arrival in Iximche and immediately following his subsequent conquest of the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , Pedro de Alvarado continued southwards to the Pacific coastal plain with an army numbering approximately 6000 , where he defeated the Pipil of Panacal or Panacaltepeque ( called Panatacat in the Annals of the Kaqchikels ) near Izcuintepeque on 9 May . Alvarado described the terrain approaching the town as very difficult , covered with dense vegetation and swampland that made the use of cavalry impossible ; instead he sent men with crossbows ahead . The Pipil withdrew their scouts because of the heavy rain , believing that the Spanish and their allies would not be able to reach the town that day . However , Pedro de Alvarado pressed ahead and when the Spanish entered the town the defenders were completely unprepared , with the Pipil warriors indoors sheltering from the torrential rain . In the battle that ensued , the Spanish and their indigenous allies suffered minor losses but the Pipil were able to flee into the forest , sheltered from Spanish pursuit by the weather and the vegetation . Pedro de Alvarado ordered the town to be burnt and sent messengers to the Pipil lords demanding their surrender , otherwise he would lay waste to their lands . According to Alvarado 's letter to Cortés , the Pipil came back to the town and submitted to him , accepting the king of Spain as their overlord . The Spanish force camped in the captured town for eight days . A few years later , in 1529 , Pedro de Alvarado was accused of using excessive brutality in his conquest of Izcuintepeque , amongst other atrocities .
In Guazacapán , now a municipality in Santa Rosa , Pedro de Alvardo described his encounter with people who were neither Maya nor Pipil , speaking a different language altogether ; these people were probably Xinca . At this point Alvarado 's force consisted of 250 Spanish infantry accompanied by 6 @,@ 000 indigenous allies , mostly Kaqchikel and Cholutec . Alvarado and his army defeated and occupied the most important Xinca city , named as Atiquipaque , usually considered to be in the Taxisco area . The defending warriors were described by Alvarado as engaging in fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat using spears , stakes and poisoned arrows . The battle took place on 26 May 1524 and resulted in a significant reduction of the Xinca population . Alvarado 's army continued eastwards from Atiquipaque , seizing several more Xinca cities . Tacuilula feigned a peaceful reception only to unsuccessfully raise arms against the conquistadors within an hour of their arrival . Taxisco and Nancintla fell soon afterwards . Because Alvarado and his allies could not understand the Xinca language , Alvarado took extra precautions on the march eastward by strengthening his vanguard and rearguard with ten cavalry apiece . In spite of these precautions the baggage train was ambushed by a Xinca army soon after leaving Taxisco . Many indigenous allies were killed and most of the baggage was lost , including all the crossbows and ironwork for the horses . This was a serious setback and Alvarado camped his army in Nancintla for eight days , during which time he sent two expeditions against the attacking army . Jorge de Alvarado led the first attempt with thirty to forty cavalry and although they routed the enemy they were unable to retrieve any of the lost baggage , much of which had been destroyed by the Xinca for use as trophies . Pedro de Portocarrero led the second attempt with a large infantry detachment but was unable to engage with the enemy due to the difficult mountain terrain , so returned to Nancintla . Alvarado sent out Xinca messengers to make contact with the enemy but they failed to return . Messengers from the city of Pazaco , in the modern department of Jutiapa , offered peace to the conquistadors but when Alvarado arrived there the next day the inhabitants were preparing for war . Alvarado 's troops encountered a sizeable quantity of gathered warriors and quickly routed them through the city 's streets . From Pazaco Alvarado crossed the Río Paz and entered what is now El Salvador .
After the conquest of the Pacific plain , the inhabitants paid tribute to the Spanish in the form of valuable products such as cacao , cotton , salt and vanilla , with an emphasis on cacao .
= = Northern lowlands = =
The Contact Period in Guatemala 's northern Petén lowlands lasted from 1525 through to 1700 . Superior Spanish weaponry and the use of cavalry , although decisive in the northern Yucatán , were ill @-@ suited to warfare in the dense forests of lowland Guatemala .
= = = Cortés in Petén = = =
In 1525 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras , but Cristóbal de Olid had set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory . Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , a herd of pigs , artillery , munitions and other supplies . He also had with him 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan . They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 .
Cortés accepted an invitation from Aj Kan Ek ' , the king of the Itza , to visit Nojpetén ( also known as Tayasal ) , and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore . On his departure from Nojpetén , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse . The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618 , when Cortés ' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén . From the lake , Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , during which he lost more than two @-@ thirds of his horses . When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition , Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids , which took two days to cross and cost him more horses .
On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz . With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal , where their guides abandoned them to their fate . The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them out to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , perhaps Xocolo . He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the course of the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = = Land of War : Verapaz = = =
By 1537 the area immediately north of the new colony of Guatemala was being referred to as the Tierra de Guerra ( " Land of War " ) . Paradoxically , it was simultaneously known as Verapaz ( " True Peace " ) . The Land of War described an area that was undergoing conquest ; it was a region of dense forest that was difficult for the Spanish to penetrate militarily . Whenever the Spanish located a centre of population in this region , the inhabitants were moved and concentrated in a new colonial settlement near the edge of the jungle where the Spanish could more easily control them . This strategy resulted in the gradual depopulation of the forest , simultaneously converting it into a wilderness refuge for those fleeing Spanish domination , both for individual refugees and for entire communities , especially those congregaciones that were remote from centres of colonial authority . The Land of War , from the 16th century through to the start of the 18th century , included a vast area from Sacapulas in the west to Nito on the Caribbean coast and extended northwards from Rabinal and Salamá , and was an intermediate area between the highlands and the northern lowlands . It includes the modern departments of Baja Verapaz and Alta Verapaz , Izabal and Petén , as well as the eastern part of El Quiché and a part of the Mexican state of Chiapas . The western portion of this area was the territory of the Q 'eqchi ' Maya .
Pedro Orozco , the leader of the Sacatepéquez Mam of San Marcos department , lent willing help to the Dominicans in their campaign to peacefully subject the inhabitants of Verapaz . On 1 May 1543 Carlos V rewarded the Sacatepéquez Mam by issuing a royal order promising never to give them in encomienda .
Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in the colony of Guatemala in 1537 and immediately campaigned to replace violent military conquest with peaceful missionary work . Las Casas offered to achieve the conquest of the Land of War through the preaching of the Catholic faith . It was the Dominicans who promoted the use of the name Verapaz instead of the Land of War . Because of the fact that the land had not been possible to conquer by military means , the governor of Guatemala , Alonso de Maldonado , agreed to sign a contract promising he would not establish any new encomiendas in the area should Las Casas ' strategy succeed . Las Casas and a group of Dominican friars established themselves in Rabinal , Sacapulas and Cobán , and managed to convert several native chiefs using a strategy of teaching Christian songs to merchant Indian Christians who then ventured into the area .
In this way they congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal . Las Casas became instrumental in the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 , established by the Spanish Crown to control the excesses of the conquistadors and colonists against the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas . As a result , the Dominicans met substantial resistance from the Spanish colonists , who saw their own interests threatened by the New Laws ; this distracted the Dominicans from their efforts to establish peaceful control over the Land of War .
In 1543 the new colonial reducción of Santo Domingo de Cobán was founded at Chi Mon 'a to house the relocated Q 'eqchi ' from Chichen , Xucaneb and Al Run Tax Aj . Santo Tomás Apóstol was founded nearby the same year at Chi Nim Xol , it was used in 1560 as a reducción to resettle Ch 'ol communities from Topiltepeque and Lacandon in the Usumacinta Valley . In 1555 the Acala Ch 'ol and their Lacandon allies killed the Spanish friar Domingo de Vico . De Vico had established a small church among the inhabitants of San Marcos , a region that lay between the territories of the Lacandon and the Manche Ch 'ol ( an area unrelated to the department of San Marcos ) . De Vico had offended the local ruler by repeatedly scolding him for taking several wives . The indigenous leader shot the friar through the throat with an arrow ; the angry natives then seized him , cut open his chest and extracted his heart . His corpse was then decapitated ; the natives carried off his head , which was never recovered by the Spanish . In response a punitive expedition was launched , headed by Juan Matalbatz , a Q 'eqchi ' leader from Chamelco ; the independent Indians captured by the Q 'eqchi ' expedition were taken back to Cobán and resettled in Santo Tomás Apóstol .
= = = Lake Izabal and the lower Motagua River = = =
The Dominicans established themselves in Xocolo on the shore of Lake Izabal in the mid @-@ 16th century . Xocolo became infamous among the Dominican missionaries for the practice of witchcraft by its inhabitants . By 1574 it was the most important staging post for European expeditions into the interior , and it remained important in that role until as late as 1630 , although it was abandoned in 1631 .
In 1598 Alfonso Criado de Castilla became governor of the Captaincy General of Guatemala . Owing to the poor state of Puerto Caballos on the Honduran coast and its exposure to repeated pirate raids he sent a pilot to scout Lake Izabal . As a result of the survey , and after royal permission was granted , Criado de Castilla ordered the construction of a new port , named Santo Tomás de Castilla , at a favourable spot on the Amatique Bay not far from the lake . Work then began on building a highway from the port to the new capital of the colony , modern Antigua Guatemala , following the Motagua Valley into the highlands . Indigenous guides scouting the route from the highlands would not proceed further downriver than three leagues below Quiriguá , because the area was inhabited by the hostile Toquegua .
The leaders of Xocolo and Amatique , backed by the threat of Spanish action , persuaded a community of 190 Toquegua to settle on the Amatique coast in April 1604 . The new settlement immediately suffered a drop in population , but although the Amatique Toquegua were reported extinct before 1613 in some sources , Mercedarian friars were still attending to them in 1625 . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán favoured a more robust approach to the conversion of the Manche and moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements . By 1699 the neighbouring Toquegua no longer existed as a separate people because of a combination of high mortality and intermarriage with the Amatique Indians . At around this time the Spanish decided on the reduction of the independent ( or " wild " from the Spanish point of view ) Mopan Maya living to the north of Lake Izabal . The north shore of the lake , although fertile , was by then largely depopulated , therefore the Spanish planned to bring the Mopan out of the forests to the north into an area where they could be more easily controlled .
During the campaign to conquer the Itza of Petén , the Spanish sent expeditions to harass and relocate the Mopan north of Lake Izabal and the Ch 'ol Maya of the Amatique forests to the east . They were resettled in the Colonial reducción of San Antonio de las Bodegas on the south shore of the lake and in San Pedro de Amatique . By the latter half of the 18th century the indigenous population of these towns had disappeared ; the local inhabitants now consisted entirely of Spaniards , mulattos and others of mixed race , all associated with the Castillo de San Felipe de Lara fort guarding the entrance to Lake Izabal . The main cause of the drastic depopulation of Lake Izabal and the Motagua Delta was the constant slave raids by the Miskito Sambu of the Caribbean coast that effectively ended the Maya population of the region ; the captured Maya were sold into slavery in the British colony of Jamaica .
= = = Conquest of Petén = = =
From 1527 onwards the Spanish were increasingly active in the Yucatán Peninsula , establishing a number of colonies and towns by 1544 , including Campeche and Valladolid in what is now Mexico . The Spanish impact on the northern Maya , encompassing invasion , epidemic diseases and the export of up to 50 @,@ 000 Maya slaves , caused many Maya to flee southwards to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá , within the modern borders of Guatemala . The Spanish were aware that the Itza Maya had become the centre of anti @-@ Spanish resistance and engaged in a policy of encircling their kingdom and cutting their trade routes over the course of almost two hundred years . The Itza resisted this steady encroachment by recruiting their neighbours as allies against the slow Spanish advance .
Dominican missionaries were active in Verapaz and the southern Petén from the late 16th century through the 17th century , attempting non @-@ violent conversion with limited success . In the 17th century the Franciscans came to the conclusion that the pacification and Christian conversion of the Maya would not be possible as long as the Itza held out at Lake Petén Itzá . The constant flow of escapees fleeing the Spanish @-@ held territories to find refuge with the Itza was a drain on the encomiendas . Fray Bartolomé de Fuensalida visited Nojpetén in 1618 and 1619 . The Franciscan missionaries attempted to use their own reinterpretation of the k 'atun prophecies when they visited Nojpetén at this time , to convince the current Aj Kan Ek ' and his Maya priesthood that the time for conversion had come . But the Itza priesthood interpreted the prophecies differently , and the missionaries were fortunate to escape with their lives . In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and Guatemalan soldiers conquered a number of Ch 'ol communities , the most important being Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas , now in Mexico , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon . The Franciscan friar Andrés de Avendaño oversaw a second attempt to overcome the Itza in 1695 , convincing the Itza king that the K 'atun 8 Ajaw , a twenty @-@ year Maya calendrical cycle beginning in 1696 or 1697 , was the right time for the Itza to finally embrace Christianity and to accept the king of Spain as overlord . However the Itza had local Maya enemies who resisted this conversion , and in 1696 Avendaño was fortunate to escape with his life . The Itza 's continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities , and soldiers were despatched from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all .
= = = = Fall of Nojpetén = = = =
Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers in February 1697 , and once there built a galeota , a large and heavily armed oar @-@ powered attack boat . The Itza capital fell in a bloody waterborne assault on 13 March 1697 . The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island ; many Itza Maya who fled to swim across the lake were killed in the water . After the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town . The Itza and Kowoj kings ( Ajaw Kan Ek ' and Aj Kowoj ) were soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With Nojpetén safely in the hands of the Spanish , Ursúa returned to Campeche ; he left a small garrison on the island , isolated amongst the hostile Itza and Kowoj who still dominated the mainland . Nojpetén was renamed by the Spanish as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . The garrison was reinforced in 1699 by a military expedition from Guatemala , accompanied by mixed @-@ race ladino civilians who came to found their own town around the military camp . The settlers brought disease with them , which killed many soldiers and colonists and swept through the indigenous population . The Guatemalans stayed just three months before returning to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , taking the captive Itza king with them , together with his son and two of his cousins . The cousins died on the long journey to the colonial capital ; Ajaw Kan Ek ' and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the capital .
= = = Final years of conquest = = =
In the late 17th century the small population of Ch 'ol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz , where the people were absorbed into the Q 'eqchi ' population . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century . Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702 – 1703 . Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force . Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled against their Spanish overlords in 1704 , but although well @-@ planned , the rebellion was quickly crushed . Its leaders were executed and most of the mission towns were abandoned . By 1708 only about 6 @,@ 000 Maya remained in central Petén , compared to ten times that number in 1697 . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part .
= = Legacy of the Spanish conquest = =
The initial shock of the Spanish conquest was followed by decades of heavy exploitation of the indigenous peoples , allies and foes alike . Over the following two hundred years colonial rule gradually imposed Spanish cultural standards on the subjugated peoples . The Spanish reducciones created new nucleated settlements laid out in a grid pattern in the Spanish style , with a central plaza , a church and the town hall housing the civil government , known as the ayuntamiento . This style of settlement can still be seen in the villages and towns of the area . The civil government was either run directly by the Spanish and their descendents ( the criollos ) or was tightly controlled by them . The introduction of Catholicism was the main vehicle for cultural change , and resulted in religious syncretism . Old World cultural elements came to be thoroughly adopted by Maya groups , an example being the marimba , a musical instrument of African origin . The greatest change was the sweeping aside of the pre @-@ Columbian economic order and its replacement by European technology and livestock ; this included the introduction of iron and steel tools to replace Neolithic tools , and of cattle , pigs and chickens that largely replaced the consumption of game . New crops were also introduced ; however , sugarcane and coffee led to plantations that economically exploited native labour . Sixty per cent of the modern population of Guatemala is estimated to be Maya , concentrated in the central and western highlands . The eastern portion of the country was the object of intense Spanish migration and hispanicization . Guatemalan society is divided into a class system largely based on race , with Maya peasants and artisans at the bottom , the mixed @-@ race ladino salaried workers and bureaucrats forming the middle and lower class and above them the creole elite of pure European ancestry . Some indigenous elites such as the Xajil did manage to maintain a level of status into the colonial period ; a prominent Kaqchikel noble family , they chronicled the history of their region .
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= 1994 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1994 Giro d 'Italia was the 77th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Bologna on 22 May with a short 86 km ( 53 @.@ 4 mi ) stage . The race came to a close on 12 June with a flat stage that stretched 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi ) from Turin to Milan . Seventeen teams entered the race , which was won by Evgeni Berzin of the Gewiss – Ballan team . Second and third respectively were the Italian Marco Pantani and the Spanish rider , Miguel Indurain .
Berzin first gained the race lead after the fourth stage where he attacked on the final climb to win the day . The race 's overall classification was first headed by Endrio Leoni who won the Giro 's opening road stage . However , Leoni lost the lead later that day during the afternoon individual time trial to Armand de Las Cuevas . De Las Cuevas held the lead for a single stage before losing it to Moreno Argentin who won the race 's second stage . Argentin held the general classification lead for two stages , before Berzin took it after stage 4 . After gaining the lead , Berzin began to build upon his advantage after winning the stage 8 and 18 individual time trials and maintaining good form throughout the mountains .
Berzin became the first Russian to win the Giro d 'Italia . Berzin also won the young rider classification for the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification . In the race 's other classifications , Swiss rider Pascal Richard won the mountains classification , and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov of Team Polti – Vaporetto was the winner of the points and intergiro classifications . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni finished as the winners of the team classification , which ranked each of the seventeen teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time . Team Polti – Vaporetto finished as the winners of the team points classification , where the teams ' riders are awarded points for placing within the top twenty in each stage .
= = Teams = =
A total of 18 teams were invited to participate in the 1994 Giro d 'Italia , of which 17 participated . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , so the Giro began with a peloton of 153 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 22 May , in the courtyard of the Bologna . Of the riders that started this edition of the Giro d 'Italia , a total of 99 riders made it to the finish in Milan .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did 1993 winner , Miguel Indurain , came into the race having only raced twenty days during the season according to author Bill McGann . In addition , there were reports surfacing before the race that Indurain 's knee was troubling him . The race did not feature Tony Rominger , who elected to ride the Vuelta a España instead . El País writer Carlos Arribas felt that Evgeni Berzin had a strong spring with his victory in Liège – Bastogne – Liège and second @-@ place finish in the Tour of the Basque Country . Arribas felt that Russian Pavel Tonkov , who had won the young rider classification the previous two years , would challenge for the victory as his normal team leader , Maurizio Fondriest , was absent from the race due to injury .
Avui 's Adrian R. Huber believed that Djamolidine Abdoujaparov , Adriano Baffi , and Fabio Baldato had a great chance to win a stage in the race . Notable sprinter Mario Cipollini did not participate in the race as he was still recovering from injuries sustained in the second stage at the Vuelta a España .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1994 Giro d 'Italia was unveiled by race director Carmine Castellano on 13 November 13 , 1993 in Milan . The race route in its entireity was leaked to the press before Castellano held the official presentation . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were ten stages containing high mountains , of which three had summit finishes : stage 4 , to Campitello Matese ; stage 20 , to Les Deux Alpes ; and stage 21 , to Sestriere . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 18 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to the summit of the Passo dello Bocco . The organizers chose to include no rest days . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 28 km ( 17 mi ) longer , contained one less rest day , and one more stage . The race was televised in Italy by RAI TV .
There were five stages that began or ended outside of Italy . Stage 12 ended in the Slovenian city Kranj and served as the start for the race 's thirteenth stage . Stage 13 ended at Lienz in Austria , and the fourteenth began there . The Giro 's mountainous stage 20 ended on the slopes of Les Deux Alpes , and the penultimate stage began on the mountain the next day .
= = Race overview = =
This edition of the Giro began with a split stage , with the morning leg consisting of a 86 km ( 53 mi ) flat route and the afternoon part being a 7 km ( 4 mi ) flat individual time trial . Italian Endrio Leoni won the morning stage by means of a sprint finish where the speeds were so high the peloton split in the final kilometer . Armand de Las Cuevas won the afternoon time trial by two seconds over Evgeni Berzin and in the process took the overall lead away from Leoni . Stage two featured an uphill finish into the city of Osimo . Moreno Argentin attacked close to the line and was able to distance himself from the rest of the peloton and win the stage , while also taking the lead of the race . Gianni Bugno failed several times to get away from the peloton before finally breaking free on the climb into Loreto Amprutino to win the third stage .
Stage 4 featured the race 's first summit finish , with a final climb to the top of Campitello Matese . While on the climb , Evgeni Berzin attacked and made his way up to the top in first place . Due to his efforts , Berzin gained the overall lead of the race . The next two stages , 5 and 6 , both came down to sprint finishes that were won by Endrio Leoni and Marco Saligari , respectively . The race 's seventh stage saw the Spaniard Laudelino Cubino outsprint his fellow breakaway members for the stage victory . Stage 8 was a 44 km ( 27 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Grosseto to Follonica . The race leader Evgeni Berzin dominated the time trial as he won the stage by over a minute than the second @-@ place finisher , which also allowed him to extend his lead in the general classification .
The next three stages of the race were all primarily flat , had no real impact on the overall standings , and all concluded with a bunch sprint . Ján Svorada won stage nine and then stage eleven after dodging a crash that marred the stage 's finish . Djamolidine Abdoujaparov out @-@ sprinted the rest of the field to win the race 's tenth stage . The Giro 's twelfth stage featured a few categorized climbs as the race made its way into Slovenia for the stage 's finish in Kranj . Despite the climbs , the stage ended with a field sprint that was won by Andrea Ferrigato . Italian Michele Bartoli won the race 's undulating thirteenth stage by being a part of the stage 's initial breakaway and then attacking later on and soloing to the stage 's conclusion in Lienz , Austria .
As the Giro left Austria , the race began to enter the Dolomites during stage fourteen . The eventual stage winner Marco Pantani was in a chasing group on the final climb of the stage , the Passo di Monte Giovo . He attacked , bridged the gap to the leading group , and left them behind to claim his first professional victory of his career . The next stage saw Pantani win again after he rode away from the attack group on the last climb of the Valico di Santa Cristina and he then soloed to the finish in Stradella . Pantani 's efforts on the day moved him up to second overall in the race . The race 's sixteenth stage took a break from the mountains with the stage being primarily fled , which ultimately led to the sprint finish that was won by Italian Maximilian Sciandri . Ján Svorada won the next day 's stage after attacking from the breakaway group in the closing seconds .
The Giro 's eighteenth stage was a 35 km ( 22 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Chiavari to the summit finish on the Passo del Bocco . The race leader Evgeni Berzin won the stage by twenty seconds over Miguel Indurain . Stage 19 saw the day of racing come down to a sprint finish that was won by Massimo Ghirotto . The twentieth stage saw the Giro race through the Alps and up to the summit of Les Deux Alpes for the stage finish . The lead group up Les Deux Alpes contained the likes of Evgeni Berzin , Marco Pantani , and Miguel Indurain who had attacked each other multiple times but to no avail . The trio was later joined by Vladimir Poulnikov and Nelson Rodriguez who both eventually left them to go on for the stage win . Poulkinov edged out Rodriguez to the stage win atop the mountain . The penultimate stage of the Giro saw a summit finish atop the Sestriere . The stage saw snow and chilling temperatures which led to the general classification contenders sticking together , while Pascal Richard went on to win the summit finish and solidify his lead atop the mountains classification . The Giro 's final stage came down to a sprint finish that was won by Stefano Zanini as Evgeni Berzin won the Giro d 'Italia .
Success in stages was limited to eleven of the competing teams , six of which achieved multiple stage victories , while four individual riders won multiple stages . The riders that won more than once were Endrio Leoni in stages 1a and 5 , Evgeni Berzin in stages 4 , 8 , and 18 , Ján Svorada in stages 9 , 11 , and 17 , and Marco Pantani in stages 14 and 15 . Jolly Componibili @-@ Cage won two stages with Leoni . Gewiss @-@ Ballan won multiple stages , with Moreno Argentin in stage 2 and three stages with Berzin . Team Polti – Vaporetto won two stages , with Gianni Bugno in stage 3 and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov in stage 10 . GB @-@ MG Maglificio won three stages , with Marco Saligari in stage 6 , Maximilian Sciandri in stage 16 , and Pascal Richard in stage 21 . Lampre – Panaria won three stages with Ján Svorada . ZG Mobili @-@ Selle Italia won two stages , with Andrea Ferrigato in stage 12 and Massimo Ghirotto in stage 19 . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni also won multiple stages , with Marco Pantani in winning two stages and Vladimir Poulnikov in stage 20 .
Castorama , Kelme – Avianca – Gios , Mercatone Uno – Medeghini , and Navigare – Blue Storm each won one stage apiece . Castorama rider Armand de Las Cuevas won stage 1b individual time trial , Kelme @-@ Avianca @-@ Gios 's Laudelino Cubino won stage 7 , Mercatone Uno @-@ Medeghini rider Michele Bartoli won stage 13 , and Navigare @-@ Blue Storm 's Stefano Zanini stage 22 by means of a sprint finish .
= = = Doping = = =
Despite not testing positive during the race or season , the Gewiss @-@ Ballan team has since been speculated to have executed a systematic doping program that utilized EPO throughout the 1994 season . The team achieved several victories in stage races and one @-@ day races during the year , including a sweep of the podium at La Flèche Wallonne weeks before the start of the Giro . Team doctor Michele Ferrari was banned for life from sports in 2012 by United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency for distribution of performance @-@ enhancing drugs to several of his clients .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1994 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . The time bonuses for the 1988 Giro were thirty seconds for first , twenty @-@ five for second , and decreasing by five seconds each place until five seconds for sixth place on the stage . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo dello Stelvio . The first rider to cross the Stelvio was Italian Franco Vona . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1970 were eligible for it . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
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= Riverton – Belvidere Bridge =
The Riverton – Belvidere Bridge is a bridge crossing the Delaware River . It connects Belvidere , New Jersey with Riverton , Pennsylvania , United States . There is no toll for crossing on either side , after tolls were abolished by the Joint Commission for the Elimination of Toll Bridges in 1929 . The bridge is 653 feet ( 199 m ) long , holding a load of 8 short tons ( 16 @,@ 000 lb ) of traffic from County Route 620 Spur ( Water Street ) in Belvidere to former Pennsylvania Route 709 on the Riverton side . The bridge was first constructed in 1836 , replacing the local ferry across the river . The board of freeholders in Warren County supported the replacement of the ferry with a bridge for safety of passengers . In 1832 , the state created the Belvidere Delaware Bridge Company , which was funded with the job of building a bridge from Riverton to Belvidere . The new covered bridge was built by Solon Chapin , a contractor from Easton , Pennsylvania . The bridge survived two large storms in 1836 and 1841 , although sustained major damage both times . In 1903 , the floods that destroyed bridges along the Delaware River Valley , including taking out the entire covered structure at Riverton and Belvidere . They rebuilt the structure in 1904 , using steel instead of wood , and the new span has remained since , with rehabilitations at certain points .
= = History = =
= = = The first bridge ( 1836 – 1903 ) = = =
Original reports indicate that a ferry , operated by a doctor who went by " Dr. Belvidere " , once ran along the alignment of the Riverton – Belvidere Bridge . This ferry , crossing one of the most dangerous parts of the Delaware , was reported to have opened as early as 1802 . On May 17 , 1825 , the Board of Chosen Freeholders of the ferry permitted raising the rate to cross the river via ferry . However , by 1832 , the ferry crossing was becoming dangerously busy , and required a bridge be constructed in its place . That year , the Belvidere Delaware Bridge Company was established by both the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania . However , in constructing the bridge , the company was only allowed $ 20 @,@ 000 ( 1832 USD ) to construct the bridge . The bridge company had the designs for the bridge run by Solon Chapin , a contractor from Easton , Pennsylvania . Chapin was also the construction contractor on the nearby Riegelsville Bridge as well .
Although things seemed to start off smoothly , when construction began on the bridge in 1834 , things went downhill . The bridge was constructed fast , and when completed in the spring of 1836 , it was a wooden covered bridge at a length of 654 feet ( 199 m ) . Within days of opening the bridge , on April 9 , 1836 , a storm blew through the valley , destroying two of the bridges three piers and rendered the new bridge unusable . After restarting construction later , the bridge was redone using the same piers and in 1839 , was completed and opened once again . However , in January 1841 , another storm , dubbed the Bridges Freshet of January 1841 , blew through the valley , destroying most of the bridges in the area , and causing major damage to the structure from Riverton to Belvidere . However , this time , the bridge survived the storm . A local historian stated that because of the constant repairwork on the bridge itself , the bridge company had never paid one dividend of money to its stockholders . Although , after society on both sides of the bridge began to live life with it , money started flowing into the accounts of the stockholders .
In 1903 , the demise of wooden covered bridge would be seen , as a storm , dubbed the Pumpkin Flood of 1903 , struck in October of that year . The storm struck both communities , and the bridge in between , causing the loss of many lives , and on October 17 , the toll collector on the bridge closed off the gate and did not allow any person to cross . At 6 : 40 that evening , a crash was heard , and seconds later , the bridge was no more , after tumbling into the Delaware River below . Remnants of the bridge were swept downstream , and smashed on the side of the new Northampton Street Bridge , constructed just a few years before . After the storm cleared , the community of Belvidere put a ferry to Riverton back in almost immediately .
= = = Construction of the current bridge ( 1904 ) = = =
After the 1903 destruction of the original wooden bridge at Belvidere , plans to construct another bridge started immediately . After the storm , the substructure of the crossing had survived the strong storm . The bridge corporation set a completion date , August 17 , 1904 , which was the day that the Farmer 's Picnic was held in Belvidere . However , the contractor of which they hired to reconstruct the bridge , the New Jersey Bridge Company of Manasquan , New Jersey , believed that the new bridge would need new abutments and piers to be completed by that time , instead of using the old wooden bridge 's piers . The three piers from the wooden bridge were used , and would require them to be heightened to be above any high flood waters . On June 3 , 1904 , the bridge construction began on a barge in the river , with promises to be complete by the set date of August 17 . On August 17 , the bridge was not complete , but usable , that when the Farmer 's Picnic ( the predecessor to the Warren County Fair , occurred , people were allowed to cross a majority of the bridge . The picnic itself was a complete success , attracting over 15 @,@ 000 people , most of which walked the bridge .
Although the bridge was usable , work still had to be completed on the new bridge . The contractor promised the bridge corporation that the bridge would be finished by Labor Day of 1904 , or September 5 , 1904 . The bridge corporation and a local group called The Red Men scheduled festivities and the official turnover of the bridge back to the corporation . On September 5 , 1904 , the day of the transfer , the chief executive of the contracting company , W.H. Keepers arrived , he found the bridge to be unacceptable . Bolts were missing in places of the bridge and paint was not completed , both of which were in violation of the contract . The festivities for the bridge were canceled , and visitors were disappointed . The Red Men held events , but the turnout was light . A high point of the events that day was done by a man named Murphy Jones , who as a stunt , jumped a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) plunge into the Delaware River from the bridge . The festive stunt got Jones a total of $ 15 ( 1904 USD ) and the event became an annual one . Work finally came to a conclusion in 1904 , and the people were beginning to cross the new structure . However , since the turnover had never occurred , the bridge was free of charge .
= = = The current bridge ( 1904 – present ) = = =
On September 5 , 1904 , the bridge finally got its transfer to the bridge corporation , and a new toll @-@ taker was hired for the new bridge . After this , life went back to normal in both communities . In October 1928 , after the charter and opening of the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission , the bridge company was asked to sell the bridge to the commission for $ 60 @,@ 000 ( 1928 USD ) , and on June 14 , 1929 , the commission abolished tolls along the bridge , making it free to cross at either end . With the bridge now under the control of the toll bridge commission , extensive repairs began on the 25 @-@ year @-@ old structure . This construction included new beams for the bridge , new flooring , and an extensive repair to one bridge pier . Although the construction had only taken four months to complete , it still caused havoc in commuting across the structure . In 1940 , the Pennsylvania approach to the bridge was designated as Pennsylvania Route 709 , a designation that would last six years , being decommissioned in 1946 . The structure would face its most recent strength test in 1955 , after the massive flooding from Hurricane Diane wreaked havoc in the area . The structure received minor damage in the flood , and the traffic was only halted for a day or two afterward . The design in the 1904 plan worked , as the structure was not at flood level .
Starting in October 2006 , the Toll Bridge Commission began an $ 8 @.@ 8 @.@ million rehabilitation of the structure . The rehabilitation helped extend the life of the bridge for years rather than shutting the bridge down constantly for the next 15 years for major repairs . The Commission replaced the flooring , repairing or replacing of certain steel portions of the bridge , blast @-@ cleaning and repainted the structure .
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= Cleeve Abbey =
Cleeve Abbey is a medieval monastery located near the village of Washford , in Somerset , England . It is a Grade I listed building and has been scheduled as an ancient monument .
The abbey was founded in the late twelfth century as a house for monks of the austere Cistercian order . Over its 350 @-@ year monastic history Cleeve was undistinguished amongst the abbeys of its order , frequently ill @-@ governed and often financially troubled . The sole member of the community to achieve prominence was John Hooper , who became a bishop during the Reformation .
In 1536 Cleeve was closed by Henry VIII in the course of the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the abbey was converted into a country house . Subsequently , the status of the site declined and the abbey was used as farm buildings until the latter half of the nineteenth century when steps were taken to conserve the remains . In the twentieth century Cleeve was taken into state care ; the abbey is now looked after by English Heritage and is open to the public . Today Cleeve Abbey is one of the best @-@ preserved medieval Cistercian monastic sites in Britain . While the church is no longer standing , the conventual buildings are still roofed and habitable and contain many features of particular interest including the ' angel ' roof in the refectory and the wall paintings in the painted chamber .
= = Foundation = =
The abbey was founded by William de Roumare , Earl of Lincoln in a grant of 1191 , on land he had been given by king Æthelred the Unready . On 25 June 1198 a colony of 12 monks led by Abbot Ralph arrived at the site from Revesby Abbey in Lincolnshire . The official name of the abbey was Vallis Florida , ( Latin : ' Flowering Valley ' ) but throughout its history it was generally known as Cleeve after the nearby village . The initial funding for the foundation was increased by land and money from the family of William de Mohun of Dunster , 1st Earl of Somerset and the Beckerolles family . In addition to various landholdings with produced rent for the abbey they held the Right of Wreck , which meant they could claim shipwrecks washed up on the shore of their lands .
= = Abbey buildings = =
Work immediately began on constructing the abbey church , a task that took many decades . It was a conservative design , heavily influenced by the thoughts of St. Bernard and the order 's early churches in its homeland of Burgundy . It was cruciform in shape with an aisled nave of seven bays , a short , square east end , and transepts each with two side chapels . The eastern parts of the church were built first , and were likely finished in 1232 , at which point the abbey received a royal donation of oak to build choir stalls . The remainder was probably completed by mid @-@ century .
To the south of the church a cloister was laid out , surrounded by the domestic buildings of the house . The east range , which was completed first ( probably by around 1250 ) , held the chapter house , sacristy , the monks ' dormitory , day room , and a 19 @.@ 7 metres ( 65 ft ) long reredorter ( latrine ) . The south range was built next , it contained the kitchens , warming house and refectory which projected south beyond the main body of the building , following the usual Cistercian plan .
It is suggested from the heraldry used in the tiled floors of the refectory that it was finished at the end of the thirteenth century . The Encaustic tiles , which are 23 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) square , include the arms of Henry III , Richard , 1st Earl of Cornwall and the Clare family . It is believed they were produced to celebrate the marriage of Edmund , 2nd Earl of Cornwall and Margaret de Clare in 1272 . The final part to be finished was the small west range , which was used for storage and quarters for the lay brothers . East of the core buildings , and linked to them , was a second cloister around which was the monastic infirmary .
The monastery , which is next to the River Washford , would have been surrounded by gardens , fishponds , orchards , barns , guesthouses , stables , a farmyard and industrial buildings . The abbey grounds were defended by a water filled moat and a gatehouse . Excavation has revealed that a large stone cross , like a market cross , stood just west of the main building .
Though Cleeve was by no means a wealthy house , the monks were able to make significant investment in remodelling their home so as to match the rising living standards of the later mediaeval period . In the fourteenth @-@ century elaborate polychrome tiled floors ( an expensive and high status product ) were laid throughout the abbey and in the mid @-@ fifteenth century radical works were undertaken . A wooden shelter was constructed over the tiled floor in 2016 . Abbot David Juyner ( r . 1435 – 87 ) commissioned a complete redesign of the south range of the monastery . He demolished the old refectory and built a new one parallel to the cloister on the first floor . This grand chamber with its wooden vaulted ceiling ( carved with angels ) was the equal of the hall of any contemporary secular lord . Beneath it he built several self @-@ contained apartments . These were probably used by corrodians , pensioners of the abbey . Juyner may also have been responsible for decorating the abbey with wall paintings of religious and allegorical subjects . Some of these wall paintings survive . As well as one depicting the Crucifixion , there is an arrangement of St Catherine and St Margaret on either side of , and facing , a man standing on a bridge : the bridge is over water full of fish , and the man has an angel on either side of his head , and is being attacked by a lion to his left on the bridge , and a dragon to his right . Work continued under Juyner 's successors to the eve of the Dissolution . The last building work to be completed was the remodelling of the gatehouse , performed after 1510 , though as late as 1534 the monks were engaged in a major project of renewing the cloister walks in the latest fashion . As at the neighbouring house of Forde Abbey , this was never completed , due to the dissolution of the abbey .
= = Monastic history = =
Like most of the smaller Cistercian houses , comparatively little is known about the internal history of the abbey . In its early years Cleeve received grants of land and property from local lords and the Crown to supplement its initial endowment and in the prosperous years of the thirteenth century grew steadily , reaching 26 monks in 1297 . The abbey held various local churches , including those at Cleeve , Queen Camel , Woolavington while also holding the rectory of Lundy . The abbey was also responsible for the chapel of Our Lady between Old Cleeve and what is now Blue Anchor ; however although this has since disappeared , the inn for pilgrims attending the chapel has been expanded into the present Chapel Cleeve Manor .
A major source of income was the export of wool . However , the fourteenth century saw a change in fortunes : the Black Death , a worsening economic climate and poor administration left the abbey ( like many others of its order ) with sharply declining numbers of monks and saddled with major debt . The internal discipline and morals of the community declined too : in 1400 – 01 it was reported to the government that the abbot of Cleeve and three other monks were leading a group of 200 bandits and attacking travellers in the region . However , things improved in the fifteenth century and despite the vast expense caused by the extravagant building projects of the last abbots , better management , access to new resources ( for instance from the profits from the right to hold markets granted by the crown ) and a general improvement in the circumstances facing the house meant that just prior to the dissolution Cleeve was enjoying an Indian Summer of comfortable stability .
= = Dissolution = =
In 1535 , the abbey 's income was only assessed at £ 155 in the Valor Ecclesiasticus , Henry VIII 's great survey of church finances . It meant the following year that it came under the terms of the first Suppression Act , Henry 's initial move in the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Abbot William Dovell and his 16 monks were forced to surrender the abbey on 6 September 1536 . There were proposals from local gentry and even some of the king 's officials for the Dissolution such as Sir Thomas Arundell that Cleeve should be granted a reprieve , as a number of others among the smaller monasteries were , however , it was not to be and the monks finally left in the spring of 1537 . Abbot William was given a pension of 40 marks per year , not large but certainly comfortable , which he was still drawing 20 years later . Most of the other monks were given pensions too . One former monk of Cleeve rose to prominence and came to a sticky end . This was John Hooper who became Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and was killed in 1555 for his Protestant beliefs by Mary I.
= = Later history = =
Soon after Cleeve became Crown property , it was leased to Anthony Busterd for 21 years . In 1538 , the freehold of the site was granted to Robert Radcliffe , 1st Earl of Sussex . The church was demolished , save for the south wall which bounded the cloister , and the rest of the abbey converted into a mansion suitable for a gentleman . By the early seventeenth century , however , Cleeve had turned into a farm . The dormitory was now a large barn , the cloister was the farmyard and the rest of the buildings were used for agricultural purposes and a farm house . A red sandstone barn was built which abuts the south @-@ west corner of the abbey .
George Luttrell of Dunster Castle acquired the site in 1870 . The abbey stopped being used as a farm and extensive archaeological excavations took place . The farm house was converted into rental cottages , and the site became a tourist attraction , partly to bring traffic to the West Somerset Railway . Cleeva Clapp a local farmers daughter , who was named after the abbey , acted as a guide and described her nightly " communings " with the ghosts of the monks for a shilling a head .
Cleeve Abbey was passed back to the Crown in 1950 – 51 to pay Death Duties on the Luttrell estate and was managed by the Department for the Environment . Major restoration and archaeological work followed . In 1984 , English Heritage took over responsibility for Cleeve Abbey , carrying out excavations and earthwork surveys and continues to care for it today .
= = Present day = =
The church and infirmary have almost entirely vanished , but the site boasts some of the finest and best @-@ preserved monks ' living quarters still surviving in southern England . The buildings round the cloister are still roofed and habitable and many of the rooms retain their vaults . Among the most important preserved rooms are the chapter house , the refectory with its magnificent arch braced wooden vault and the painted chamber . Much of the abbey 's medieval tiled flooring remains . Other major survivals include the abbey gatehouse , which still provides entrance to the visitor , the moat and fishponds . Cleeve is open to the public .
The remains of the buildings have been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building , and it is listed as a Scheduled monument .
= = Cultural references = =
The Abbey was the original site on which ' Gracedieu ' , the setting for the Abbey Series of books by Elsie J. Oxenham , was based . Many of its features described by Oxenham , who visited Cleeve in the early years of the twentieth century , can be identified at the site today , although literary licence allowed her to add features from elsewhere or from her imagination .
The castle scenes in the children 's musical @-@ comedy television series Maid Marian and her Merry Men were filmed in Cleeve Abbey .
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= Serbia – United States relations =
Serbian – American relations are bilateral relations between the governments of Serbia and the United States . They were first established in 1882 . From 1918 to 2006 the United States maintained relations with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , SFR Yugoslavia , and Serbia and Montenegro , of which Serbia is considered the legal successor state .
At the end of the 19th century , the United States sought to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire 's withdrawal from Eastern Europe by establishing diplomatic relations with newly emerged nations , among them Serbia . Serbia and the United States were both allies during World War I. After the first World War , Serbia united with the Kingdom of Montenegro and territories previously held by Austria @-@ Hungary . This unified state became known as Yugoslavia , with which the United States had diplomatic relations up to the beginning of World War II . In the front in Yugoslavia during World War II , the US ultimately supported Serbian royalists known as Chetniks . However , Josip Broz Tito , the leader of Yugoslav Partisans during the war , ended up governing Yugoslavia after World War II , which resulted in a period of cutoff between Yugoslavia and the United States in the late 1940s . The end of World War II also resulted in the mass emigration of refugees from Yugoslavia , many of which were Serbs who ended up moving to the United States . This helped create the first major Serbian diaspora in the United States . Some of the Serbian refugees who settled in the United States after World War II were anti @-@ communist exiles who attempted to undermine Tito during the Cold War , using the United States as a venue for their anti @-@ communist aims .
Through the breakup of Yugoslavia , the United States engaged in both combative and economic conflict , particularly with Serbia , known at the time as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( successor of SFR Yugoslavia ) . The United States imposed sanctions and spearheaded a NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999 . Throughout the period of conflict during the 1990s , another wave of Serbian emigration ensued , and many Serbian refugees moved to the United States . In the 2000s , diplomatic relations between the United States and Yugoslavia were restored , but were changed when Montenegro seceded in 2006 , after which Serbia was the successor state to continue relations previously held by FR Yugoslavia . In 2008 Kosovo Assembly unilaterally declared independence from Serbia .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ Yugoslavia = = =
Diplomatic relations between the then @-@ Kingdom of Serbia and the United States were established in the 19th century . In 1879 , the Serbian Consulate @-@ General in New York was opened . On February 3 , 1882 , the Serbian Parliament adopted a contract and Convention of diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Serbia and the United States , given by King Milan Obrenović . The United States Senate adopted both documents on July 5 , 1882 without debate or amendments . On November 10 , 1882 , Eugene Schuyler became the first United States ambassador in Serbia .
= = = US support of Serbian monarchists during World War II = = =
During World War II in Yugoslavia , the United States initially supported the royal government of Yugoslavia . When the Nazis invaded Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941 , the United States decisively supported the Chetniks in the first years of the war . This support took place in the form of extensive clandestine relations between the Office of Strategic Services and Chetniks with William Donovan 's administration . Such cooperation was highlighted by complex operations such as Operation Halyard , in which several hundred American pilots were rescued by Chetniks . However , OSS support for the Chetniks was compromised by the United Kingdom 's MI6 policy of favoring the Yugoslav Partisans over the Chetniks . In 1943 , the US government 's support for the Chetniks over the Yugoslav Partisans was such that president Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed with Winston Churchill in a private conversation that he imagined that Yugoslavia 's boundaries would be completely redrawn into three separate states , with Peter Karađorđević Jr. being the monarch of an independent Serbian kingdom at the end of the war . The USAF and the British RAF began bombing Belgrade indiscriminately in April 1944 when they thought that Nazi occupation could not be removed by home @-@ grown resistance alone . The United States intelligence circles gradually conceded its influence on Yugoslav guerrilla operations to the British . At the end of the war , President Harry S. Truman dedicated a Legion of Merit to Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović , but the award wasn 't revealed publicly until 2005 .
= = = Cold War relations ( 1945 – 1991 ) = = =
After the end of World War II , the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( SFRJ ) was formed . One of the first diplomatic contacts made with the new communist government was the US Department of State 's request for the US Army to testify at the Mihailović trial . However , the request was shunned and early relations between the United States and the government of Josip Broz Tito became strained , as American diplomats were furious over Mihailović 's execution in 1946 . Relations degraded even further a month later , when two USAF C @-@ 47 Skytrain cargo aircraft were shot down over Yugoslavia in the space of two weeks . More USAF aircraft were shot down over Yugoslavia up to 1948 . As a result , U.S. senator Thomas Dodd staunchly opposed American financial aid to Tito 's government , even saying that " Tito had bloodied hands . " In one of Josip Broz Tito 's early visits to the United States , protesters in San Pedro drowned an effigy of him .
The communist governments in Europe deferred to Stalin and rejected Marshall Plan aid from the United States in 1947 . At first , Tito went along and rejected the Marshall plan . However , in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues , making Yugoslavia an independent communist state . Yugoslavia then requested American aid . American leaders were internally divided , but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949 , and on a much larger scale 1950 @-@ 53 . The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan .
Yugoslavia began opening more diplomatic dialogue to western nations after the Tito – Stalin split , which assured that Yugoslavia was not to become a member of the Warsaw Pact . On January 1 , 1967 , Yugoslavia was the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements . Regular commercial air travel between the United States and Yugoslavia was introduced with Pan Am and JAT Yugoslav Airlines . Due to this , trade opportunities reopened between the United States and Yugoslavia , and American businesses began exporting to Yugoslavia . Likewise , by the 1980s Yugoslavia was even exporting many of its manufactured automobiles from Zastava Automobili 's assembly line in Kragujevac to the United States . U.S. president Jimmy Carter discussed issues regarding Palestine and Egypt with Tito and referred to him as a " great world leader " . Subsequently , the Reagan administration began targeting the Yugoslav economy in a Secret Sensitive 1984 National Security Decision Directive NSDD 133 . " U.S. Policy towards Yugoslavia . " A censored version declassified in 1990 elaborated on NSDD 54 on Eastern Europe , issued in 1982 . The latter advocated " expanded efforts to promote a ' quiet revolution ' to overthrow Communist governments and parties , " while reintegrating the countries of Eastern Europe into a market @-@ oriented economy .
= = = = Serbian radicals in the United States during the existence of Yugoslavia = = = =
For much of the socialist period , the United States was a haven for many Serbian anti @-@ communists living outside Yugoslavia . On 20 June 1979 , a Serbian nationalist named Nikola Kavaja hijacked American Airlines Flight 293 from New York City with the intention of crashing the Boeing 707 into League of Communists of Yugoslavia headquarters in Belgrade . The aircraft , however , landed in Shannon , Ireland , where Kavaja were arrested .
A group of six Serbian nationalists , among them Boško Radonjić , placed a home @-@ made bomb in the home of the Yugoslav consulate in Chicago in 1975 . Radonjić later became the leader of the Westies gang in New York City , where he participated in organized crime and racketeering . He eventually became one of the most feared gangsters in the New York City underworld , and developed extensive friendships with John Gotti and the Gambino family . After Sammy Gravano turned John Gotti in to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in December 1990 , Radonjić was highly suspected to have attempted to fix the trial on John Gotti 's behalf . As a result of this , Radonjić was arrested on December 1999 during a lockdown at Miami International Airport when he was tracked down by the FBI . He was arrested in the United States again in January 2000 for further investigation of the 1992 Gotti trial . Upon release in 2001 , he left the United States and moved back to Serbia where he lived until his death in 2011 . He was also an admirer and long @-@ time friend of Radovan Karadžić until the latter went into hiding in 1996 .
In the 1980s , Vojislav Šešelj taught political science at the University of Michigan after being expelled by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1981 . In June 1989 , he traveled to the United States again to meet with Momčilo Đujić in San Marcos , California , where Đujić named him Chetnik Vojvoda ( duke in Serbian ) . He went on to form the Serbian Radical Party in 1991 and was accused by the ICTY tribunal of leading the Beli Orlovi militants in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in war @-@ state Republic of Serbian Krajina . Radovan Karadžić pursued post @-@ graduate medical studies at Columbia University from 1974 to 1975 , but did so without any specific political agenda at the time being ; he later became the war @-@ time president of the Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War and subsequently went into hiding in Serbia until his capture in 2008 for ICTY charges of war crimes and genocide .
= = = Deteriorating relations and war with FR Yugoslavia ( 1991 – 2000 ) = = =
The first form of sanctions initiated by the US against Yugoslavia took place already from 1990 as the Nickels Amendment , which was sponsored by senators Don Nickles and Bob Dole . The amendment was passed due to concerns about Albanians being arrested in Kosovo . The amendment officially came into legal effect from May 6 , 1992 ; although it applied only to $ 5 million @-@ worth of US foreign aid , it was reported as instrumental in denying SFR Yugoslavia its last application for IMF loans before its breakup and hyperinflation episode .
The breakup of Yugoslavia began in 1992 , the territories consisting of Serbia , Montenegro , and Kosovo composed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In the midst of the Yugoslav Wars , the United States as well as an overwhelming majority of states from the United Nations severed economic ties and imposed sanctions on FR Yugoslavia on May 30 , 1992 .
= = = = The Panić – Ćosić – Milošević triangle and the United States = = = =
The Yugoslav government of the newly formed FR Yugoslavia ( successor to SFR Yugoslavia ) ended up having three ideologically @-@ opposed leaders occupying executive positions . From 1992 , while Slobodan Milošević was the president of the Federal Republic of Serbia , national theorist Dobrica Ćosić was named President of FR Yugoslavia . Meanwhile , Milan Panić , a business magnate based in Newport Beach , California , accepted Milošević 's invitation to be Prime Minister . Panić was subsequently elected as Prime Minister in the 1992 Yugoslav parliamentary elections . The United States did not revoke Panić 's citizenship even though his occupation of an executive position in the Yugoslav government clearly contradicted the United States Constitution . Nevertheless , Panić would become a person of interest in US diplomatic circles , given his business and residence backgrounds . At a CSCE meeting in Helsinki in July 1992 , US Secretary of State James Baker abruptly dismissed Panić 's appeal to reduce the sanctions to Yugoslavia , even after an agreement ( between Panić , Milošević , and Dušan Mitević ) was reached by which Milošević would resign in return for sanction @-@ relief . This ended up severely damaging Panić 's unique diplomatic position internationally , as well as his standing in Yugoslavia . The Los Angeles Times published an article which described Panić as a doubtful upholder of potential American @-@ Yugoslavian peacemaking , when in fact , many years later made to be known , Panić was actually invited by Baker in the first place rather than voluntarily coming to Helsinki .
Panić and former US ambassador to Yugoslavia John Douglas Scanlan cooperated on a deep level in a campaign to challenge conservative politicians which echoed Baker 's disapproval of giving Yugoslavia sanctions @-@ relief in return for Milošević 's planned resignation . One of Panić 's advisors , academic Ljubiša Rakić , was dispatched to explain to Larry Eagleburger that the H.W. Bush administration was mistaken in seeing Panić as a Milošević puppet . Eagleburger replied , " Don 't worry , we are going to do our own thing " .
The three @-@ pronged government lasted only from May to December 1992 , as Panić and Ćosić decided to challenge Milošević in institutionally @-@ revised elections in December that same year . The December election ended up as a failure for the opposition to Milošević , as Ćosić pulled out of the campaign in the last moment due to health problems . Multiple politicians of the opposition parties criticized the US @-@ instigated fossil @-@ fuel sanctions in the midst of a cold 1992 @-@ 93 winter , saying that they actually further helped sympathy for Milošević and not against him .
= = = = Post @-@ Dayton lull and US macroeconomic influence in Yugoslavia ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = = =
On November 21 , 1995 , Serbian president Slobodan Milošević travelled to the United States to sign the Dayton Peace Accords with Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović near Dayton , Ohio . Months later , sanctions against Yugoslavia were finally lifted in October 1996 .
In 1997 , a group of 17 economists wrote a letter titled " Program Radikalnih Ekonomskih Reformi u Jugoslaviji " , advocating liberal macroeconomic policy by creating alarming predictions of the Yugoslav economy from 1998 to 2010 . Not by coincidence , the letter was first published by B92 , arguably the most West @-@ friendly media outlet in Yugoslavia at the time . This would be the base for what would become a highly controversial political party in Serbia , G17 Plus , which began as an NGO funded by the National Endowment for Democracy . The original writers of the 1997 letter subsequently divided , as some either shunned or even criticized G17 's fundamentals , whereas others would end up occupying positions in the post @-@ Milošević government from 2000 .
= = = = NATO bombing of Yugoslavia = = = =
The United States reinstated sanctions against Yugoslavia in March 1998 when the Kosovo War started . Shortly after the controversies at Račak and Rambouillet , American diplomat Richard Holbrooke traveled to Belgrade in March 1999 to deliver the final ultimatum requesting entry of UN forces into Kosovo . Milošević rejected the ultimatum , so the United States completely severed ties with Yugoslavia on March 23 , 1999 . Bill Clinton became the first president to declare war while bypassing a Congressional majority . The establishment of the bombing campaign was contested by one of the tightest votings ( 213 @-@ 213 ) in the entire history of the House of Representatives . The United States declared war on Yugoslavia on March 24 , 1999 to take part in Operation Allied Force led by U.S. general Wesley Clark . Out of all the territories in Yugoslavia at the time , Serbia was bombed the most due to its concentration of military targets . As a result of Slobodan Milošević granting entry to KFOR in Kosovo , the war against Yugoslavia ceased on June 10 , 1999 .
= = = Post @-@ war relations = = =
= = = = Bulldozer Revolution ( 2000 ) = = = =
A group named Otpor ! , originally formed by students in 1998 with the financial assistance of USAID , International Republican Institute , and NED , was one of multiple significant participants in the Bulldozer Revolution , from which Milošević was overthrown . USAID donated over $ 30 million for Otpor to " purchase cell phones and computers for DOS 's leadership and to recruit and train an army of 20 @,@ 000 election monitors " as well as to supplement them with " a sophisticated marketing campaign with posters , badges and T @-@ shirts . " After the Bulldozer Revolution on October 5 , 2000 , the United States reestablished a diplomatic presence in Belgrade . In 2013 , the Associated Press published an article which reported that a CIA operative , Francis Archibald , participated in the organization of the October 5 coup and that the overthrow was " regarded inside the CIA as a blueprint for running a successful peaceful covert action " .
= = = = Transition with DOS and its party remnants ( 2001 – 2008 ) = = = =
Sanctions against FR Yugoslavia were lifted in January 2001 . The United States under the Bush administration denied giving any aid to Yugoslavia even several months after UN sanctions were lifted before Vojislav Koštunica promised to cooperate with demands from The Hague regarding the Slobodan Milošević trial .
In March 2001 , American economist Joseph Stiglitz traveled to Belgrade to talk to a prominent Democratic Opposition leader , Zoran Đinđić , about the potential consequences of IMF @-@ sponsored austerity . On June 25 , 2001 , Stiglitz published a paper , " Serbia 's Advantages in Coming Late " , about the necessity for Serbia not to rush privatization and not to pursue " shock therapy " , which was the established macroeconomic advise of the Bretton Woods institutions . Đinđić , however , did not live long to analyze the advice of the Bretton Woods institutions or the anti @-@ austerity plan of Stiglitz , as he was assassinated on March 12 , 2003 . This accumulated to a crescendo when G17 Plus got into an intense standoff with the Serbian government , composed mostly by DOS , due to the fact that G17 Plus continuously lobbied for the dissolution of the state union of Serbia and Montenegro . Later , in May 2006 , Montenegro declared independence from the Serbo @-@ Montenegrin state union ; the United States immediately respected the results and urged the new government in Podgorica to keep close ties with Serbia . The United States recognized Serbia as the official successor state of the Serbia and Montenegro and the preceding Yugoslav state .
Outside of fiscal policy , American influence was evident in executive positions . In September 2002 , it was announced that the Military Court in Belgrade was to press charges against Momčilo Perišić , who was the vice president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia at the time , for espionage in the favour of the CIA . The trial never took place , although upon his release from The Hague on February 28 , 2013 , it was announced by Perišić 's lawyer Novak Lukić that his client was " ready to be judged " on the same 2002 accusations of espionage . As of 2015 no further investigation has taken place .
= = = = 2008 – 12 : Tadić era = = = =
On February 15 , 2008 , it was announced that the pro @-@ Western Boris Tadić won the 2008 Serbian presidential election . The 2008 elections were particularly important to Serbia 's relations with the United States , as the main challenging party which lost the election , SRS , disintegrated when Tomislav Nikolić split with Vojislav Šešelj over integration into the European Union . When Nikolić split from SRS and began pursuing a pro @-@ European profile ( a reversal from SRS 's eurosceptic position ) , he was being advised by American lobbying firm Quinn Gillespie & Associates .
Only a few days after this election result , the declaring of independence by Kosovo on February 17 , 2008 spurred off widespread unrest in Serbia , during which the embassy of the United States was evacuated and then torched by a mob . One man of Serbian nationality was killed inside of the embassy during the unrest . Serbia temporarily withdrew its ambassador from Washington , D.C. , but the U.S. embassy in Belgrade was closed only for several days . Ambassador Cameron Munter said that no degrading of relations were expected regardless of the unrest .
= = = = SNS @-@ era ( 2012 – ) = = = =
On April 19 , 2012 , shortly before the 2012 Serbian parliamentary election , former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani traveled to Belgrade to attend a news conference with Belgrade mayor candidate Aleksandar Vučić . The US Embassy to Serbia gave a statement that it did not support any specific candidate in the upcoming election . Belgrade mayor Dragan Đilas slammed the conference which Giuliani attended , telling press that " Giuliani should not speak about Belgrade 's future as a man who supported the bombing of Serbia . " After the 2012 presidential elections in Serbia , a large number of local news outlets and even some intellectuals interpreted Philip T. Reeker 's visit to Belgrade in July 2012 as an attempt to create a parliamentary coalition between the Demokratska Stranka and the Serbian Progressive Party as opposed to the Progressive @-@ SPS bloc which had been composed by the election results . The election ultimately gave SNS along with its partners a victory , while Demokratska Stranka was removed into the opposition . The newly elected government ultimately continued largely the same Euro @-@ Atlantic integration programs pursued by the Tadić administration . According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report , only 20 % of Serbs approved of U.S. leadership , with 57 % disapproving and 22 % uncertain , the fifth @-@ lowest rating for any surveyed European country that year .
= = Immigration , brain drain , and professionals from Serbia = =
There is a sizable Serbian American diaspora in the United States ; in 2007 a total of 172 @,@ 834 people of Serbian nationality or descent were recorded to be inhabiting the U.S. The first documented wave of Serbian immigrants to the United States was recorded in the 1970s when many Serbian factory workers emigrated to Detroit to manufacture automobiles for Ford . In 2011 , Serbia was ranked second in the world ( after Guinea Bissau ) in human capital flight according to USAID . Brain drain to the United States and Canada has been cited as a chronic phenomenon in Serbia , especially from 1990 to 2000 during the decade of UN sanctions and war .
= = Trade and investment = =
Serbia 's strongest exports to the United States include Fiat automobiles manufactured in Kragujevac . Fiat purchased Zastava Automobili in 2008 and subsequently managed the factory in Kragujevac so that it would produce new Fiat automobiles as opposed to Zastava models ( the last Zastavas were produced in 2008 ) ; in May 2013 alone , 3 @,@ 000 Fiat 500L units were shipped from Serbia to Baltimore for sale in the United States . The Fiat 500L is the first automobile to have been exported from Serbia to the United States since the Zastava Koral before 1992 , and is proving to be a popular model with a large amount of advertising in the United States . Serbia is also the largest exporter of raspberries in the world ( as of 2009 ) , and much of the raspberries consumed in the United States are grown in Šumadija . In 2015 , the two states discussed to find ways to increase investments in Serbia .
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= M @-@ 221 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 221 is a short state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan that connects M @-@ 28 with the community of Brimley and Brimley State Park . The highway was originally part of M @-@ 28 until the 1940s when it was briefly a local road . It has been a state highway again since it was designated as M @-@ 221 in 1945 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 221 runs for 2 @.@ 494 miles ( 4 @.@ 014 km ) north from M @-@ 28 into the unincorporated community of Brimley in Superior Township . The highway passes through rural fields and woods until it enters downtown . At the corner of Main Street and Lakeshore Drive , the signed portion of M @-@ 221 ends , but state maintenance continues on Lakeshore Drive across the Waiska River . The total length of the highway , including the unsigned segment , is 2 @.@ 545 miles ( 4 @.@ 096 km ) .
M @-@ 221 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2009 showed that the traffic levels along M @-@ 221 were 2 @,@ 940 vehicles daily north of the junction with 7 ½ Mile Road and 1 @,@ 476 vehicles per day south of the intersection ; along the whole highway , 26 trucks were recorded in the survey . No sections of M @-@ 221 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 221 was part of the original M @-@ 25 that ran through the eastern UP in 1919 . This specific segment of roadway ran north into Brimley and turned east onto 6 Mile Road to connect with US Highway 2 ( now H @-@ 63 / Mackinac Trail ) The trunkline became part of M @-@ 28 . In early 1942 , M @-@ 28 was rerouted on the current alignment south of Brimley and this highway was turned back to local control . In 1945 , M @-@ 221 was designated along a portion of the former M @-@ 28 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Superior Township , Chippewa County .
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= Juniper MX @-@ Series =
The Juniper MX @-@ Series is a family of ethernet routers and switches designed and manufactured by Juniper Networks . In 2006 , Juniper released the first of the MX @-@ series , the MX960 , MX240 , and MX480 . The second generation routers , called MX " 3D " , were first released in 2009 and featured a new Trio chipset and IPv6 support . In 2013 , the MX routers were improved to increase their bandwidth , and a virtualized MX 3D router , the vMX 3D , was released in 2014 . Utilizing the Juniper Extension Toolkit ( JET ) , third party software can be integrated into the routers .
= = History = =
= = = Early releases = = =
On October 18 , 2006 , the MX Series was publicly announced . Before its release , Ethernet aggregation was a missing component of Juniper 's edge network products , which was causing it to lose market @-@ share to Alcatel . The MX Series was late to market , but it was well received by analysts and customers . It was part of a trend at @-@ the @-@ time to incorporate additional software features in routers and switches .
The first product release of the MX series was the MX960 , a 14 @-@ slot , 480 Gbit / s switch and router . In late 2006 , Juniper introduced the MX240 and MX480 , which are smaller versions of the 960 . They had a throughput of 240 Gbit / s and 480 Gbit / s respectively .
= = = Further development = = =
In 2009 a new line of MX " 3D " products were introduced , using Juniper 's programmable Trio chipset . Trio is a proprietary semiconductor technology with custom network instructions . It provides a cross between network processing units and ASICs . IPv6 features were added and the MX80 , a smaller 80Gbit / s router , was introduced the following year .
In 2011 new switch fabric cards increased the capacity of MX 3D routers . In May 2011 Juniper introduced several new products including the MX5 , MX10 and MX40 3D routers , which have a throughput of 20 , 40 and 60 Gbit / s respectively and can each be upgraded to an MX80 . A collection of features called MobileNext was introduced in 2011 at Mobile World Congress , then discontinued in August 2013 . According to Network World , it allowed MX 3D products to serve as a mobile " gateway , an authentication and management control plan for 2G / 3G and LTE mobile packet cores and as a policy manager for subscriber management systems . "
In October 2012 , Juniper introduced the MX2020 and 2010 3D Universal Edge Routers , with throughputs of 80 Tbit / s and 40 Tbit / s respectively . Juniper also released a video caching system for the MX family and a suite of software applications that include parental control , firewall and traffic monitoring . New " Virtual Chassis " features allowed network operators to manage multiple boxes as though they were a single router or switch .
= = = Recent developments = = =
In 2013 , Juniper introduced new line cards for the MX series and a new switch fabric module , intended to upgrade the MX series ' for higher bandwidth needs and for software defined networking applications . The capacity of the MX240 , 480 and 960 were increased by double or more . A new Multiservice Modular Interface Card ( MS @-@ MIC ) was incorporated that supports up to 9 Gbit / s for services like tunneling software .
In March 2013 , Juniper released the EX9200 switch , which isn 't part of the MX Series , but uses the same software and Trio chipset . A virtualized MX series 3D router , the vMX 3D , was introduced in November 2014 . A suite of updates were announced in late 2015 . New MPC line cards were introduced , which have a throughput of up to 1 @.@ 6 Tbit / s . Simultaneously the Juniper Extension Toolkit ( JET ) was announced . JET is a programming interface for integrating third @-@ party applications that automate provisioning , maintenance and other tasks . The Junos Telemetry Interface was also announced at the same time . It reports data to applications and other equipment to automate changes to the network in response to faults or in order optimize performance .
= = Current products and specifications = =
According to Juniper 's website , Juniper 's current MX Series products include the following :
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= Lord Howe Island =
Lord Howe Island ( / ˈhaʊ / , local / ˈhæɔː / ; formerly Lord Howe 's Island ) is an irregularly crescent @-@ shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand , 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) directly east of mainland Port Macquarie , and about 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) south @-@ west of Norfolk Island . It is about 10 km long and between 2 @.@ 0 km and 0 @.@ 3 km wide with an area of 14 @.@ 55 km2 , though just 3 @.@ 98 km2 of that comprises the low @-@ lying developed part of the island . Along the west coast there is a sandy semi @-@ enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon . Most of the population lives in the north , while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island , Mount Gower ( 875 m or 2 @,@ 871 ft ) . The Lord Howe Island Group comprises 28 islands , islets and rocks . Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball 's Pyramid about 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Howe . To the north lies the Admiralty Group , a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands .
The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788 , when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball , commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island . On the return journey Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession . It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry , and was permanently settled in June 1834 . When whaling declined , the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms , which remains a key component of the Island 's economy . The other continuing industry , tourism , began after World War II ended in 1945 .
The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales and for legal purposes is regarded as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage . The island 's standard time zone is UTC + 10 : 30 , or UTC + 11 when daylight saving time applies . The currency is the Australian dollar . Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney , Brisbane , and Port Macquarie .
UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance . Most of the island is virtually untouched forest , with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world . Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes , the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts , the world 's southernmost barrier coral reef , nesting seabirds , and the rich historical and cultural heritage . The Lord Howe Island Act of 1981 established a " Permanent Park Preserve " ( covering about 70 per cent of the island ) . The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park .
= = History = =
= = = 1788 – 1834 : First European visits = = =
It appears that , prior to European discovery and settlement , Lord Howe Island was uninhabited , and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific . The first reported European sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball , commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply ( the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships ) , which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island . On the return journey of 13 March 1788 Ball observed Ball 's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession . Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney . Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Balls Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe , First Earl Howe , who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time .
Many names on the island date from this time , and also from May of the same year when the island was visited by four ships of the First Fleet , HMS Supply , Charlotte , Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough when much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors like David Blackburn , Master of the Supply , and Arthur Bowes Smyth , surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn . Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen ( Gallirallus sylvestris ) , white gallinule ( Porphyrio albus ) , and Lord Howe pigeon ( Columba vitiensis godmanae ) , were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter . As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record . Over the next three years the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets . Between 1789 and 1791 the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago , then south into Australian and New Zealand waters . The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) and southern right whales ( Eubalaena australis ) .
The island was subsequently visited by many government and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific , including many from the American whaling fleet , so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement , some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors . Between July and October 1791 the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days the deckwork was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry . Whale oil was to become New Holland 's ( Australia ) most profitable export until the 1830s , and it was the whaling industry that shaped Lord Howe Island 's early history .
= = = 1834 – 1841 : Settlement = = =
Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834 when the British whaling barque Caroline , sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe , landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach . They left three men , George Ashdown , James Bishop and ( unknown ) Chapman , who were employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station . The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock . They landed with ( or acquired from a visiting ship ) their Maori wives and two Maori boys . Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement which had a supply of fresh water , and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach .
This was a cashless society ; the settlers bartered their stores of water , wood , vegetables , meat , fish and bird feathers for clothes , tea , sugar , tools , tobacco and other commodities not available on the island – but it was the whalers ’ valuation that had to be accepted . These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £ 350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson ( later joined by John Foulis ) whose employees and others then settled on the island .
= = = 1842 – 1860 : Trading provisions = = =
The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides ( Vanuatu ) would also put into the island . Rover 's Bride , a small cutter , became the first regular trading vessel . Between 1839 and 1859 between five and twelve ships made landfall each year , occasionally closer to 20 with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef . In 1842 and 1844 the first children were born on the island . Then in 1847 Poole , Dawson and Foulis , bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales Government , abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained . One family , the Andrews , after finding some onions on the beach in 1848 , cultivated them as the " Lord Howe red onion " which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease .
In 1849 there were just 11 people living on the island but it was not long before the island farms expanded . In the 1850s gold was discovered on mainland Australia where crews would abandon their ships , preferring to dig for gold than to risk a life at sea . As a consequence many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade which peaked between 1855 and 1857 . In 1851 about 16 people were living on the island . Vegetable crops now included potatoes , carrots , maize , pumpkin , taro , watermelon – even grapes , passionfruit and coffee . Between 1851 and 1853 there were several aborted proposals by the NSW Government to establish a penal settlement on the island .
From 1851 to 1854 Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald , which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific ( 1852 – 1856 ) , completed the island 's first hydrographic survey . On board were three Scottish biologists , William Milne ( a gardener @-@ botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden ) , John Macgillivray ( naturalist ) who collected fish and plant specimens , and Assistant Surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald . Together these men established much basic information on the geology , flora and fauna of the island .
In about 1853 a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle , captained by Ichabod Handy . As well as George Campbell ( who died in 1856 ) and Jack Brian ( who left the island in 1854 ) , the third , Nathan Thompson , brought three women ( called Botanga , Bogoroo , and a girl named Bogue ) from the Gilbert Islands . When his first wife Botanga died he then married Bogue . Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach . Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue .
In 1855 the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act .
= = = 1861 – 1890 : Scientific expeditions = = =
From the early 1860s whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum , the onset of the Californian goldrush , and the American Civil War – with unfortunate consequences for the island . To explore alternative means of income Thompson , in 1867 , purchased the Sylph which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney ( mainly pigs and onions ) . It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph 's Hole off Old Settlement Beach , but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873 which added to the woes of the island at this time .
In 1869 the island was visited by a magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder . He was accompanied by Charles Moore , Director of the Botanic Gardens , Sydney and his assistant , William Carron who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne who , by 1875 , had catalogued and published 195 species . Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald a surveyor and Mr Masters from the Australian Museum . Together they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people , their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves . At about this time there began a downturn of trade with the demise of the whaling industry and sometimes six or twelve months passed without a vessel calling . With the provisions rotting in the storehouses the older families lost interest in market gardening .
From 1860 to 1872 forty @-@ three ships had collected provisions , but from 1873 to 1887 there were fewer than a dozen . This prompted some activity from the mainland . In 1876 a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year . He suggested that coffee be grown but the kentia palm was already catching world attention . In 1878 the island was declared a Forest Reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator . He encouraged schools , tree @-@ planting and the palm trade , dynamited the north passage to the lagoon , and built roads . He also managed to upset the residents , and parliamentarian John Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation . With Wilson was a team of scientists that included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department , W. Condor from the Survey Department , J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens and A. Morton from the Australian Museum . J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the Island and its residents . A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit , published as " Lord Howe Island 1882 " , which recommended that Armstrong be replaced . Meanwhile , the population had increased considerably and included 29 children ; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed . This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations , the Australian Museum , Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens .
= = = 1890 – 1999 = = =
In 1883 the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased . By 1932 , with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda , tourism became the second biggest source of external income after palm sales to Europe . Morinda was replaced by Makambo in 1932 , and she in turn by other vessels . The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie .
The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm ( Howea forsteriana ) was first exported to Britain , Europe and America but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 ( see below ) .
The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931 when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane . It was damaged there in an overnight storm but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney . After World War II , in 1947 , tourists arrived on Catalina and then four @-@ engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay , Sydney , and landing on the lagoon , the journey taking about 3 @.@ 5 hours . When the Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974 , the seaplanes were eventually replaced with Qantaslink twin @-@ engined turbo @-@ prop Dash 8 @-@ 200 aircraft .
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2002 , the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Nottingham struck Wolf Rock , a reef at Lord Howe Island , and almost sank . In recent times tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation .
On 17 October 2011 , a supply ship , M / V Island Trader with twenty tons of fuel ran aground in the lagoon . The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo .
= = Demographics = =
As at the 2011 census , the resident population was 360 people and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400 . Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations . Residents are now involved with the kentia palm industry , tourism , retail , some fishing and farming . In 1876 it was observed that on Sundays although there was a suspension of games and labour , there were no religious services . Nowadays , in an area known locally as ' Church Paddock ' , there are Anglican , Catholic and Adventist churches , the religious affiliations on the island being 30 % Anglican , 22 % no religion , 18 % Catholic and 12 % Seventh Day Adventist . There is about an equal division of the sexes with 47 % of the population in the age group 25 – 54 and 92 % holding Australian citizenship .
= = Governance and land tenure = =
Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855 , although until at least 1876 the islanders lived in " a relatively harmonious and self @-@ regulating community " . In 1878 Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a Forest Reserve . But as a result of ill feeling , and an enquiry , he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 ( he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present @-@ day Transit Hill ) . After his removal the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913 when a Sydney @-@ based Board was formed until 1948 when a resident superintendent was appointed . In 1913 the three @-@ man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established , mostly to regulate the palm seed industry , but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954 .
The Lord Howe Island Board is a NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act , 1953 , to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales . It reports directly to the state 's Minister for Environment and Heritage , and is responsible for the care , control and management of the island . Its duties include : the protection of World Heritage values ; the control of development ; the administration of Crown Land , including the island 's protected area ; provision of community services and infrastructure ; and regulating sustainable tourism . In 1981 the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five @-@ member Board . The Board also manages the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery which , together with tourism , provides the island 's only sources of external income . Under an amendment bill in 2004 the Board now comprises seven members , four of whom are elected from the islander community , thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy . The remaining three members are appointed by the Minister to represent the interests of business , tourism and conservation . The full Board meets on the island every three months while the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the island are managed by the Board 's administration , with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988 .
Land tenure has been an issue since first settlement as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land . Original settlers were squatters . The granting of a 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints and a few short @-@ term leases ( Permissive Occupancies ) were granted . In 1913 , with the appointment of a Board of Control , permissive occupancies were revoked and the Board itself given permissive occupancy of the island . Then the Lord Howe Island Act of 1953 made all land the property of the Crown . Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks of up to 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) for residential purposes . Short @-@ term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture , so in 1955 , 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted . The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more . There remains an active debate concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the Board of resident islanders in relation to long @-@ term planning for visitors , and issues relating to the environment , amenity and global heritage .
= = Economy = =
Trading vegetables , meat , fish and other perishables with visiting ships ceased in the 1870s when the whaling industry collapsed . With such a small population , Lord Howe Island 's economy is now extremely simple with external income derived from only two significant sources : tourism and the overseas sale of kentia palm seeds and seedlings .
= = = Kentia palm industry = = =
The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King , a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876 , who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens . Overseas trade began in the 1880s when it was found that one of the four palms endemic to the island , kentia palm ( Howea forsteriana ) , which grows naturally in the lowlands , was ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well @-@ to @-@ do in Britain , Europe and the United States , but the assistance of mainland magistrate Frank Farnell was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906 he became Director of a company , the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery , whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney @-@ based seed company . However , the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues .
The native kentia palm ( known locally as the thatch palm as it was used to thatch the houses of the early settlers ) is now the most popular decorative palm in the world . The mild climate of the island has evolved a palm which can tolerate low light , a dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures – ideal for indoor conditions . Up to the 1980s the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high quality seedlings . The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS / NZS ISO 9002 .
Seed is gathered from natural forest and plantations , most collectors being descendants of the original settlers . Seed is then germinated in soil @-@ less media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination . After testing they are picked , washed ( bare @-@ rooted ) , sanitised and certified then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export . They grow both indoors and out and are popular for hotels and motels world @-@ wide . Nursery profits are returned to enhance the island ecosystem . The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm and other native plants of special interest .
= = = Tourism = = =
Lord Howe Island is known for its geology , birds , plants , and marine life . Popular tourist activities include scuba diving , birdwatching , snorkelling , surfing , kayaking , and fishing . To relieve pressure on the small island environment only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time . The island is reached by plane from Sydney or Brisbane in less than two hours . The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a National Park .
= = = = Facilities = = = =
With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time , facilities are limited ; they include a bakery , butcher , general store , liquor store , restaurants , post office , museum and information centre , a police officer , a ranger , and an ATM at the bowling club . Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie . There is a small four @-@ bed hospital and dispensary . A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds . Diesel @-@ generated power is 240 V AC , as on the mainland . There is no public transport or mobile phone coverage , but there are public telephones , fax facilities and internet access as well as a local radio station and newsletter , The Signal .
Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units . The currency is the Australian dollar and there are two banks . There are no camping facilities on the island and remote @-@ area camping is not permitted . To protect the fragile environment of Balls Pyramid ( which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Howe Island stick insect ) , recreational climbing there is prohibited . No pets are allowed without permission from the Board . Islanders use tanked rainwater , supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes .
= = = = Activities = = = =
As distances to sites of interest are short , cycling is the main means of transport on the island . Tourist activities include golf ( 9 @-@ hole ) , lawn bowls , tennis , fishing ( including deep @-@ sea game fishing ) , yachting , windsurfing , kite surfing , kayaking , and boat trips ( including glass @-@ bottom tours of the lagoon ) . Swimming , snorkelling and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon , as well as off Tenth of June Island , a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops 36 metres to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls . Other diving sites are found off Ball 's Pyramid , 26 km away , where there are trenches , caves and volcanic drop @-@ offs .
Bushwalking , natural history tours , talks , and guided walks take place along the many tracks , the most challenging being the eight @-@ hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower . There are 11 beaches and hand @-@ feeding the metre @-@ long kingfish ( Seriola lalandi ) and large wrasse at Ned 's Beach is very popular . Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1 – 5 , they include – in the north : Transit Hill 2 hours return , 2 km ; Clear Place , 1 – 2 hours return ; Stevens Reserve ; North Bay , 4 hours return , 4 km ; Mount Eliza ; Old Gulch , 20 minutes return , 300 m ; Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout , 3 hours , or 5 hours return , 7 km and – in the south : Goat House Cave , 5 hours return , 6 km ; Mount Gower , 8 hours return , 14 km ; Rocky Run and Boat Harbour ; Intermediate Hill , 45 minutes return , 1 km ; Little Island , 40 minutes return , 3 km . Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board .
= = Geography = =
Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent @-@ shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean . Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand the island is 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) east of mainland Port Macquarie , 702 kilometres ( 436 mi ) northeast of Sydney , and about 772 kilometres ( 480 mi ) from Norfolk Island to its northeast . The island is about 10 km long and between 2 @.@ 0 km and 0 @.@ 3 km wide with an area of 14 @.@ 55 km2 . Along the west coast there is a semi @-@ enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand , the most accessible of the island 's eleven beaches . Both the north and south sections of the island are high ground of relatively untouched forest , in the south comprising two volcanic mountains , Mount Lidgbird ( 777 m or 2 @,@ 549 ft ) and Mount Gower which , rising to 875 m ( 2 @,@ 871 ft ) , is the highest point on the island . The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley . In the north , where most of the population live , high points are Malabar ( 209 m or 686 ft ) and Mount Eliza ( 147 m or 482 ft ) . Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming , the airstrip , and housing . The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands , islets and rocks . Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Ball 's Pyramid , a 551 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 1 @,@ 808 ft ) eroded volcano about 23 km to the south @-@ east , which is uninhabited but bird @-@ colonised . It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect , formerly thought to be extinct . To the north there is the Admiralty Group , a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands . Just off the east coast is 4 @.@ 5 ha Mutton Bird Island , and in the lagoon is 3 ha Blackburn ( Rabbit ) Island .
= = = Geological origins = = =
Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old shield volcano , the product of eruptions that lasted for about a half @-@ million years . It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf , the Lord Howe Rise , which is 3000 km long and 300 km wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin . The shelf is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . The Lord Howe seamount chain is defined by coral @-@ capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for 1000 km ( 600 mi ) and including the Middleton 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) and Elizabeth ( 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) away ) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve . This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of 6 cm per year ( see plate tectonics ) .
= = = Basalts and calcarenite = = =
Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island . The first about 6 @.@ 9 million years ago produced the northern and central hills while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6 @.@ 3 million years ago by successive basalt ( an extrusive igneous rock ) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera ( crater ) and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs ( at Malabar and Mount Gower ) occasionally interspersed with dikes ( vertical lava intrusions ) . Geological pyroclastic remnants of volcanic eruption can be seen on 15 ha Roach Island ( where the oldest rocks occur ) and Boat Harbour as tuff ( ash ) , breccia ( with angular blocks ) , and agglomerate ( rounded ' bombs ' ) . Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise water depths reach 2000 m falling to 4000 m to the west of the rise . From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands it has been calculated that the island has eroded to one fortieth of its original size .
Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite , a coral sand , blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation . In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs , land and marine snails and the extinct endemic horned turtle ( Meiolania platyceps ) now thought to be an ancient relictual non @-@ swimming tortoise with relatives in South America . The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon , the barrier reef , at 31 ° S , is the most southerly in the world . Beach sands , rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite , as on the mainland , are made of fragments of shell , coral and coralline algae , together with basalt grains , and basaltic minerals like black diopside , and green olivine . The lowland consists of alluvial soils .
The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200 @,@ 000 years taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs .
= = = Climate = = =
Lord Howe Island has a subtropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , Lord Howe Island has a Humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) .
In general the summers are mild or warm with rainfall erratic but occasionally heavy while in winter it is cool with rainfall more or less uniform . There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa . Winds are frequent and salt @-@ laden being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter . July is the windiest month , and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds . The island has 67 @.@ 8 clear days , annually .
Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island . Rainfall records are maintained in the north where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud – shrouded mountains of the south . There can be wide variation in rainfall from year to year . July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures of about 13 ° C and no frost . Average maximum temperatures range from between 17 ° C and 20 ° C in the winter to between 24 ° C and 27 ° C in the summer . The humidity averages in the 60 % to 70 % range year round becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months .
= = Flora and fauna = =
= = = Plants = = =
Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests . It is part of the Australasia ecozone and shares many biotic affinities with Australia , New Guinea , and New Caledonia . Almost half of the island 's native plants are endemic and many of the island 's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats from sealevel to the summits . One of the best known is Howea , an endemic genus of palms ( Arecaceae ) that are commonly known as kentia palms and make handsome houseplants . Annual exports provide a revenue of over A $ 2 million , providing the only major industry on the island apart from tourism .
= = = = Origin = = = =
In geological terms at 7 million years old Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent , its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea , carried by wind , water or birds , possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed , enabling island hopping . Nevertheless , it is far enough away and has had sufficient time to evolve endemic species . The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera : Negria , Lordhowea , Howea , Lepidorrhachis , and Hedyscepe . Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island , the two islands sharing some endemic species , for example , the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis . The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia . There is also a small but clear link with the plants of Vanuatu . The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical south @-@ eastern Queensland . A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species like the wedding lily ( Dietes robinsoniana ) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa .
The flora of the island is relatively untouched with a large number of rare plants , 44 % being endemic to the island . With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys , to ridges , plains and misty mountain tops there is habitat for a wide range of plant communities which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped . There are 57 species of fern of which 25 are endemic : they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island , especially the higher parts of Mount Gower , perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains .
= = = = Communities and special plants = = = =
Plant communities have been classified into nine categories : lowland subtropical rainforest , submontane rainforest , cloud @-@ forest and scrub , lowland swamp forest , mangrove scrub and seagrass , coastal scrub and cliff vegetation , inland scrub and herbland , offshore island vegetation , shoreline and beach vegetation , and disturbed vegetation .
Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor . Banyan ( Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris ) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots : it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned 's Beach . Pandanus tree ( Pandanus forsteri ) has spectacular teepee @-@ like prop roots and pineapple @-@ like fruits that are orange @-@ red when mature , the tough leaves being used for basketry . It occurs in damp areas like creek beds and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track . There are ten species of orchid on the island , the most noticeable being the bush orchid ( Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum ) on lowland trees and rocks , bearing cream flowers from August to September . Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include , on the mountain slopes , the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose ( Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa ) , the massed small yellow flowers of corokia ( Corokia carpodetoides ) , orange plump flowers of pumpkin tree ( Negria rhabdothamnoides ) , and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree ( Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii ) . The kava bush has large , aromatic , heart @-@ shaped leaves . After heavy rain the endemic glowing mushrooms Mycena chlorophanos and Omphalotus nidiformis can be found in the palm forests .
It is the palms that are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places , the kentia being of special economic importance . All four species are endemic to the island , often occurring in dense pure stands , the one that has proved such a world @-@ wide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm ( Howea forsteriana ) . This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in ' hands ' of 3 – 5 while the curly palm ( Howea belmoreana ) , which occurs on slightly higher ground , has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary ' hands ' . Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and there is a mature specimen of one growing in the island nursery . On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m there is the big mountain palm ( Hedyscepe canterburyana ) ; it has large golf @-@ ball @-@ sized fruits while the little mountain palm ( Lepidorrhachis mooreana ) has marble @-@ sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits .
= = = = = Images of native flora = = = = =
= = = Animals = = =
There are no snakes , no venomous or stinging insects , animals or plants , and no dangerous daytime sharks off the beaches .
= = = = Birds = = = =
A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island . Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and there are many more migratory species that occur on the island and its adjacent islets , many tame enough that it is possible for humans to get quite close . The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Endemic Bird Area , and the Permanent Park Preserve as an Important Bird Area , because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens , most of the breeding population of providence petrels , over 1 % of the world population of another five seabird species , and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies .
Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island . Red @-@ tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs where they perform acrobatic courting rituals . Between August and May thousands of flesh @-@ footed and wedge @-@ tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day . From the Little Island Track between March and November one of the world 's rarest birds , the providence petrel also performs courtship displays during winter breeding and it is extremely tame . The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century ; though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island . The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews and the black @-@ winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971 ; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island .
The flesh @-@ footed shearwater , which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring @-@ autumn , used to have its chicks harvested for food by the islanders . The wedge @-@ tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets ; though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island . Breeding white @-@ bellied storm petrels were another discovery by Roy Bell . Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round . Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned 's and Middle Beaches , North Bay , and Blinkey Beach ; the most numerous of the island 's breeding seabirds , their eggs were formerly harvested for food . Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes , while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch , and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows .
Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler , Lord Howe silvereye and Lord Howe currawong . The iconic endemic rail , the flightless Lord Howe woodhen , is the only surviving member of its genus : its ancestors could fly but with no predators and plenty of food on the island this ability was lost . This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals and by the 1970s the population was less than 30 birds . From 1978 to 1984 feral animals were removed and birds raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild . The population is now relatively safe and stable .
= = = = Mammals , reptiles and amphibians = = = =
Only one native mammal remains on the islands , the large forest bat . The endemic Lord Howe long @-@ eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct , possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats .
Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group : the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko . Both are rare on the main island but more common on smaller islands offshore . The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland .
= = = = Invertebrates = = = =
The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the introduction of rats in 1918 . In 2001 a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball 's Pyramid , has been successfully bred in captivity , and is nearing re @-@ introduction to the main island . The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summer months . Another endemic invertebrate , the Lord Howe flax snail ( or Lord Howe Placostylus ) , has also been affected by the introduction of rats . Once common , the species is now endangered and a captive breeding program is under way to save the snail from extinction .
= = = = Marine life = = = =
Marine environments are near @-@ pristine with a mixtures of temperate , subtropical and tropical species derived from cool @-@ temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current , which flows from the Great Barrier Reef , in summer . Of the 490 fish species recorded 13 are endemic and 60 % are tropical . The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish while game fish include marlin , tuna and giant kingfish called " greenbacks " . Over 80 species of coral occur in the reefs surrounding the islands . Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island .
Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in vicinity , however very little about their biology in the area is known due to lack of studies and sighting efforts caused from locational conditions . Bottlenose dolphin is the most commonly observed and is the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents while some other dolphin species have also been observed . Humpback whales are the only of large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than that of those migrating along Australian continent .
Historically , migratory whales such as blue , fin , sei were very abundant in the island waters , but were severely reduced in numbers to near @-@ extinction by commercial and illegal hunts including the mass illegal hunts by Soviet Union and Japan in 1960s to 1970s . Southern right and sperm were most severely hunted among these , hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers . It is likely that these two were once seasonal residents around the island where right whales prefer sheltered , very shallow bays while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters .
= = = Conservation = = =
About 10 percent of Lord Howe Island 's forests have been cleared for agriculture , and another 20 percent has been disturbed , mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep , goats and pigs . As a result , 70 % of the island remains relatively untouched with a variety of plants and animals , many of which are endemic , some of which are rare or threatened . Two species of plants , nine terrestrial birds , one bat and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778 . Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea , Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis , a woody daisy Lordhowea , the tree Negria , the leech Quantenobdella howensis , three annelid worm genera ( Paraplutellus , Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella ) , an isopod shrimp Stigmops , a hemipteran bug Howeria and a cricket Howeta .
The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey ( published in 1974 ) , which has guided the island conservation program . In 1981 , the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a ' Permanent Park Preserve ' over the north and south ends of the island . Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service , which has a ranger stationed on the island . The Island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 .
Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park . This consists of a State Marine Park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to 3 nautical miles around the island and including Ball 's Pyramid . It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage . In total the Marine Park covers about 3 @,@ 005 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 160 sq mi ) .
= = = = Feral animals and plants = = = =
Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food in the early 1800s , the goats destroying shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs eating eggs and chicks and disturbing the land by nuzzling for food . Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans . The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule , white @-@ throated pigeon , red @-@ crowned parakeet and the Tasman booby , which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the nineteenth century either from overhunting for food or protection of crops . Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860 . In 1918 the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the SS Makambo which ran aground at Ned 's Beach . This triggered a second wave of extinctions , including the vinous @-@ tinted thrush , robust white @-@ eye , Lord Howe starling , Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and decimation of palm fruits . Bounties were offered for rat and pig tails and ' ratting ' became a popular pursuit . Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low . The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by , or competition with , the Tasmanian masked owls which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population . Stray dogs are also a threat as they could harm the native wood hen and other birds .
Invasive plants such as Crofton weed and Formosa lily occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated but others are currently being managed . In 1995 the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants of the island , chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper , but also cherry guava , Madeira vine , Cotoneaster , Ochna and Cestrum . This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000 . Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and revegetate some formerly cultivated areas . An Environmental Unit was created by the Board and it includes a Flora Management Officer and a permanent Weed Officer . Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place , supported by improved education and quarantine procedures .
Despite the large number of introduced species that harm Lord Howe 's native flora and fauna , feral pigs and cats were eradicated by the early 2000s . The goat population has been reduced to just a few animals , and there are ongoing efforts to control rodents and introduced plants . In July 2012 it was announced by the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker that the Australian and NSW Governments would each contribute 50 % of the estimated A $ 9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island , using aerial deployment of poison baits . The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial . A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000 , which is close to carrying capacity .
= = = = Climate change = = = =
According to an analysis by Tim Flannery , the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming , with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature . The Great Barrier Reef is specifically identified as being at risk to the effects of global warming on Australia , and the same analysis applies to the reefs of Lord Howe Island . Cool climate flora and fauna are at risk from rises in temperature , because there is limited scope for migration to higher altitudes .. The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate change solution occurred at Lord Howe island in 2011 , the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry .
= = In fiction = =
Improbable Rendezvous , a novel by Tom Ferry , 2013 ISBN 978 @-@ 192221954 @-@ 1
Virus , a 1999 sci @-@ fi horror film : the titular computer virus sets a course for Lord Howe Island to seize a British intelligence facility from which it can control the world 's military .
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= Romance ( Luis Miguel album ) =
Romance is the eighth studio album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel . It was released by WEA Latina on 19 November 1991 . Although the production was originally intended as another collaboration with Juan Carlos Calderón , that plan was scrapped when Calderón was unable to compose songs for the album . Facing a new @-@ material deadline in his recording contract , at his manager 's suggestion Miguel chose bolero music for his next project . Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero was hired by WEA Latina to co @-@ produce the album with Miguel . Recording began in August 1991 at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , California , with Bebu Silvetti the arranger .
On the album Miguel covers twelve boleros , originally recorded from 1944 to 1986 . The first two singles , " Inolvidable " and " No Sé Tú " , reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States and spent six months atop the Mexican charts . " Mucho Corazón " and " Cómo " were in the top five of the Hot Latin Songs chart , and " Usted " and " La Barca " received airplay throughout Latin America . Miguel promoted the record with a tour of the United States and Latin America . The album was generally well received by music critics , who praised Miguel 's singing and the record 's production . The singer received several accolades , including a Grammy nomination for Best Latin Pop Album .
Romance was a commercial success , selling over seven million copies worldwide . In the United States , it spent 32 weeks at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart , and was the first Spanish @-@ language album by a non @-@ crossover Latin artist to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; it was also certified gold in Brazil and Taiwan , firsts for a Spanish @-@ speaking artist . Romance is the third @-@ bestselling album of all time in Mexico , and the bestselling record in Argentina by a non @-@ native artist . The album was noted by critics as reviving interest in bolero music . Its success encouraged Miguel to release three more bolero records : Segundo Romance ( 1994 ) , Romances ( 1997 ) and Mis Romances ( 2001 ) .
= = Background and recording = =
Since Miguel signed with WEA Latina in 1986 , his albums Soy Como Quiero Ser ( 1987 ) , Busca una Mujer ( 1988 ) , and 20 Años ( 1990 ) have sold over three million copies cumulatively in Mexico . His early recordings consisted of soft rock and pop ballad tunes , which led to Miguel becoming a teen idol . On 14 January 1991 , WEA Latina announced a new album with longtime producer and composer Juan Carlos Calderón , who produced the three previous records by Miguel . Wanting to replicate the success of 20 Años , Calderón would compose pop songs and ballads and find tracks for Miguel to cover in Spanish . Production was scheduled to begin in April , with Italian- and English @-@ language studio albums to follow . The record label was unconvinced by Calderón 's pre @-@ selected songs ; he had to write more compositions , and production halted indefinitely . Ultimately , he was unable to compose songs for the album .
Miguel had a contractual deadline with his label to record new material , and considered recording boleros ( slow ballads " endowed with romantic lyrics " ) after meeting Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero during a televised interview . The singer had performed boleros ( including compositions recorded by Manzanero ) during his 1991 tour . At the suggestion of manager Hugo López , and realizing that he could appeal to an older audience , Miguel chose boleros for his next album and WEA Latina hired Manzanero to take over its production . Manzanero was enthusiastic , hoping that Miguel 's popularity would introduce the genre to young listeners . On 25 October 1991 , the album 's title was announced as a homage to boleros ; it was Miguel 's first as a producer .
Recording began on 24 August 1991 , at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , California . Miguel and Manzanero produced the album , with Bebu Silvetti arranging the strings with additional contributions from 32 violinists under the direction of American conductor Ezra Kliger . On Romance Miguel covers twelve boleros ( with each track being described as love numbers ) , which were selected by Manzanero from five hundred songs including his " Te Extraño " and " No Sé Tú " . Seven of the twelve tracks were recorded by 13 September when production was suspended the following day when Miguel was hospitalized with appendicitis . The album 's planned late @-@ October release was postponed until 19 November and recording resumed two weeks after Miguel was hospitalized .
= = Singles and promotion = =
" Inolvidable " was released as Romance 's lead single in November 1991 . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States the week of 25 January 1992 , topping the chart for five weeks . Its second single , " No Sé Tú " , was released in February 1992 and reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart the week of 18 April , topping the chart for seven weeks . The music video for " No Sé Tú " was directed by Pedro Torres and filmed in Miami , it features Miguel and an orchestra performing in front of a building . The video premiered on 16 February on the Mexican variety show Siempre en Domingo . " Inolvidable " and " No Sé Tú " ended 1992 as the third- and second @-@ best @-@ performing Latin songs of the year , respectively , in the United States . In Mexico , the songs topped the charts for a total of six months . The album 's third single , " Contigo en la Distancia " , was released in Mexico in July 1992 ; its music video was also directed by Torres and filmed in Miami . " Mucho Corazón " peaked at number three on the Hot Latin Songs chart , with " Cómo " peaking at number four . " Usted " and " La Barca " received airplay throughout Latin America .
To promote the record , Miguel began his Romance Tour on 22 March 1992 at a sold out 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat National Auditorium in Mexico City . After performing throughout Latin America and the United States , he concluded the tour in Chile in December . In addition to touring , Miguel performed at the Seville Expo ' 92 in Spain . His set list consisted primarily of songs from his earlier career and boleros from Romance . In October 1992 WEA Latina released América & En Vivo , a live EP featuring a new track ( " America , America " ) and tour recordings of " Contigo en la Distancia " , " No Sé Tú " and " Inolvidable " . AllMusic gave the EP three stars out of five .
= = Critical reception = =
AllMusic editor Janet Rosen gave Romance three stars out of five , saying that it " features the usual smooth , well @-@ crafted pop ear candy from Luis Miguel , earnestly sung over strings and polite Latin rhythms " . However , she noted that the songs in the album booklet and the lack of liner notes made it difficult for listeners to know what " to make of this presentation " . Rosen concluded , " It doesn 't matter — the title of the release says it all . " Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the record four stars out of four , praising Miguel 's refusal " to get campy , which gives the effort far more integrity than might have been imagined " and calling his take on boleros " vibrant and real . " Mark Holston reviewed the album positively in the magazine Américas , praising Miguel 's vocals , the choice of songs and Silvetti 's arrangements : " Romance is a reminder of the enduring quality of timeless music " .
At the 1992 Billboard Music Awards Miguel was the Top Pop Latin Artist and the Top Hot Latin Tracks Artist , and Romance was the Top Pop Latin Album . In Chile , Romance won the Laurel de Oro Award for best album of the year . The singer was the Best Artist From a Non @-@ English @-@ Speaking Country at the Korean International Music Awards . At the 1993 Grammy Awards , Romance was nominated for Best Latin Pop Album , which was awarded to Jon Secada for his album Otro Día Más Sin Verte . That year Romance was also nominated for Pop Album of the Year at the Lo Nuestro Awards , again losing to Secada for his self @-@ titled album . At the 1993 annual Premios Eres , Miguel won three awards : Best Album , Best Male Singer and Best Show ( for his tour ) . The record was the Best International Album and Miguel won the Best International Artist of the Year at the 1993 Ronda de Venezuela awards .
= = Commercial performance = =
Romance was released internationally on 19 November 1991 , and sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in its first 10 days . In Mexico it was certified octuple platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipping two million copies , the country 's all @-@ time third @-@ bestselling album ( only Juan Gabriel and José José has sold more copies with Recuerdos , Vol . II and 20 Triunfadoras respectively ) . In the United States , Romance debuted at number ten on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart for the week of 14 December 1991 , and reached number one four weeks later . The record topped the chart for 32 consecutive weeks when it was displaced by Jon Secada 's eponymous album on the week of 22 August 1992 , ending 1992 and 1993 as the bestselling Latin pop album of the year in the country . It was the first record by a Spanish @-@ speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil and Taiwan , and the first gold certification by a non @-@ crossover Latin artist in the United States ( later certified platinum in the U.S. by the RIAA for shipments of one million copies ) . In South America , Romance was certified platinum in Colombia and Venezuela , gold in Paraguay and double platinum in Peru . In Argentina the album was certified 16 × platinum for sales of over one million copies , the bestselling record by a non @-@ Argentine artist . It received a diamond award from the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) , and was certified quadruple platinum in Chile and double platinum in Spain . As of 2013 , Romance had sold over seven million copies worldwide and is Miguel 's bestselling record .
= = Legacy = =
Romance is considered by music critics to have renewed mainstream interest in bolero music . According to Chicago Tribune editor Monica Eng , " Just as Harry Connick , Jr. re @-@ popularized the sounds of Sinatra and Tony Bennett , Mexican platinum @-@ selling heartthrob Luis Miguel brought back an appreciation for the music of Mexico 's boleristas . " In The Wall Street Journal , Mary Talbot compared renewed interest in boleros to the revival of big band and swing music in the Anglo @-@ American market , previously dominated by rock music ( which had seized bolero 's popularity during the 1960s ) . Elena Kellner of the Los Angeles Times noted the album 's " introducing old favorites to younger audiences " and Miguel 's popularity with older listeners . In Latin Beat Magazine , Franz Reynold wrote that before Miguel , boleros were considered by young people the " music of the ancients , something to be feared , since it seemed to signal the advent of senility " . Mark Holston wrote in Américas magazine that the record 's " irresistible combination of classic songs , string @-@ laden arrangements , and subtle contemporary influences proved to be the perfect formula to reawaken the bolero 's slumbering passions once again . "
In his book , The Latin Beat : The Rhythms And Roots Of Latin Music From Bossa Nova To Salsa And Beyond , Ed Morales wrote that Miguel 's collaboration with Manzanero " brought light to an overlooked master of [ bolero ] " and " was a significant update of the genre " . Romance enhanced Silvetti 's reputation as an arranger and producer ; according to Leila Cobo of Billboard , the album " categorically redefined the interpretations of traditional boleros " and " sparked a torrent of work for Silvetti , including records with Vic Damone and Engelbert Humperdinck " . His arrangements became known as the " Silvetti Sound " , which Cobo described as " anchored in sweeping melodies , lush string arrangements , acoustic instrumentation , and above all , unabashed romanticism " . Romance 's success encouraged Linda Ronstadt , José Luis Rodríguez and Plácido Domingo to record modern versions of traditional boleros . According to Miguel 's former manager Mauricio Abaroa , although boleros were still recorded by traditional musicians at the time , " what made Luis Miguel so successful was that it was a young man singing them and that he sang them like modern ballads " . During the Billboard Hot Latin Songs Chart 's 25th anniversary in 2011 , Miguel was number one on the Hot Latin Songs Top Artists chart . Manzanero reflected on their partnership , saying that he " put in the mouths of his generation all of the great romantic songs that had a 30 @-@ year history " . In 2015 , Billboard listed Romance as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Years , an editor writes : " What ’ s become so formulaic in Latin music these days -- the tribute album by a contemporary artist honoring a genius of another era -- started with Romance " .
The album 's success encouraged Miguel to record three more Romance records . Its follow @-@ up , Segundo Romance , was released in 1994 ; Manzanero , Calderón and Kiko Cibrian co @-@ produced with Miguel , and it won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Performance . In 1997 Romances was released , with Miguel and Manzanero co @-@ producing Silvetti 's arrangements ; it sold over 4 @.@ 5 million copies , winning another Grammy for Best Latin Pop Performance . A year later WEA Latina released Todos Los Romances , a three @-@ disc compilation of the romance @-@ themed records . The fourth record in the series , Mis Romances ( produced by Miguel ) , was released in 2001 . Although the singer had planned a ten @-@ album series , Mis Romances was critically and commercially unsuccessful . The following year saw the release of Mis Boleros Favoritos , with 13 previously @-@ recorded tracks from the Romance series and a new version of " Hasta Que Vuelvas " . According to AllMusic editor Iván Adaime , the record 's purpose was to " close this era " of the Romance series . In 2012 , Warner Music Latina reissued a commemorative Romance : 20th Anniversary set with a CD , the original LP record and three 45 rpm singles : " Inolvidable " , " No Sé Tú " and " Contigo en la Distancia " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic and from the Romance liner notes :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Sora ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Sora ( Japanese : ソラ ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of Square Enix 's Kingdom Hearts video game series . Introduced in the first Kingdom Hearts game in 2002 , Sora is portrayed as a cheerful teenager who lives in the Destiny Islands and has been best friends with Riku and Kairi since childhood . When they plan to go on a journey to see other worlds , they are separated by creatures known as the Heartless . While fighting against them , Sora obtains a weapon called the Keyblade . Donald Duck and Goofy then recruit him in their journey across various worlds to aid King Mickey while Sora searches for his friends . Along the way , the trio protects the worlds they visit from various villains . In Kingdom Hearts II , Sora searches for Riku and fights against Organization XIII who , like Ansem the Wise from the original game , are attempting to seize Kingdom Hearts for their own . Sora has also made supporting appearances in other games from the series , and reprised his role in manga and light novel adaptations of the games .
Sora was originally designed by Kingdom Hearts series director and character designer Tetsuya Nomura during a discussion between Disney and Square about who should be the protagonist of the series . Wanting an original character , Nomura made various sketches of Sora until the design met the approval of Disney . Nomura came to regard Sora as his favorite character that he had designed , and pushed for the character to have a leading role in the Kingdom Hearts story in spite of the character 's youth . Throughout the series , Sora has been voiced by Haley Joel Osment in the English version and Miyu Irino in the Japanese version . As a child , Sora was voiced by Takuto Yoshinaga and Luke Manriquez in Japanese and English , respectively . Sora 's character has received generally positive critical response due to his warm personality and adventurous spirit . His personal and martial growth in the series also received praise , especially in his appearance in Kingdom Hearts II . Additionally , Sora has ranked high on various video game character popularity polls .
= = Characteristics = =
Sora appears as a child with spiky brown @-@ hair who , when first introduced , wears a red shirt , red pants , and a white and blue jacket covered by keychains . Upon traveling to certain worlds , Sora 's appearance is altered by Donald Duck 's magic to adapt to different environments ; for example , he turns into a merman in underwater environments . After undergoing significant growth in Kingdom Hearts II , Sora is given a new outfit given by Flora , Fauna , and Merryweather similar to the previous one but mostly black . When battling , Sora 's outfit can change into other designs depending on the player 's choices . Sora 's Keyblade 's primary form is the Kingdom Key ( キングダムチェーン , Kingudamu Chēn , Kingdom Chain ) , resembling a classic skeleton key approximately 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) long , with a long , silver keychain extending from the hilt and a Mickey Mouse token on the end of the keychain . However , through the use of game items known as Keychains , the Kingdom Key can assume a variety of unique forms . During Kingdom Hearts II , Sora dual @-@ wields Keyblades , but their forms depend on the player 's use of Keychains .
Across the series , Sora is depicted as a cheerful teenager who cherishes his friendships and relies on them for his strength . As a result , several of Sora 's enemies use his friends as bait to use the Keyblade for their purposes . Although Sora was not chosen by the Keyblade to be its owner and the protector of worlds , his actions throughout the series cause the Keyblade to choose him over its original choice , Riku .
= = Appearances = =
At the beginning of Kingdom Hearts , Sora and his two best friends , Riku and Kairi , plan to leave their hometown , the Destiny Islands , to explore new worlds . However , they are separated when their world is attacked by a group of dark beings known as the Heartless with Sora drifting to a town known as Traverse Town where he learns the Keyblade chose him to eliminate the Heartless . Soon after , Sora meets Donald Duck and Goofy , who join forces in search of his friends while Sora helps Donald and Goofy look for King Mickey . They travel across worlds in their Gummi Ship , sealing the Keyholes of worlds along the way to protect them from being consumed by the darkness of the Heartless . They are opposed by an alliance of Disney villains led by Maleficent who seeks out the seven Princesses of Heart to unlock the Keyhole that leads to " Kingdom Hearts " , a repository of knowledge and power and the source of all hearts . To this end , Maleficent convinces Riku that Sora has betrayed him , and that while Riku searched for Sora , he replaced Riku with new friends . This causes Riku to fight with Sora on several occasions . The group travels to Maleficent 's headquarters in the Hollow Bastion and defeat her , but Sora then discovers that Riku is possessed by the spirit of Ansem , who reveals that Kairi 's heart has been hiding within Sora 's body . In order to return Kairi 's heart , Sora impales himself with Ansem 's Keyblade , briefly transforming him into a Heartless until Kairi brings him back to his human form . After taking Kairi to safety , Sora and company confront and defeat Ansem at the now open door to Kingdom Hearts . Beyond the doorway are Mickey and the now recovered Riku ; to seal it so that the darkness cannot take possession of Kingdom Hearts , Mickey and Sora use their Keyblades to lock the door . Despite being again separated , Sora , Donald , and Goofy continue their quest to reunite with Riku and Mickey .
In Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , Sora 's group stumbles onto a fortress known as Castle Oblivion , believing they will find Mickey and Riku inside . Upon entering , Sora 's memories are manipulated by a girl named Naminé who is being held captive by the group Organization XIII and forced to replace memories of Kairi with herself . However , as Sora travels upwards in the castle , he meets Naminé and learns the truth from her . Sora still wishes to protect Naminé and stop the Organization members in the castle . After the Organization members opposing him are defeated , Naminé helps him , Donald , and Goofy to restore their memories to their state prior to entering Castle Oblivion at the cost of losing their memories of the events in the castle . This requires them to sleep in the castle for the restoration of memories to be completed .
In Kingdom Hearts II , roughly one year after Chain of Memories , Sora reawakens along with Donald and Goofy in Twilight Town once his Nobody , Roxas , merges within him . They visit the King 's master , Yen Sid , from whom they learn about the existence of the Nobodies and Organization XIII . Sora sets out with Donald and Goofy to find Riku and King Mickey , traversing new and unfamiliar worlds where they encounter the remaining members of the Organization . Sora later encounters their leader , Xemnas , learning that the Organization now has Kairi captive to force Sora to gather more hearts for them . Eventually , with Mickey joining them , Sora 's group finds a way to the Organization 's main base in The World That Never Was . The group soon reunites with Kairi as well as Riku , and continue fighting the Organization . Sora and Riku are separated from Mickey , Goofy , Kairi and Donald as they finish Xemnas and find a way back to Destiny Islands where they reunite with all their friends .
In Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , Sora is mostly in a state of sleep as his memories are being restored by Naminé , but is also playable in the game 's multiplayer mode . In Kingdom Hearts Coded Sora himself does not appear until the game 's final scene , in which he receives King Mickey 's letter and reads it with Riku and Kairi . A computer program created from Sora 's data serves as the primary protagonist of the game , finding out the truth behind a mysterious message found inside Jiminy 's journal . A young Sora and Riku briefly appear in Destiny Islands in the prequel to Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep . After Ventus , one of the protagonists , has his heart damaged following a confrontation with his dark side , Vanitas , his heart finds its way into Sora , entering the boy 's body . In the game 's secret ending , set after the events of Kingdom Hearts II Ansem the Wise tells Aqua about Sora 's adventures , and how he may help all the people connected to him . In the final scene , Sora decides to save them after reading Mickey 's letter .
In Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , Sora is summoned with Riku to Yen Sid to undergo a Mark of Mastery exam in response to Xehanort 's coming return . The two are sent to the Dreaming Realm to awaken several worlds submerged in sleep following the defeat of Ansem , but once the task is complete , Sora 's heart is damaged by Xemnas whose companions plan to turn him into the last of Xehanort 's thirteen vessels . Riku and his comrades manage to rescue Sora from his fate and brings him back to Yen Sid 's tower , where he dives into Sora 's body and repairs his heart , awakening him from his coma . Once Sora wakes up , Yen Sid only names Riku as a Keyblade Master for gaining the power used to awaken Sora . Undaunted , Sora congratulates him and departs to continue his training elsewhere .
Sora is stated to return as a fully @-@ fledged Keyblade Master in Kingdom Hearts III , and will have his final showdown with Master Xehanort . A 2D cartoonish avatar version of Sora wearing his original outfit in Kingdom Hearts is also present in the online community @-@ based social gaming networking service , Kingdom Hearts Mobile . Sora also appears in the Shiro Amano 's manga and Tomoko Kanemaki 's novels in which he reprises his role in the video games .
= = Concept and creation = =
Sora was designed by Tetsuya Nomura as the protagonist of Kingdom Hearts . However , he was not originally slated to be the protagonist as Disney wanted Donald Duck to be the protagonist of the game while Square wanted to have Mickey Mouse as the protagonist . Nomura wanted neither as the protagonist of the game and went on to design his own protagonist with the concepts of the Disney characters in mind which resulted in the creation of Sora . Sora originally wielded a weapon resembling a chainsaw ; however , the weapon was not well received by Disney which led Nomura to redesign the weapon into a Keyblade . Sora 's original outfit in Kingdom Hearts was also designed with Mickey Mouse in mind with Mickey Mouse 's trademark white gloves , red shorts and giant yellow shoes due to Square 's original preference to have Mickey as the main character of the game . The tail was removed as the staff found his design to be similar to the one of the Final Fantasy IX protagonist Zidane Tribal who also had a tail . After a talk with the Disney staff , the design was further reworked , and Nomura finished it after a night 's work .
One of the main concepts of Sora 's character in the series is that , according to Nomura , he is a normal boy instead of a supernatural being even though he is deeply connected with other characters from the series . With Sora , Nomura wants to give players the message that even though they are not " important people " , they have the opportunity to accomplish great things . This was emphasized in Birth by Sleep 's secret ending , which Nomura hoped players would find because it showed Sora 's potential to influence everyone 's lives . In early versions of development of Birth by Sleep , Nomura thought that Ventus would actually be Sora before being reborn , but due to negative feedback from overseas , that plot line was discarded . Nomura has stated that Sora 's name can be interpreted as " sky " since the Japanese word sora ( 空 ) , means sky . This name was also chosen to symbolize Sora 's role and his personality . It was also chosen to show Sora 's close relationship with Riku and Kairi , making their three names together " Sky , Land , and Sea . " He was also described by Nomura as having an outgoing personality , which allows him to make friends throughout the series . Of all of the characters Nomura has designed , Sora is his favorite , calling him " special " after having worked to develop the character over many games .
Following the first Kingdom Hearts , Nomura was worried that players would be unhappy that Sora would start Kingdom Hearts II as a weak character with few powers who once again had to be leveled up like the first title . Therefore , Nomura developed the plot of Chain of Memories to explain how Sora loses his abilities in Castle Oblivion and then started anew . Additionally , with Chain of Memories a new mystery regarding Sora 's memories from Twilight Town was added and while Sora did not have any memories from such town , this fact would be explained in Kingdom Hearts II . The team in charge of Kingdom Hearts II expressed difficulties in animating Sora 's Drive Valor Form for having a completely different motion except in the part that Sora walks which is shared with his regular motion . After finishing Kingdom Hearts II , Nomura wanted to give Sora a rest from the series in order to focus the following games on other characters from the series . Moreover , the events from the endings of Kingdom Hearts coded and Birth by Sleep hinted a new mystery regarding Sora 's character which will be revealed in Kingdom Hearts III . Although Nomura stated in March 2010 that Sora will once again be the focus of the next Kingdom Hearts , he will share it with another character with a big importance . In response to rumors saying that Sora 's story would end in Kingdom Hearts III , Nomura answered that Sora is the protagonist of the series and that his role will end once the series ends . For this game , Nomura was interested in giving Sora a new costume , but was worried about doing so because of the popularity of the characters Kingdom Hearts II outfit . In the end he decided to create a new one as Kingdom Hearts III was a new numbered title .
= = Reception = =
Various types of merchandising have been released based on Sora 's character . There are several types of action figures which show Sora with a different appearance such as his original form , the Kingdom Hearts II design and others variants . Other accessories include plush , necklaces and phone charm straps .
In January 2010 , Famitsu featured Sora as its reader 's fifth most popular character of all time . They also featured him on its issue # 1105 cover , gaving him a tribute , showing his many appearances through the years . UGO Networks placed Sora nineteenth on their list of " Top 25 Japanese RPG Characters " calling him a " charismatic and visually interesting " character . Although he did not make to the top ten of Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Top Ten : List of Videogame Characters " , Sora was nevertheless noted for his growing popularity . In an ASCII Media Works poll in which fans voted selected whose video game or manga character would like to name their children after , Sora 's name was second in the male category . In a Famitsu poll from 2011 , Sora was voted as the most popular Kingdom Hearts character with his fight against Roxas from Kingdom Hearts II also being listed as the best scene from the series . He was also 15th in the Game Informer poll of best characters from the 2000s .
Overall , critics and fans have generally praised the character of Sora . When Sora 's character was first revealed in 2002 , GameSpot 's Giancarlo Varanini regarded him as " an appropriate amalgamation of the Square and Disney universes . " He also comically noted he " doesn 't look like much , but you know how it goes . " A 1UP.com writer called Sora " one of my all @-@ time favorite Square characters " , praising his cheerful personality . Gamasutra commented on Sora 's journey along the series in their feature " The Birth of Collecting : The Osiris Archetype In Games " by Jason Johnson ; while comparing Sora with Isis , Johnson found Sora 's adventure appealing . IGN praised Sora 's resilient character noting how such an ordinary " youngster " could face up to his challenges during his adventures for the sake of friendship , while RPGFan 's Nicole Monet Kirk labelled him as an " extremely likable hero " . Furthermore , in the book " Interactive Storytelling for Video Games : A Player @-@ Centered Approach to Creating Memorable Characters and Stories " it is noted that while Sora follows a " standard hero archetype " , his character becomes more believable and strong when worrying about his friends ' fates . Haley Joel Osment , Sora 's English voice actor , has also been praised by Gaming Target 's Matt Swidder who mentioned Osment " makes a perfect fit for Sora " . While remarking Osment 's work , Louis Bedigian from GameZone mentioned that " Sora had something rarely found in video @-@ game characters : depth " also praising his role in Kingdom Hearts . Game Informer 's Bryan Vore found that in Kingdom Hearts II , Osment has improved in voicing the character , praising his work . In their Super Smash Bros Brawl list , IGN described Sora as " ... the most active and evolved hero on this week 's list . " IGN listed him as a possible character in Super Smash Bros. Brawl ; though he was not chosen as the " reader 's choice " .
Sora 's transformations in the various Disney worlds in Kingdom Hearts II were commented to be entertaining by Julia Reges from AllGame due to how variated they are . Also reviewing Kingdom Hearts II , Greg Bemis from G4TV praised Sora 's development in the game , including his growth and the fact each of his attacks from the title are entertaining . Although Computer and Video Games also found an improvement in Sora 's movements due to sequences made with the Reaction Commands , they found them " fairly straightforward . " RPGamer 's Cortney Stone stated that Sora now moved " like an acrobatic honed fighter " in contrast to his " adolescent awkwardness " seen in the first Kingdom Hearts and remarked Sora 's transformation into a lion seen in the sequel as enjoyable . His new outfit was also well received by GameSpy who found an improvement from the original one that looked like " wardrobe from Mickey Mouse 's closet " . GamesRadar had similar opinions and particularly focused on Sora 's transformation and his new abilities . Game Informer viewed Sora 's Drive Forms as well as his combined techniques with other characters as one of the best additions to the gameplay . Although IGN also praised Sora 's growth in Kingdom Hearts II in their article " Kingdom Hearts III : The IGN Concept " , they stated that in order to make his role in a future sequel more entertaining , he would need more development making him " be confident , collected and committed to the tasks at hand " . Also commenting on his role in a future sequel , GamesRadar stated that having Sora 's character older would be necessary to make the story more mature .
On the other hand , Sora also received negative comments regarding his characterization . He was third in 1UP.com 's " Top 5 Most Irritating RPG Protagonists " with writer Bob Mackey commenting he is " a human version of Mickey Mouse " , criticizing his original outfit and relationship with Riku and Kairi , and finding him to be less popular than the Disney characters featured in the series . In January 2007 , Sora was listed the fourth " biggest dork " of 2006 by Game Informer , citing the Atlantica singing portions of the game .
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= Dennis Johnson =
Dennis Wayne Johnson ( September 18 , 1954 – February 22 , 2007 ) , nicknamed " DJ " , was an American professional basketball player for the National Basketball Association 's ( NBA ) Seattle SuperSonics , Phoenix Suns and Boston Celtics and coach of the Los Angeles Clippers . He was an alumnus of Dominguez High School , Los Angeles Harbor College and Pepperdine University .
A prototypical late bloomer , Johnson overcame early struggles and had a successful NBA playing career . Drafted 29th overall in 1976 by the Seattle SuperSonics , Johnson began his professional career as a shooting guard . He eventually led the Sonics to their only NBA championship in 1979 , winning the Finals MVP Award . After a short stint with the Phoenix Suns , he became the starting point guard for the Boston Celtics , with whom he won two more championships . Johnson was voted into five All @-@ Star Teams , one All @-@ NBA First and one Second Team , and nine consecutive All @-@ Defensive First and Second Teams . Apart from his reputation as a defensive stopper , Johnson was known as a clutch player who made several decisive plays in NBA playoffs history .
The Celtics franchise has retired Johnson 's # 3 jersey , which hangs from the rafters of the TD Garden , the home arena of the team . On April 5 , 2010 , the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame officially announced that Johnson had been posthumously elected to the Hall . He was formally inducted on August 13 . He is considered by several sports journalists to be one of the most underrated players of all time .
= = Early years = =
Dennis Wayne Johnson was born the eighth of sixteen children , to a social worker and a bricklayer who lived in Compton , California , a suburb of Los Angeles . Originally a baseball fan and a Little Leaguer , Johnson learned basketball from his father , but seemed to have neither the size nor the talent to compete with his peers : as a teenager at Dominguez High School , Johnson measured just 5 ' 9 " and played only " a minute or two each game " . After high school , he worked several odd jobs , including a $ 2 @.@ 75 @-@ per @-@ hour job as a forklift driver , and played with his brothers in summer league games after work . During this period , Johnson grew to a height of 6 ' 3 " , and developed what some later described as " rocket launcher legs " , which enabled him to jump high to grab rebounds against taller opponents .
Jim White , the coach at Los Angeles Harbor College , had watched Johnson play street basketball ; feeling that Johnson excelled in defense , White asked him to enroll . Johnson gave up his jobs and developed into a promising young guard , averaging 18 @.@ 3 points and 12 @.@ 0 rebounds per game and leading Harbor to a college junior state title . However , the young guard lacked discipline , often clashed with White and was thrown off the team three times in two years .
At the end of his junior college career , two universities offered Johnson scholarships : Azusa Pacific University and Pepperdine University . Johnson chose the latter , and in his only year in college , he averaged 15 @.@ 7 points , 5 @.@ 8 rebounds and 3 @.@ 3 assists per game , and developed a reputation for tough defense . After that year , Johnson made himself eligible for the 1976 NBA Draft , but was skeptical that any team would take him . NBA teams were wary of drafting a player with character issues , and Johnson was known to be a troublemaker .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Seattle SuperSonics ( 1976 – 80 ) = = =
The Seattle SuperSonics took Johnson in the second round of the 1976 draft with the 29th pick and gave him a four @-@ year contract , with which he earned a salary of $ 45 @,@ 000 in the first year and $ 90 @,@ 000 in the last . In his rookie year , the 1976 – 77 NBA season , Johnson , playing backup to the experienced Sonics backcourt tandem of Slick Watts and Fred Brown , averaged 9 @.@ 2 points and 1 @.@ 5 assists per game . The Sonics finished with a 40 – 42 record and missed the 1977 NBA Playoffs , leading head coach Bill Russell to resign . In the following season , the team lost 17 of the first 22 games under Russell 's replacement Bob Hopkins , who was replaced by Hall of Fame coach Lenny Wilkens , who gave Johnson a starting spot and paired him with Gus Williams . Johnson revelled in this new role , improving his averages to 12 @.@ 7 points and 2 @.@ 8 assists per game . During this period Johnson played shooting guard and was known for his aggressive slam dunking , in contrast to the more cerebral roles he played later in his career . It was at this time that Johnson 's nickname " DJ " was coined by play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Bob Blackburn , to help distinguish him from teammates , John Johnson and Vinnie Johnson ( whom Blackburn referred to as " JJ " and " VJ " , respectively ) .
Finishing strongly , the Sonics ended the regular season with a 47 – 35 record and made the 1978 NBA Playoffs . After eliminating the Los Angeles Lakers , the defending champion Portland Trail Blazers , and the Denver Nuggets , they almost defeated the Washington Bullets by taking a 3 – 2 lead in the 1978 NBA Finals . In a 93 – 92 Game 3 victory , Johnson blocked seven shots — the most blocks in NBA Finals history for a guard . The Sonics lost in seven games , however , partly because of Johnson 's Game 7 scoring drought , in which the second @-@ year guard missed all of his 14 field goal attempts . Johnson later acknowledged that he simply " choked " ; he vowed never to repeat this again and credited this game as an important lesson to become a better player .
Johnson and the Sonics got their revenge in the 1978 – 79 season . After clinching the Pacific Division with a 52 – 30 record , the team met the Bullets again in the 1979 NBA Finals . After losing Game 1 , the Sonics won the next four games to take the finals series , helped by Johnson who averaged almost 23 points along with six rebounds and assists per game . He scored 32 points in a Game 4 overtime victory , and was named NBA Finals MVP . It was during this season that Johnson established himself as one of the best guards in the league ; he averaged 15 @.@ 9 points and 3 @.@ 5 assists per game , and made his first All @-@ Defensive First Team and All @-@ Star Game appearance .
During the following season , Johnson averaged 19 @.@ 0 points and 4 @.@ 1 assists , appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game and was named to the All @-@ Defensive First Team and All @-@ NBA Second Team . The Sonics , however , lost in the Western Conference Finals to the Lakers , who had Hall of Famers Jamaal Wilkes , Magic Johnson and Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar . Because of the abundance of talent on the Sonics team , Johnson later called this loss one of the worst disappointments of his professional career . Coach Wilkens grew tired of Johnson , who often clashed with him and was perceived as a growing liability to the team . At the end of the season , Johnson was traded to the Phoenix Suns for Paul Westphal and draft picks . The Sonics finished 22 games worse in the next season despite the addition of Westphal .
= = = Phoenix Suns ( 1980 – 83 ) = = =
Johnson further established himself as a quality player in Phoenix . In his three years as a Sun , Johnson averaged 14 – 20 points a game and provided tough defense . He played in two All @-@ Star Games , was voted into three consecutive All @-@ Defensive First Teams and earned his only All @-@ NBA First Team appearance . In this period Johnson , like in Seattle , played shooting guard and became the main scorer on the team , as opposed to being the second or third option as a Sonic .
In the first two years of Johnson 's stint , the Suns were fairly successful , reaching the Western Conference Semifinals both seasons . The Suns bowed out in the first round in Johnson 's last year . Johnson 's situation deteriorated towards the end of his career at Phoenix . Like in Seattle , he often clashed with his coach , John MacLeod , and finally was traded by general manager , Jerry Colangelo , to the Boston Celtics for Rick Robey and draft picks . Like Seattle after Johnson 's departure , the Suns finished 12 games worse in the next season despite the addition of Robey .
= = = Boston Celtics ( 1983 – 90 ) = = =
Between the 1979 – 80 season and 1981 – 82 season seasons , the Celtics had lost to the Philadelphia 76ers in the Eastern Confernce Finals 2 out of 3 times , mainly because physical Sixers guard Andrew Toney routinely caused problems for their defensively fragile backcourt . After subsequently getting swept by the Bucks in the 1982 @-@ 83 Eastern Conference Semifinals , Celtics general manager Red Auerbach added the perennial All @-@ Defensive Team member Johnson to his squad , hoping that it would help the Celtics fare better in the Eastern Conference playoffs , particular against the 76ers . Johnson joined a squad led by Hall of Fame forward Larry Bird , who played in the frontcourt with two fellow Hall of Famers , center Robert Parish and forward Kevin McHale , a combination often called the best frontcourt of all time by the NBA . Johnson described joining the Celtics as a " dream come true " and enjoyed the tutelage of highly successful general manager Auerbach , who was " living history " according to Johnson .
With the Celtics Johnson changed his playing style for the third time in his career : after being known as a slam dunking shooting guard with the Sonics , and an all @-@ around scorer with the Suns , he now established himself as a point guard who was defined more by playmaking than scoring . In his first year as a Celtic , he averaged 13 @.@ 2 points and 4 @.@ 2 assists and was elected to the All @-@ Defensive Second Team . The Celtics reached the 1984 NBA Finals , where they met the Los Angeles Lakers , their intense rivals since the 1960s . The Celtics won 4 – 3 , and Johnson took credit for playing smothering defense on Hall of Fame Lakers playmaker Earvin Johnson , limiting him to a sub @-@ average 17 points in the last four games , and being at least partly responsible for several of the Laker point guard 's game @-@ deciding errors in Games 2 , 4 and 7 . As a result , Magic Johnson was taunted as " Tragic Johnson " whenever the Lakers and Celtics played against each other .
In the 1984 – 85 season , Johnson continued playing smothering defense , earning his next All @-@ Defensive Second Team call @-@ up while averaging 16 @.@ 9 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game . The Celtics met the Lakers in the 1985 NBA Finals again . Johnson 's big moment came in Game 4 : when the score was tied at 105 , teammate Larry Bird had the ball in the last seconds . Being double @-@ teamed by Lakers Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Magic Johnson , Bird passed to the open Johnson , and the guard sank a 19 @-@ ft buzzer beater to win the game . The Lakers , however , took their revenge this time , winning the series in six games , powered by venerable 38 @-@ year @-@ old Finals MVP Abdul @-@ Jabbar . Johnson described this loss as one of the toughest in his career , because the Celtics were " close [ to winning the series ] " , but " could not get the job done " .
In the following season the Celtics made the playoffs , helped by the performance of Johnson , who made the All @-@ Defensive Second Team again while tallying 17 @.@ 8 points and 6 @.@ 7 assists per game . After defeating the Milwaukee Bucks in the Eastern Conference Finals , the Celtics reached the 1986 NBA Finals against the up @-@ and @-@ coming Houston Rockets , led by the " Twin Towers " of centers Ralph Sampson and Hakeem Olajuwon . Led by Finals MVP Larry Bird , the Celtics beat the Rockets 4 – 2 , and Johnson won his third title .
The Celtics were unable to repeat their title in 1987 despite several dramatic playoff victories . Johnson played strong defense again , earning yet another appearance on the All @-@ Defensive First Team , and the Celtics embarked on a nail @-@ biting playoff campaign . In the 1987 Eastern Conference Semifinals , the Celtics split the first six games against the Milwaukee Bucks . In the deciding Game 7 , which the Celtics won , Johnson had a spectacular play with 1 : 30 left in the game : a Celtics ball threatened to fly out of bounds , but Johnson dived for it and whipped it backwards in mid @-@ air against Bucks center Jack Sikma . The ball bounced off Sikma before going out of bounds , and the Celtics maintained possession .
In the next round the 1987 Eastern Conference Finals , the Celtics faced the Detroit Pistons . The series was described as a grudge match between two intense rivals , featuring a great level of personal animosity , sharp rhetoric , and several physical altercations . The center of this feud was Pistons pivot Bill Laimbeer , who brawled with Celtics players Bird and Parish . In Game 5 Johnson was involved in a crucial play : down 107 @-@ 106 , Larry Bird stole the in @-@ bounds pass by Pistons point guard Isiah Thomas with 5 seconds left and passed it to a sprinting Johnson , who converted a difficult layup with 1 second left in the game . This play caused Celtics broadcaster Johnny Most to shout out one of his most famous calls :
According to Johnson this was his favorite play of all @-@ time . Games 6 and 7 also featured a feud , this time between Pistons forward Dennis Rodman and Johnson . In Game 6 , which the Pistons won , Rodman taunted Johnson in the closing seconds by waving his right hand over his head . When the Celtics took Game 7 , Johnson went back at Rodman in the last moments of the game and mimicked his taunting gesture . In the 1987 NBA Finals , however , the Celtics succumbed to the Los Angeles Lakers 4 – 2 as Lakers playmaker and Finals MVP Magic Johnson put up a great performance , averaging 26 points and 13 assists throughout the series .
The next three seasons were disappointing for the aging Celtics . In the 1987 – 88 season , Johnson averaged 12 @.@ 6 points and 7 @.@ 8 assists , but in the 1988 Playoffs , the Celtics were unable to beat the Detroit Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals . In the next season , Johnson ( who statistically declined to 10 @.@ 0 points and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game ) and his team made the 1989 NBA Playoffs on a meager 42 – 40 record ( largely due to the absence of star forward Larry Bird for almost the entire season ) , but were immediately eliminated in the first round ( again , largely due to the absence of the injured Larry Bird . ) The following 1989 – 90 NBA season was Johnson 's last . The now 35 @-@ year @-@ old playmaker relinquished his starting point guard role to younger John Bagley , but when Bagley dislocated his shoulder , Johnson returned with high level of performance and was lovingly called " our glue man " by coach Jimmy Rodgers . In that season , Johnson started in 65 of his 75 games , averaging 7 @.@ 1 points and 6 @.@ 5 assists , but the Celtics failed to survive the first round of the 1990 NBA Playoffs .
Johnson retired after the Celtics did not offer him a new contract at the beginning of the 1991 season . During his retirement ceremony , his perennial Los Angeles Lakers opponent Magic Johnson telegraphed him and lauded him as " the best backcourt defender of all @-@ time " . In addition Celtics colleague and triple NBA Most Valuable Player award winner Larry Bird called Johnson the best teammate he ever had .
= = = Post @-@ player career = = =
After retiring as a player , Johnson worked as a scout for the Celtics . In 1993 he became an assistant coach for the Celtics , a position he held until 1997 . After spending several years outside the limelight , he returned as an assistant coach for the Los Angeles Clippers in 2000 , and spent four seasons there . For 24 games toward the end of the 2002 – 03 season , Johnson served as interim head coach after the departure of Alvin Gentry . Johnson later worked as a scout for the Portland Trail Blazers , and in 2004 he was named head coach of the NBA Development League 's Florida Flame . He became head coach of the NBADL 's Austin Toros a year later , and held that position until his death two years later .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = Legacy = =
In 1 @,@ 100 games , Johnson scored 15 @,@ 535 points , grabbed 4 @,@ 249 rebounds and gave 5 @,@ 499 assists , translating to career averages of 14 @.@ 1 points , 3 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 0 assists per game . Known as a defensive stalwart , he was elected into nine straight All @-@ Defensive First or Second Teams . NBA legend George Gervin said in a podcast with journalist Bill Simmons that Johnson was the hardest defender he ever played against . Johnson is also acknowledged by the NBA as a " money player " who was clutch in decisive moments , such as scoring 32 points for his team in a Game 4 overtime victory in the 1979 NBA Finals , playing smothering defense on Magic Johnson in the 1984 NBA Finals , and converting a last @-@ second layup in Game 5 of the 1987 Eastern Conference Finals after a Larry Bird steal .
Furthermore , Johnson is lauded by the NBA as a versatile all @-@ around weapon who played with " contagious competitiveness " and was known for his durability : in 14 NBA seasons , he played in 1 @,@ 100 of a possible 1 @,@ 148 games and participated in 180 playoff games , the latter figure the 11th highest number of all time . At his retirement , Johnson was only the 11th NBA player to amass more than 15 @,@ 000 points and 5 @,@ 000 assists .
On December 13 , 1991 , the Celtics franchise retired his number 3 jersey . Johnson said he would always be a Boston Celtic , and remarked that seeing his number in the rafters gave him a " special feeling " . However , Johnson did not live to see an induction into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , a fact that has been a considerable point of debate with sports journalists . Bill Simmons of ESPN called his Hall of Fame snub an " ongoing injustice " , stating that according to him , Joe Dumars – a Hall of Famer known for strong defense rather than spectacular scoring , like Johnson – was no better [ a basketball player ] than him . Colleague Ken Shouler called Johnson " one of the first guys I 'd give a Hall [ of Fame ] pass " . Contemporary Boston Celtics Hall of Fame forward Larry Bird gave Johnson ultimate praise , calling him the best teammate he ever had in his autobiography Drive , which is especially significant considering Bird 's teammates included Hall of Famers Kevin McHale , Robert Parish , Bill Walton , and Tiny Archibald . On April 3 , 2010 , ESPN Boston reported that Johnson was posthumously elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame . This was officially confirmed two days later when the Hall released the list of 2010 inductees .
On October 26 , 2007 , a learning center was dedicated in Johnson 's name in the Central Branch of the YMCA of Greater Boston . The center was made possible by the donations and effort of Larry Bird and M.L. Carr . Johnson 's family , Danny Ainge , Carr , and members of the YMCA and local community were present for the ribbon cutting ceremony . Donna Johnson said on behalf of her husband , " If Dennis were alive he would really appreciate the thought and love the idea of the Learning Center . "
The NBA D @-@ League Coach of the Year award is named after Johnson .
= = Personal life = =
Dennis Johnson was married to Donna , his wife of 31 years , and had three children named Dwayne , Denise , and Daniel . Johnson also was known for his appearance : he had freckles and reddish hair . Dennis 's brother , Joey , is a former Arizona State Sun Devils basketball star . And Dennis 's nephews , Nick , who was drafted by the Houston Rockets in the 2nd Round of the 2014 NBA Draft , and Chris Johnson who currently plays with the Arizona Wildcats , are well @-@ known basketball stars .
On October 20 , 1997 , he was arrested and detained overnight for allegedly holding a knife to his wife 's throat and threatening his 17 @-@ year @-@ old son . Johnson was later charged with aggravated assault and was ordered to stay away from his family . The prosecutors dropped the case several months later after his wife declined to press charges . Johnson reportedly went to counseling to repair his marriage .
= = = Death = = =
On February 22 , 2007 , at the Austin Convention Center , Johnson had a heart attack and collapsed at the end of the Toros ' practice . After being rushed to a nearby hospital , he could not be revived and was later pronounced dead . Johnson was survived by his wife and his children . Johnson 's death was met with shock throughout the NBA . Among others , contemporary Celtics colleague Danny Ainge called him one of " the most underrated players of all time [ ... ] and one of the greatest Celtics acquisitions " , and one @-@ time rival Bill Laimbeer called him " a great player on a great ballclub " .
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= The World Before the Flood =
The World Before the Flood is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1828 and currently in the Southampton City Art Gallery . It depicts a scene from Paradise Lost in which , among a series of visions of the future shown to Adam , he sees the world immediately before the Great Flood . The painting illustrates the stages of courtship as described by Milton ; a group of men select wives from a group of dancing women , drag their chosen woman from the group , and settle down to married life . Behind the courting group , an oncoming storm looms , a symbol of the destruction which the dancers and lovers are about to bring upon themselves .
When first exhibited at the 1828 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition the painting attracted large crowds , and strongly divided critical opinion . It was greatly praised by many critics , who counted it among the finest works of art in the country . Other reviewers condemned it as crude , tasteless , offensive and poorly executed .
The painting was bought at the Summer Exhibition by the Marquess of Stafford , which greatly pleased Etty . It was sold in 1908 , long after Etty had fallen out of fashion , for a substantial loss , and sold again in 1937 for a further substantial loss to the Southampton City Art Gallery , where it remains . Another work by Etty , sold as A Bacchanalian Scene in 1830 and later renamed Landscape with Figures , was identified in 1953 as a preliminary oil sketch for The World Before the Flood and purchased by the York Art Gallery . The two paintings were exhibited together as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work in 2011 – 12 .
= = Background = =
William Etty was born in 1787 , the son of a York baker and miller . He began as an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship he moved at the age of 18 to London " with a few pieces of chalk crayons " , with the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . Strongly influenced by the works of Titian and Rubens , he submitted paintings to the Royal Academy of Arts and the British Institution , all of which were either rejected or received scant attention when exhibited .
In 1821 the Royal Academy accepted and exhibited one of Etty 's works , The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) . The painting was extremely well received , and many of Etty 's fellow artists greatly admired him . He was elected a full Royal Academician in 1828 , at that time the most prestigious honour available to an artist . He became well respected for his ability to capture flesh tones accurately in painting , and for his fascination with contrasts in skin tones . Following the exhibition of Cleopatra , over the next decade Etty tried to replicate its success by painting nude figures in biblical , literary and mythological settings .
While some nudes by foreign artists were held in private English collections , the country had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent , although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received .
= = Subject = =
The World Before the Flood illustrates lines 580 – 97 from Book XI of John Milton 's Paradise Lost . Among the visions of the future shown to Adam by the Archangel Michael , Michael shows Adam the world after the expulsion from the Garden of Eden but before the Great Flood . This section of Paradise Lost reflects a passage from the sixth chapter of the Book of Genesis : " That the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair ; and they took them wives of all which they chose " , an act which would shortly cause God to regret creating humanity and to cleanse the earth in the Great Flood .
The World Before the Flood shows the stages of courtship as described by Milton , as men are seduced by women and pass from enjoying the company of other men into married life . Etty worked through a number of various configurations for the characters in the painting before settling on his final design .
= = Composition = =
The World Before the Flood is strongly influenced by A Bacchanalian Revel Before a Statue of Pan ( 1632 – 33 ) by Nicolas Poussin , whom Etty greatly admired and of whose works he had previously made several copies . Adam and Michael are not visible in the painting . Instead , the viewer sees the scene from Adam 's point of view . The painting is a Bacchanalian scene , centred on a group of six scantily @-@ clad women dancing , while a group of men watch . The women 's cheeks are flushed both with the exertion of their dancing and with their lustful attempts to seduce the watching men . The men " let their eyes rove without rein " , each choosing the woman he wants to be with .
At the left , five men eye the six dancing women , with " grave " expressions as described by Milton . Three of the men discuss their choice of women , while the other two watch the dancing group alone . A sixth man has made his choice , and lunges forward to grab the arms of a bare @-@ breasted dancing woman .
In the centre , the women dance . Their interlocked arms and hands create a pattern at the centre of the canvas , which acts as the focus of the painting . To the right of the central group of dancers a young man drags another woman away from the group of dancers , to join a pair of lovers who lie down together at the right of the painting .
Across the entire width of the background , a darkening sky and oncoming storm clouds presage the destruction that the dancers are unwittingly about to bring upon themselves .
In a preliminary study for the The World Before the Flood now in the York Art Gallery , while the broad structure of the piece is similar to that of the finished work the focus is more strongly on the central group of women . In early versions the right @-@ most of the dancing figures , wearing a green skirt , faces outward with her arms behind her back , forming a closed circle together with the central group of dancers . In the finished work , she gestures outwards from the circle , creating a clear narrative flow in the positions of the figures : from the single men on the left , to the man choosing a wife , to the group of dancing women , to the couple leaving the circle of dancers to join the reclining lovers on the far right .
As was the case with most of his works , Etty did not give the painting a title . It was initially exhibited as A Composition , taken from the Eleventh Book of Milton 's Paradise Lost , and was referred to by Etty himself as The Bevy of Fair Women and The Origin of Marriage .
= = Reception = =
Critical opinion concerning The World Before the Flood was divided when the painting , along with two other of Etty 's works , was exhibited at the 1828 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition . Some reviewers were intensely critical of the piece . A writer in the Literary Gazette called the painting a " deadly sin against good taste " , describing the background as " unnecessarily harsh and crude " with " much to blame and lament " and the dancing figures " outrageous " , complaining that the women reminded him not of Paradise Lost , but of the scantily clad witches in Robert Burns 's Tam o ' Shanter . An anonymous critic in the Monthly Magazine disparaged the " writhings and twinings " of the painting 's subjects , describing them as " as close to the unpardonable limits as anything that has lately appealed to the public eye " . This same writer disapproved of the dark skin tones of some of the figures , arguing that " the brown visage of the gipsey gives but a dingy image of the roses and lilies that , from time immemorial , have made the charm of British beauty " . The correspondent for The London Magazine felt that while the painting was " in many respects worthy of admiration ... [ there ] is a spirit , a boldness , and a startling effect " , the work was poorly executed overall . Its depiction of women drew particular ire : " the expression of the faces is vapid ; the features rather homely ; the limbs , though not ill @-@ drawn , have not that finish and play of the muscles , which alone give lightness and elasticity . They seem lifted up with difficulty , and ready to fall . " The review upbraided Etty as an artist who had " advanced half way on his road to classic excellence ; and there , when he should have proceeded with increased ardour and more careful exactness from being in view of his object , he has stopped short . " Etty 's fellow artist John Constable privately described the work as " a revel rout of Satyrs and lady bums as usual " .
Other critics offered a more positive impression of the piece . The Examiner celebrated Etty 's having " outdone his former self , and most of his contemporaries " . A reviewer in The Mirror of Literature , Amusement , and Instruction said that " few pictures have attracted or deserved more attention than this masterly production , " describing the figures as " graceful and elegant " . The Athanaeum considered it " decidedly the most attractive picture in the whole Exhibition " , noting that their review was delayed because in the opening week of the exhibition , " the crowds which continually stood in front of it rendered it quite impossible to get such a view of it as would enable us to do it justice " . Colburn 's New Monthly Magazine considered it " another instance of the rapid advances which this rising artist is making towards perfection . " The most effusive praise was offered in poetic form by John Taylor , who in September 1828 imagined that if Milton and Nicolas Poussin were both alive to see the painting , Milton would view it with " proud delight " , while Poussin would suffer an " envious thorn " with the realization that Etty 's abilities had surpassed his own .
= = Legacy = =
The World Before the Flood was bought at its 1828 exhibition by The Marquess of Stafford for 500 guineas ( about £ 39 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , to add to his private collection of nudes by Titian . Etty was delighted with his success at the exhibition , at which all three of the paintings he had exhibited were successfully sold to prestigious buyers .
I know you will rejoice with us all , when I tell you that the principal part of the cargo of the ship " William Etty " ( of whose arrival you had been advised ) , now landed at the Royal Academy Wharf , has been consigned to the Right Honourable the Marquis of Stafford , for five hundred guineas : the rest of the cargo being already owned by Lord Normanton and Digby Murray , Esq . ... After clearing out , we shall again put to sea and hope for equally favouring gales next voyage .
From 1832 onwards , needled by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency and tastelessness , Etty often made a conscious effort to project a moral dimension into his work , although he continued to be a prominent painter of nudes . He died in 1849 , working and exhibiting up until his death despite consistently being regarded by many as a pornographer . Charles Robert Leslie observed shortly after Etty 's death that " [ Etty ] himself , thinking and meaning no evil , was not aware of the manner in which his works were regarded by grosser minds " . Interest in his work declined as new movements came to characterise painting in Britain , and by the end of the 19th century the cost of all his paintings had fallen below their original prices .
The World Before the Flood was sold to F. E. Sidney in 1908 for 230 guineas ( about £ 22 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , and sold on to the Southampton City Art Gallery in 1937 for 195 guineas ( about £ 11 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , where as of 2015 it remains . In addition to its initial exhibition in 1828 , the painting was exhibited at a number of significant exhibitions throughout the 19th century . Etty 's preliminary oil sketch entered the collection of Etty 's former mentor Sir Thomas Lawrence . Following Lawrence 's death in 1830 , it was sold as A Bacchanalian Scene for 27 guineas ( about £ 2 @,@ 200 in 2016 terms ) , and sold on as Landscape with Figures in 1908 . In 1953 it was identified as a study for The World Before the Flood , and purchased by the York Art Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains . Both versions of the painting were shown together as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
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= When Love Takes Over =
" When Love Takes Over " is a song by French DJ @-@ music producer David Guetta with vocals by Kelly Rowland from his fourth studio album , One Love . It was released as the lead single from the album on 21 April 2009 by Virgin Records ( EMI France ) . The song was conceived when Guetta played the instrumental version during one of his DJ sets in summer 2008 ; American recording artist Kelly Rowland , who fell in love with the track , convinced Guetta to allow her to take it so that she could write and record vocals for it . It was co @-@ written by Nervo .
According to Rowland , the song inspired her to pursue a more dance @-@ oriented sound for her album Here I Am ( 2011 ) , while Guetta noted " When Love Takes Over " for providing the framework for his future musical explorations and inspiring him to experiment with more urban sounds . Guetta and Frédéric Riesterer produced the song with piano riffs and a melodic backing track . Veronica Ferraro mixed the song , focussing primarily on giving Rowland 's vocals a magical and inspiring tone . Critics would later state that Rowland 's vocals on " When Love Take Over " helped to establish herself as a solo vocalist . The song 's lyrics carry a message of the euphoria one feels when in love with a significant other , while the production bears some similarities to Coldplay 's 2002 hit single , " Clocks " , particularly the opening riff .
" When Love Takes Over " has been praised by many critics . Most noted the addition of Rowland 's powerful and emotionally charged vocals which made the single the most memorable song from One Love . The production was praised for its lush production and euphoric sentiments . It achieved worldwide success by topping the charts in ten countries , including in the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland , Italy and Switzerland . At the time of release , it became Guetta 's highest charting single on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and Rowland 's second number one single in the United Kingdom . " When Love Takes Over " ranked at number one on Billboard 's Best of 2009 Dance Club Songs chart . In 2013 , Billboard named " When Love Takes Over " its number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time , in addition to noting the lasting cultural impact that the collaboration would have on dance music and its indication of the emerging electronic dance music trend in America at its time of release .
In the song 's accompanying music video , Rowland and Guetta reminisce of how the song came together . It follows the duo as they prepare for a party before coming together for the final result . " When Love Takes Over " was promoted mainly at award shows , including the MTV Latin Music Video Awards , NRJ Music Awards and the World Music Awards . Guetta and Rowland reunited in late 2009 to perform " When Love Takes Over " for the annual Miss Universe competition . The single earned seven Platinum certifications as well as five Gold certificates , selling over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide . Additionally , it earned Guetta two Grammy Award nominations for " Best Dance Recording " and " Best Non @-@ Classical , Remixed Recording " , the latter of which Guetta won for his " Electro Extended Mix " of " When Love Takes Over " .
= = Background = =
Rowland has acknowledged on several occasions that although she loved dance music , it was not really the type of music she would record . While in Europe in 2008 , she met Guetta at one of his DJ shows in Southern France , and commented that " Listening to him was just crazy . " Guetta was playing the instrumental version of " When Love Takes Over " . Recalling that it brought tears to her eyes , Rowland remarked , " I felt so much emotion from the track ; something happened the first time I heard it , and it was just beautiful . And I remember thinking ' Why is this touching me like this ? ' You know , it was like there was a kinda soul @-@ tie to it ! " Upon meeting Guetta , she asked him for the song so she could write its lyrics . " So I met David and asked him for the track ... He gave it to me , and I brought it back here to London , UK and wrote the actual song " . At a writing session in a London hotel room , Rowland and songwriting duo Nervo wrote the lyrics and melody over Guetta 's backing track . Rowland later joined Guetta and Julie Terry Lefèvre @-@ Han in the recording studio to finish off the song .
Later in a 2010 interview , The Nervo Twins revealed that Rowland 's record label were not keen on the song despite their and Rowland 's enthusiasm . Consequently , " When Love Takes Over " was shelved until Guetta rediscovered the song when compiling his fourth studio album , One Love . The finished song with Rowland 's vocals and Guetta 's production was premiered in March 2009 at the Ultra Music Festival in Miami . A month later on 21 April 2009 , the single was released in Europe , and the United States . In the UK , the single 's release had to be brought forward to 11 June 2009 to combat an " inferior " cover version released on 9 May 2009 . Additionally , beginning in July / August 2009 , American TV channel Bravo licensed the song for a two @-@ month period , to use for in @-@ house advertising .
= = Recording and production = =
The recording and mixing of " When Love Takes Over " took place in summer and autumn of 2008 . After Rowland heard the instrumental of " When Love Takes Over " — a piano loop @-@ based melody with throbbing percussion — she asked Guetta if she could take the demo and several other tracks to work on . She wrote the lyrics and recorded the vocals in London , within a day . She was aided by Australian songwriters and producers Miriam and Olivia Nervo ( The Nervo Twins ) . However the song remained unfinished until Guetta rediscovered the track while compiling his One Love album . After getting selected for the album , " When Love Takes Over " was given to Frédéric Riesterer who , aside from producing the song with Guetta , was tasked the final audio mixing of the song . However Riesterer decided to give the track to French mixing engineer Veronica Ferraro , who would later go on to say that " Reisterer was supposed to mix it , but he wanted me to do it and see how it turned out . The first time I heard the track I immediately knew it would be a huge hit . " The track was mixed in September 2008 , at Ferraro 's Super Sonic Scale studio near Paris , the day after her birthday .
Before working on the song 's individual elements , Ferraro converted the recording sessions from a generic digital audio workstation system to her programme of choice , Pro Tools . Following this , she decided that she would focus primarily on Rowland 's vocals .
" Frédéric had the right sounds on the drums and the keyboards , so I did not change very much . I just did some standard things , with EQ and compression and things like that . After that my obsession was to get the vocals to sound as good as possible . When I 'm mixing a track , I want something to happen , something that takes the listener somewhere . You want the right things in the right place , but it 's not a technical issue . It 's actually an artistic issue to have everything in the right place – the mixing has to be magic . It was not difficult in this case , because I knew the song would be a hit , but I did my best to make the vocal sound magical , like an angel singing , so that the hit quality of the song was immediately obvious . I wanted to make sure that the voice takes you from the beginning to the end and doesn 't lose you . "
Ferraro told Sound On Sound that she did add a bass drum sample , as she felt that the kick was missing something . " Rather than equalise it , I added a little bit of my sample to make the BD track sound bigger " . However she did alter the two piano elements of the song , using the Flex Studio Tool to widen the sound of the piano element without the delay . Additionally , Ferraro used a number of French plug @-@ in software to amplify many of the track 's instruments , including the violin , strings and guitar samples . She then moved on to Rowland 's vocals , which " were extensively processed " , including equalization and de @-@ essing . Then upon completion of her work on the song , Ferraro sent " When Love Takes Over " to her husband , Bruno Gruel , and his Elektra Mastering Suite which is located in the same building as the Super Sonic Scale Studio . Gruel received the song in a standard Pro Tools format , 24 @-@ bit / 44 @.@ 1 kHz . He used several pieces of software to realign all of the elements of the song , particularly the bass drums and low synths .
= = Composition = =
" When Love Takes Over " is a synthpop and " uplifting floor @-@ filler " produced by Guetta and his associate Frédéric Riesterer . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard magazine described it as a " pop number built around a lush piano loop and throbbing percussion " with trance elements . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of F Mixolydian with a time signature of common time and a tempo of 130 beats per minute . The chord progression is Cm / F – Gm / F – F4 – F. The final recording and mixing took place at Gum Prod Studios in Paris . Some elements of the song were compared to the riff and piano opener in the song " Clocks " by Coldplay .
After gaining Guetta 's approval to write vocals for the song , Rowland took the instrumental version to London , where she wrote the bulk of the lyrics with The Nervo Twins ( Miriam and Olivia Nervo ) before sending the song back to Guetta , who added his own contributions with Frédéric Riesterer . Rowland uses a vocal range of F3 to D5 . Guetta said that " Kelly [ ' s vocals ] had this Whitney Houston vibe and nailed it . " Critics agreed , noting that often her vocals were " powerful " and " grand " . Others called them " a diva masterclass " and " emotionally charged " . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Online compared Rowland 's vocals to those by Madonna in " Ray of Light " , for their " hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air pop song " qualities .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received critical acclaim from music critics for both Guetta 's catchy production and Rowland 's strong vocals . It was called the strongest and most commercial single choice from Guetta 's album , One Love . Critics noted that the song 's opening piano riff was similar to that from Coldplay 's hit single " Clocks " ( 2002 ) . David Jefferes of Allmusic gave the song a thumbs up saying , calling " When Love Takes Over " one of the strongest songs from One Love and praising the " [ addition of ] the powerful voice of Kelly Rowland for one grand , uplifting floor @-@ filler . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly agreed calling the song the " most memorable from the album " and recalling " Clocks " by Coldplay to make " a showstopper starring Kelly Rowland . " Michael Hibbard of MusicOMH was impressed with both the production and vocal work on " When Love Takes Over " . He pointed out the rarity in the amount of promotion given to the song , referring to " When Love Takes Over " being given " its own poster on the Tube . " He also described the song as a " euphoric masterpiece " backed by " at least eight remixes " and the accompany vocals from " Destiny 's Child songbird Kelly Rowland on hand for a diva masterclass . " Also agreeing with these comments was Fraser McAlpine from BBC Online who awarded the song four out of five stars . " The genius ingredients include a thinly reworked go at the piano riff to ' Clocks ' by Coldplay and handclaps ... And the fairy dust is ... well ... it 's your standard dance @-@ pop production , actually . " However he noted that the production was " tastefully done to make sure that the good bits are not spoilt " . Other elements of the song such as the " bed of synthistrings , a skippy beat , a breakdown , some riffing glassy electronics and a dramatic , cinematic bottom end drone " were praised . McAlpine also praised Rowland 's appearance on the track , commenting who she sounded " entirely unlike herself , so that even SHE is all buffed up and shiny . " He described the marriage of Rowland 's vocals and Guetta 's production by stating that " [ Rowland 's ] got a spiralling , sky @-@ scraping melody to sing too . "
Erin Martin of PopMatters said that " When Love Takes Over " had euphoric properties . Martin said the song was " a classic , triumphant dance number , and Rowland 's powerhouse vocals ensure that this song has anthemic potential for years to come . This song just feels good to listen to " . She also noted that the song was central to the concept and " love @-@ spreading message [ that ] Guetta delivers on the album as a whole . " David Balls of Digital Spy agreed with the song 's anthem credentials . " [ It ] is further evidence that Rowland may no longer be resigned to living in Beyoncé [ Knowles ' ] shadow . Fusing classic dance beats with a heady , emotionally charged vocal , it 's a world away from the mid @-@ tempo R & B numbers with which she started her solo career . In fact , this packs a punch from the very first listen , meaning it could well become one of the summer anthems of 2009 . " However , Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times was less impressed than the other critics , simply noting the song as " a cheesy synthpop makeover of Coldplay 's ' Clocks ' . " Wood did however state that it was among Guetta 's best work and was an example of when the DJ is " most commercial " .
The song was nominated for the Best Dance Recording award at the 52nd Grammy Awards ceremony . It lost out to " Poker Face " by Lady Gaga . The song 's Electro Extended Remix was successful at the ceremony , winning Guetta his first Grammy Award for the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical . In 2013 , Billboard named " When Love Takes Over " their number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time .
= = Chart performance = =
In Guetta 's native France , " When Love Takes Over " debuted on the French Digital Chart at number 14 on 25 April 2009 before subsequently peaking at number three on 18 July 2009 . On the French Singles Chart , it debuted and peaked at number two . In August 2009 , Guetta had two simultaneous top 10 singles on the chart , the other being " Sexy Bitch " featuring Akon . Following is strong run on the charts the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) awarded the single a Gold certification for selling 150 @,@ 000 + copies . In Rowland 's native country of the United States the single was successful , topping both the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Club Songs charts , as well as reaching number 76 on the Billboard Hot 100 . This became Guetta 's highest Hot 100 chart position at the time . It was Rowland 's highest Hot 100 Chart entry since her feature of Trina 's 2005 single , " Here We Go " . " When Love Takes Over " ranked at number one on the Best of 2009 Dance Club Songs chart and number thirty @-@ three on the End of Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) Dance Club Songs Chart .
" When Love Takes Over " also achieved success in Europe , topping charts in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Slovakia , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . It also reached the top 10 in most other regions apart from Brasil Canada and the United States . By the end of 2009 it reached the top 30 on most year @-@ end charts , most notably reaching number two in Switzlerand , number five in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , and six on the European Hot 100 . It was certified Platinum in nine countries .
In the United Kingdom , Guetta and Rowland 's original version debuted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart , having sold 25 @,@ 000 copies . The following week Guetta 's version peaked at number one , beating his previous best chart peak of number three with 2006 's " Love Don 't Let Me Go " . It gave Rowland her second number one single in Britain , the first being " Dilemma " alongside Nelly in October 2002 . " When Love Takes Over " was awarded a Platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry in July 2013 for shipping over 650 @,@ 000 copies . On The Official Charts Company 's official countdown of the Top 100 British Downloads of all time , " When Love Takes Over " ranks at number 58 , marking Rowland 's only entry on the chart . However it is Guetta 's second entry on the chart , behind " Sexy Bitch " ( with Akon ) which charted at number 27 . In total , the single has sold over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video was filmed on 19 May 2009 at Venice Beach , Los Angeles , directed by Jonas Åkerlund . Guetta revealed that the video 's story and concept were designed to mimic the story behind the song 's creation . He said , " you see Kelly doing her thing and then me on the other side doing mine . Eventually we come together just like how we recorded the song . It 's all about sharing the love from this record and making a big party " . These reflections and more behind the scenes footage were revealed in the video clip " Making of When Love Takes Over " which was uploaded to Guetta 's official YouTube channel on 1 June 2009 . The music video itself premiered on 8 June 2009 on Guetta 's YouTube channel . The video premiered after the European and United States digital release but just before the single 's UK digital release on 10 June 2009 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video focuses on Rowland walking through the streets of Venice Beach while Guetta gathers his DJ equipment and pushes it towards the beach . Through the video a number of street performers join the gathering crowd , including a motocross bicycler , a skateboarder , and a BBoy Cloud . The last scene , sees Rowland and Guetta unite on the beach for a late night party which sees the duo performing together . Capital FM described the video as " lots of shots of people having fun in the sun " . Melinda Newman from Hitfix praised Rowland 's role in the clip saying that
" [ Rowland ] is fierce throughout and it clearly experiencing a bit of a career resurgence after a dip . [ She ] gives her best Beyoncé @-@ type stares straight into the camera ( but we 're sure that 's just a coincidence ) ... Guetta , who is relegated to a supporting role in his own video , shows up pushing his gear on a cart , looking basically like any other homeless guy hanging out in Venice . "
Some criticism did follow the video . Capital FM radio station felt that Guetta 's appearance in the clip was slightly disappointing . " Guetta looks a bit like a binman pushing his gear round the streets in some of the earlier shots in the video " . Newman said that the video 's director , Jonas Åkerlund , had removed something from the song . " The video could have built on the great beat that builds within the song and the feeling of abandon that falling in love can bring you , but , instead , we get a telegenic couple making out who seem to drop in from nowhere . "
= = Performances and promotion = =
Guetta premiered the completed version of " When Love Takes Over " on 23 March 2009 at the Ultra Music Festival . Promotion of the single began in the UK with an acoustic performance of the single at the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge on 10 May 2009 and then again on UK daytime show , This Morning , on 18 June 2009 . They also appeared at the Miss Universe 2009 contest in the Bahamas , where the duo performed the song live for the " Evening Gown " competition . Another major part of the promotion included appearances at the Loop Live 2009 music festival in Sofia , Bulgaria and Rowland 's appeared at the TAO Night Club in Las Vegas , where she hosted celebrations for " When Love Takes Over " reaching number one around the world . The duo returned to the UK to perform at Orange Rockcorps at London 's Royal Albert Hall in September 2009 , before performing at the 2009 MTV Latin America Music Video Awards on 15 October 2010 . It was by US TV channel , Bravo , during an internal advertising campaign . " When Love Takes Over " was still being promoted in 2010 when the pair performed at the French NRJ Music Awards on 24 January 2010 and at the 2010 World Music Awards on 5 June , one year after the song was released .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Airi L version = = =
British dance music artist Airi L released a bootleg version of the song 9 May 2010 , several days before the Guetta and Rowland version was due to be released . EMI Music called Airi L 's version " inferior " and decided to combat her cover by releasing Guetta 's version on 11 June 2009 in the UK , earlier than originally planned . The cover debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ two , selling 12 @,@ 000 copies whilst Guetta and Rowland 's version debuted at number seven with 25 @,@ 000 copies . According to Yahoo ! Music 's James Masterton , Rowland 's version would have debuted at a higher place had it not been for the " bootleg cover " . He said the single had to be rush released " when not one but two spoiler ( and indeed near @-@ identical ) cover versions started to race up the iTunes rankings and threatened to have a negatively impact on the ' official ' version . " The following week Guetta and Rowland 's version would debut at number one .
= = = Other cover versions = = =
British singer @-@ songwriter , Pixie Lott , covered the song for the re @-@ issue of her debut album , Turn It Up . Then in the second week of October 2010 , the song was covered twice by contestants on The X Factor . Matt Cardle performed his version on the opening show of the seventh series of the UK version , while Hayley Teal sang a version on the second series of the Australian version . Following Cardle 's performance , " When Love Takes Over " jumped twelve places on UK Dance Chart , to number seventeen . Baraa Qadoura performed his version on the third live show of the eighth season of the Danish version of X Factor .
In 2016 , American gospel singer Yolanda Adams covered the song for the US version of the musical The Passion .
= = Legacy = =
Rowland told MTV that " working with David is amazing . We have a great relationship , it 's so effortless . He 's such a talented individual . But most importantly he 's such a down to earth , nice guy and I really enjoy working with him . We have good musical chemistry together . " Guetta told Billboard that " the track with Kelly has made him experiment with a more American urban influence . Musically , it 's pure pop with a lot of detail . " Additionally British singer Cheryl Cole ( of Girls Aloud ) credited " When Love Takes Over " for inspiring her taste and preference in dance music , which in turn influenced her second solo single " 3 Words " ( featuring will.i.am ) .
Later in 2010 when recording her third album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) , Rowland credited both Guetta and the song for inspiring her to pursue a new sound . Rowland relates : " I spent about a year of my life in Europe really listening to a whole bunch of Europeans DJs and hearing dance music a lot on the radio and really loving it . ' When Love Takes Over ' it was my first introduction to dance music [ and ] it was a whole other monster . It 's really a culture and I love it . " In 2010 , following the success of " When Love Takes Over " and the duo 's musical chemistry , Guetta was asked to work on Rowland 's third studio album . He co @-@ produced a couple of the songs including the album 's first single , " Commander " .
Later in 2013 , Kerri Mason and Zel McCarthy compiled a list of the top @-@ ten dance @-@ pop collaborations of all time for Billboard magazine . In their article , the critics named " When Love Takes Over " at the top of the list , saying that the song " repositioned Kelly Rowland as a solo vocalist with chops on her own . " The duo also commented that subsequent collaborations between Guetta and Rowland were not as good as " When Love Takes Over " , also adding that Rowland 's vocal was firmly part of " dance music history " and were an indication of the growing electronic dance music ( EDM ) trend emerging in America at the time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Recording
The instrumental for " When Love Takes Over " was recorded in 2008 at Gum Prod Studios , Paris .
The vocals were added in 2009 and the final version was mixed as Super Sonic Scale Studios .
Personnel
= = Charts and certificates = =
= = Release history = =
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= Kepler @-@ 7 =
Kepler @-@ 7 is a star located in the constellation Lyra in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA operation in search of Earth @-@ like planets . It is home to the fourth of the first five planets that Kepler discovered ; this planet , a Jupiter @-@ size gas giant named Kepler @-@ 7b , is as light as styrofoam . The star itself is more massive than the Sun , and is nearly twice the Sun 's radius . It is also slightly metal @-@ rich , a major factor in the formation of planetary systems . Kepler @-@ 7 's planet was presented on January 4 , 2010 at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society .
= = Nomenclature and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 7 received its name because it was the home to the seventh planetary system discovered by the NASA @-@ led Kepler Mission , a project aimed at detecting terrestrial planets that transit , or pass in front of , their host stars as seen from Earth . The planet orbiting Kepler @-@ 7 was the fourth planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets combed from Kepler 's data had been previously discovered , and were used to verify the accuracy of Kepler 's measurements . Kepler @-@ 7b was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. along with Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 6b , and Kepler @-@ 8b . Kepler @-@ 7b was noted for its unusually and extremely low density .
The planet 's initial discovery by Kepler was verified by additional observations made at observatories in Hawaii , Texas , Arizona , California , and the Canary Islands .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 7 is a sunlike star that is 1 @.@ 347 Msun and 1 @.@ 843 Rsun . This means that the star is about 35 % more massive and 84 % wider than the Sun . The star is estimated to be 3 @.@ 5 ( ± 1 ) billion years old . It is also estimated to have a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 11 ( ± 0 @.@ 03 ) , meaning that Kepler @-@ 7 is approximately 30 % more metal @-@ rich than the Sun ; metallicity plays a significant role in the formation of planetary systems , as metal @-@ rich stars tend to be more likely to have planets in orbit . The star 's effective temperature is 5933 ( ± 44 ) K. In comparison , the 4 @.@ 6 billion @-@ year @-@ old Sun releases less heat , with an effective temperature of 5778 K.
The star has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 3 , meaning that it is extremely dim as seen from Earth . It cannot be seen with the naked eye . It is estimated to lie between 1000 and 1400 light years from the Solar System .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 7b is the only planet that has been discovered in Kepler @-@ 7 's orbit . It is .433 MJ and 1 @.@ 478 RJ , meaning it is 43 % the mass of planet Jupiter , but is nearly three halves its size . With a density of .166 grams / cc , the planet is approximately 17 % the density of water . This is comparable to styrofoam . At a distance of .06224 AU from its host star , Kepler @-@ 7b completes an orbit around Kepler @-@ 7 every 4 @.@ 8855 days . Planet Mercury , however , orbits the Sun at .3871 AU , and takes approximately 87 @.@ 97 days to complete one orbit . Kepler @-@ 7b 's eccentricity is assumed to be 0 , which would give Kepler @-@ 7b a circular orbit by definition .
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= Church of Saint Oswald , King and Martyr , Oswaldkirk =
The Church of Saint Oswald , King and Martyr is a Church of England church serving the village and parish of Oswaldkirk , North Yorkshire , England . It is located along the main road passing through the village ( Oswaldkirk Main Street ) , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Ampleforth Abbey .
Dedicated to the Christian saint Saint Oswald , it is over 900 years old and run by the Church of England . It is part of a four @-@ parish benefice , and is in the archdeaconry of Cleveland , and the diocese of York . Notably , the future Archbishop of Canterbury and chaplain to King Charles II , John Tillotson , preached his first sermon at the church in 1661 . Major restoration work was done to the church in 1886 , and a large amount of the Chancel woodwork dates from this period . The church has been a Grade II * listed building since 1955 , and is the oldest building in the village by more than six centuries .
= = Etymology = =
The word " kirk " means church , so the village is literally called " Oswald 's church " , after the church , which is dedicated to Saint Oswald of Northumbria , a Christian king who spread Christianity throughout Northumbria in the 7th century AD .
= = History and architecture = =
Almost nothing of the original church — built on the site of a wooden Saxon church — remains , apart from unique examples of Celtic stonework , including a plait interweave and a bas @-@ relief of the Virgin and Child , which was carved around 1000 AD . The current building still has a quoin , which was probably a re @-@ cycled Anglo @-@ Saxon cross shaft . The stone southern entrance to the church still stands ; it was built in the 12th century and is a typical example of Norman stonework . The church was re @-@ consecrated in 1287 by the bishop of Candida Casa under the direction of John le Romeyn , Archbishop of York . The tall windows set in the church wall both north and south of the nave can be dated to approximately 1320 to 1330 , and in the top sections of two of the windows , small fragments of medieval glass can be found . A sideways orientated tombstone can be found under a low arch on the inside of the southern wall , generally believed to be that of Sir Richard Pickering ( d . 1441 ) , a member of the Pickering family who ruled the village of Oswaldkirk from the 14th century into the 16th century .
The church records include an unbroken list of rectors dating back to 1302 , during the reign of King Edward I. One notable rector was John Dee , who served from early 1568 until the year 1574 , although he was probably never a permanent resident . Dee , a noted mathematician , astrologer , alchemist and astronomer , was on friendly terms with the ruling monarch , Queen Elizabeth I , and had given her astrological advice for setting the date of her coronation .
The future Archbishop of Canterbury and chaplain to King Charles II , John Tillotson , preached his first sermon at the church of Saint Oswald in 1661 , because of his friendship with John Denton , who was rector of the church from 1658 until his expulsion in 1662 for non @-@ conformism .
Perhaps the most important event in the 17th century was the installation of two brand new bells , one bearing the inscription " Venite Exultemus Domino " , or " Come , let us rejoice in the Lord " ( dated 1684 ) , and the other bearing the inscription " Gloria in Altissimus Deo " , or " Glory to God in the highest " ( dated 1683 ) . These are still in use through bell @-@ ropes , which have been replaced several times in the intervening centuries and extend down to the floor next to the clock mechanism , which is dated 1898 and is wholly mechanical , powering a clock whose two faces can be seen on both the western and eastern sides of the bell tower .
There was major restoration work done to the church in 1886 , and a large amount of the Chancel woodwork dates from this period . During the restoration the east window was also replaced ; it now depicts the stylised form of Saint Oswald , flanked on either side by Saint Aidan , and Saint Cuthbert , both Christian saints of the same era , and who helped him in missionary work in the Kingdom of Northumbria . These windows are directly opposite the western window , above the font at the other end of the church , which depicts the queen at the time , Queen Victoria . Further modern additions to the church can be seen in the bell turret and organ chamber , as well as the south porch , which is currently the sole congregational entrance to the church . The church uses an electric organ during services . The church is a Grade II * listed building and has been so since 4 January 1955 .
= = Modern usage = =
St Oswald 's is part of a four @-@ church benefice , including the churches and parishes of Oswaldkirk , Ampleforth , Gilling , and Stonegrave . As of May 2012 , the vicar is the Reverend Susan Fraser Bond , who serves all four parishes , although services in the church occur weekly on Sunday and at other times during the week with the help of volunteers in the local community . There is also a " tea time club " , which is a club teaching Christian morals and biblical teachings to young people , as well as biblical role @-@ plays and " mini @-@ pilgrimages " . The church is host to a carol service each year on Christmas Eve , jointly undertaken by the Anglican congregation and that of Oswaldkirk 's Roman Catholic church , the church of Saint Aidan . The united churches of Oswaldkirk also have a harvest festival each year , hosted in the building of Saint Aidan 's church every other year , alternating with St Oswald 's church .
= = Gallery = =
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= F @-@ Zero ( video game ) =
F @-@ Zero is a futuristic racing video game developed by Nintendo EAD and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . The game was released in Japan on November 21 , 1990 , in North America in August 1991 , and in Europe in 1992 . F @-@ Zero is the first game of the F @-@ Zero series and was one of the two launch titles for the SNES in Japan , but was accompanied by additional initial titles in North America and Europe . It was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii in late 2006 , the Wii U in early 2013 , and on the New Nintendo 3DS in early 2016 .
The game takes place in the year 2560 , where multi @-@ billionaires with lethargic lifestyles created a new form of entertainment based on the Formula One races called " F @-@ Zero " . The player can choose between one of four characters in the game , each with their respective hovercar . The player then can race against computer controlled characters in fifteen tracks divided into three leagues .
F @-@ Zero is acknowledged by critics to be the game that set a standard for the racing genre and the creation of the futuristic subgenre . Critics lauded F @-@ Zero for its fast and challenging gameplay , variety of tracks , and extensive use of the graphical mode called " Mode 7 " . This graphics @-@ rendering technique was an innovative technological achievement at the time that made racing games more realistic , the first of which was F @-@ Zero . As a result , IGN credited it for reinvigorating the genre and inspiring the future creation of numerous racing games . In retrospective reviews of the game critics agreed that it should have used a multiplayer mode .
= = Gameplay = =
F @-@ Zero is a futuristic racing game where players compete in a high @-@ speed racing tournament called " F @-@ Zero " . There are four F @-@ Zero characters that have their own selectable hovercar along with its unique performance abilities . The objective of the game is to beat opponents to the finish line while avoiding hazards such as slip zones and magnets that pull the vehicle off @-@ center in an effort to make the player damage their vehicle or fall completely off the track . Each machine has a power meter , which serves as a measurement of the machine 's durability ; it decreases when the machine collides with land mines , the side of the track or another vehicle . Energy can be replenished by driving over pit areas placed along the home straight or nearby .
A race in F @-@ Zero consists of five laps around the track . The player must complete each lap in a successively higher place to avoid disqualification from the race . For each lap completed , the player is rewarded with an approximate four @-@ second speed boost called the " Super Jet " and a number of points determined by place . An on @-@ screen display will be shaded green to indicate that a boost can be used ; however , the player is limited to saving up to three at a time . If a certain amount of points are accumulated , an extra " spare machine " is acquired that gives the player another chance to retry the course . Tracks may feature two methods for temporarily boosting speeds ; jump plates launch vehicles into the air thus providing additional acceleration for those not at full speed and dash zones greatly increases the racer 's speed on the ground . F @-@ Zero includes two modes of play . In the Grand Prix mode , the player chooses a league and races against other vehicles through each track in that league while avoiding disqualification . The Practice mode allows the player to practice seven of the courses from the Grand Prix mode .
F @-@ Zero has a total of fifteen tracks divided into three leagues ordered by increasing difficulty : Knight , Queen , and King . Furthermore , each league has four selectable difficulty levels : beginner , standard , expert , and master . The multiple courses of Death Wind , Port Town , and Red Canyon have a pathway that is not accessible unless the player is on another iteration of those tracks , which then in turn closes the path previously available . Unlike most F @-@ Zero games , there are three iterations of Mute City that shows it in either a day , evening , or night setting . In BS F @-@ Zero 2 , Mute City IV continued the theme with an early morning setting .
= = Setting = =
F @-@ Zero is set in the year 2560 , when humanity 's multiple encounters with alien life forms had resulted in the expansion of Earth 's social framework . This led to commercial , technological and cultural interchanges between planets . The multi @-@ billionaires who earned their wealth through intergalactic trade were mainly satisfied with their lifestyles , although most coveted more entertainment in their lives . This resulted in a new entertainment based on the Formula One races to be founded with vehicles that could hover one foot above the track . These Grand Prix races were soon named " F @-@ Zero " after a rise in popularity of the races . The game introduced the first set of F @-@ Zero racers : Captain Falcon , Dr. Stewart , Pico , and Samurai Goroh . IGN claimed Captain Falcon " was thrust into the limelight " in this game since he was the " star character " . An eight @-@ page comic was included in its SNES manual that carried the reader through one of Captain Falcon 's bounty missions .
= = Development and releases = =
The game was released alongside the SNES in Japan on November 21 , 1990 , in North America in August 1991 , and in Europe in 1992 . Only it and Super Mario World were initially available for the Japanese launch . In North America , Super Mario World shipped with the console , and other initial titles included F @-@ Zero , Pilotwings , SimCity , and Gradius III . The game was produced by Shigeru Miyamoto . It was downloadable over the Nintendo Power peripheral in Japan and was also released as a demo onto the Nintendo Super System in 1991 . Takaya Imamura , one of the art designers for the game , was surprised to be able to so freely design F @-@ Zero 's characters and courses as he wanted since it was his first game .
Mode 7 is a form of texture mapping available on the SNES which allows a raster graphical plane to be rotated and scaled freely , simulating the appearance of 3D environments without processing any polygons . The Mode 7 rendering applied in F @-@ Zero consists of a single @-@ layer which is scaled and rotated around the vehicle . This pseudo @-@ 3D capability of the SNES was designed to be represented by the game . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish stated that F @-@ Zero and Pilotwings " existed almost entirely for the sake of showing [ the system 's pseudo @-@ 3D capabilities ] off " as they outclassed the competition .
An F @-@ Zero jazz album was released on March 25 , 1992 in Japan by Tokuma Japan Communications . It features twelve songs from the game on a single disc composed by Yumiko Kanki and Naoto Ishida , and arranged by Robert Hill and Michiko Hill . The album also features Marc Russo ( saxophones ) of the Yellowjackets and Robben Ford ( electric guitar ) . The game was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii in late 2006 , then on the Wii U in February 2013 , followed by its New Nintendo 3DS release in March 2016 .
= = Reception = =
F @-@ Zero was widely lauded by game critics for its graphical realism , and has been called the fastest and most fluid pseudo @-@ 3D racing game of its time . This has been mostly credited to the development team 's pervasive use of the " Mode 7 " system . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented " this abundance of Mode 7 was unheard of " for the SNES . This graphics @-@ rendering technique was an innovative technological achievement at the time that made racing games more realistic , the first of which was F @-@ Zero . Jeremy Parish of Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote that the game 's use of Mode 7 created the " most convincing racetracks that had ever been seen on a home console " that gave " console gamers an experience even more visceral than could be found in the arcades . " 1UP.com editor Ravi Hiranand agreed , arguing F @-@ Zero 's combination of fast @-@ paced racing and free @-@ range of motion were superior compared to that of previous home console games . IGN 's Peer Schneider assured readers F @-@ Zero was one of the few 16 @-@ bit era video games to " perfectly combine presentation and functionality to create a completely new gaming experience " .
The game was praised for its variety of tracks , and steady increase in difficulty . GameSpy 's Jason D 'Aprile thought the game " was something of a finesse racer . It took lots of practice , good memorization skills , and a rather fine sense of control . " Matt Taylor of The Virginian @-@ Pilot commented that the game is more about " reflexes than realism " , and it lacked the ability to save progress between races . F @-@ Zero 's soundtrack was lauded .
In GameSpot 's retrospective review by Greg Kasavin , he praised F @-@ Zero 's controls , longevity and track design . Kasavin felt the title offered exceptional gameplay , with " a perfect balance of pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play accessibility and sheer depth " . Retrospective reviews agreed that the game should have used a multiplayer mode . IGN 's Lucas Thomas criticized the lack of a substantial plot and mentioned F @-@ Zero " doesn 't have the same impact these days " suggesting " the sequels on GBA very much pick up where this title left off " .
IGN ranked F @-@ Zero as the 91st best game ever in 2003 , discussing its originality at time of release and as the 97th best game ever in 2005 , describing it as still " respected as one of the all @-@ time top racers " . ScrewAttack placed it as the 18th best SNES game .
= = = Legacy = = =
F @-@ Zero has been credited with being the game that set a standard for the racing genre and inventing the " futuristic racing " subgenre of video gaming . IGN credits the game for having inspired the future creation of numerous racing games inside and out of the futuristic subgenre , including the Wipeout series and Daytona USA . Amusement Vision 's President , Toshihiro Nagoshi , stated in 2002 that F @-@ Zero " actually taught me what a game should be " and that it served as an influence for him to create Daytona USA and other racing games . Amusement Vision collaborated with Nintendo to develop F @-@ Zero GX and AX , with Nagoshi serving as one of the co @-@ producers for these games .
= = = Sequels = = =
Nintendo initially developed the sequel of the first F @-@ Zero game for the SNES , although it was broadcast in several versions on the St.GIGA subscription service for the Satellaview attachment of the Super Famicom instead . Using this add @-@ on , gamers could download titles via satellite and save it onto a flash ROM cartridge for temporary play . The sequel was released under the Japanese names of BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix and BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix 2 during the mid @-@ 1990s . There are tracks named as a follow @-@ on from F @-@ Zero — such as " Mute City IV " , since Mute City I @-@ III appeared in the original game . BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix contained a new track along with the original 15 tracks from the SNES game and four different playable vehicles . According to Nintendo Power , the game was under consideration for a North American release via Game Pak . IGN states BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix 2 features one new league containing five tracks , a Grand Prix and a Practice mode .
Although the F @-@ Zero franchise made the transition to 3D graphics on the Nintendo 64 with the release of F @-@ Zero X in 1998 , Mode 7 graphical effects continued to be used for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) installments Maximum Velocity and GP Legend . The third sequel F @-@ Zero : Maximum Velocity was released for the GBA in 2001 . This installment was described by GameSpy as a hard overhaul of F @-@ Zero and featured improvements to its graphical effects . F @-@ Zero GX and AX , were released for the Nintendo GameCube and the Triforce arcade system board respectively in 2003 , was the first significant video game collaboration between Nintendo and Sega . GX is the first F @-@ Zero game to include a story mode , while AX was called by GameSpot as the first to get a " proper arcade release " . The most recent installment in the series , F @-@ Zero Climax , was released for the GBA in 2004 and is the first F @-@ Zero game to have a built @-@ in track editor without the need for an expansion or add @-@ on .
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= Richard Hutton Davies =
Major General Richard Hutton Davies CB ( 14 August 1861 – 9 May 1918 ) was an officer of the New Zealand Military Forces during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , the first New Zealander to command an independent force overseas and one of the most senior New Zealand officers during the First World War .
Born in London , he emigrated to New Zealand after leaving school , where he worked as a surveyor . He joined a volunteer militia unit in 1893 , and went to South Africa as an officer with the first New Zealand contingent sent to the Boer War in 1899 . He later commanded the third , fourth and eighth contingents , becoming the first New Zealand officer to command an independent unit on active service overseas . Following his return to New Zealand , he became inspector @-@ general of the New Zealand Military Forces , and in 1909 was attached to a British Army brigade to gain staff experience .
This led to him being offered command of 6th Brigade , a regular infantry brigade of British troops , in 1910 ; he was the first colonial officer to hold such a position . In the summer of 1914 the brigade was mobilised with the British Expeditionary Force , and he commanded it at the Battle of Mons and the First Battle of the Aisne before being invalided back to England due to exhaustion . He was given command of the newly formed 20th ( Light ) Division , which he took to France in 1915 , but was relieved of command early in 1916 . After a period in command of a reserve centre in Staffordshire , he was sent to hospital suffering from both mental and physical ill health , and committed suicide in May 1918 .
= = Early life and family = =
Davies was born in London , the son of a journalist , and was educated at Hurstpierpoint College . After leaving school , he emigrated to New Zealand , where he spent two years working for a relative before settling at Taranaki , setting up a farm and practising as a surveyor . He married Ida Mary Cornwall in February 1886 ; they had two sons and a daughter . One son , Henry Cornwall Davies , served with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force during the First World War , and , like his father , transferred to the British Army in 1915 , becoming a captain in the Royal Engineers . Ida died in pregnancy with their fourth child in December 1906 ; he remarried , to Ida 's sister Eileen Kathleen Cornwall , in May 1908 .
In October 1887 Davies became the surveyor to the Manganui Road Board . On 10 April 1893 , he joined the Hawera Mounted Rifle Volunteers , and was commissioned as a lieutenant in May 1895 ; he was quickly promoted to captain six weeks later , becoming the commander of the unit . He was also active in local government , and in February 1897 was elected a member of the New Plymouth Harbour Board , representing Taranaki North .
= = South Africa = =
On 3 October 1899 Davies transferred into the Permanent Force of the New Zealand Militia , where he was made responsible for the training of volunteer mounted units . The Boer War , however , was declared a week later ; Davies was quickly seconded to command a company of the volunteer First New Zealand Contingent being sent to the Cape . The contingent sailed on 21 October , arrived in late November , and was on active service within a week . Davies was promoted to Major in May 1900 , and in the same month was given temporary command of the Third New Zealand Contingent . He was transferred to the Rhodesian Field Force , where he commanded the Fourth New Zealand Contingent in August 1900 .
He established a high professional reputation commanding the unit , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) , as well as winning the respect of his men – one described him as " not only liked but loved " . A soldier wrote home calling Davies , who stood five feet six inches tall , " a grand little chap " , whilst another noted with pleasure that Davies objected to " Imperial ideas of discipline " being forced upon his men .
After being mentioned in despatches in May 1901 he returned home to command the Auckland Military District , but was ordered back to South Africa in command of the eighth New Zealand Contingent , in February 1902 , with the brevet rank of colonel . The contingent operated as a single unit , unlike its predecessors , and Davies became the first officer from New Zealand to command an independent force on active service overseas .
= = Military reform = =
Returning to New Zealand in late 1902 , Davies resumed command of the Auckland military district . He held command until 1906 , when he was appointed inspector @-@ general of the New Zealand Military Forces and became a member of the Council of Defence , the body responsible for controlling the dominion 's military forces . The position of inspector @-@ general , newly created that year , was originally expected to go to an " Imperial " – that is , British – officer , but the government had announced it planned to rotate New Zealand officers in the role , on up to five @-@ year terms , so as to allow them to gain experience .
Davies threw himself into the role , travelling around the country and inspecting local units to gain an overall idea of their efficiency . Even under favourable circumstances , however , he found that only 54 % of the volunteers attended parades in 1906 ; at the annual camps , the proportion was as low as 45 % . He pressed for greater use of active day @-@ time tactical training rather than evening indoors drill , which he felt was key for a part @-@ time volunteer force , and for a greater emphasis on the training and standards of officers . By the end of his second year in office , he had organised local selection boards for appointing officers , and a central promotion board for senior field officers , as well as mandatory regular fitness and efficiency tests .
As a member of the Council of Defence , he strongly supported the movement for universal military training – not conventional conscription , but rather a form of basic military training on a part @-@ time basis for all adult men – arguing that it would mean " the flower of the nation would be the soldiers , not the weeds " .
= = British service = =
After three years as Inspector @-@ General , and in order to gain staff experience , Davies was attached as an observer to a number of units in the United Kingdom in 1909 – 10 . During this time , he also attended the Imperial Defence Conference and represented the New Zealand forces at the funeral of King Edward VII . At the end of the one @-@ year attachment , he had so impressed the British Army that they offered him an appointment as commander of 6th Brigade in October 1910 , with the temporary rank of brigadier general . As such , he became the first overseas officer to command a regular brigade , only eleven years after taking up a permanent military commission .
Davies ' tenure in command of 6th Brigade was due to expire in October 1914 , when he was to hand over command to John Keir , and it was rumoured in New Zealand that he might be appointed as General Officer Commanding the Home Forces in 1915 , succeeding Alexander Godley . However , with the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , his command was mobilised as part of 2nd Division in the British Expeditionary Force and sent to France . The brigade saw heavy combat at the Battle of Mons , where Davies was mentioned in despatches , but he was quickly worn down by his habit of always marching at the head of his brigade , which put him under heavy physical and mental strain , and from the lasting effects of an attack of pneumonia earlier in the year . One report described him as " much changed , full of nerves ... very jumpy " . He was relieved of command after the First Battle of the Aisne in September and ordered home , being replaced by Colonel Robert Fanshawe , formerly GSO 1 of 1st Division , on 20 September .
He was appointed a divisional commander , with the rank of temporary major general , on 19 October 1914 , and took command of the newly raised 20th ( Light ) Division at some point in September – October . This made him the first New Zealand officer to command a division in the war . On 18 February 1915 , he was formally transferred to the British Army , and promoted to major general . The 20th Division moved to France in July 1915 , and he commanded it during a minor operation in September , but handed over command on 8 March 1916 due to ill @-@ health . He was appointed to command a reserve centre at Cannock Chase , Staffordshire , where the arrival of elements of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade in September 1917 meant that he once again had the opportunity to command his own countrymen . He was relieved of command by General Robert Wanless O 'Gowan in March 1918 , and on 9 May 1918 , after a prolonged period of physical and mental ill health , he committed suicide at the Special Neurological Hospital for Officers , Kensington .
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= Body Count ( album ) =
Body Count is the eponymous debut album of American heavy metal band Body Count . Released in 1992 , the album material focuses on various social and political issues ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . The album presents a turning point in the career of Ice @-@ T , who co @-@ wrote the album 's songs with lead guitarist Ernie C and performed as the band 's lead singer . Previously known only as a rapper , Ice @-@ T 's work with the band helped establish a crossover audience with rock music fans . The album produced one single , " There Goes the Neighborhood " .
Body Count is well known for the inclusion of the controversial song " Cop Killer " , which was the subject of much criticism from various political figures , although many defended the song on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech . Ice @-@ T eventually chose to remove the song from the album , although it continues to be performed live . It was voted the 31st best album of the year in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics poll , and is believed to have helped pave the way for the mainstream success of the rap metal genre , although the album itself does not feature rapping in any of its songs .
= = Conception = =
Ice @-@ T formed Body Count out of this interest . The band comprised musicians Ice @-@ T had known from Crenshaw High School . Ice @-@ T states that " I knew we didn 't want to form an R & B group . [ ... ] Where am I gonna get the rage and the anger to attack something with that ? [ ... ] We knew Body Count had to be a rock band . The name alone negates the band from being R & B. "
Ice @-@ T co @-@ wrote the band 's music and lyrics with lead guitarist Ernie C , and took on the duties of lead vocalist . Ice @-@ T states that " I knew I couldn 't sing , but then I thought , ' Who can sing in rock ' n ' roll ? ' " Aside from Ice @-@ T and Ernie C , the original line @-@ up consisted of Mooseman on bass , Beatmaster V on drums and D @-@ Roc on rhythm guitar . According to Ice @-@ T , " We named the group Body Count because every Sunday night in L.A. , I 'd watch the news , and the newscasters would tally up the youths killed in gang homicides that week and then just segue to sports . ' Is that all I am , ' I thought , ' a body count ? ' "
Ice @-@ T introduced the band at Lollapalooza in 1991 , devoting half of his set to his hip hop songs , and half to Body Count songs , increasing his appeal with both alternative rock fans and middle @-@ class teenagers . Many considered the Body Count performances to be the highlight of the tour . The group made its first album appearance on Ice @-@ T 's 1991 solo album O.G. Original Gangster . The song " Body Count " was preceded by a staged interview in which the performer referred to the group as a " black hardcore band , " stating that " as far as I 'm concerned , music is music . I don 't look at it as rock , R & B , or all that kind of stuff . I just look at it as music . [ ... ] I do what I like and I happen to like rock ' n ' roll , and I feel sorry for anybody who only listens to one form of music . "
Recording sessions for the group 's self @-@ titled debut took place from September to December 1991 . The album was released on March 31 , 1992 , on compact disc , vinyl , and audio cassette . Ice @-@ T states that Body Count was intentionally different from his solo hip hop albums in that " An Ice T album has intelligence , and at times it has ignorance . Sometimes it has anger , sometimes it has questions . But Body Count was intended to reflect straight anger . It was supposed to be the voice of the angry brother , without answers . [ ... ] If you took a kid and you put him in jail with a microphone and asked him how he feels , you 'd get Body Count : ' Fuck that . Fuck school . Fuck the police . ' You wouldn 't get intelligence or compassion . You 'd get raw anger . " From the album , " There Goes The Neighborhood " was released as a single , while " Body Count 's in the House " was featured in the film Universal Soldier .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Ernie C and Ice @-@ T conceived the album with the dark , ominous tone and Satanic lyrical themes of Black Sabbath in mind . However , Ice @-@ T felt that basing his lyrics in reality would be scarier than the fantasy basis in Black Sabbath 's lyrics ; the inner artwork depicts a man with a gun pointed at the viewer 's face . Ice @-@ T states , " To us that was the devil [ ... ] what 's more scary than [ ... ] some gangster with a gun pointed at you ? " Ice @-@ T defined the resulting mix of heavy metal and reality @-@ based lyrics as " a rock album with a rap mentality . " The album 's musical style is primarily described as speed metal , thrash metal and heavy metal . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that with Body Count , Ice @-@ T " has recognized a kinship between his gangster raps and post @-@ punk , hard @-@ core rock , both of which break taboos to titillate fans . But where rap 's core audience is presumably in the inner city , hard @-@ core appeals mostly to suburbanites seeking more gritty thrills than they can get from Nintendo or the local mall . "
Despite Ice @-@ T 's attempts to differentiate Body Count from his work in the hip hop genre , the press focused on the group 's rap image . Ice @-@ T felt that politicians had intentionally referred to the song " Cop Killer " as rap to provoke negative criticism . " There is absolutely no way to listen to the song ' Cop Killer ' and call it a rap record . It 's so far from rap . But , politically , they know by saying the word rap they can get a lot of people who think , ' Rap @-@ black @-@ rap @-@ black @-@ ghetto , ' and don 't like it . You say the word rock , people say , ' Oh , but I like Jefferson Airplane , I like Fleetwood Mac — that 's rock . ' They don 't want to use the word rock & roll to describe this song . " Body Count has since been credited for pioneering the rap metal genre popularized by groups such as Rage Against the Machine and Limp Bizkit , although Ice @-@ T does not rap on any of the album 's tracks . Ernie C stated that " A lot of rappers want to be in a rock band , but it has to be done sincerely . You can 't just get anybody on guitar and expect it to work . [ ... ] [ We ] really loved the music we were doing , and it showed . "
= = Lyrical themes = =
Like Ice @-@ T 's gangsta rap albums , Body Count 's material focused on various social and political issues , with songs focusing on topics ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . According to Ernie C , " Everybody writes about whatever they learned growing up , and we were no exception . Like The Beach Boys sing about the beach , we sing about the way we grew up . " Ice @-@ T states that " Body Count was an angry record . It was meant to be a protest record . I put my anger in it , while lacing it with dark humor . " The spoken introduction , " Smoked Pork " features Ice @-@ T taking on the roles of a gangster pretending to be seemingly stranded motorist and a police officer who refuses to aid . The track begins with Mooseman and Ice @-@ T driving their car towards a police car , and then Ice @-@ T asks for the gun Mooseman has and tells Mooseman to stay in the car , much to Mooseman 's chagrin , as Mooseman wanted to kill the cop in this round . Ice @-@ T then walks up to the policeman , pretending to be a stranded motorist , asking for help , but the policeman refuses , saying : " Nah , that 's not my job ! My job 's not to help your fuckin ' ass out ! " , then telling him that " my job is eatin ' these doughnuts " . When the officer recognizes Ice @-@ T , gunshots are heard . The final voice on the track is Ice @-@ T confirming his identity .
In the lyrics of " KKK Bitch , " Ice @-@ T describes a sexual encounter with a woman who he soon learns is the daughter of the Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan . The lyrics go on to describe a scenario in which members of Body Count " crash " a Klan meeting to " get buck wild with the white freaks " . Ice @-@ T makes humorous reference to " [ falling ] in love with Tipper Gore 's two twelve year old nieces " , and ponders the possibility of the Grand Wizard coming after him " when his grandson 's named little Ice @-@ T. " In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that " ' KKK Bitch ' was ironic because the sentiments were true . We 'd play Ku Klux Klan areas in the South and the girls would always come backstage and tell us how their brothers and fathers didn 't like black folks . [ ... ] We knew that ' KKK Bitch ' would totally piss off the Ku Klux Klan . There 's humor in the song , but it fucks with them . It 's on a punk tip . "
" Voodoo " describes a fictional encounter between Ice @-@ T and an old woman with a voodoo doll . " The Winner Loses " describes the downfall of a crack cocaine user . " There Goes the Neighborhood " is a sarcastic response to critics of Body Count , sung from the point of view of a racist white rocker who wonders " Don 't they know rock 's just for whites ? / Don 't they know the rules ? / Those niggers are too hardcore / This shit ain 't cool . " For the song 's music video , the word " nigger " was replaced with the phrase " black boys " . The music video ends with a black musician implanting an electric guitar into the ground and setting it on fire . The final image is similar to that of a burning cross .
" Evil Dick " focuses on male promiscuity . Its lyrics describe a married man who is led to seek strange women after his " evil dick " tells him " Don 't sleep alone , don 't sleep alone . " " Momma 's Gotta Die Tonight " follows the account of a black teenager who murders and dismembers his racist mother after she reacts negatively when he brings a white girl home . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that the song 's lyrics are metaphorical , explaining that " Whoever is still perpetuating racism has got to die , not necessarily physically , but they have to kill off that part of their brain . From now on , consider it dead . The entire attitude is dead . "
Ice @-@ T referred to the album 's final track , " Cop Killer " as a protest song , stating that the song is " [ sung ] in the first person as a character who is fed up with police brutality . " The song was written in 1990 , and had been performed live several times , including at Lollapalooza , before it had been recorded in a studio . The album version mentions then @-@ Los Angeles police chief Daryl Gates and the black motorist Rodney King , whose beating by LAPD officers was recorded on videotape . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that the song " [ is ] a warning , not a threat — to authority that says , ' Yo , police : We 're human beings . Treat us accordingly . ' " In an interview for Rolling Stone , Ice @-@ T stated that " We just celebrated the fourth of July , which is really just national Fuck the Police Day [ ... ] I bet that during the Revolutionary War , there were songs similar to mine . "
= = Release and reception = =
Initial copies of the album were shipped out in black body bags , a promotional device that drew minor criticism . The album debuted at No. 32 on Billboard 's Top 50 albums , peaking at No. 26 on the Billboard 200 . By January 29 , 1993 , the album sold 480 @,@ 000 copies , according to Variety . However , according to the Recording Industry Association of America , Body Count was certified gold for sale shipments in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies , with a certification date back to August 4 , 1992 .
In a positive review for The Village Voice , music critic Robert Christgau said Ice @-@ T " takes rap 's art @-@ ain 't @-@ life defense over the top " on a heavy metal album which utilizes and parodies " the style 's whiteskin privilege " . He wrote that the music is " flat @-@ out hard rock , short on soloistic intricacy and fancy structures " , but that it is set apart from other metal by Ice @-@ T , who " describes racism in language metalheads can understand , kills several policemen , and cuts his mama into little pieces because she tells him to hate white people . This can be a very funny record . " Greg Kot , writing in the Chicago Tribune , felt the lyrics on some songs are pathologically flawed and off @-@ putting , but the band 's take on metal styles is impressive and , " on the stereotype @-@ bashing ' There Goes the Neighborhood , ' the humor , message and music coalesce brilliantly " . Don Kaye of Kerrang ! called Body Count a " noisy , relentless musical attack " .
In a less enthusiastic review for Rolling Stone , J. D. Considine wrote that " messages " are less important here than " the sort of sonic intensity parental groups fear even more than four @-@ letter words , " while AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the album " a surprisingly tepid affair " partly because " all of Ice @-@ T 's half @-@ sung / half @-@ shouted lyrics fall far short of the standard he established on his hip @-@ hop albums . " In the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of prominent critics published by The Village Voice , Body Count was voted the 31st best album of 1992 . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it 22nd on his own year @-@ end list .
= = Controversy = =
The album was originally set to be distributed under the title Cop Killer , named for the song of the same name , which criticizes violent police officers . During the production of the album , Warner Bros. executives were aware of the potential controversy that the album and song could cause , but supported it . At a Time @-@ Warner shareholders ' meeting , actor Charlton Heston stood and read lyrics from the song " KKK Bitch " to an astonished audience and demanded that the company take action . Sire responded by changing the title to Body Count , but did not remove the song . In an article for the Washington Post , Tipper Gore condemned Ice @-@ T for songs like " Cop Killer , " writing that " Cultural economics were a poor excuse for the South 's continuation of slavery . Ice @-@ T 's financial success cannot excuse the vileness of his message [ ... ] Hitler 's anti @-@ Semitism sold in Nazi Germany . That didn 't make it right . " The Dallas Police Association and the Combined Law Enforcement Association of Texas launched a campaign to force Warner Bros. Records to withdraw the album . CLEAT called for a boycott of all products by Time @-@ Warner in order to secure the removal of the song and album from stores . Within a week , they were joined by police organizations across the United States . Ice @-@ T asserted that the song was written from the point of view of a fictional character , and told reporters that " I ain 't never killed no cop . I felt like it a lot of times . But I never did it . If you believe that I 'm a cop killer , you believe David Bowie is an astronaut , " in reference to Bowie 's song " Space Oddity " .
The National Black Police Association opposed the boycott of Time @-@ Warner and the attacks on " Cop Killer , " identifying police brutality as the cause of much anti @-@ police sentiment , and proposed the creation of independent civilian review boards " to scrutinize the actions of our law enforcement officers " as a way of ending the provocations that caused artists such as Body Count " to respond to actions of police brutality and abuse through their music . [ ... ] Many individuals of the law enforcement profession do not want anyone to scrutinize their actions , but want to scrutinize the actions of others . " Critics argued that the song could cause crime and violence . Others defended the album on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech , and cited the fact that Ice @-@ T had portrayed a police officer in the film New Jack City . Ice @-@ T is quoted as saying that " I didn 't need people to come in and really back me on the First Amendment . I needed people to come in and say ' Ice @-@ T has grounds to make this record . ' I have the right to make it because the cops are killing my people . So fuck the First Amendment , let 's deal with the fact that I have the right to make it . "
Over the next month , controversy against the band grew . Vice President Dan Quayle branded " Cop Killer " as being " obscene , " and President George H.W. Bush publicly denounced any record company that would release such a product . Body Count was removed from the shelves of a retail store in Greensboro , North Carolina after local police had told the management that they would no longer respond to any emergency calls at the store if they continued to sell the album . In July 1992 , the New Zealand Police Commissioner unsuccessfully attempted to prevent an Ice @-@ T concert in Auckland , arguing that " Anyone who comes to this country preaching in obscene terms the killing of police , should not be welcome here , " before taking Body Count and Warner Bros. Records to the Indecent Publications Tribunal , in an effort to get it banned under New Zealand 's Indecent Publications Act . This was the first time in 20 years that a sound recording had come before the censorship body , and the first ever case involving popular music . After reviewing the various submissions , and listening carefully to the album , the Tribunal found the song " Cop Killer " to be " not exhortatory , " saw the album as displaying " an honest purpose , " and found Body Count not indecent . The controversy escalated to the point where death threats were sent to Time @-@ Warner executives , and stockholders threatened to pull out of the company . Finally , Ice @-@ T decided to remove " Cop Killer " from the album of his own volition , a decision which was met by criticism from other artists who derided Ice @-@ T for " caving in to external pressure . " In an interview , Ice @-@ T stated that " I didn 't want my band to get pigeon @-@ holed as that 's the only reason that record sold . It just got outta hand and I was just tired of hearing it . I said , ' fuck it , ' I mean they 're saying we did it for money , and we didn 't . I 'd gave the record away , ya know , let 's move on , let 's get back to real issues , not a record but the cops that are out there killing people . "
" Cop Killer " was replaced by a new version of " Freedom of Speech , " a song from Ice @-@ T 's 1989 solo album The Iceberg / Freedom of Speech ... Just Watch What You Say . The song was re @-@ edited and remixed to give it a more rock @-@ oriented sound , using a looped sample from the Jimi Hendrix song " Foxy Lady . " Alongside the album 's reissue , Warner Bros. issued " Cop Killer " as a single . Ice @-@ T left Warner Bros. Records the following year because of disputes over his solo album Home Invasion , taking Body Count with him . The studio version of " Cop Killer " has not been re @-@ released , although a live version of the song appears on Body Count 's 2005 release Live in L.A. According to Ernie C , the controversy over the song " still lingers for us , even now . I 'll try to book clubs and the guy I 'm talking to will mention it and I 'll think to myself ' Man , that was 17 years ago . ' But I meet a lot of bands who ask me about it too and I 'm real respected by other artists for it . But it 's a love / hate thing . Ice gets it too , even though he plays a cop on TV now on Law & Order SVU . "
In Australia , the track listings on copies of the new version of the album sold there ended at track 16 , omitting " Freedom of Speech " ( or " Cop Killer " and its spoken word intro , " Out in the Parking Lot " ) . This was likely because the track " Freedom of Speech " refers to the speech protections of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , which Australia does not have an equivalent to in its own Constitution , thus the track is not as relevant to Australian audiences .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Ice @-@ T – lead vocals
Ernie C. – lead , rhythm and acoustic guitars
Mooseman – bass
D @-@ Roc – rhythm guitar
Beatmaster " V " – drums
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= Turtles All the Way Down =
" Turtles All the Way Down " is the thirteenth and final episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake . It premiered on May 23 , 2012 in Canada on Global , and on May 24 , 2012 in the United States on NBC . " Turtles All the Way Down " was scheduled to air on May 17 , 2012 , as part two of a two @-@ hour finale . NBC had changed the order , and moved it to the following week . The teleplay of the episode was written by series creator Kyle Killen , from a story by Killen , and staff writers Leonard Chang and Noelle Valdivia . It was directed by Miguel Sapochnik . " Turtles All the Way Down " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines . Commentators noted that the script was well @-@ written . Upon airing , " Turtles All the Way Down " obtained 2 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States and 0 @.@ 9 million in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In the episode , Michael Britten finds out the truth about the car accident that caused his split realities , and seeks out those responsible for it . He finds out that Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) caused the accident , alongside Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) and Captain Carl Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) .
= = Plot = =
In his " green reality " ( where his son is alive and his wife is dead ) , Detective Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) sits in a prison cell temporary for killing Detective Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) , who caused Michael 's car accident . Meanwhile , his partner in the " green reality " , Detective Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) finds heroin that Hawkins , under orders from Captain Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) , had placed in a self storage unit . Meanwhile , Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) shoots Carl Kessel in a hotel room , making it look like a suicide to cover up her involvement in Michael 's accident . Michael is freed from the cell and Kessel 's body is found .
Michael regains consciousness ( after having passed out from a gunshot wound when Ed Hawkins was chasing after him ) near a dumpster in the " red reality " ( where his wife is alive and son is dead ) . The still @-@ alive Detective Hawkins takes Michael to his car , but Michael flees after attacking Hawkins and causes a car accident . Michael finds his therapist in the " red reality " , Dr. John Lee ( BD Wong ) , forces him to sew up the bullet wound , and takes him to the self @-@ storage unit to show him the heroin stash . Seeing no heroin , Michael then locks Lee in the containment center and contacts his partner in the " red reality " , detective Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) . Vega secretly takes Britten to his house but , upon returning to the police station , is convinced that Michael is unstable and allows Michael to be captured . Michael is first taken to the hospital to receive medical treatment and then goes to jail .
Harper visits Michael in jail . When Michael notices the caller ID of an incoming call matching Kessel 's hotel room pseudonym , he realizes Harper is part of the conspiracy and attempts to strangle her . Later , Michael is visited by himself from the " green reality " who leads him to the jail door . Past the door , Michael first witnesses Kessel 's murder and Detective Vega , in a penguin suit , shows Harper 's heel breaking in the process hinting that this can be used as hard evidence to place Harper at Kessel 's murder . Next Michael briefly meets his wife , Hannah ( Laura Allen ) in a restaurant before he finds his " green reality " self sleeping in his bedroom . He – his " red reality " self – lays down in bed as well and merges with his " green reality " self before waking up in said " green reality " .
In Harper 's office , Michael confronts her about her involvement in his accident , pulling out his gun to shoot her . However , he instead lets Bird and another detective arrest her . Later , Dr. Evans applauds Michael 's apparent rejection of the " red reality " and , when Michael suggests his fantastic experiences may have simply been a dream of the " red reality , " Dr. Evans warns him not to create a third reality . She suddenly goes still . Michael , confused , goes through her office door and finds himself in his bedroom . He goes downstairs and finds both his son , Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) , and wife alive . Concerned about Michael 's odd behavior , Hannah asks if he is okay . He replies , " I 'm perfect , " and closes his eyes .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen , from a story by Killen , and staff writers Leonard Chang and Noelle Valdivia ; it was Killen 's seventh writing credit , and Chang and Valdivia 's third writing credit each . It was directed by Miguel Sapochnik , his first directing credit for the series .
In January 2012 , it was announced that Kevin Weisman would appear in multiple episodes of Awake . The actor was later cast as Ed Hawkins , a cop who took over Michael 's spot at the police department after his crash . This is his third appearance on the series , with the first being " Say Hello to My Little Friend " , the eleven episode . Other guest stars included Laura Innes as Tricia Harper and Mark Harelik as Carl Kessel . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .
The episode featured the song " Montana " by Youth Lagoon during the final scene . Many viewers wondered if the series creator had changed the ending for the last episode , due to the cancellation of the series . This caused series creator and executive producer Killen to assure viewers that the episode would have been " exactly the same " if it had been renewed for a second season . In a pre @-@ broadcast interview by Entertainment Weekly with Killen and actor Jason Isaacs , Isaacs claimed that he found it " strangely ironic and amusing " to be promoting the series finale of the Awake series . Killen claimed that " When we wrote the episode , we didn 't know it would be the end of the series " . He stated that it had a " satisfying conclusion " , " and I think it will be a satisfying way to leave the show " .
" Turtles All the Way Down " was scheduled to air as part two of the scheduled two @-@ hour finale . NBC had changed the order , and aired it the following week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Turtles All the Way Down " first premiered a day early in Canada on May 23 , 2012 on Global between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. , due to the season premiere of the Canadian series Rookie Blue , which aired in Awake 's regular time slot on Thursdays at 10 : 00 p.m. The episode premiered on May 24 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. Upon airing , " Turtles All the Way Down " obtained 2 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States despite airing simultaneously with a rerun of The Mentalist on CBS and Rookie Blue on ABC . It acquired a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . The episode marked the series ' highest ratings since the fifth episode " Oregon " which aired on March 29 , 2012 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Turtles All the Way Down " was well received by television commentators . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a positive review . He also noted that parts of the episode were " surprising " , and that " the show embraced some final insanity before the end , it ’ s more the illusion of depth than actual depth " . Handlen wrote that " it ’ s hard to ask for more from an hour of television " , despite noting that he was " glad the series got cancelled " . Handlen noted that he would " look forward to their next projects " . Handlen concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of " B " . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a positive review and claimed that there were some " gut @-@ wrenching " scenes in the episode . Fowler also opined that the episode was " thrilling " , " frustrating " , " fascinating " , and " terrible " to see Hannah " crying over an arrested Britten " . Fowler wrote that he " love [ d ] the open ending " . Noting that Awake was " one of the good ones " , Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 " classifying it as " amazing " . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic gave the episode a positive review . He opined that Michael " has a unique ability to dream in a way that feels real , why not recreate what was once lost " . McHatton found it " fitting that the show ended with Michael closing his eyes . Despite the fact that he did not know what the phrase " turtles all the way down " meant , he concluded his review by giving the episode a score " 5 @.@ 0 out of 5 @.@ 0 " .
Ross Bonaime of Paste magazine gave the episode a complimentary review . He started by claiming that Awake was " the best drama to come out the 2011 – 12 season on television , and one of the finest NBC dramas in years " . He also wondered " what Awake would be like in a Michael Britten @-@ like alternate reality where the show lasted five seasons , or 10 , or even just one more year " , Could Awake maintain this story for long and still be compelling ? " Bonaime wrote that it was " better to have one great season and be remembered fondly " . Bonaime claimed that the " ending is quite smart , given that it never truly clarifies if Michael was dreaming the whole time , or if Dr. Lee was right and that he was on the verge of completely snapping , which makes much more sense " . He was also grateful that " Awake decided to just go completely nuts with the last half of this episode " . He claimed that the episode and series was " different , a rare move , especially on network television " . He claimed that " Once Awake arrives on Netflix and DVD , people will rush through in a matter of days and will say they enjoyed their experience with this short yet sweet treasure " . He claimed that works with Awake should be " rewarded " and " praised " . Bonaime concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 " .
Screen Rant 's Kevin Yeoman , gave much praise in the episode . Like Paste magazine and other critics reviews , Yeoman claimed that " there was certainly disappointment in finding out that Awake wouldn 't see a second season , and would instead be looked at as a 13 @-@ episode miniseries " . He claimed that the episode has the puzzling and high points that are similar to " That 's Not My Penguin " and " Say Hello to My Little Friend " . Again , Screen Crush 's Kevin Fitzpatrick was also disappointed that there would not be a second season . Verne Gay of Newsday gave the episode a complimenting review . He called it " promising " . He noted that he could see " why Awake was canceled " . He blessed " the show for at least trying " . He called it " challenging " and " original " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode " fascinating " , " puzzling " and " moving " . Carl Cortez of Assignment X , again , enjoyed the episode . In his " B + " grade review , he noted that " you can view it as another missed opportunity " . He claimed that parts of the episode were " confusing " . He stated that he would " prefer to have more questions than answers " . He argued that the episode felt more like a " Series Finale , than Season Finale " , which he called " a good thing " , " Too many good shows go off into the sunset without a single resolution and this one at least strives for something more " . He also argued that NBC should have " put a little more promotional push " . He called it " challenging " and " interesting " .
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= Report about Case Srebrenica =
Report about Case Srebrenica ( the first part ) was a controversial official report on the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was prepared by Darko Trifunović and published by the Republika Srpska Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) .
The report denied that there had been a massacre at Srebrenica and accused the International Committee of the Red Cross of having " fabricated " its findings on the killings . Its claims were strongly criticised by the international community and the Bosniaks and were eventually disowned by the Republika Srpska government . In a judgment against Miroslav Deronjić , the Hague Tribunal judges described the report as " one of the worst examples of revisionism . " No " second part " has ever been published .
= = Background = =
In July 1995 , forces of the Army of the Republika Srpska ( VRS ) captured the town of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia , which had been cut off and surrounded despite the presence of soldiers from the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) . Thousands of refugees had crowded into the town to escape the Serb advance . Following the Serb takeover of Srebrenica , an estimated 8 @,@ 000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically massacred by Serb forces between 11 – 15 July and another 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 were subjected to ethnic cleansing . It was the largest act of mass murder in Europe since World War II .
Successive governments of Republika Srpska ( and , for a while , Serbia ) sought to deny the massacre and other war crimes committed by the VRS during the war . It was against this background that , as the former United Nations trial attorney Mark B. Harmon commented , " the campaign of misinformation and deceit reached its apotheosis seven years after the crimes were committed with the publication of the Report About Case Srebrenica ( the first part ) . "
= = Contents of the report = =
The report was promoted as an effort " to present the whole truth about crimes committed in Srebrenica region regardless nationality of perpetrators of crimes and time when they were committed [ sic ] . " It asserted that no more than 2 @,@ 000 Bosniaks ( Bosnian Muslims ) had died at Srebrenica – all armed soldiers , not civilians – and that 1 @,@ 600 of them had died in combat or while trying to escape the enclave . It consistently referred to the " alleged massacre " , attributed the deaths of about 100 Bosniaks to " exhaustion " and concluded : " the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [ … ] would probably stand less than 100 . " The report dismissed as " mentally disturbed " a Bosnian Serb soldier who had admitted participating in the killings , and claimed that the survivors ' stories were a product of their imaginations : " To walk for almost 20 days in an area that might be full of landmines , without any food and water , under the fear of being shot from any direction was such a trauma that soldiers sometimes mixed reality with illusions . Having looked at dead bodies under such psychological [ pressure ] , some Muslim soldiers could have believed what they imagined . " It asserted that " this combat might have looked like a mass killing in the eyes of frightened Muslim soldiers , although they carried weapons and shot at Bosnian Serb soldiers randomly . "
The report also asserted that the findings of the International Committee of the Red Cross and other humanitarian organisations had been " manipulated " and " fabricated " . It characterised Serbs as the victims of Bosniak war crimes around Srebrenica , asserting that in 1992 and 1993 alone 1300 Serb civilians were killed . This figure has been shown to be inaccurate , and the true number " three to nine times smaller " , by the Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo , a non @-@ partisan institution with a multi @-@ ethnic staff , whose data have been collected , processed , checked , compared and evaluated by an international team of experts . The instigator of the massacre , General Ratko Mladić , was mentioned only in the context of demanding the surrender of the town and evacuating civilians ; the report asserted that he had tried " discouraging Serbs to take their wild revenge . " The report claimed that " the Muslims inflated the number [ of deaths ] in order to accomplish what they wanted from the very beginning – to involve the international community in the conflict with Serbs . "
According to Dejan Miletić , whom Paddy Ashdown , the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , removed in April 2004 from his post as Head of the Republika Srpska Secretariat for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague and Research of War Crimes , the report " had based its conclusions on publications found on the Internet , reports from the United Nations and other sources . " It was intended to be sent to lawyers defending Bosnian Serbs on trial for war crimes .
= = ICTY verdict = =
The ICTY reviewed the " Report About Case Srebrenica " and concluded the following :
The Trial Chamber admitted into evidence a document which represents one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to the mass executions of Bosnian Muslims committed in Srebrenica in July 1995 . This document , titled “ Report about Case Srebrenica ( the First Part ) ” was prepared by the Documentation Centre of Republika Srpska , Bureau of Government of Republika Srpska for Relation with ICTY on 1 September 2002 . Throughout this report reference is made to the “ alleged massacre ” and this misrepresentation of the historical events culminates in the final conclusion of this report , which reads : [ … ] the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [ … ] would probably stand less than 100 .
= = Reactions = =
After the report was published on 3 September 2002 , it was condemned by a wide variety of Bosnian and international figures . A spokesman for the ICTY told Radio Free Europe that " any claim that the number of victims after the fall of the Srebrenica enclave was around the 2 @,@ 000 mark , and most of those killed in battle , is an absolutely outrageous claim . It 's utterly false , and it flies in the face of all of the evidence painstakingly collected in the investigation into the tragedy . " He described the effort to minimise the number of victims as " frankly , disgusting . " Carla del Ponte , the chief prosecutor of the ICTY , described the report 's authors as " totally blind , profoundly insensitive and clearly willing to obstruct all efforts to find reconciliation , truth and justice . " Del Ponte 's legal adviser , Jean @-@ Jacques Joris , criticised the report as " a saddening example of revisionism and an element which certainly stands in the way of reconciliation in the region . " The ICTY prosecutors subsequently used the report as evidence in the trial in 2004 of Miroslav Deronjić ; in their verdict , the judges called it " one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to [ the massacre ] " .
Paddy Ashdown , the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , condemned it as " tendentious , preposterous and inflammatory " and " so far from the truth as to be almost not worth dignifying with a response . " His office issued a statement calling the report " an irresponsible attempt to deceive voters and to abuse the trauma of massacre survivors " . Ashdown 's spokesman , Julian Braithwaite , noted the report 's publication just before elections in the Republika Srpska : " The question for the RS government is why are they publishing this report now , at the time when it could be easily interpreted as irresponsible electioneering . If they are playing down the fact that civilians were massacred and that children are being exhumed from mass graves with their hands tied behind their backs , then that it is outrageous . " The European Union issued a statement calling on " all responsible people and institutions " to reject the study . The International Commission on Missing Persons issued a strongly worded statement calling the report a gross distortion of the facts :
Manipulation of the issue of the missing for political purposes , including the manipulation of numbers of missing , has been an ongoing practice within Bosnia and Herzegovina that only serves to cause further pain and suffering in a society that has already suffered so much . The study regarding the numbers of missing from the 1995 fall of Srebrenica made by the Republika Srpska 's Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) contains what ICMP believes to be serious inaccuracies .
The British Foreign Office minister Denis MacShane condemned the report as " an insult to the memory of those who died . The authors of this report belong in the same category as those who deny the Holocaust took place . " The United States embassy in Bosnia and Herzegovina urged the Republika Srpska government to withdraw the report , calling it " an attempt to manipulate and divide the public in this country . "
Bosnian media , political parties and Srebrenica survivors were likewise strongly critical . The Sarajevo @-@ based newspaper Dnevni Avaz described the report as an attempt by the Bosnian Serb government to deny that genocide had taken place . The Srebrenica and Zepa Mothers Association condemned the report as " false , shameful and utterly amoral . " The Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina denounced it as " yet another attempt by the Serb Republic authorities in an unscrupulous and brutal way to negate what probably is the worst crime in Europe after WW2 . " Alija Behmen , the Prime Minister of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , called it " a surprising forgery which is trying to delude the public and especially the Serbs in BiH . I honestly believe that this is the last attempt to enliven the policy which marked the tragic past of BiH . Negating the genocide cannot be a part of the election campaign . "
On the Bosnian Serb side , opinions of the report were initially favourable . The Bosnian Serb media largely supported the report , and Republika Srpska president Mirko Šarović ( who in October 2002 became the Serb member of the collective presidency ) said that the report " should not be dismissed out of hand but merits careful study " . A number of Bosnian Serb political figures made public statements denying that war crimes had happened and a government spokesman called the report a bid to promote " truth and reconciliation " . The Republika Srpska Socialist Party leader , Lazar Ristić , welcomed the report and accused the Bosniak side of having " hitherto presented only false reports , in which names were listed of persons who are still alive today . "
Nikola Špirić , the speaker of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska , called it " the worst election campaigning I have ever seen . " Milorad Dodik , who was later to become prime minister of Republika Srpska , castigated the report as having been " written by an amateur for the purpose of manipulating public opinion " in advance of the elections and said :
It is a political gaffe of the government , since one can see that the report was written several years ago by one man . The report had been written in 1996 and 1997 , which goes to show that it does not mention the report by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation . [ ... ] The government shouldn 't have allowed itself to draft such a superficial , amateurish report which put Republika Srpska into such a difficult situation . Responsibility for the consequences of the report 's publication must be borne by those who produced it in such a superficial and amateurish way .
The Republika Srpska government was , however , more equivocal . Its prime minister , Mladen Ivanić , accused the media in the Federation entity of having " made [ a ] fuss over the report for their own purposes . " Nonetheless , the outcry from the international community forced the government of Republika Srpska to distance itself from the report , saying that it had not been fully analysed and endorsed :
The two studies , which the RS Government 's Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY compiled , are not made by the RS Government . They are part of the report that the RS Government ’ s Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY submits to the RS Government every three months . The fact that the Srebrenica report had been condemned by the Office of the High Representative before the Bureau 's news conference was held comes as a surprise . The Bureau representatives clearly said at the news conference that the both reports are to be submitted to the RS Government , which tells us that the OHR based its condemnation on news reports from the BiH Federation media , which said that the Bureau reports are RS Government 's report . It also comes as a surprise the fact that the OHR representatives commented on a document , which they have not read . This is another confirmation that the OHR gives in to the pressures coming from the Sarajevo media and that the OHR creates its views by using their [ the Sarajevo media 's ] information and press releases , thus bringing its own [ the OHR 's ] impartiality in question .
The Republika Srpska government subsequently disowned the report with Prime Minister Ivanić saying that it was an " unfinished version " and " not an attitude of the government of Republika Srpska . " Two years later , after further pressure from the international community , the Bosnian Serb government issued an official apology for the massacre and admitted that " enormous crimes " had been " committed in the area of Srebrenica in July 1995 . "
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= Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid , BWV 3 =
Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid ( Oh God , how much heartache ) , BWV 3 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig for the Second Sunday after Epiphany and first performed it on 14 January 1725 . It is based on the hymn published by Martin Moller in 1587 .
Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig as part of cantata cycle of chorale cantatas , for the second Sunday after Epiphany . The work is based on a hymn without evident connection to the prescribed readings . It is a meditation on Jesus as a comforter in distress , based on a medieval model . An unknown librettist reworked the ideas of the 18 stanzas in six movements , retaining the words of stanzas 1 , 2 and 18 as movements 1 , 2 and 6 . Similarly , Bach retained the choral melody in three movements , set as a chorale fantasia in the opening chorus with the bass singing the cantus firmus , as a four @-@ part setting with interspersed recitatives in the second movement , and in the closing chorale . He scored the cantata for two oboes d 'amore , strings and continuo , with an added trobone to support the bass in the first movement , and a horn to support the soprano in the last movement .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig as part of his second annual cycle , planned to consist only of chorale cantatas based on Lutheran hymns . He wrote the cantata for the second Sunday after Epiphany . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the Epistle to the Romans ( we have several gifts – Romans 12 : 6 – 16 ) and from the Gospel of John ( the Marriage at Cana – John 2 : 1 – 11 ) .
The cantata is a chorale cantata based on the hymn " Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid " in 18 stanzas attributed to Martin Moller ( 1587 ) . It is a paraphrase of the Latin " Jesu dulcis memoria " , a medieval hymn attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux , a meditation on Jesus as a comforter and helper in distress . The unknown librettist retained the words of stanzas 1 , 2 and 18 as movements 1 , 2 and 6 . In movement 2 , stanza 2 is expanded by paraphrases of stanzas 3 – 5 , while movement 3 is a paraphrase of stanza 6 ; movement 4 incorporates ideas from stanzas 7 – 14 , and movement 5 relies on stanzas 15 and 16.In movement 2 , stanza 2 is expanded by paraphrases of stanzas 3 – 5 . Movement 3 is a paraphrase of stanza 6 . Movement 4 incorporates ideas from stanzas 7 – 14 . Movement 5 relies on stanzas 15 and 16 . The poet did not relate his text to the reading from John 1 : 2 .
Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 14 January 1725 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements . An opening chorus and a closing chorale frame a sequence of alternating recitatives and arias . The first recitative is unusual : the chorus sings one line of the hymn 's four lines , continued each time by a soloist in words of the poet . The last aria is a duet . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of horn ( Co ) to double the cantus firmus in the closing chorale , trombone ( Tb ) to reinforce the bass in the opening chorus , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . The autograph score bears the title : " Dominica 2 post Epiphanias / Ach Gott ! Wie manches Hertzeleyd . / à / 4 Voci . / 2 Hautb : d 'Amour / 2 Violini / Viola . / e Continuo / di J. S. Bach " , which means " Sunday 2 after Epiphany ... for four voices , 2 oboes d 'amore , 2 violins , viola and continuo by J. S. Bach " .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Bach uses a melody of " Herr Jesu Christ , meins Lebens Licht " which appeared first in the Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch . The melody appears in the opening chorus , sung by the bass as a cantus firmus , in the second movement , as a four @-@ part setting with interspersed recitatives , and in the closing chorale .
= = = 1 = = =
In the opening chorus , " Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid " ( Ah , God , how much heartache ) , the cantus firmus is in the bass , which is doubled by the trombone , as in Ach Herr , mich armen Sünder , BWV 135 . Its mood of lamentation is supported by " elegiac sounds " of the oboes d 'amore , sighing motifs in the strings , and the upper voices reflecting the oboe motifs . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , notes that Bach used a repeated motif of six notes in chromatic descent , which is often used in chaconnes of the Baroque opera to express grief . The motif is used for the instrumental opening , each entry of a voice , interludes and conclusion .
= = = 2 = = =
The recitative , " Wie schwerlich läßt sich Fleisch und Blut " ( How difficult it is for flesh and blood ) , combines the hymn tune sung by the four @-@ part choir , with interpolated text sung by the soloists in turn . The lines of the hymn are separated by a joyful ostinato motif derived from the chorale tune . The musicologist Julian Mincham writes that the " hybrid recitative provides an excellent example of Bach 's experiments of investing long texts with sustained musical interest " .
= = = 3 = = =
The bass aria , " Empfind ich Höllenangst und Pein " ( Although I experience the fear and torment of Hell ) , is accompanied by the continuo . It expresses the contrast of Höllenangst ( hell 's anguish ) and Freudenhimmel ( heaven of joy ) , with inestimable sorrows ( unermessnen Schmerzen ) disappearing into light mist ( leichte Nebel ) .
= = = 4 = = =
A tenor recitative , " Es mag mir Leib und Geist verschmachten " ( My body and spirit might despair ) , expresses trust in Jesus to overcome despair .
= = = 5 = = =
In the duet for soprano and alto , " Wenn Sorgen auf mich dringen " ( When cares press upon me ) , in " bright E major " , as the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff writes , the voices are embedded in a " dense quartet texture " . He concludes that the movement " banishes human care by means of joyful singing " . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann notes that the obbligato motif , which is later picked up by the voices , is played by the oboes d 'amore and violin in unison , providing " a new and remarkable tone colour " . Bach refers to the Cross , as mentioned in the text , by using a cross @-@ motif in the melody and applying double sharp marked by a cross . The voices intensify words such as " dringen " ( press ) and " singen " ( sing ) by extended coloraturas .
= = = 6 = = =
The closing chorale , " Erhalt mein Herz im Glauben rein " ( If my heart remains pure in faith ) , is a four @-@ part setting . The choral melody , now in the soprano , is reinforced by a horn .
= = Recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website .
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= Hastings Line =
The Hastings Line is a secondary railway line in Kent and East Sussex , England , linking Hastings with the main town of Tunbridge Wells , and from there into London via Tonbridge and Sevenoaks . Although primarily carrying passengers , the railway serves a gypsum mine which is a source of freight traffic . Southeastern operates passenger trains on the line .
The railway was constructed by the South Eastern Railway in the early 1850s across the difficult terrain of the High Weald . Supervision of the building of the line was lax , enabling contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . These deficiencies showed up after the railway had opened . Rectifications led to a restricted loading gauge along the line , requiring the use of dedicated rolling stock .
Served by steam locomotives from opening until the late 1950s , passenger services were then taken over by a fleet of diesel @-@ electric multiple units built to the line 's loading gauge . Diesel locomotives handled freight , also built to fit the loading gauge . The diesel @-@ electric multiple units served on the line until 1986 , when the line was electrified and the most severely affected tunnels were reduced from double track to single .
= = Background = =
The South Eastern Railway ( SER ) completed its main line from London to Dover , Kent in 1844 , branching off the rival London , Brighton and South Coast Railway 's ( LBSC ) line at Redhill . Construction of a single line branch from Tunbridge ( modern spelling " Tonbridge " [ Note 2 ] ) to Tunbridge Wells , a fashionable town where a chalybeate spring had been discovered in 1606 , began in July 1844 . At the time , Parliament had not given assent for the railway . The Act of Parliament enabling the construction of the line had its first reading in the House of Commons on 28 April 1845 . The bill completed its passage through the House of Commons and the House of Lords on 28 July , following which Royal Assent was granted on 31 July by Queen Victoria .
The engineer in charge of the construction was Peter W. Barlow and the contractors were Messrs. Hoof & Son . In April 1845 the SER decided that the branch would be double track . A 410 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 370 m ) tunnel was required 44 chains ( 890 m ) after leaving Tunbridge . This was named " Somerhill Tunnel " after the nearby mansion . A mile and 54 chains ( 2 @.@ 70 km ) after leaving Somerhill Tunnel , a 270 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 250 m ) viaduct was required . Southborough Viaduct stands 40 feet ( 12 m ) high and has 26 arches . A temporary station was built at Tunbridge Wells as the 823 yd ( 753 m ) Wells Tunnel was still under construction . It was 4 miles 7 chains ( 6 @.@ 58 km ) from Tunbridge . The temporary station subsequently became a goods station . The first train , comprising four locomotives and 26 carriages , arrived at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September . Trains from Tunbridge had to reverse before starting the climb to Somerhill Tunnel , as there was no facing junction at Tunbridge . This situation was to remain until 1857 , when a direct link was built at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 700 . The old link remained in use until c . 1913 .
The SER was granted permission to build a line from Ashford in Kent to St Leonards , East Sussex in 1845 . The LBSC reached St Leonards from Lewes the following year . This gave the LBSC a shorter route to Hastings than the SERs route , then still under construction . The SER sought permission to extend their branch from Tunbridge Wells across the High Weald to reach Hastings . Authorisation for the construction of a 25 @-@ mile @-@ 60 @-@ chain ( 41 @.@ 44 km ) line to Hastings was obtained on 18 June 1846 , Parliament deemed the line between Ashford and St Leonards to be of military strategic importance . Therefore , they stipulated that this line was to be completed before any extension was built from Tunbridge Wells . The extension into Tunbridge Wells opened on 25 November 1846 without any public ceremony . In 1847 , the SER unsuccessfully challenged the condition that the line between Ashford and St Leonards be completed first . That line was opened in 1851 , passing through Hastings and making an end @-@ on junction with the LBSC line from Lewes .
= = Construction = =
The Hastings Line is built over the difficult , forested , and hilly terrain across the High Weald and sandstone Hastings Beds , necessitating the construction of eight tunnels between Tonbridge and the south coast seaside resort of Hastings . The SER was anxious to construct the line as economically as possible , since it was in competition with the LBSC to obtain entry into Hastings and was not in a strong financial position in the mid 1840s .
The construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Robertsbridge was contracted to Messrs. Hoof & Wyths , subcontracted to Messrs. H. Warden . By March 1851 , the trackbed had been constructed as far as Whatlington , East Sussex , a distance of 19 miles ( 30 @.@ 58 km ) . All tunnels had been completed and a single line of railway had been laid for a distance of 10 miles 40 chains ( 16 @.@ 90 km ) from Tunbridge Wells . When the 15 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 24 @.@ 94 km ) section from Tunbridge Wells to Robertsbridge opened on 1 September , a single line of track extended a further 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 44 km ) to Whatlington . On the 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) section between Whatlington and St Leonards , 750 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 570 @,@ 000 m3 ) out of 827 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 632 @,@ 000 m3 ) had been excavated . Construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Bopeep Junction cost in excess of £ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = Deficiencies in the construction of the tunnels = = =
Supervision of the construction was lax , which enabled the contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . This manifested itself in March 1855 when part of the brickwork of Mountfield Tunnel collapsed . An inspection of Grove Hill , Strawberry Hill and Wells tunnels revealed that they too had been constructed with too few layers of bricks . Grove Hill Tunnel had been built with just a single ring of bricks and no filling above the crown of the brickwork . The SER took the contractors to court and were awarded £ 3 @,@ 500 in damages . However , rectifying the situation cost the company £ 4 @,@ 700 . Although the contractors had charged for six rings of bricks , they had only used four . Due to the cost of reboring the tunnels , this had to be rectified by the addition of a further two rings of brickwork , reducing the width of the tunnels by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) . The result of this was that the loading gauge on the line was restricted , and special rolling stock had to be built , later becoming known as Restriction 0 rolling stock . This problem would affect the line until 1986 .
Wadhurst Tunnel collapsed in 1862 and it was discovered by the SER that the same situation existed there too . Rectification cost £ 10 @,@ 231 . By 1877 , only one train was permitted in Bopeep Tunnel at a time . The tunnel was partly widened in 1934 – 35 . In November 1949 , serious defects were discovered in the tunnel . Single @-@ line working was put in place on 19 November , but the tunnel had to be closed completely a week later . The tunnel was partially relined with cast iron segments . It reopened to traffic on 5 June 1950 . Mountfield Tunnel was underpinned in 1938 – 39 , remaining open with single @-@ line working in operation . It partially collapsed on 17 November 1974 , resulting in single @-@ line working until 31 January 1975 . The line was then closed until 17 March whilst the track was singled through the tunnel .
= = = Openings = = =
The line was opened by the SER in three main stages : From Tunbridge – Tunbridge Wells , Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge and Robertsbridge – Bopeep Junction . A temporary station was opened at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September 1845 while Wells Tunnel was completed . The temporary station later became the goods depot . Tunbridge Wells ( later Tunbridge Wells Central ) station opened on 25 November 1846 . The Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge section opened on 1 September 1851 , with the Robertsbridge – Battle section opening on 1 January 1852 . The Battle – Bopeep Junction section opened on 1 February 1852 .
= = = Description of the route = = =
The line climbs steeply out of the Medway Valley at gradients of between 1 in 47 [ Note 3 ] and 1 in 300 to a summit south of Tunbridge Wells , the line undulates as far as Wadhurst at gradients between 1 in 80 and 1 in 155 before descending into the Rother Valley , which it follows as far as Robertsbridge at gradients between 1 in 48 and 1 in 485 . The line then climbs at gradients between 1 in 86 and 1 in 170 before a dip where it crosses the River Brede . This is followed by a climb to Battle with gradients between 1 in 100 and 1 in 227 before the line falls to Hastings at gradients of between 1 in 100 and 1 in 945 .
Bopeep Junction is the junction of the Hastings Line with the East Coastway Line . It lies east of Bopeep Tunnel . There is a pub in Bulverhythe called The Bo Peep . The name was a nickname for Customs and Excise men .
= = = Tunnels = = =
There are eight tunnels between Tonbridge and Hastings . In order from north to south they are :
= = = Stations = = =
The original stations on the Tunbridge Wells to Hastings section of the line are mostly in the Gothic or Italianate styles . These were designed by William Tress . Frant , Wadhurst , Witherenden , Etchingham and Robertsbridge stations opened on 1 September 1851 . Other station openings are detailed below . Stations are listed under their original names .
Tunbridge
Tunbridge station had opened in May 1842 . Following the opening of the branch to Tunbridge Wells in 1845 , it was renamed Tunbridge Junction in January 1852 . The original station stood to the east of the road bridge , whereas the current station , opened in 1864 , stands to the west . Trains leaving Tunbridge had to reverse to reach Tunbridge Wells . This arrangement lasted until 1857 , when a new section of line was constructed enabling trains to reach the Hastings Line without reversal . The station is 29 miles 42 chains ( 47 @.@ 52 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .
Southborough
Southborough station opened on 1 March 1893 . It was renamed High Brooms on 21 September 1925 to avoid confusion with Southborough station on the Chatham Main Line , which had already been renamed Bickley . The station is 32 miles 70 chains ( 52 @.@ 91 km ) from Charing Cross .
Tunbridge Wells
The first station at Tunbridge Wells was temporary and was situated north of Wells Tunnel . It opened on 19 September 1845 and was replaced by the present Tunbridge Wells Station on 25 November 1846 . It subsequently became Tunbridge Wells Goods station , later renamed Tunbridge Wells Central Goods station . The goods station closed in 1980 , with a siding retained for engineers use . The original station was 44 miles 23 chains ( 71 @.@ 27 km ) from London Bridge via Redhill . [ Note 4 ]
The building on the up side of the station was built in the Italianate style . A new building by A. H. Blomfield was constructed on the down side in 1911 . The station was renamed Tunbridge Wells Central on 9 July 1923 with the ex @-@ LBSC station being renamed Tunbridge Wells West . Following the closure of the Tunbridge Wells – Eridge railway on 6 July 1985 , the name reverted to Tunbridge Wells . The station is 34 miles 32 chains ( 55 @.@ 36 km ) from Charing Cross .
Frant
Frant station is 36 miles 53 chains ( 59 @.@ 00 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is on the down side .
Wadhurst
Wadhurst station is 39 miles 23 chains ( 63 @.@ 23 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is in the Italianate style , with a later one @-@ bay extension . The 1893 @-@ built signal box , decommissioned on 20 April 1986 , was purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway .
Witherenden
Witherenden station is 43 miles 66 chains ( 70 @.@ 53 km ) from Charing Cross . It was renamed Ticehurst Road in December 1851 , and Stonegate on 16 June 1947 .
Etchingham
Etchingham station is 47 miles 34 chains ( 76 @.@ 32 km ) from Charing Cross . The building is on the up side .
Robertsbridge
Robertsbridge station is 49 miles 37 chains ( 79 @.@ 60 km ) from Charing Cross . On 26 March 1900 , it became a junction with the opening of the Rother Valley Railway to freight . The line opened to passengers on 2 April 1900 , and was renamed the Kent and East Sussex Railway in 1904 . The Kent and East Sussex Railway closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and to freight on 12 June 1962 , except for a short section serving a mill at Robertsbridge which closed on 1 January 1970 .
Mountfield Halt
Mountfield Halt opened in 1923 . It closed on 6 October 1969 . The platforms were built of sleepers and were demolished in the early 1970s . The station was 53 miles 37 chains ( 86 @.@ 04 km ) from Charing Cross .
Battle
Battle station opened on 1 September 1851 . The buildings are in the Gothic style and stand on the up side . The station is 55 miles 46 chains ( 89 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross .
Crowhurst
A siding had existed at Crowhurst from 1877 . The station opened on 1 June 1902 and was located at the junction for the Bexhill West Branch Line , which also opened the same day . Despite the line 's closure on 14 June 1964 , Crowhurst station remains open . The station is 57 miles 45 chains ( 92 @.@ 64 km ) from Charing Cross .
West St Leonards
West St Leonards station opened on 1 October 1887 . The buildings are wood framed and covered with weatherboards . The station is 60 miles 59 chains ( 97 @.@ 75 km ) from Charing Cross .
St Leonards Warrior Square
St Leonards Warrior Square station opened on 13 February 1851 along with a new section of line between Hastings and the LBSCs Hastings & St Leonards station . This gave the LBSC better access to Hastings . It lies between Bopeep Tunnel and Hastings Tunnel . The station is 61 miles 55 chains ( 99 @.@ 28 km ) from Charing Cross .
Hastings
Hastings station opened on 13 February 1851 along with the SER branch from Ashford . The station was rebuilt and enlarged by the SER in 1880 as it was then inadequate for the increasing seasonal traffic . In 1930 the station was rebuilt by the Southern Railway . This entailed closure of the engine sheds at Hastings , with locomotives being transferred to St Leonards . The original station building , by Tress , was demolished and a new Neo @-@ Georgian station building by J. R. Scott was erected . The rebuilt station was completed on 5 July 1931 . The station was rebuilt in 2003 by Railtrack . The 1931 @-@ built building was demolished and a new structure erected in its place . The station is 62 miles 33 chains ( 100 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .
= = = Links to other lines = = =
= = = = Built = = = =
In the late 1860s , a single track link was built between the SERs Tunbridge Wells station and the LBSCs Tunbridge Wells station , which had opened in 1866 . It was 1875 before powers were granted to run a passenger service over this section of line . The junction with the main line was Grove Junction . It was removed on 7 July 1985 , following closure of the Tunbridge Wells Central – Eridge line the previous day .
In 1900 , the Rother Valley Railway opened from Robertsbridge to Tenterden . It was extended in stages to Tenterden Town and Headcorn , which was reached in 1905 . The line closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and freight on 12 June 1961 , except for access to Hodson 's Mill closed in 1970 . The Rother Valley Railway heritage railway are rebuilding the line between Robertsbridge and Junction Road , with completion scheduled by 2018 . In 1902 , a branch line was built to Bexhill West , with a new station at the junction with the main line at Crowhurst . This line closed on 14 June 1964 .
= = = = Authorised = = = =
In 1903 , a railway was authorised to be built from Robertsbridge to Pevensey , East Sussex . The line was authorised under the Light Railways Act 1896 , but was not constructed .
= = = = Proposed = = = =
In 1856 , it was proposed to build a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) long branch from Witherenden to Mayfield , East Sussex . [ Note 5 ] In 1882 , an 18 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 29 @.@ 77 km ) long railway was proposed from Ticehurst Road to Langney , East Sussex , giving access to Eastbourne . Stations were proposed at Burwash , Dallington , Bodle Street Green , Boreham Street , Pevensey and Langney .
= = = Planned electrification = = =
Electrification of the Hastings Line was first considered by the SER as early as 1903 . Lack of finance meant that no decision had been made by the time World War I broke out in 1914 . It was stated in 1921 that electrification was a long term aim . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the Southern Railway , which had been formed from the SER , LBSC , London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) and London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) in 1923 under the Railways Act 1921 , electrified a number of lines . The East Coastway Line was electrified in 1935 , with a depot being built at Ore , East Sussex . In 1937 , it was proposed to electrify the line between Sevenoaks and St Leonards Warrior Square at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The scheme was deferred , with another proposal in 1937 costing £ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 also failing to gain favour before World War II broke out . One of the main reasons that electrification was not given the go @-@ ahead was the fact that non @-@ standard rolling stock would be required . The Southern Railway had provided the line with 104 new carriages and six Pullman Cars between 1929 and 1934 . Two electric locomotives were ordered in 1937 . They were built to the Hastings Line loading gauge .
In October 1946 , the Southern Railway announced a programme to electrify all lines in Kent and East Sussex in three stages . The Hastings Line between Tonbridge and Bopeep Junction was to be part of the third stage . Track would have been slewed within the affected tunnels with only one train normally allowed in the tunnel . In an emergency , two trains would be allowed in the tunnel at the same time , but restricted to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) . Standard 9 feet 0 inches ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) wide stock would be used . Following the nationalisation of railways in the United Kingdom under the Transport Act 1947 , the Southern Region of British Railways shelved new electrification schemes , concentrating on the construction of new steam locomotives . In 1952 , the possibility of operating standard rolling stock on the line had been examined . The Operating Department objected to the use of single line sections through the various tunnels . The 1930s stock was refurbished with the aim of extending its service by a further ten years . The first two phases of the Southern Railways ' electrification scheme were revived in 1955 . This did not include the Hastings Line and it was announced in 1956 that a fleet of diesel @-@ electric trains would be constructed to operate the service until the line was electrified . At that time , the rolling stock built in the 1930s was overdue for replacement . The modernisation to the Hastings Line and the introduction of the diesel @-@ electric trains cost £ 797 @,@ 000 , of which £ 595 @,@ 000 was the cost of the first seven trains . A further thirteen trains cost £ 1 @,@ 178 @,@ 840 .
Electrification was finally carried out in the 1980s , as detailed below .
= = Operators = =
From 1845 , the line was operated by the SER . In 1899 , the SER and LCDR entered into a joint working partnership , the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . On 1 January 1923 , the Railways Act 1921 came into force , resulting in the Grouping . The SECR became part of the Southern Railway ( SR ) . On 1 January 1948 , the Transport Act 1947 came into force , and the SR became part of British Railways , with the former SR lines becoming the Southern Region . British Railways was rebranded British Rail on 1 January 1965 . On 10 June 1986 , Network SouthEast branded trains began operating . On 1 January 1994 , the Railways Act 1993 came into force , privatising British Rail . Passenger services were taken over by Connex South Eastern on 13 October 1996 . On 27 June 2003 , Connex lost the franchise due to poor financial management . The Strategic Rail Authority took over the running of passenger trains from 9 November 2003 , using their South Eastern Trains train operating company . On 1 April 2006 , Southeastern took over the operation of passenger trains on the route .
= = Operation = =
= = = Steam era ( 1845 – 1957 ) = = =
From the opening of the line , passenger stock consisted of 4 @-@ wheel carriages . In 1845 , there were eight passenger trains a day from Tunbridge Wells to London , with half that number on Sundays . On 23 June 1849 , the Royal Train took Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to Tunbridge Wells to visit Queen Adelaide , the Queen Dowager . The train , consisting of the Royal Saloon , two first class carriages and a brake van made the journey from Bricklayers Arms to Tunbridge Wells in 75 minutes . It was driven by James Cudworth , the Locomotive Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 70 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line again on 18 December 1849 conveying Queen Victoria and Princess Alice from Windsor , Berkshire to Tunbridge Wells on a visit to Princess Louise . The journey via Waterloo took 100 minutes . The train was driven by William Jacomb , Resident Engineer of the LSWR , and Edgar Verringer , Superintendent of the LSWR . At Waterloo , driving of the train was taken over by John Shaw , General Manager of the SER and Mr. Cockburn , Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 105 minutes .
With the opening of the extension to Robertsbridge , there were three trains a day , with two on Sundays . These were augmented by an additional train daily when the extension to Bopeep Junction opened . In 1860 , there were seven up trains and six down trains daily ; Hastings to London via Redhill taking two hours . From 1861 , Cudworth 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 " Little Mail " class locomotives were introduced . In 1876 , the Sub @-@ Wealden Gypsum Co built a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long line from a junction south of Mountfield Tunnel to a gypsum mine located in Great Wood , Mountfield . This line was still in operation as of 2007 . Bogie carriages entered service on the line in 1880 . In 1890 , the winter service was eleven trains each way , of which five were fast . [ Note 6 ] An additional two trains daily operated between Tunbridge Wells and Wadhurst . By 1910 , this had increased to twenty trains each way , of which twelve were fast , plus the extra two Wadhurst services . Four trains ran on Sundays . The service was reduced during World War I , but Sunday services had increased to seven by 1922 .
By the 1930s the line was worked by L and L1 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives . The Schools class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s were introduced in 1930 ; the width of these was 8 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 54 m ) measured across the cab , and 8 feet 6 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 604 m ) measured across the cylinders . The service was again reduced during World War II , with fourteen trains daily in 1942 , of which four were fast ; there were seven trains on Sundays . As built , it was envisaged that the West Country and Battle of Britain class locomotives would be able to work the line . Forty @-@ eight locomotives of the West Country and 22 of the Battle of Britain class were built with cabs that were 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) wide and paired with tenders of the same width . It was subsequently decided not to work these locomotives over the line . Locomotives from these two classes that were rebuilt gained a 9 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) cab . Unrebuilt locomotives retained their narrow cab .
By 1948 , the service was sixteen trains , of which seven were fast . An additional three trains ran as far as Wadhurst . In 1957 , the service was eighteen trains daily , of which nine were fast . There were nine trains on Sundays . The Schools Class locomotives worked the line until 1957 when steam was withdrawn on the Hastings Line . Diesel @-@ electric multiple units of what became British Rail Class 201 , 202 and 203 ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route .
Under British Railways , classes D1 , E1 , H , N1 , M7 , Q , Q1 , Std 3 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 2T , Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T and U1 were permitted to work between Tonbridge and Grove junction . Freight trains from Tonbridge West Yard were not permitted to depart until the line was clear as far as Southborough Viaduct . Other classes of locomotive known to have worked over this section of line include C , and E4 .
= = = Diesel @-@ electric era ( 1957 – 86 ) = = =
Special narrow bodied diesel electric multiple units were introduced in 1957 – 58 to replace steam traction . British Rail Class 201 ( 6S ) , 202 ( 6L ) and 203 ( 6B ) ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route . These units were constructed of narrow rolling stock . They were delivered in six @-@ car formations ( the 6Bs including a buffet car ) and two units were often operated in multiple to form twelve @-@ car trains . In latter years some of the units were reduced to five , and later still , to four cars .
The 6S units were intended to be introduced into service in June 1957 . On 5 April a fire at Cannon Street signal box disabled all signalling equipment there . As a result , locomotive @-@ hauled trains were banned from the station . A temporary signal box was commissioned on 5 May and the 6S units were introduced on peak services the next day . Two units coupled together formed the 06 : 58 and 07 : 26 Hastings – Cannon Street services in the morning , and the 17 : 18 and 18 : 03 Cannon Street – Hastings services in the evening . From 17 June the 6S and 6L units were working services throughout the day . The 6B units entered service between May and August 1958 .
The Hastings Diesels had almost completely replaced steam by June 1958 . With the introduction of the Hastings Diesels , an hourly service was provided . This split at Tunbridge Wells , with the front portion running fast to Crowhurst and the rear portion stopping at all stations . The service ran every two hours on Sundays . The Hastings Diesels also worked services on the Bexhill West Branch Line until closure on 14 June 1964 . On 22 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central .
In 1962 , twelve Class 33 / 2 diesel locomotives , were also built with narrow bodies for the Hastings line . These enabled the last steam workings , overnight newspaper trains , to be withdrawn from the Hastings Line . Nineteen British Rail Class 207 ( 3D ) diesel electric multiple units were built in 1962 . They operated over the Tonbridge – Grove Junction section of the line as part of a Tonbridge – Eastbourne ( later Tonbridge – Eridge ) service . In 1963 , Frant , Stonegate , Wadhurst and Mountfield Halt were proposed to be closed under the Beeching Axe . One special working took place on 3 April 1966 when one of the ex @-@ Great Western Railway diesel railcars , W20W , was worked between Tonbridge and Robertsbridge as an out of gauge load . The railcar had been purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway for £ 415 including delivery to Robertsbridge . After trying to " wriggle out " of the deal , British Rail eventually found a solution . The vehicle was ballasted so that it leant away from the tunnel walls by some 3 inches ( 80 mm ) and was worked to Robertsbridge at a maximum of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) . From 1977 , there were two trains an hour , one fast and one slow . In May 1980 , the buffet cars were withdrawn from the 6B units , which were recoded as 5L , but retaining the Class 203 designation . The fast trains were withdrawn in January 1981 , with trains now stopping at all stations .
= = = Electric era ( since 1986 ) = = =
On 28 October 1983 , it was announced that the Hastings Line was to be electrified . Reasons that decided the issue included a commitment by British Rail to eliminate asbestos from all stock in service by 1988 and the increasing cost of maintaining the then ageing Hastings Diesels . The scheme was to cost £ 23 @,@ 925 @,@ 000 . Electrification was finally completed in 1986 , the line was electrified using 750 V DC third rail using standard rolling stock , and the expedient of singling the track through the narrow tunnels . The tunnels either side of Tunbridge Wells Central station were not singled because the fact that the south portal of Wells Tunnel and north portal of Grove Hill Tunnel were at the ends of the platforms meant it was impossible to install pointwork without reducing the length of platform available . A speed restriction was imposed through Wells Tunnel . Parliamentary powers were sought in 1979 to bore a second Grove Hill Tunnel , but there was much opposition from local residents . This , and the high cost , caused the proposal to be abandoned . The track in Grove Hill Tunnel was relaid on a concrete base , allowing alignment to be precisely controlled .
The line was declared to conform to the standard C1 loading gauge on 14 March . The first passenger carrying train comprising C1 stock to use the line was a railtour on 15 March hauled by 50 025 Invincible . It was organised by the Southern Electric Group and ran from Paddington to Folkestone Harbour . A preview service of electric trains ran on 27 April 1986 and the full timetabled service commenced on 12 May 1986 . The next day , a wrong @-@ side failure occurred involving three signals between Tonbridge and Hastings . Contractors had made errors in the wiring of the signal heads . With the inauguration of electric services , a half @-@ hourly service was operated , with trains departing from Charing Cross at 15 and 45 minutes past the hour . Those departing at xx : 15 called at Waterloo East , Sevenoaks , Tonbridge , High Brooms , Tunbridge Wells , Wadhurst , Battle , St Leonards Warrior Square and Hastings , taking 84 minutes . Those departing at xx : 45 called at Waterloo East , London Bridge , Orpington , Sevenoaks , Hildenborough , Tonbridge and then all stations to Hastings , taking 99 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line on 6 May , conveying Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother . It was stabled at Wadhurst whilst she ate lunch . The train was hauled by a Class 73 diesel @-@ electric locomotive . Upon electrification , services were operated by 4CEP , 4CIG and 4VEP electric multiple units . Class 508 electric multiple units also operated services on the line . When these units were withdrawn in the mid @-@ 2000s , they were replaced by Class 375 Electrostar , Class 465 Networker and Class 466 Networker units .
Train services on the line are provided by Southeastern , and are mostly operated by Class 375 Electrostar , or occasionally Class 465 / 466 Networker units . The line still sees a freight service to and from British Gypsum 's sidings at Mountfield .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
A number of accidents have occurred on the Hastings Line , none of which have involved the death of a passenger .
On 4 October 1852 , a passenger train was derailed between Ticehurst Road and Etchingham when the formation was flooded and washed away . Both engine crew members were injured .
On 21 June 1856 , a passenger train derailed between Tunbridge Wells and Tunbridge Junction , killing the driver and injuring the fireman and a passenger .
On 30 September 1866 , the slip portion of a train , which was to be worked forwards to Hastings , failed to stop at Tunbridge due to an error by the slip guard . It crashed into a rake of empty carriages 262 yards ( 240 m ) east of the station . Eleven of the 40 passengers were injured .
On 22 February 1892 , a SER locomotive was run into by a LBSC passenger train at Hastings . The passenger train had overrun a danger signal . Both locomotives were damaged .
On 29 August 1896 , the locomotive of a Charing Cross to Hastings train was derailed near Etchingham when it collided with a traction engine and threshing machine using an occupation crossing .
On 29 April 1912 , SECR F1 class locomotive No. 216 was working an empty stock train when it suffered the failure of the firebox crown near Tunbridge Wells due to a lack of water in the boiler . Both engine crew were severely injured by escaping steam and jumping from the moving locomotive .
On 6 January 1930 , the rear carriages of a passenger train from Hastings to London were partially buried by a landslip near Wadhurst tunnel . The train was divided and the front part continued on to Tunbridge Wells , where it arrived 100 minutes late .
On 23 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central . Eighteen people were injured , with three of them admitted to hospital .
On 8 November 2010 , a passenger train operated by Class 375 unit 375 711 failed to stop at Stonegate station due to maintenance errors in respect of the train 's sanding apparatus . The train overran the station by 2 miles 36 chains ( 3 @.@ 94 km ) . Following the incident , Southeastern reduced the interval that the sand hoppers were to be refilled from seven days to five days . The company was fined £ 65 @,@ 000 and ordered to pay £ 22 @,@ 589 in costs .
On 23 December 2013 , a landslip at Wadhurst was the first in a series of landslips up to February 2014 which led the line between Wadhurst and St. Leonards Warrior Square being closed and reopened three times , with speed restrictions in place following repairs . The train service was replaced by buses during closures . Southeastern was criticised by Hastings and Rye MP Amber Rudd over poor customer service during this period . By 12 March , the section between Wadhurst and Robertsbridge had reopened , with full service being restored on 31 March .
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= Music of Final Fantasy IV =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy IV was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . It was released in North America by Tokyopop as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack : Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles , with one additional track . It has since been re @-@ released multiple times with slight changes as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box and as Final Fantasy IV DS OST . An arranged album entitled Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon , containing a selection of musical tracks from the game performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach , was released by Square and later re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . Additionally , a collection of piano arrangements composed by Nobuo Uematsu and played by Toshiyuki Mori titled Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was released by NTT Publishing .
The music was overall well received ; reviewers have praised the quality of the original composition despite the limitations of the medium , and reacted favorably to the arranged soundtracks . Several tracks , especially " Theme of Love " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series , as well as been published in arranged and compilation albums by Square as well as outside groups .
= = Concept and creation = =
Uematsu has noted that the process of composing was excruciating , involving trial and error and requiring the sound staff to spend several nights in sleeping bags at Square Co. headquarters . He blamed much of the problem on the fact that this was his first soundtrack to use the new Super Famicom hardware , as opposed to his previous soundtracks composed for the Famicom . The liner notes for the Final Fantasy IV OSV album were humorously signed as being written at 1 : 30 AM " in the office , naturally . " Uematsu has stated that , beginning with the soundtrack to Final Fantasy IV , he started to move away from the idea that the soundtrack had to be solely an orchestral score . In June 2007 , Square Enix held a casting for a vocalist to sing a version of Final Fantasy IV 's " Theme of Love " rearranged by Nobuo Uematsu . Megumi Ida was selected from approximately 800 applicants to perform the song , which was featured on the Japanese Nintendo DS remake of the game , as well as the accompanying soundtrack album .
= = Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version = =
Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album containing the musical tracks from the game , composed , arranged , produced and performed by Nobuo Uematsu . It spans 44 tracks and covers a duration of 58 : 25 . It was first released on June 14 , 1991 , by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N23D @-@ 001 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5014 . After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Sony PlayStation as part of Final Fantasy Chronicles , the album was released in North America by Tokyopop on August 21 , 2001 as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack : Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles . This is nearly the same release as Final Fantasy IV : Original Sound Version , some track titles were slightly changed , and a 45th track was added , " Theme of Love ( Arranged ) " , which had previously only been released as a piano version on the second track of Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV . This release has the catalog numbers TPCD 0210 @-@ 2 .
The GBA version was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28 , 2007 under the catalog number FFFB @-@ 0001 along with the OSTs of Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy VI after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance . This version included several tracks which were not included in the original album , such as the " Chocobo Forest " theme , the music for the dancing girl , the short intro to " Cry in Sorrow / Sorrow and Loss " , and various fanfares .
After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Nintendo DS , a new version of the Soundtrack arranged by Junya Nakano and Kenichiro Fukui , respectively , was released in Japan in January 2008 as Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack . Most of the pieces are the same as on the original album , although they were reproduced for the sound hardware of the DS , with new synthesizer effects . A new version of " Theme of Love " was included , with lyrics sung by Megumi Ida . It was released as a two @-@ disk set with a bonus DVD containing the full motion video included in the re @-@ releases of Final Fantasy IV , and has the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10105 @-@ 7 . This version of " Theme of Love " was also released as a single , entitled Moonlight -Final Fantasy IV Theme of Love- . The single also includes the DS version of the song , the original track , and a karaoke version of the Megumi Ida rendition . It was released along with a bonus DVD containing a music video for the song on December 5 , 2007 with the catalog numbers of BVCR @-@ 19727 @-@ 8 and a duration of 16 : 21 .
Final Fantasy IV OSV was well received ; reviewers have praised the quality of the composition despite the limited medium . Soundtrack Central compared it favorably with Uematsu 's later works , especially the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VI , and termed it a " great CD " . However , the length of several tracks as well as of the album as a whole was criticized , with reviewers finding it " too short " and disapproving of the early fade @-@ out of some tracks . Reviewers found the expanded and remastered version found in the Finest Box to be comparable to the quality of the original album , with some tracks improving in their remake , becoming " deeper " or " sharper " as was appropriate .
A new edition of the soundtrack , Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack Remaster Version , was released by Square Enix on July 3 , 2013 . This version is expanded to two discs , allowing the tracks to play through two loops rather than just one , as well as the addition of a few short pieces that were left off of the original recording . Despite the name , the album features the original Super NES version of the music , rather than a more modern synthesizer sound . The album has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10373 ~ 4 , and its 57 tracks have a duration of 1 : 32 : 40 . Joshua Bateman of RPGFan stated that while the remaster edition wasn 't strictly necessary , given that Square Enix still sold the original version online , the new edition was still a superior version and an important step in preserving classic video game music .
= = Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon = =
Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon is a selection of musical tracks from the game , arranged and performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach . It spans 15 tracks and covers a duration of 52 : 36 . It was first released on October 28 , 1991 , in Japan , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and on October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N30D @-@ 006 , the first re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5017 , and the most recent re @-@ release has the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5017 .
Overall reception of Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon was also positive , though some reviewers felt that several of the tracks were of lesser quality than the rest of the album . Patrick Gann of RPGFan described it as " Awesome . Purely spectacular . " and Matt Brady of Final Fantasy Symphony concurred , saying that the " music quality for this soundtrack was spectacular . " Daniel Space of RPGFan , however , found the quality mixed , and said that " some of the pieces do not live up to the new orchestration , " although others " were a delight to hear . " He also found some of the instruments to be slightly out of tune , which he disliked , though Matt Brady felt it gave the pieces an " ethnic feel " .
= = Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV is a collection of Final Fantasy IV music composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged by Shiro Satou and played on piano by Toshiyuki Mori . It spans 14 tracks and covers a duration of 57 : 24 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on April 21 , 1992 , and subsequently re @-@ published on May 23 , 2001 . The original release bears the catalog number N38D @-@ 010 , and the reprint bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 1001 .
Critical reception for Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was positive , with reviewers terming the album " fantastic " . Damian Thomas of RPGFan said that the album was " a true gem " and said that despite his dislike of piano arrangements , he " truly appreciated " the album . Some reviewers felt that the pieces in the album were " simplistic " , especially in comparison to the piano collections for Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy VI , but said that " its simplicity calls for a different feeling , and it is still great , " and that despite the lack of complexity , " all of the songs ... are extremely nicely done . "
= = Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album = =
Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album is a 6 track Mini CD EP released on September 5 , 1991 by NTT Publishing Co . It contains unreleased and arranged tracks from the original soundtrack . The catalog number is N09D @-@ 004 and it has a total playing time of 20 : 25 .
= = Legacy = =
The music of Final Fantasy IV has remained popular since its release , especially in Japan . The track " Theme of Love " has even been taught to Japanese school children as part of the music curriculum . Additionally , The Black Mages have arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy IV . These are " Battle with the Four Fiends " , an arrangement of " The Dreadful Fight " , and " Zeromus " , an arrangement of " The Final Battle " , both of which can be found on the album The Skies Above , published in 2004 . A lyrical version of " Theme of Love " , sung by Risa Ohki , appeared on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , lyrical versions of " Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY IV " and " Edward 's Harp " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appeared on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The music of Final Fantasy IV has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the game . " Red Wings " , " Theme of Love " , and " Ending Theme " , were played by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in their first Orchestral Game Concert in 1991 as part of a five concert tour , which was later released as a series of albums . Additionally , " Theme of Love " was performed by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy concert tour , as well as by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy IV music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Another popular album release was Echoes of Betrayal , Light of Redemption , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on July 19 , 2009 containing 54 remixes over 4 " discs " . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
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= Pool of Radiance =
Pool of Radiance is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Strategic Simulations , Inc ( SSI ) in 1988 . It was the first adaptation of TSR 's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D or D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game for home computers , becoming the first episode in a four @-@ part series of D & D computer adventure games . The other games in the " Gold Box " series used the game engine pioneered in Pool of Radiance , as did later D & D titles such as the Neverwinter Nights online game . Pool of Radiance takes place in the Forgotten Realms fantasy setting , with the action centered in and around the port city of Phlan .
Just as in traditional D & D games , the player starts by building a party of up to six characters , deciding the race , sex , class and ability scores for each . The player 's party is enlisted to help the settled part of the city by clearing out the marauding inhabitants that have taken over the surroundings . The characters move on from one area to another , battling bands of enemies as they go and ultimately confronting the powerful leader of the evil forces . During play the player characters gain experience points , which allow them to increase their capabilities . The game primarily uses a first @-@ person perspective , with the screen divided into sections to display pertinent textual information . During combat sequences , the display switches to a top @-@ down " video game isometric " view .
Generally well received by the gaming press , Pool of Radiance won the Origins Award for " Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 " . Some reviewers criticized the game 's similarities to other contemporary games and its slowness in places , but praised the game 's graphics and its role @-@ playing adventure and combat aspects . Also well @-@ regarded was the ability to export player characters from Pool of Radiance to subsequent SSI games in the series .
= = Gameplay = =
Pool of Radiance is based on the same game mechanics as the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rule set . As in many role @-@ playing games ( RPGs ) , each player character in Pool of Radiance has a character race and a character class , determined at the beginning of the game . Six races are offered , including elves and halflings , as well as four classes ( fighter , cleric , wizard , and thief ) . Non @-@ human characters have the option to become multi @-@ classed , which means they gain the capabilities of more than one class , but advance in levels more slowly . During character creation , the computer randomly generates statistics for each character , although the player can alter these attributes . The player also chooses each character 's alignment , or moral philosophy ; while the player controls each character 's actions , alignment can affect how NPCs view their actions . The player can then customize the appearance and colors of each character 's combat icon . Alternatively , the player can load a pre @-@ generated party to be used for introductory play . These characters are combined into a party of six or less , with two slots open for NPCs . Players create their own save @-@ game files , assuring character continuation regardless of events in the game . On an MS @-@ DOS computer , the game can be copied to the hard @-@ disk drive . Other computer systems , such as the Commodore 64 , require a separate save @-@ game disk .
The game 's " exploration " mode uses a three @-@ dimensional first @-@ person perspective , with a rectangle in the top left of the screen displaying the party 's current view ; the rest of the screen displays text information about the party and the area . During gameplay , the player accesses menus to allow characters to use objects ; trade items with other characters ; parley with enemies ; buy , sell , and pool the characters ' money ; cast spells , and learn new magic skills . Players can view characters ' movement from different angles , including an aerial view . The game uses three different versions of each sprite to indicate differences between short- , medium- , and long @-@ range encounters .
In combat mode , the screen changes to a top @-@ down mode with dimetric projection , where the player decides what actions the characters will take in each round . These actions are taken immediately , rather than after all commands have been issued as is standard in some RPGs . Optionally , the player can let the computer choose character moves for each round . Characters and monsters may make an extra attack on a retreating enemy that moves next to them . If a character 's hit points ( HP ) fall below zero , he or she must be bandaged by another character or the character will die . The game contains random encounters , and game reviewers for Dragon magazine observed that random encounters seem to follow standard patterns of encounter tables in pen and paper AD & D game manuals . They also observed that the depictions of monsters confronting the party " looked as though they had jumped from the pages of the Monster Manual . "
Different combat options are available to characters based on class . For example , fighters can wield melee or ranged weapons ; magic @-@ users can cast spells ; thieves have the option to " back @-@ stab " an opponent by strategically positioning themselves . As fighters progress in level , they can attack more than once in a round . Fighters also gain the ability to " sweep " enemies , effectively attacking each nearby low @-@ level creature in the same turn . Magic @-@ users and clerics are allowed to memorize and cast a set number of spells each day . Once cast , a spell must be memorized again before reuse . The process requires hours of inactivity for all characters , during which they rest in a camp ; this also restores lost hit points to damaged characters . This chore of memorizing spells each night significantly added to the amount of game management required by the player .
As characters defeat enemies , they gain experience points ( XP ) . After gaining enough XP , the characters " train up a level " to become more powerful . This training is purchased in special areas within the city walls . In addition to training , mages can learn new spells by transcribing them from scrolls found in the unsettled areas . Defeated enemies in these areas also contain items such as weapons and armor , which characters can sell to city stores .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Pool of Radiance takes place in the Forgotten Realms fantasy world , in and about the city of Phlan . This is located on the northern shore of the Moonsea along the Barren River , between Zhentil Keep and Melvaunt . The party begins in the civilized section of " New Phlan " that is governed by a council . This portion of the city hosts businesses , including shopkeepers who sell holy items for each temple 's worshipers , a jewelry shop , and retailers who provide arms and armor . A party can also contract with the clerk of the city council for various commissions ; proclamations fastened to the halls within City Hall offer bits of information to aid the party . These coded clues can be deciphered by using the Adventurer 's Journal , included with the game .
There are three temples within Phlan , each dedicated to different gods . Each temple can heal those who are wounded , poisoned , or afflicted , and can fully restore deceased comrades for a high price . The party can also visit the hiring hall and hire an experienced NPC adventurer to accompany the party . Encounters with NPCs in shops and taverns offer valuable information . Listening to gossip in taverns can be helpful to characters , although some tavern tales are false and lead characters into great danger .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The ancient trade city of Phlan has fallen into impoverished ruin . Now only a small portion of the city remains inhabited by humans , who are surrounded by evil creatures . To rebuild the city and clean up the Barren River , the city council of New Phlan has decided to recruit adventurers to drive the monsters from the neighboring ruins . Using bards and publications , they spread tales of the riches waiting to be recovered in Phlan , which draws the player 's party to these shores by ship .
At the start of the game , the adventurers ' ship lands in New Phlan , and they receive a brief but informative tour of the civilized area . They learn that the city is plagued with a history of invasions and wars and has been overtaken by a huge band of humanoids and other creatures . Characters hear rumors that a single controlling element is in charge of these forces . The characters begin a block @-@ by @-@ block quest to rid the ruins of monsters and evil spirits .
Beyond the ruins of old Phlan , the party enters the slum area — one of two quests immediately available to new parties . This quest requires the clearing of the slum block and allows a new party to quickly gain experience . The second quest is to clear out Sokol Keep , located on Thorn Island . This fortified area is inhabited by the undead , which can only be defeated with silver weapons and magic . The characters ' adventure is later expanded to encompass the outlying areas of the Moonsea region . Eventually , the player learns that an evil spirit named Tyranthraxus , who has possessed an ancient dragon , is at the root of Phlan 's problems . The characters fight Tyranthraxus the Flamed One in a climactic final battle .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Pool of Radiance was the first official game based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The scenario was created by TSR designers Jim Ward , David Cook , Steve Winter , and Mike Breault , and coded by programmers from Strategic Simulations , Inc 's Special Projects team . The section of the Forgotten Realms world in which Pool of Radiance takes place was intended to be developed only by SSI . The game was created on Apple II and Commodore 64 computers , taking one year with a team of thirty @-@ five people . This game was the first to use the game engine later used in other SSI D & D games known as the " Gold Box " series . The SSI team developing the game was led by Chuck Kroegel . Kroegel stated that the main challenge with the development was interpreting the AD & D rules to an exact format . Developers also worked to balance the graphics with gameplay to provide a faithful AD & D feel , given the restrictions of a home computer . In addition to the core AD & D manuals , the books Unearthed Arcana and Monster Manual II were also used during development . The images of monsters were adapted directly from the Monster Manual book . The game was originally programmed by Keith Brors and Brad Myers , and it was developed by George MacDonald . The game 's graphic arts were by Tom Wahl , Fred Butts , Darla Marasco , and Susan Halbleib .
Pool of Radiance was released in June 1988 ; it was initially available on the Commodore 64 , Apple II series and IBM PC compatible computers . A version for the Atari ST was also announced . The Macintosh version was released in 1989 . The Macintosh version featured a slightly different interface and was intended to work on black @-@ and @-@ white Macs like the Mac Plus and the Mac Classic . The screen was tiled into separate windows including the game screen , text console , and compass . Graphics were monochrome and the display window was relatively small compared to other versions . The Macintosh version featured sound , but no music . The game 's Amiga version was released two years later . The PC 9800 version 『 プール ・ オブ ・ レイディアンス 』 in Japan was fully translated ( like the Japanese Famicom version ) and featured full @-@ color graphics . The game was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System under the title Advanced Dungeons & Dragons : Pool of Radiance , released in April 1992 .
The original Pool of Radiance game shipped with a 28 @-@ page introductory booklet , which describes secrets relating to the game and the concepts behind it . The booklet guides players through the character creation process , explaining how to create a party . The game also included the 38 @-@ page Adventurer 's Journal , which provides the game 's background . The booklet features depictions of fliers , maps , and information that characters see in the game . The package also included a translation decoder wheel . After the title screen , a copy protection screen was displayed consisting of two pictures and a line . The player was required to use the decoder wheel to line up the pictures , then enter the word revealed on the decoder wheel . After three unsuccessful attempts , the game automatically shut down .
= = = Sequels and Legacy = = =
Pool of Radiance was the first in a four @-@ part series of computer D & D adventures set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting . The others were released by SSI one year apart : Curse of the Azure Bonds ( 1989 ) , Secret of the Silver Blades ( 1990 ) , and Pools of Darkness ( 1991 ) . The 1989 game Hillsfar was also created by SSI but was not a sequel to Pool of Radiance . Hillsfar is described instead , by the reviewers of Dragon , as " a value @-@ added adventure for those who would like to take a side trip while awaiting the sequel " . A player can import characters from Pool of Radiance into Hillsfar , although the characters are reduced to their basic levels and do not retain weapons or magical items . Original Hillsfar characters cannot be exported to Pool of Radiance , but they can be exported to Curse of the Azure Bonds . A review for Curse of the Azure Bonds in Computer Gaming World noted that " you can transfer your characters from Pool of Radiance and it 's a good idea to do so . It will give you a headstart in the game . "
GameSpot declared that Pool of Radiance , with its detailed art , wide variety of quests and treasure , and tactical combat system , and despite the availability of only four character classes and the low character level cap , " ultimately succeeded in its goal of bringing a standardized form of AD & D to the home computer , and laid the foundation for other future gold box AD & D role @-@ playing games " . Scott Battaglia of GameSpy said Pool of Radiance is " what many gamers consider to be the epitome of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons RPGs . These games were so great that people today are using MoSlo in droves to slow down their Pentium III @-@ 1000 MHz enough to play these gems . " In March 2008 , Dvice.com listed Pool of Radiance among its 13 best electronic versions of Dungeons & Dragons . The contributor felt that " The Pool of Radiance series set the stage for Dungeons & Dragons to make a major splash in the video game world . "
The 1988 Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing game module Ruins of Adventure was produced using the same adventure scenario as Pool of Radiance , using the same plot , background , setting , and many of the same characters as the computer game . The module thus contains useful clues to the successful completion of the computer missions . Ruins of Adventure contains four linked miniscenarios , which form the core of Pool of Radiance . According to the editors of Dragon magazine , Pool of Radiance was based on Ruins of Adventure , and not vice versa .
= = = Novelization = = =
In November 1989 a novelization of Pool of Radiance the video game , also called Pool of Radiance , was written by James Ward and Jane Cooper Hong , published by TSR . The novel is set in the Forgotten Realms setting based on the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . Dragon described the novel 's plot : " Five companions find themselves in the unenviable position of defending the soon @-@ to @-@ be ghost town against a rival possessing incredible power . " This book was the first in a trilogy , followed by Pools of Darkness and Pool of Twilight .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
GOG.com released Pool of Radiance and many Gold Box series games digitally on August 20 , 2015 , as a part of " Forgotten Realms : The Archives - Collection Two " .
= = Reception = =
SSI sold 264 @,@ 536 copies of Pool of Radiance for computers in North America , three times that of Heroes of the Lance , an AD & D @-@ licensed action game SSI also released that year . It became by far the most successful game in the company 's history , and the best @-@ selling RPG created on an 8 @-@ bit computer platform ; even the hint book outsold any earlier SSI game .
In Computer Gaming World 's preview of Pool of Radiance in July 1988 , the writer noted a sense of deja vu . He described the similarity of the game 's screen to earlier computer RPGs . For example , the three @-@ dimensional maze view in the upper @-@ left window was similar to Might & Magic or Bard 's Tale , both released in the mid @-@ 1980s . The window with a listing of characters was featured in 1988 's Wasteland ; and the use of an active character to represent the party was part of Ultima V. The reviewer also noted that the design approach for game play was closer to SSI 's own Wizard 's Crown than to the other games in the genre .
Pool of Radiance received positive reviews . G.M. called the game 's graphics " good " and praised its role @-@ playing and combat aspects . They felt that " roleplayers will find Pools is an essential purchase , but people who are solely computer games oriented may hesitate before buying it [ ... ] it will be their loss " . Tony Dillon from Commodore User giving it a score of 9 out of 10 . The only complaint was a slightly slow disk access , but the reviewer was impressed with the game 's features , awarding it a Commodore User superstar and proclaiming it " the best RPG ever to grace the C64 , or indeed any other computer " . Issue # 84 of the British magazine Computer + Video Games rated the game highly , saying that " Pools is a game which no role player or adventurer should be without and people new to role playing should seriously consider buying as an introductory guide " . Another UK publication , The Games Machine , gave the game an 89 % rating . The reviewer noted that the third @-@ person arcade style combat view is a great improvement for SSI , as they had traditionally incorporated simplistic graphics in their role @-@ playing games . The reviewer was critical that Pool of Radiance was not original in its presentation and that the colors were a little drab , but concluded that the game is " classic Dungeons & Dragons which SSI have recreated excellently " . A review from Zzap was less positive , giving the game a score of 80 % . The reviewer felt that the game required too much " hacking , slicing and chopping " without enough emphasis on puzzle solving . The game was awarded 49 % for its puzzle factor .
Three reviewers for Computer Gaming World had conflicting reactions . Ken St. Andre - designer of the Tunnels & Trolls RPG - approved of the game despite his dislike of the D & D system , praising the art , the mixture of combat and puzzles , and surprises . He concluded , " take it from a ' rival ' designer , Pool of Radiance has my recommendation for every computer fantasy role @-@ playing gamer " . Tracie Forman Hicks , however , stated that over @-@ faithful use of the D & D system left it behind others like Ultima and Wizardry . She also disliked the game 's puzzles and lengthy combat sequences . Scorpia also disliked the amount of fighting in a game she otherwise described as a " well @-@ designed slicer / dicer " , concluding that " patience ( possibly of Job ) [ is ] required to get through this one " . Shay Addams from Compute ! stated that experienced role @-@ playing gamers " won 't find anything new here " , but recommended it to those who " love dungeons , dragons , and drama " . In their March 1989 " The Role of Computers " column in Dragon magazine # 143 , Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser ( often called " The Lessers " ) gave Pool of Radiance a three @-@ page review . The reviewers praised Pool of Radiance as " the first offering that truly follows AD & D game rules " , calling it a " great fantasy role @-@ playing game " that " falls into the must @-@ buy category for avid AD & D game players " . The reviewers advised readers to " rush out to your local dealer and buy Pool Of Radiance " . They considered it SSI 's flagship product , speculating that it would " undoubtedly bring thousands of computer enthusiasts into the adventure @-@ filled worlds of TSR " . The Dragon reviewers criticized the " notoriously slow " technology of the C64 / 128 system but added that the C64 / 128 version would become nearly unplayable without a software @-@ based fastloader utility which Strategic Simulations integrated into the game . Conversely , the reviewers felt that the MS @-@ DOS version was extremely fast , so much so that they had to slow the game operation down in order to read all the on @-@ screen messages . They found that the MS @-@ DOS version played at twice the speed of the C64 / 128 version when using the Enhanced Graphics Adapter ( EGA ) graphics mode .
Alex Simmons , Doug Johns , and Andy Mitchell reviewed the Amiga version of Pool of Radiance for Amiga Action magazine in 1990 , giving it a 79 % overall rating . Mitchell preferred the game Champions of Krynn , which had been released by the time the Amiga version of Pool of Radiance became available ; he felt that Pool of Radiance was " more of the same " when compared to Champions , but was less playable and with more limited actions for players . Simmons felt that Pool of Radiance looked primitive and seemed less polished when compared with Champions of Krynn ; he felt that although Pool was not up to the standard of Champions , he said it was still " a fine little game " . Johns , on the other hand , felt that Pool of Radiance was well worth the wait , considering it very user @-@ friendly despite being less polished than Champions of Krynn .
Pool of Radiance was well received by the gaming press and won the Origins Award for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 . For the second annual " Beastie Awards " in 1989 , Dragon 's readers voted Pool of Radiance the most popular fantasy role @-@ playing game of the year , with Ultima V as the runner @-@ up . The Apple II version was the most popular format , the PC DOS / MS @-@ DOS came in a close second , and the Commodore 64 / 128 got the fewest votes . The primary factor given for votes was the game 's faithfulness to the AD & D system as well as the game 's graphics and easy @-@ to @-@ use user interface to activate commands . Pool of Radiance was also selected for the RPGA @-@ sponsored Gamers ' Choice Awards for the Best Computer Game of 1989 . In 1990 the game received the fifth @-@ highest number of votes in a survey of Computer Gaming World readers ' " All @-@ Time Favorites " .
Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , concluded that although the game " certainly had its flaws ( horrendous load times , interface weirdness , and a low @-@ level cap among others ) , it was a huge , expansive adventure that laid a good foundation for every Gold Box game that followed " . Stan Stepanic of GameFreaks365 gave a highly positive , though somewhat reserved , review of the NES port of Pool of Radiance , scoring it at 8 / 10 . He commented , " ... it 's great to see a game like this on the NES because there really wasn 't anything of this caliber at the time , RPG or otherwise . Adults were rarely given anything since nearly every title was aimed at younger audiences , so this is one of the few cases where programmers were trying to appeal to an older audience ... if you 're a fan of a true RPG , this is the game for you , you 'll be thoroughly impressed and absorbed . "
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= Elimination Chamber ( 2010 ) =
Elimination Chamber ( 2010 ) ( also known as No Way Out ( 2010 ) in Germany ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on February 21 , 2010 at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis , Missouri . It was the first event in the Elimination Chamber series . Six matches were aired on the broadcast and one dark match occurred prior to the live broadcast .
The concept of the event was that the two main event matches , one each for the World Heavyweight Championship and the WWE Championship , would occur in an Elimination Chamber . Each match featured six competitors : the defending champion and five challengers . Sheamus defended the WWE Championship against Triple H , Ted DiBiase , Randy Orton , John Cena , and Kofi Kingston in the Raw Elimination Chamber . In the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match , The Undertaker defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Chris Jericho , John Morrison , Rey Mysterio , CM Punk and R @-@ Truth . On the undercard , Drew McIntyre defended the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kane , The Miz defended the WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter , and Maryse and Gail Kim competed against LayCool ( Layla and Michelle McCool ) in an interbrand Divas tag team match .
The event received 285 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , an increase on the figure earned by the 2009 No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view . Despite the increased number of buys , the event received generally negative reviews , with reviewers criticising the undercard of the show as being " weak " and consisting of " filler " material .
= = Production and concept = =
In late 2009 , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) held a poll on their official website to allow fans to choose a name for their February pay @-@ per @-@ view . The choices included Elimination Chamber , Heavy Metal , Battle Chamber , Chamber of Conflict and No Way Out , which had been the name of the preceding Elimination Chamber @-@ based event . The name Elimination Chamber won , but the event was still promoted as No Way Out in Germany .
The concept of the show was that each main event match was to be contested as an Elimination Chamber match . The Elimination Chamber is a circular steel cage , consisting of chains and girders , that surrounds the ring . Four ' pods ' are enclosed within the chamber , one behind each ring post , which are on a steel platform surrounding the outside of the ring . Six wrestlers compete in the match ; four are enclosed within the pods and released at random at specific time intervals , and two start the match . Wrestlers can only be eliminated via pinfall or submission , and the last wrestler left is the winner . For the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view , both WWE world championships , the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship , were to be defended in separate Elimination Chamber matches .
= = = Pyrotechnics accident = = =
Just prior to the commencement of the World Heavyweight Championship Elimination Chamber match , The Undertaker was involved in a pyrotechnics accident during his ring entrance . He was temporarily engulfed in flames on three occasions when the pyrotechnics were mistimed , and his jacket briefly caught on fire . He suffered first- and second @-@ degree burns to his neck and chest , and according to a WWE spokesperson the injury " looked like a bad sunburn " . He was only allowed to participate in the match after being cleared by a ringside doctor and was given bottles of water throughout the match to douse himself with to alleviate the discomfort . Chris Jericho , who also competed in the match , has told on multiple occasions how the pyrotechnician responsible was relieved of his employment with WWE and escorted from the arena at the behest of The Undertaker .
= = Background = =
The professional wrestling matches at Elimination Chamber featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs .
The main event matches for the Elimination Chamber event consisted of two Elimination Chamber matches , with Raw 's WWE Championship defended in one and SmackDown 's World Heavyweight Championship defended in the other . Qualifying matches were held on the February 1 episode of Raw to determine the five challengers who would face the WWE Champion Sheamus in Raw 's Elimination Chamber match . In qualifiers , John Cena defeated Cody Rhodes , Triple H defeated Jack Swagger , Randy Orton defeated Shawn Michaels , Ted DiBiase defeated Mark Henry , and Kofi Kingston defeated The Big Show by disqualification . In the weeks prior to Elimination Chamber the participants faced off in several matches , which included DiBiase vs. Cena ending in a no contest , Sheamus defeating Orton by disqualification , DiBiase defeating Kingston via pinfall , and Cena vs. Triple H ending in a no contest due to Sheamus interfering and attacking both participants . The February 5 episode of SmackDown saw the five wrestlers qualify to challenge The Undertaker for the World Heavyweight Championship in a similar fashion . John Morrison defeated Drew McIntyre and Kane in a triple threat match . Throughout the rest of the episode , this was followed by R @-@ Truth defeating Mike Knox , CM Punk defeating Batista via countout , Chris Jericho defeating Matt Hardy , and Rey Mysterio defeating Dolph Ziggler . In the following weeks , the six wrestlers faced off in different combinations in singles matches that saw Mysterio pin Punk , Morrison vs. R @-@ Truth end in a no contest due to Morrison suffering a storyline ankle injury , and Jericho defeating The Undertaker . On the February 19 episode of SmackDown , Morrison and R @-@ Truth teamed up to face CM Punk and his ' follower ' Luke Gallows in a tag team match , which Morrison and R @-@ Truth lost via referee stoppage .
In late December 2009 , WWE Divas Champion Melina tore her anterior cruciate ligament , and was forced to vacate the championship . As a result , it was announced in January 2010 that a single @-@ elimination tournament would be held to determine a new champion . The tournament began on the January 4 episode of Raw , when Maryse advanced to the semi @-@ finals by defeating Brie Bella . She was followed into the semi @-@ finals by Gail Kim , Alicia Fox , and Eve , who defeated Jillian Hall , Kelly Kelly , and Katie Lea Burchill respectively . In the semi @-@ finals , Maryse defeated Eve and Kim defeated Fox . It was then announced on the February 8 episode of Raw that Maryse and Kim would face one another in the final at the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view .
On the February 12 episode of SmackDown , the WWE Intercontinental Champion Drew McIntyre faced Kane in a non @-@ title match . After the match went to a double @-@ countout , Kane chokeslammed McIntyre . It was announced the following day on WWE 's official website that Kane and McIntyre would meet at Elimination Chamber for the Intercontinental Championship . The following week , on the February 19 episode of SmackDown , Kane defeated Dolph Ziggler in a singles match . Following the match , he was attacked by McIntyre , but Kane was able to fight back and fend off the attack .
= = Event = =
Prior to the live broadcast of the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Christian defeated Ezekiel Jackson in a singles match by pinfall .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired on the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the Raw Elimination Chamber match , which involved Randy Orton , Triple H , Ted DiBiase , Kofi Kingston , John Cena , and the defending WWE Champion Sheamus . Sheamus and Kingston started the match , while the other four competitors were locked inside ' pods ' . One pod at a time opened during the match at intervals of five minutes , releasing a wrestler into the match . Triple H was the first wrestler released , followed by Randy Orton , Ted DiBiase , and finally Cena . After Cena entered the match , Cody Rhodes , an ally of both DiBiase and Orton went to ringside , and threw a steel pipe into the cage . DiBiase used the pipe to hit both Orton and Cena , and then covered Orton to eliminate him from the match after approximately 24 minutes . Kingston used his finishing move , " Trouble in Paradise " ( a 540 kick ) to eliminate DiBiase after 25 @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . Immediately afterward , Sheamus eliminated Kingston by pinfall , before being eliminated himself by Triple H at approximately 29 minutes , leaving only Cena and Triple H in the match . Cena used a submission hold , the STF on Triple H to eliminate him from the match via submission . As a result , Cena won the WWE Championship for the sixth time , his eight world championship overall .
Immediately following the conclusion of the match , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon interrupted to cut a promo . He told Cena that he would be going to WrestleMania XXVI , only if he could beat Batista , and then ordered Cena to face Batista in a previously unannounced match for the WWE Championship . Batista speared Cena , and then performed a " Batista Bomb " ( a sitout powerbomb ) on him to earn a pinfall victory , making Batista the new WWE Champion .
The third match featured Drew McIntyre defending the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kane . The match began with Kane taking the advantage over McIntyre by clotheslining him over the top rope to the floor . Towards the end of the match , McIntyre attempted to leave the arena and lose via countout , which would have allowed him to retain the championship , but Kane brought him back inside the ring . When re @-@ entering the ring , McIntyre poked him in the eye and then performed his " Future Shock DDT " ( a double underhook DDT ) to win the match by pinfall and remain the Intercontinental Champion .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The next match was scheduled to be the final of a tournament to determine a new Divas Champion after the championship was vacated . Maryse and Gail Kim had entered the ring when official consultant to the SmackDown General Manager , Vickie Guerrero interrupted . Guerrero stated that a result of the Raw Divas making disparaging remarks about the SmackDown Divas , she was changing the match to an interbrand Divas tag team match , with Raw Divas Kim and Maryse facing LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) from SmackDown . The story of the match was that Maryse and Kim could not work together , and Maryse attacked Kim , allowing McCool to hit her finishing move for the victory . Following the match , Maryse performed her " French Kiss DDT " on Kim . Following the match , The Miz was interviewed backstage by Josh Mathews about NXT , on which he was a mentor . He was interrupted by Montel Vontavious Porter , who informed The Miz that the two had a match next . This was followed by William Regal cutting an in @-@ ring promo about NXT . He was interrupted by the winner of the 2010 Royal Rumble match , Edge , who stated that he would be deciding which championship to challenge for at WrestleMania on the next episode of Raw . Edge then speared Regal .
The fifth match was a previously unannounced contest which saw The Miz defend his WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter . The Miz was accompanied by his tag team partner , The Big Show , while Porter was accompanied by Mark Henry , with whom he had regularly teamed . Porter took the advantage at the beginning of the match , before The Miz was able to fight back with a swinging DDT . When he climbed to the top rope , however , Porter knocked him off to regain the advantage . The Big Show pulled The Miz out of the ring to safety , and then threw Henry into the security barricade at ringside . With the referee distracted by this , The Big Show used his " Knockout Punch " on Porter , and The Miz was able to pin him to retain his championship .
The main event of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship , featuring the defending champion The Undertaker , CM Punk , Rey Mysterio , Chris Jericho , John Morrison , and R @-@ Truth . Mysterio , Morrison , and Jericho entered first and were locked into pods . The Undertaker was the fourth to make his way down to the ring , but an accident occurred during his entrance when his pyrotechnics were mistimed , resulting in him being momentarily engulfed in flames . He was cleared by a ringside doctor to wrestle , however , and was able to compete in the match . The final two , who were to start the match , were CM Punk , who was accompanied by his stable , the Straight Edge Society of Serena and Luke Gallows , and R @-@ Truth . Punk cut a promo on his way to the ring , but was interrupted by R @-@ Truth 's entrance . Punk was able to eliminate R @-@ Truth in approximately three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , before any other competitor had entered the match , and finished his promo afterward . Mysterio entered after the first five minutes had passed , and eliminated Punk before the next competitor entered . The next entrant was revealed to be Jericho , and he and Mysterio wrestled for five minutes until Morrison was released . Morrison utilised his " Starship Pain " finisher ( a split @-@ legged corkscrew moonsault ) to pin Mysterio and eliminate him from the match . The final entrant into the match was the defending champion The Undertaker , who was able to eliminate Morrison following a chokeslam after approximately 28 minutes . Shawn Michaels , who had requested and been denied a match with The Undertaker for WrestleMania , snuck into the chamber , and performed his " Sweet Chin Music " superkick on The Undertaker . This allowed Jericho to pin The Undertaker to win the match and the World Heavyweight Championship for the third time .
= = Aftermath = =
Following his interference in the Elimination Chamber match to prevent The Undertaker from winning , Shawn Michaels cut a promo on the next episode of Raw , stating that he interfered so that The Undertaker would agree to a rematch at WrestleMania XXVI to get revenge . The Undertaker accepted the match on the condition that if Michaels lost , he would have to retire , to which Michaels agreed . Two weeks later , the pair agreed to make the match a no countout , no disqualification match .
Edge returned from injury at the Royal Rumble as a surprise entrant in the Royal Rumble match , which he won , earning a guaranteed match for any WWE world championship . Following Jericho 's victory in the Elimination Chamber , in which he won the World Heavyweight Championship , Edge speared him the following night on Raw and announced that he had elected to face Jericho at WrestleMania . Following this announcement , Edge began a campaign of surprise attacks on Jericho , spearing him on several occasions in an attempt to play mind games with Jericho . On the March 12 episode of SmackDown , Jericho hosted a special edition of his talk show segment , The Highlight Reel , with Edge as the guest . Edge attempted to spear Jericho again , but Jericho was able to avoid it and hit Edge with the World Heavyweight Championship belt instead .
After Batista won the WWE Championship from John Cena at Elimination Chamber , Cena requested a rematch . Mr. McMahon agreed , on the condition that Cena must defeat Batista in a non @-@ title match that night on Raw . Batista intentionally low @-@ blowed Cena during the match to get disqualified and set up their match at WrestleMania . To build up their match , Batista interfered in several of Cena 's matches in the weeks prior to WrestleMania , both attacking Cena or distracting him so that his opponent could gain the advantage .
Tension within The Legacy faction had been growing since Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase accidentally cost Randy Orton the WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble . After DiBiase eliminated Orton from the Elimination Chamber match , with the help of Rhodes , Orton turned on Rhodes and DiBiase , and attacked them during a six @-@ man tag team match causing The Legacy to lose . In the following weeks , Orton faced DiBiase in a singles match and DiBiase and Rhodes in a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match , until the guest host of Raw , Steve Austin , booked a triple threat match between Orton , Rhodes , and DiBiase for WrestleMania .
After being eliminated from the Elimination Chamber match by Triple H , Sheamus attacked him on the March 1 episode of Raw in retaliation . The following week , Sheamus challenged Triple H to a match at WrestleMania , which Triple H accepted . On the final episode of Raw before WrestleMania , Sheamus teamed up with Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase to defeat Triple H and Randy Orton in a two @-@ on @-@ three handicap match .
= = = Reception = = =
The event received generally negative reviews . Writing for The Sun , Rob McNichol criticised the majority of the show as being " filler " and stated that the Divas match was " poor fare " . Writing for Canadian Online Explorer 's wrestling section , Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk also slammed the Divas match , rating it 0 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and stating that it " was pretty much a complete waste of time " , a sentiment echoed by the Pro Wrestling Torch 's James Caldwell , who stated that the match was a " throwaway " . The non @-@ Elimination Chamber matches on the show were mostly derided as being unimportant , with The Baltimore Sun 's reviewer Kevin Eck stating that they " came off as filler " .
Despite the generally negative reviews , McNichol praised the unannounced championship match between Batista and Cena , stating that " it was good storytelling and played out Batista 's current character traits well " . He singled out John Morrison 's performance in the Elimination Chamber match as " impressive " . His praise was echoed by Caldwell , who stated that Morrison had " some standout moments " throughout the match . Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer praised the United States Championship match between The Miz and Montel Vontavious Porter , stating that it was " good " . Eck agreed , stating that it was " the best of the three non @-@ chamber matches " .
Overall , Plummer and Tylwalk rated the event 5 out of 10 , stating that it was " a strangely paced , uneven affair that dragged between its pair of namesake matches " , but that it succeeded in building up matches for WrestleMania . McNichol agreed , praising the storyline developments in setting up WrestleMania matches , but ultimately calling the event " forgettable " . He awarded the event 7 out of 10 . Caldwell also criticised the pay @-@ per @-@ view heavily , stating that it was an " underwhelming overall PPV with a weak , weak mid @-@ card " .
17 @,@ 000 people attended Elimination Chamber at the Scottrade Center , drawing a gate of US $ 850 @,@ 000 . The event received 285 @,@ 000 buys on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an increase of 13 @,@ 000 compared to No Way Out 2009 's 272 @,@ 000 buys . The DVD of the event was released on March 23 , 2010 .
= = Results = =
= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations ( Raw ) = = =
= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations ( SmackDown ) = = =
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= Mario Bros. =
Mario Bros. ( マリオブラザーズ , Mario Burazāzu ) is a platform game published and developed for arcades by Nintendo in 1983 . It was created by Shigeru Miyamoto . It has been featured as a minigame in the Super Mario Advance series and numerous other games . Mario Bros. has been re @-@ released for the Wii 's , Nintendo 3DS 's , and Wii U 's Virtual Console services in Japan , North America , Europe and Australia .
In the game , Mario is portrayed as an Italian @-@ American plumber who , along with his younger brother Luigi , has to defeat creatures that have been coming from the sewers below New York City . The gameplay focuses on Mario 's extermination of them by flipping them on their backs and kicking them away . The original versions of Mario Bros. — the arcade version and the Family Computer / Nintendo Entertainment System ( FC / NES ) version — were received positively by critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Mario Bros. features two plumbers , Mario and Luigi , having to investigate the sewers of New York after strange creatures have been appearing down there . The objective of the game is to defeat all of the enemies in each phase . The mechanics of Mario Bros. involve only running and jumping . Unlike future Mario games , players cannot jump on enemies and squash them , unless they were already turned on their back . Each phase is a series of platforms with pipes at each corner of the screen , along with an object called a " POW " block in the center . Phases use wraparound , meaning that enemies and players that go off to one side will reappear on the opposite side .
The player gains points by defeating multiple enemies consecutively and can participate in a bonus round to gain more points . Enemies are defeated by kicking them over once they have been flipped on their back . This is accomplished by hitting the platform the enemy is on directly beneath them . If the player allows too much time to pass after doing this , the enemy will flip itself back over , changing in color and increasing speed . Each phase has a certain number of enemies , with the final enemy immediately changing color and increasing its speed .
There are four enemies : the Shellcreeper , which simply walks around ; the Sidestepper , which requires two hits to flip over ; the Fighter Fly , which moves by jumping and can only be flipped when it is touching a platform ; and the Slipice , which turns platforms into slippery ice . When bumped from below , the Slipice dies immediately instead of flipping over .
The " POW " block flips all enemies touching a platform or the floor when a player hits it from below . It can be used three times before it disappears . In the Super Mario Bros. 3 in @-@ game Player @-@ Versus @-@ Player version of this minigame , each of the three uses causes the opponent to lose a card and all the enemies to be flipped over . Another feature in this small remake is that the pipes are straight , occasionally spitting out large fireballs at the two plumbers . Coins appear whenever enemies are defeated and may be collected for bonus points .
As the game progresses , elements are added to increase the difficulty . Fireballs either bounce around the screen or travel directly from one side to the other , and icicles form under the platforms and fall loose . Bonus rounds give the players a chance to score extra points and lives by collecting coins without having to deal with enemies ; the " POW " block regenerates itself on each of these screens .
= = Development = =
Mario Bros. was created by Shigeru Miyamoto and Gunpei Yokoi , two of the lead developers for the video game Donkey Kong . In Donkey Kong , Mario dies if he falls too far . Yokoi suggested to Miyamoto that he should be able to fall from any height , which Miyamoto was not sure of , thinking that it would make it " not much of a game . " He eventually agreed , thinking it would be okay for him to have some superhuman abilities . He designed a prototype that had Mario " jumping and bouncing around " , which he was satisfied with . The element of combating enemies from below was introduced after Yokoi suggested it , observing that it would work since there were multiple floors . However , it proved to be too easy to eliminate enemies this way , which the developers fixed by requiring players to touch the enemies after they 've been flipped to defeat them . This was also how they introduced the turtle as an enemy , which they conceived as an enemy that could only be hit from below . Because of Mario 's appearance in Donkey Kong with overalls , a hat , and a thick moustache , Shigeru Miyamoto thought that he should be a plumber as opposed to a carpenter , and designed this game to reflect that . Another contributing factor was the game 's setting : it was a large network of giant pipes , so they felt a change in occupation was necessary for him .
A popular story of how Mario went from Jumpman to Mario is that an Italian @-@ American landlord , Mario Segale , had barged in on Nintendo of America 's staff to demand rent , and they decided to name Jumpman after him . Miyamoto also felt that the best setting for this game was New York because of its " labyrinthine subterranean network of sewage pipes . " The pipes were inspired by several manga , which Miyamoto states feature waste grounds with pipes lying around . In this game , they were used in a way to allow the enemies to enter and exit the stage through them to avoid getting enemies piled up on the bottom of the stage . The green coloring of the pipes , which Nintendo late president Satoru Iwata called an uncommon color , came from Miyamoto having a limited color palette and wanting to keep things colorful . He added that green was the best because it worked well when two shades of it were combined .
Mario Bros. is one of the first platform games ever created , along with Donkey Kong . It also introduced Mario 's brother , Luigi , who was created for the multiplayer mode by doing a palette swap of Mario . The two @-@ player mode and several aspects of gameplay were inspired by an earlier video game called Joust . To date , Mario Bros. has been released for more than a dozen platforms . The first movement from Mozart 's Eine kleine Nachtmusik is used at the start of the game . This song has been used in later video games , including Dance Dance Revolution Mario Mix and Super Smash Bros. Brawl .
= = = Ports and follow @-@ ups = = =
Despite its innovations , Mario Bros. was not a major success in North America due to the video game crash in 1983 . It did however receive a number of home versions on the Apple II , Atari 2600 , Atari 5200 , Atari 8 @-@ bit computers , Atari 7800 , Amstrad CPC , and ZX Spectrum . The Commodore 64 had two versions : an Atarisoft port which was not commercially released and a 1986 version by Ocean Software . The Atari 8 @-@ bit computer version by Sculptured Software , as well as the Apple II port programmed by Jimmy Huey of Designer Software , were the only home versions of the game to feature the falling icicles ( the NES version omitted them due to space constraints on early NES cartridges ) . The latter conversion was not sold either . The game was also rereleased on the Virtual Console service in North America , Australia , Europe and Japan for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. It was also remade on copies of games in the Game Boy Advance 's Super Mario Advance series as well as Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga , and it was included as a mini @-@ game in Super Mario Bros. 3 . The Game Boy Advance version was included in the 10 free games given out by Nintendo in the 3DS ambassador program due to its inclusion on the cart for the GBA port of Yoshi 's Island which was one of the games on the list . Mario Bros. is also potentially slated for a second release , this time a 3D Classics remake , on the Nintendo 3DS , and may feature camera support , 3D support , or analog support . This release was featured among other games from the NES and SNES to be released for the 3DS on a tech demo called Classic Games at E3 2010 .
The NES version was included as a piece of furniture in Animal Crossing for the GameCube , along with many other NES games , though this one required the use of a Nintendo e @-@ Reader , a Game Boy Advance accessory , and a North America @-@ exclusive Animal Crossing e @-@ Card . This version was later re @-@ released in the second series of NES e @-@ Cards , and was even re @-@ released through the Famicom Mini series in Japan . An improved port called Kaette Kita Mario Bros. ( かえってきたマリオブラザーズ ) was released in Japan for the Family Computer Disk System , with added features and revisions to gameplay . It also featured cutscenes and even advertisements , being sponsored by the food company Nagatanien . Kaette Kita is very rare since it was only available as a Disk Writer promotion . A later NES port was released exclusively in Europe in 1993 , called Mario Bros. Classic ; this version had a more refined control and stage intermissions closer to the original arcade version .
In 1984 , Hudson Soft made two different games based on Mario Bros. The first was Mario Bros. Special ( マリオブラザーズスペシャル , Mario Burazāzu Supesharu ) , which was a re @-@ imagining of the original Mario Bros. with new phases , mechanics and gameplay . The second was Punch Ball Mario Bros. ( パンチボールマリオブラザーズ , Panchi Bōru Mario Burazāzu ) , which featured a new gameplay mechanic involving punching small balls to stun enemies . Both games were released for the PC @-@ 8801 , FM @-@ 7 , and X1 and have been described as average for the most part , neither the best or worst games in the series . Mario Clash , a game released in 1995 for the Virtual Boy , was developed as a straight remake of Mario Bros. , with the working title Mario Bros. VB . It was the first stereoscopic 3D Mario game . The objective of the game is to knock all the enemies in a particular phase off ledges . Instead of hitting them from below , like in Mario Bros. , the player must hit enemies using Koopa shells .
The Wii U game Super Mario 3D World contains Luigi Bros , a version of Mario Bros. starring Luigi . This game will be unlocked if the Wii U console contains save data from New Super Luigi U or the player completes World 8 .
= = Reception = =
Mario Bros. was only modestly successful in Japanese arcades . The arcade cabinets have since become mildly rare . To date in Japan , the NES version of Mario Bros. has sold more than 1 @.@ 63 million copies , and the Famicom Mini re @-@ release of the NES version has sold more than 90 @,@ 000 copies . Despite being released during the North American video game crash of 1983 , the arcade game , as well as the industry , were not affected . Video game author Dave Ellis considers it one of the more memorable classic games .
Opinions on the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) version of Mario Bros. have been mostly mixed , but does receive positive reviews from gamers . However , in a review of the Virtual Console game , GameSpot criticized the NES version for being a poor port of the arcade version . The Virtual Console version in particular was heavily criticized . GameSpot criticized it , saying that not only is it a port of an inferior version , but it retains all of the technical flaws found in this version . It also criticizes the Mario Bros. ports in general , saying that this is just one of many ports that have been made of it throughout Nintendo 's history.IGN complimented the Virtual Console version 's gameplay , even though it was critical of Nintendo 's decision to release an " inferior " NES port on the Virtual Console . IGN also agreed on the issue of the number of ports . They said that since most people have Mario Bros. on one of the Super Mario Advance games , this version is not worth 500 Wii Points . The Nintendo e @-@ Reader version of Mario Bros. was slightly more well received by IGN , who praised the gameplay , but criticized it for lack of multiplayer and for not being worth the purchase because of the Super Mario Advance versions .
The Super Mario Advance releases and Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga all featured the same version of Mario Bros. ( titled Mario Bros. Classic ) . The mode was first included in Super Mario Advance , and was praised for its simplicity and entertainment value . IGN called this mode fun in its review of Super Mario World : Super Mario Advance 2 , but complained that it would have been nice if the developers had come up with a new game to replace it . Their review of Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 criticizes it more so than in the review of Super Mario Advance 2 because Nintendo chose not to add multiplayer to any of the mini @-@ games found in that game , sticking instead with an identical version of the Mario Bros. game found in previous versions . GameSpot 's review of Super Mario Advance 4 : Super Mario Bros. 3 calls it a throwaway feature that could have simply been gutted . Other reviewers were not as negative on the feature 's use in later Super Mario Advance games . Despite its use being criticized in most Super Mario Advance games , a GameSpy review called the version found in Super Mario Advance 2 a blast to play in multi @-@ player because it only requires at least two Game Boy Advances , one copy of the game , and a link cable .
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= Mary Isenhour =
Mary Isenhour is an American political strategist , campaign manager , and government official , currently serving as Chief of Staff for Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf . Prior to the Wolf administration , Isenhour served executive director of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , was state director of Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , and assisted with the successful campaigns of U.S. Senator Bob Casey , Jr. and Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell .
Isenhour also previously worked as executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee , and started a political consulting firm with former state party chairman T.J. Rooney . In 2010 , PoliticsPA called her " one of the top consultants in the state " , and said , " few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does " .
Starting her career working on the Kansas House of Representatives staff , Isenhour eventually becoming chief of staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer , and then director of the Democratic Party 's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races . She worked as the national political director for the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee before starting her Pennsylvania political career in 1999 .
= = Early career = =
A Kansas native , Isenhour attended the University of Kansas . She began her political career as a staffer in the Kansas House of Representatives . In 1990 she worked as a legislative aide to House Minority Leader Marvin Barkis , and the following year was an administrative assistant to House Majority Leader Donna Whiteman . From 1991 to 1995 , Isenhour served as Chief of Staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer , where she worked with Democratic and Republican lawmakers alike to advance legislation , served as a liaison between Sawyer and other officials , and worked with members of leadership and committees to develop legislative strategies and build coalitions . In 1992 , Isenhour was the director of the Democratic Party 's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races , both in the state House and Senate . Those races included more than three dozen candidates by July 1992 .
From 1995 to 1999 , Isenhour served as the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee 's national political director , based in Washington D.C. In that capacity , she worked with legislative leaders and caucus campaign staff in more 15 states to help win or preserve Democratic majorities in state legislatures . In 1996 , she worked in Iowa to help orchestrate the Democratic legislative campaigns in that the Iowa General Assembly , partnering with Iowa Senate Majority Leader Wally Horn and other key legislative Democrats to improving the party 's position . She described it as an attempt to avoid a repeat of 1994 elections , in which Democrats suffered major losses in both federal and state offices during the Republican Revolution . Isenhour said of those elections :
Isenhour also managed Sawyer 's campaign for the bid for Kansas governor in 1998 . Sawyer won the Democratic nomination , but ultimately lost in a landslide to the popular Republican incumbent , Bill Graves .
= = Pennsylvania career = =
Isenhour began her Pennsylvania political career in 1999 , when she became executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee , helping to get Democratic candidates elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . She held the position until 2003 . Isenhour assisted with Bob Casey , Jr . ' s successful 2006 campaign against Republican incumbent Rick Santorum , served as political adviser to state House Democratic Leader Frank Dermody , and ran Governor Ed Rendell 's successful 2006 re @-@ election campaign against challenger Lynn Swann , after which she helped plan Rendell 's 2007 inauguration . Rendell appointed her to the Pennsylvania Community Service Advisory Board .
Isenhour worked for the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , serving as an aide and political adviser to T.J. Rooney , the state party chairman . In 2007 , she became executive director of the party , replacing Don Morabito , who took a position in the Rendell administration . The party enjoyed much success during her time there , controlling the Governor 's office , three of four statewide row offices , two U.S. Senators , a majority in the State House , and picking up five seats in the Congressional delegation . She served as director of PA Victory , a statewide coordinated campaign effort . Isenhour was also chosen as the Pennsylvania state director for Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , after Rendell recommended her for the position . There was talk of Isenhour continuing to work with the Clinton administration after the primary , but she instead returned to her position with the Pennsylvania Democratic Party .
In 2008 , Isenhour and Rooney met with MSNBC news commentator Chris Matthews to discuss the possibility of Matthews running against Republican U.S. Senator Arlen Specter , although he ultimately did not run . Also that year , Isenhour and her Republican counterpart Luke Bernstein , executive director of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania , together taught a class about presidential elections at the Dickinson College in Carlisle , Pennsylvania . Isenhour and Bernstein both believed it was the first class of its type , and said the two had a very cordial relationship despite representing opposite political parties . Isenhour also taught about electoral politics at other educational institutions , including the University of Pennsylvania , Central Penn College and The Washington Center .
In July 2010 , after more than seven years leading the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , Isenhour and Rooney started the political consulting firm Isenhour Rooney Strategies , which later became Isenhour Rooney and Carey . Also in 2010 , Isenhour was the only woman named to the PoliticsPA 's Pennsylvania Top 10 Influencers List by Campaigns and Elections , PoliticsPA also called her " one of the top consultants in the state " , and said " few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does " . Among the candidates she advised was Rob Teplitz in his successful campaign for Pennsylvania State Senate in 2012 . Eisenhour served on the board of Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania .
= = Governor Wolf administration = =
Isenhour was an early supporter of Pennsylvania gubernatorial candidate Tom Wolf , and became Wolf 's senior campaign adviser during his 2014 campaign , at a time when state Representative Allyson Schwartz and state Treasurer Rob McCord were considered to have better chances of winning . Isenhour , who had long been acquainted with Wolf , had not intended to become involved with a lengthy and work @-@ intensive gubernatorial campaign , but said she was convinced to do so after an hour @-@ long phone conversation with Wolf in 2013 , after which she was convinced he was the right man for the job : " I 've been in politics 30 years and I 've never had a candidate like this . " Isenhour maintained other clients during his campaign , but said Wolf was " my main focus for the next year and a half " . After Wolf 's successful election , Isenhour co @-@ chaired his inaugural committee , then worked as his Secretary of Legislative Affairs , serving as a liaison during negotiating sessions at the Pennsylvania General Assembly , and providing key planning during the governor 's budget strategy . Political reporter John L. Micek wrote of Isenhour : " She is in the unique position of having to work with Republicans she once ran campaigns against . " Her annual salary in the position was $ 145 @,@ 018 . Isenhour developed a reputation for communicating and building relationships with legislative leaders and staff members from both parties .
In July 2015 , Isenhour replaced Kathleen McGinty as Wolf 's Chief of Staff , after McGinty resigned six months into her tenure to pursue a campaign for U.S. Senate . Wolf called Isenhour " one of my closest advisors " and " a valuable part of my administration " , and said she " really understands how the politics of this place actually works . " The selection was praised by both parties , including House and Senate Republicans , who expressed hope she would be less adversarial than McGinty . The Butler Eagle wrote an editorial criticizing the appointment due to her position on the Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania board , in light of a national controversy over undercover videos about the group 's alleged sale of aborted fetal body parts . Isenhour came into the Chief of Staff position more than three weeks into a budget impasse between Wolf and the Republican @-@ controlled General Assembly .
In October 2015 , four months into the state budget impasse , Isenhour issued a memo notifying Wolf 's administration of a hiring freeze and travel ban . On February 3 , 2016 , Isenhour notified the state Public Employee Retirement Commission that , under Wolf 's orders , all employment of its staff would be discontinued . State Representatives Stephen Bloom of Cumberland County and Seth Grove of York County have filed a lawsuit against Wolf challenging that action , arguing the governor lacks the power to dissolve the commission and acted contrary to the Pennsylvania Constitution .
= = Personal life = =
Isenhour is married to Bill Patton , former chief of staff to Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives Dennis M. O 'Brien . They reside in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania . She has a cat named Ralph and enjoys cooking .
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= Isle of Portland =
The Isle of Portland is a limestone tied island , 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) long by 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) wide , in the English Channel . Portland is 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) south of the resort of Weymouth , forming the southernmost point of the county of Dorset , England . A barrier beach over which runs the A354 road connects it to Chesil Beach and the mainland . Portland and Weymouth together form the borough of Weymouth and Portland . The population of Portland is 12 @,@ 400 .
Portland is a central part of the Jurassic Coast , a World Heritage Site on the Dorset and east Devon coast , important for its geology and landforms . Its name is used for one of the British Sea Areas , and has been exported as the name of North American and Australian towns . Portland stone , famous for its use in British and world architecture , including St Paul 's Cathedral and the United Nations Headquarters , continues to be quarried .
Portland Harbour , in between Portland and Weymouth , is one of the largest man @-@ made harbours in the world . The harbour was made by the building of stone breakwaters between 1848 and 1905 . From its inception it was a Royal Navy base , and played prominent roles during the First and Second World Wars ; ships of the Royal Navy and NATO countries worked up and exercised in its waters until 1995 . The harbour is now a civilian port and popular recreation area , and was used for the 2012 Olympic Games .
= = History = =
Portland has been inhabited since at least the Mesolithic period ( the Middle Stone Age ) — there is archaeological evidence of Mesolithic inhabitants at the Culverwell Mesolithic Site , near Portland Bill , and of habitation since then . The Romans occupied Portland , reputedly calling it Vindelis . The Vikings first raid on England occurred in Portland in 787 AD , as recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Three lost Viking ships landed at Portland Bill . The King 's reeve tried to collect taxes from them . They killed him and sailed on . They were Northmen from Hordaland ( the district around Hardanger fjord in west Norway ) . In 1539 King Henry VIII ordered the construction of Portland Castle for defence against attacks by the French ; the castle cost £ 4 @,@ 964 . It is one of the best preserved castles from this period , and is opened to the public by the custodians English Heritage .
In the 17th century , chief architect and Surveyor @-@ General to James I , Inigo Jones , surveyed the area and introduced the local Portland stone to London ; using it in his Banqueting House , Whitehall , and for repairs on St Paul 's Cathedral . His successor , Sir Christopher Wren , the architect and Member of Parliament for nearby Weymouth , used six million tons of white Portland limestone to rebuild destroyed parts of the capital after the Great Fire of London of 1666 . Well @-@ known buildings in the capital , including St Paul 's Cathedral and the eastern front of Buckingham Palace feature the stone . After the First World War , a quarry was opened by The Crown Estate to provide stone for the Cenotaph in Whitehall and half a million gravestones for war cemeteries , and after the Second World War hundreds of thousands of gravestones were hewn for soldiers who had fallen on the Western Front . Portland cement has nothing to do with Portland ; it was so named due to its similar colour to Portland stone when mixed with lime and sand .
There have been railways in Portland since the early 19th century . The Merchant 's Railway was the earliest — it opened in 1826 ( one year after the Stockton and Darlington railway ) and ran from the quarries at the north of Tophill to a pier at Castletown , from where the Portland stone was shipped around the country . The Weymouth and Portland Railway was laid in 1865 , and ran from a station in Melcombe Regis , across the Fleet and along the low isthmus behind Chesil Beach to a station at Victoria Square in Chiswell . At the end of the 19th century the line was extended to the top of the island as the Easton and Church Ope Railway , running through Castletown and ascending the cliffs at East Weares , to loop back north to a station in Easton . The line closed to passengers in 1952 , and the final goods train ( and two passenger ' specials ' ) ran in April 1965 .
The Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck stationed a lifeboat at Portland in 1826 , which was withdrawn in 1851 . Coastal flooding has affected Portland 's residents and transport for centuries — the only way off the island by land is along the causeway in the lee of Chesil Beach . At times of extreme floods ( about every 10 years ) this road link is cut by floods . The low @-@ lying village of Chiswell used to flood on average every 5 years . Chesil Beach occasionally faces severe storms and massive waves , which have a fetch across the Atlantic Ocean . Following two severe flood events in the 1970s , Weymouth and Portland Borough Council and Wessex Water decided to investigate the structure of the beach , and coastal management schemes that could be built to protect Chiswell and the beach road . In the 1980s it was agreed that a scheme to protect against a one @-@ in @-@ five @-@ year storm would be practicable ; it would reduce flood depth and duration in more severe storms . Hard engineering techniques were employed in the scheme , including a gabion running 550 metres ( 600 yd ) to the north of Chiswell , an extended sea wall in Chesil Cove , and a culvert running from inside the beach , underneath the beach road and into Portland Harbour , to divert flood water away from low @-@ lying areas .
At the start of the First World War , HMS Hood was sunk in the passage between the southern breakwaters to protect the harbour from torpedo and submarine attack . Portland Harbour was formed ( 1848 – 1905 ) by the construction of breakwaters , but before that the natural anchorage had hosted ships of the Royal Navy for more than 500 years . It was a centre for Admiralty research into asdic submarine detection and underwater weapons from 1917 to 1998 ; the shore base HMS Serepta was renamed HMS Osprey in 1927 . During the Second World War Portland was the target of heavy bombing , although most warships had moved north as Portland was within enemy striking range across the Channel . Portland was a major embarkation point for Allied forces on D @-@ Day in 1944 . Early helicopters were stationed at Portland in 1946 – 1948 , and in 1959 a shallow tidal flat , The Mere , was infilled , and sports fields taken to form a heliport . The station was formally commissioned as HMS Osprey , which then became the largest and busiest military helicopter station in Europe . The base was gradually improved with additional landing areas and one of England 's shortest runways , at 229 metres ( 751 ft ) . There are still two prisons on Portland : HMP The Verne , which until 1949 was a huge Victorian military fortress , and a Young Offenders ' Institution ( HMYOI ) on the Grove clifftop . This was the original prison built for convicts who quarried stone for the Portland Breakwaters from 1848 . For a few years until 2005 Britain 's only prison ship , HMP The Weare , was berthed in the harbour .
The naval base closed after the end of the Cold War in 1995 , and the Royal Naval Air Station closed in 1999 , although the runway remains in use for Her Majesty 's Coastguard Search and Rescue flights as MRCC Portland . MRCC Portland 's area of responsibility extends midway across the English Channel , and from Start Point in Devon to the Dorset / Hampshire border , covering an area of around 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The 12 Search and Rescue teams in the Portland area dealt with almost 1000 incidents in 2005 .
= = Governance = =
Portland is an ancient Royal Manor , and until the 19th century remained a separate liberty within Dorset for administration purposes . It was an urban district from 1894 to 1974 , until the borough of Weymouth and Portland formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 . This merged the borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis with Portland urban district . For local elections the borough is divided into 15 wards , and three of them cover Portland . Elections take place in a four @-@ year cycle ; one third of the councillors in all but three wards retire or seek re @-@ election in years one , two and three , and county council elections are held in year four .
The Mayor of Weymouth and Portland is Ray Banham ( Liberal Democrat ) , Kate Wheller ( Labour Party ) is Deputy Mayor . Weymouth , Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency , created in 1885 . The constituency elects one Member of Parliament ; the current MP is Richard Drax ( Conservative ) . South Dorset , the rest of the South West England , and Gibraltar are in the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .
Weymouth and Portland have been twinned with the town of Holzwickede in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany since 1986 , and the French town of Louviers , in the department of Eure in Normandy , since 1959 . The borough and nearby Chickerell have been a Fairtrade Zone since 2007 .
= = Geography = =
The Isle of Portland lies in the English Channel , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis , and 200 km ( 120 mi ) west @-@ southwest of London , at 50 ° 33 ′ 0 ″ N 2 ° 26 ′ 24 ″ W ( 50 @.@ 55 , − 2 @.@ 44 ) . Portland is situated approximately halfway along the UNESCO Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site ; the site includes 153 kilometres ( 95 mi ) of the Dorset and east Devon coast that is important for its geology and landforms . The South West Coast Path runs around the coast ; it is the United Kingdom 's longest national trail at 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) . Portland is unusual as it is connected to the mainland at Abbotsbury by Chesil Beach , a tombolo which runs 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) north @-@ west to West Bay . Portland is sometimes defined incorrectly as a tombolo — in fact Portland is a tied island , and Chesil Beach is the tombolo ( a spit joined to land at both ends ) .
There are eight settlements on Portland , the largest being Fortuneswell in Underhill and Easton on Tophill . Castletown and Chiswell are the other villages in Underhill , and Weston , Southwell , Wakeham and the Grove are on the Tophill plateau . Many old buildings are built out of Portland Stone ; Several parts have been designated Conservation Areas to preserve the unique character the older settlements which date back hundreds of years . The architecture ; the natural and man @-@ made environment and the proximity to the sea give Portland overall character which is quite distinct .
The Isle of Portland has been designated by Natural England as National Character Area 137 . It is adjoined by the Weymouth Lowlands to the north .
= = = Geology = = =
Geologically , Portland is separated into two areas ; the steeply sloping land at its north end called Underhill , and the larger , gently sloping land to the south , called Tophill . Portland stone lies under Tophill ; the strata decline at a shallow angle of around 1 @.@ 5 degrees , from a height of 151 metres ( 495 ft ) near the Verne in the north , to just above sea level at Portland Bill . The geology of Underhill is different to Tophill ; Underhill lies on a steep escarpment composed of Portland Sand , lying above a thicker layer of Kimmeridge Clay , which extends to Chesil Beach and Portland Harbour . This Kimmeridge Clay has resulted in a series of landslides , forming West Weares and East Weares .
2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) underneath south Dorset lies a layer of Triassic rock salt , and Portland is one of four locations in the United Kingdom where the salt is thick enough to create stable cavities . Portland Gas applied to excavate 14 caverns to store 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 5 × 1010 cu ft ) of natural gas , which is one percent of the UK 's total annual demand . It was proposed that the caverns should be connected to the National gas grid at Mappowder via a 37 @-@ kilometre ( 23 mi ) pipeline . Plans had it that the surface facilities should be complete to store the first gas in 2011 , and the entire cavern space available for storage in winter 2013 . As part of the £ 350 million scheme , the Grade II listed former Old Engine Shed would be converted into a £ 1 @.@ 5 million educational centre with a café and an exhibition space about the geology of Portland . However , as of 2014 , these plans are on hold .
= = = Portland Bill = = =
Portland Bill is the southern tip of the island of Portland . The Bill has three lighthouse towers : The Higher Lighthouse is now a dwelling and holiday apartments ; the Lower Lighthouse is now a bird observatory and field centre which opened in 1961 . The white and red lighthouse on Bill Point replaced the Higher and Lower Lighthouses in 1906 . It is a prominent and much photographed feature ; an important landmark for ships passing the headland and its tidal race . The current lighthouse was refurbished in 1996 and became remotely controlled . It now contains a visitors ' centre giving information and guided tours of the lighthouse . As of June 2009 , the lighthouse uses a 1 kW metal @-@ halide US @-@ made lamp with an operational life of about 4000 hours , or 14 months . Two earlier lighthouses stand further inland : one is an important observatory used by ornithologists , providing records of bird migration and accommodation for visitors .
Portland Ledge ( the Shambles ) is an underwater extension of Portland Stone into the English Channel at a place where the depth of Channel is 20 to 40 metres ( about 10 to 20 fathoms ) . Tidal flow is disrupted by the feature ; at 10 metres ( about 5 fathoms ) deep and 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 nmi ) long , it causes a tidal race to the south of Portland Bill , the so @-@ called Portland Race . The current only stops for brief periods during the 12 ½ hour tidal cycle and can reach 4 metres per second ( 8 kn ) at the spring tide of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) .
= = = Ecology = = =
Due to its isolated coastal location , the Isle of Portland has an extensive range of flora and fauna ; the coastline and disused quarries are designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest . Sea and migratory birds occupy the cliffs in different seasons , sometimes these include rare species which draw ornithologists from around the country . Rare visitors to the surrounding seas include dolphins , seals and basking sharks . Chesil Beach is one of only two sites in Britain where the Scaly Cricket can be found ; unlike any other cricket it is wingless and does not sing or hop . Ten British Primitive goats were introduced to the East Weares part of the island to control scrub in 2007 .
The comparatively warm and sunny climate allows species of plants to thrive which do not on the mainland . The limestone soil has low nutrient levels ; hence smaller species of wild flowers and grasses are able to grow in the absence of larger species . Portland Sea Lavender can be found on the higher sea cliffs — unique to Portland it is one of the United Kingdom 's rarest plants . The wild flowers and plants make an excellent habitat for butterflies ; over half of the British Isles ' 57 butterfly species can be seen on Portland , including varieties that migrate from mainland Europe . Species live on Portland that are rare in the United Kingdom , including the limestone race of the Silver Studded Blue .
= = = Climate = = =
The mild seas which almost surround the tied island produce a temperate climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The average annual mean temperature from 1981 to 2010 was 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The warmest month is August , which has an average temperature range of 14 @.@ 5 to 19 @.@ 3 ° C ( 58 @.@ 1 to 66 @.@ 7 ° F ) , and the coolest is February , which has a range of 4 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 0 ° C ( 39 @.@ 2 to 46 @.@ 4 ° F ) . Maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year are above England 's average , and Portland is in AHS Heat zone 1 . Mean sea surface temperatures range from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in February to 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 63 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August ; the annual mean is 11 @.@ 8 ° C ( 53 @.@ 2 ° F ) .
The mild seas that surround Portland act to keep night @-@ time temperatures above freezing , making winter frost rare : on average 9 @.@ 6 days per year — this is far below the United Kingdom 's average annual total of 55 @.@ 6 days of frost . Days with snow lying are equally rare : on average zero to six days per year ; almost all winters have one day or less with snow lying . It may snow or sleet in winter , yet it almost never settles on the ground — coastal areas in South West England such as Portland experience the mildest winters in the UK . Portland is less affected by the Atlantic storms that Devon and Cornwall experience . The growing season lasts for more than 310 days per year , and the borough is in Hardiness zone 9b .
Weymouth and Portland , and the rest of the south coast , has the sunniest climate in the United Kingdom . Portland averaged 1798 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine annually between 1981 and 2010 , which is 41 % of the maximum possible , and 34 % above the United Kingdom average of 1339 @.@ 7 hours . December is the cloudiest month ( 59 @.@ 7 hours of sunshine ) , October and November the joint wettest ( 81 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) of rain ) and July is the sunniest and driest month ( 236 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine , 35 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) of rain ) . Sunshine totals in all months are well above the United Kingdom average , and monthly rainfall totals throughout the year are less than the UK average , particularly in summer ; this summer minimum of rainfall is not experienced away from the south coast of England . The average annual rainfall of 667 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Demography = =
The mid @-@ year population of Portland in 2010 was 12 @,@ 400 ; this figure has remained around twelve to thirteen thousand since the 1970s . In 2010 there were 5 @,@ 786 dwellings in an area of 11 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 840 acres ) , giving an approximate population density of 1100 people per km2 ( 4 @.@ 5 per acre ) . The population is almost entirely native to England — 94 @.@ 9 percent of residents are of white British ethnicity , well above the England and Wales average of 80 @.@ 5 percent . The average price of a detached house on Portland in 2010 was £ 194 @,@ 200 ; terraced houses are cheaper , at £ 149 @,@ 727 , and an apartment or maisonette costs £ 110 @,@ 500 .
Crime rates are below average — there were 5 @.@ 4 burglaries per 1000 households in 2009 and 2010 ; which is lower than South West England ( 7 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) and significantly lower than England and Wales ( 11 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) . Unemployment levels are very low , at 1 @.@ 9 percent in July 2011 , compared to the United Kingdom average of 7 @.@ 7 percent . The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity , at 61 @.@ 0 percent , which is slightly above the England and Wales average of 59 @.@ 3 percent . The next @-@ largest sector is those with no religion , at 29 @.@ 3 percent , also slightly above the average of 25 @.@ 1 percent .
= = Transport = =
The A354 road is the only land access to Portland , via Ferry Bridge , connecting to Weymouth and to the wider road network at the A35 trunk road in Dorchester . It runs from Easton , splitting into a northbound section through Chiswell and a southbound section through Fortuneswell , then along Chesil Beach and across a bridge to the mainland in Wyke Regis . Formerly a branch line railway , connecting to the South West Main Line near Weymouth railway station , also crossed to the island . The corridor is now a cycle path connecting Fortuneswell with Weymouth and a wider network of traffic @-@ free cycle paths .
Local buses are run by FirstGroup , with services to Weymouth . Weymouth is the hub for south Dorset bus routes , with services to Dorchester and local villages . Weymouth is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the Jurassic Coast Bus service , which runs for 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) from Exeter to Poole , through Sidford , Beer , Seaton , Lyme Regis , Charmouth , Bridport , Abbotsbury , Weymouth , Wool , and Wareham . Trains run from Weymouth to London , Southampton and Bristol , and ferries to the French port of St Malo and the Channel Islands of Guernsey and Jersey .
There is a short airstrip and heliport in Osprey Quay , just north of Fortuneswell .
= = Education = =
St George 's Community Primary School is located in Easton . The only other school on Portland is the Isle of Portland Aldridge Community Academy , an all @-@ through school and sixth form for pupils aged 3 to 19 based over 4 different sites . Isle of Portland Aldridge Community Academy was formed in 2012 by merging four primary schools and one secondary school .
Some students commute to Weymouth to study A @-@ Levels , or to attend other secondary schools nearby . Weymouth College in Melcombe Regis is the nearest further education college , which has around 7 @,@ 500 students from south west England and overseas , about 1500 studying A @-@ Level courses .
= = Culture = =
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
In 2000 , the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy was built in Osprey Quay in Underhill as a centre for sailing in the United Kingdom . Weymouth and Portland 's waters were credited by the Royal Yachting Association as the best in Northern Europe . Weymouth and Portland regularly host local , national and international sailing events in their waters ; these include the J / 24 World Championships in 2005 , trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics , the ISAF World Championship 2006 , the BUSA Fleet Racing Championships , and the RYA Youth National Championships .
In 2005 , the WPNSA was selected to host sailing events at the 2012 Olympic Games — mainly because the Academy had recently been built , so no new venue would have to be provided . However , as part of the South West of England Regional Development Agency 's plans to redevelop Osprey Quay , a new 600 @-@ berth marina and an extension with more on @-@ site facilities were built . Construction was scheduled between October 2007 and the end of 2008 , and with its completion and formal opening on 11 June 2009 , the venue became the first of the 2012 Olympic Games to be completed .
Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour are used for other water sports – the reliable wind is favourable for wind and kite @-@ surfing . Chesil Beach and Portland Harbour are used regularly for angling , diving to shipwrecks , snorkelling , canoeing , and swimming . The limestone cliffs and quarries are used for rock climbing ; Portland has areas for bouldering and deep water soloing , however sport climbing with bolt protection is the most common style . Since June 2003 the South West Coast Path National Trail has included 21 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 2 mi ) of coastal walking around the Isle of Portland , including following the A354 Portland Beach Road twice .
Isle of Portland has a Non @-@ League football club Portland United F.C. who play at Grove Corner . They also have a very successful youth set up called Portland United youth football Club who provide active team sport for over 170 children on the Island .
= = = Rabbits = = =
Rabbits have long been associated with bad luck on Portland ; use of the name is still taboo — the creatures are often referred to as " Underground Mutton " , " Long @-@ Eared Furry Things " or just " bunnies " . The origin of this superstition is obscure ( there is no record of it before the 1920s ) but it is believed to derive from quarry workers : they would see rabbits emerging from their burrows immediately before a rock fall and blame them for increasing the risk of dangerous , sometimes deadly , landslides . If a rabbit was seen in a quarry , the workers would pack up and go home for the day , until the safety of the area had been assured . Local fishermen too would refuse to go to sea if the word was mentioned .
Even today older Portland residents are ' offended ' ( sometimes for the benefit of tourists ) by the mention of rabbits ; this superstition came to national attention in October 2005 when a special batch of advertisement posters were made for the Wallace and Gromit film , The Curse of the Were @-@ Rabbit . In respect for local beliefs the adverts omitted the word ' rabbit ' and replaced the film 's title with the phrase " Something bunny is going on " .
= = = Literature = = =
Thomas Hardy described Portland as " the peninsular carved by Time out of a single stone " , and named it the Isle of Slingers and Isle of the Race in his Wessex novels ; it was the main setting of The Well @-@ Beloved ( 1897 ) , and was featured in The Trumpet @-@ Major ( 1880 ) . The cottage that now houses Portland Museum was the inspiration for the heroine 's house in The Well @-@ Beloved . Portlanders were expert stone @-@ throwers in the defence of their land , and Hardy 's Isle of Slingers is heavily based on Portland ; the Street of Wells representing Fortuneswell and The Beal Portland Bill . Hardy also called Portland the Gibraltar of the North , with reference to its similarities with Gibraltar ; its physical geography , isolation , comparatively mild climate , and Underhill 's winding streets .
Hilaire Belloc 's book The Cruise of the " Nona " is about sailing near Portland , and the reflections it occasions . He describes Portland Race as " the master terror of our world " , and says " ... if you were to make a list of all the things which Portland Race has swallowed up , it would rival Orcus " .
In Museums Without Walls , Jonathan Meades declares that " Portland is a bulky chunk of geological , social , topographical and demographic weirdness . It is the obverse of a beauty spot . ' Beauty ' in this construction implies the picturesque . Portland is gloriously bereft of this quality . It is awesome . There is nothing pretty about it . "
In The Warlord Chronicles ( 1995 – 97 ) , Bernard Cornwell makes Portland the Isle of the Dead , a place of internal exile , where the causeway was guarded to keep the ' dead ' ( people suffering insanity ) from crossing the Fleet and returning to the mainland . No historical evidence exists to support this idea .
The Portland Chronicles series of four children 's books , set on and around Portland and Weymouth and written by local author Carol Hunt , draw on local history to explore a seventeenth century world of smuggling , witchcraft , piracy and local intrigue .
= = = Vernacular = = =
Bunnies : ( see above ) .
Kimberlin : slang for any ' strangers ' who live on the island but are not from the Island .
Portland screw : fossil mollusc ( Aptyxiella portlandica ) with a long screw @-@ like shell or its cast .
= = Notable persons born here = =
Lead singer of rock band Art Brut , Eddie Argos .
Edgar F. Codd ( 23 August 1923 – 18 April 2003 ) , British computer scientist and inventor of the relational model for database management .
Former Premier League referee Paul Durkin .
Former Queensland , Australia , politician Pat Comben
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= Craig McAllister =
Craig McAllister ( born 28 June 1980 ) is a Scottish semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a striker for National League South club Sutton United .
McAllister started his career with Eastleigh as a youth player . He moved to Basingstoke Town towards the end of 2001 – 02 , making his debut in March 2002 . McAllister spent three seasons there , making 112 appearances , scoring 66 goals before moving up the national league system to Conference National club Stevenage Borough where he made six appearances , having loan spells at Eastleigh in 2004 and Gravesend & Northfleet in 2004 – 05 . He joined Woking in 2005 , spending two full seasons there , and making over 100 appearances . He had a short spell with Grays Athletic , being sent out on loan to Rushden & Diamonds and then another short spell at Oxford United , all during the 2007 – 08 season . After leaving Oxford in 2008 , he took a step up to the Football League for the first time in his career , signing for Exeter City . He went on to score seven goals in his first season , but was loaned out to Barnet and Rotherham United in his second and was eventually released by the club in May 2010 . McAllister then dropped back down to non @-@ League football , joining Crawley Town where he played at Old Trafford ; his team was defeated 1 – 0 by Manchester United in their FA Cup fifth round tie . He rejected a new contract from Crawley at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , subsequently joining Newport County .
McAllister won his first major honour in 2011 , helping Crawley Town win the Conference Premier for the first time in their history .
= = Career = =
= = = Non @-@ League = = =
Born in Glasgow , McAllister started his career in non @-@ League football at Eastleigh in 2001 . He later moved to Basingstoke Town . He made his debut in March 2002 , scoring in a 1 – 1 draw with Hampton & Richmond Borough . He played ten games in the 2001 – 02 season , scoring three goals . He started the 2002 – 03 season with a goal on the opening day , as Basingstoke drew 2 – 2 with Aylesbury United . In November , McAllister scored two hat @-@ tricks in two games , the first of which helped Basingstoke to a 3 – 1 win over Bishops Stortford , and the second helped his side to a 3 – 0 win over Braintree Town . He finished 2002 – 03 with 35 goals from 47 games . McAllister 's success continued into 2003 – 04 , where he scored another 28 goals in 35 appearances . This success earned him a trial with Queens Park Rangers in the Football League Championship , just one level down from the Premier League .
After scoring 66 times in 112 games for Basingstoke Town , he moved to the Conference National outfit Stevenage on a bosman transfer in May 2004 . He made his debut for Stevenage as a substitute , as they beat Crawley Town , 1 – 0 . After struggling to get in the starting line @-@ up for Stevenage , he was sent out on loan to his former club , Eastleigh , where he scored six goals in four games . In December 2004 , he was loaned out for the second time in that season , moving to Gravesend & Northfleet , where he made debut in a 1 – 0 defeat by Hereford United . In the second minute of Gravesend 's 1 – 1 draw with Crawley Town , he scored the first goal of this loan . He scored his second and last goal of this loan just two days later , which helped his team to a 2 – 2 draw with Accrington Stanley , before he returned to his parent club , Stevenage , in January 2005 . At the end of 2004 – 05 , he left Stevenage having only played 11 games in all competitions , with one goal .
Before the start of 2005 – 06 he signed for Woking on a permanent deal . He made his debut in August 2005 , starting in a 2 – 1 defeat by Kidderminster Harriers . McAllister finished his debut season with thirteen goals , eight of which were in the league . McAllister scored his first brace for Woking in September 2006 , as he helped his side to overcome Forest Green Rovers , 3 – 2 , away from home . After scoring 18 goals in 2006 – 07 , he attracted interest from several Conference sides and in May 2007 he signed for Grays Athletic . After making his debut for Grays Athletic in a 0 – 0 draw with Torquay United in August 2007 , he played only another eight times , scoring one goal against Droylsden , before being sent out on loan to league rivals Rushden & Diamonds in October . He returned from the loan in January 2008 , having only scored one goal , against Oxford United , who he then signed for on his return to Grays . Having joined Oxford on a contract until the end of the 2007 – 08 season , McAllister made his debut for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Altrincham ; he scored 22 minutes into the game . He made another 16 appearances , scoring one more goal , before leaving at the end of the season .
= = = Exeter City = = =
He completed a move to Football League Two side Exeter City in summer 2008 , signing for the first time for a club in the Football League . He made his first team debut in August 2008 , in a home match against Southampton , in the League Cup . Exeter lost the game 3 – 1 . It took until December for McAllister to score his first competitive for the club , when he scored to help Exeter to a 2 – 1 win over Lincoln City . He then scored another two goals later that month , in a 4 – 1 win over north @-@ west club Rochdale . He added just another two goals to his tally in January 2009 , both in Exeter 's 2 – 1 win over Dagenham & Redbridge . The remainder of the 2008 – 09 season saw him only add two more goals , against Macclesfield Town and Darlington , both in the space of a month . After only making five appearances for Exeter in 2009 – 10 , he joined Barnet on loan in November 2009 . McAllister , still without a goal in 2009 – 10 , couldn 't get on the scoresheet in the three games he played for Barnet , and he returned to Exeter in January . In March , still having not played for Exeter since his return from Barnet , he signed an emergency one @-@ month loan deal at Rotherham United . He made his debut for Rotherham in their 1 – 0 away win over Dagenham & Redbridge . After another seven games and still no goals , he returned to Exeter only to be released in May , along with eight other team @-@ mates .
= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =
Following his release from Exeter City , McAllister moved back to non @-@ League , signing for Conference Premier outfit Crawley Town on a one @-@ year contract , in June 2008 . He made his debut in August , when his side lost 1 – 0 to Grimsby Town . Ten days later he scored his first goal in a Crawley shirt , scoring the second in a 2 – 1 win over newly promoted Bath City . Just four days later , he scored two goals as Crawley beat Hayes & Yeading United , 3 – 0 , away from home . In February 2011 , McAllister started in Crawley Town 's FA Cup fifth @-@ round tie against Manchester United at Old Trafford , which Crawley 1 – 0 . At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , after Crawley gained promotion to the Football League , McAllister was released after he rejected a new deal .
McAllister signed for Newport County in May 2011 , deciding to stay in non @-@ League football . He signed for Newport after their manager , Anthony Hudson , had earlier stated , " We are on the verge of two massive additions to the squad , who will take the club in the direction that we want to go . "
After failing to find the net in 26 games for Newport County he joined Conference rivals Luton Town on loan until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . He scored his first goal in over a year against Ebbsfleet United on 17 April 2012 . In June 2012 McAllister rejoined Eastleigh .
= = Style of play = =
McAllister plays as a striker , he is " an explosive front man " , and is described as a " targetman " because of his height . His time at Basingstoke Town was described as " prolific " due to the number of goals he scored . While at Exeter City , manager Paul Tisdale described him as " excellent " , and said that McAllister and fellow Exeter City striker Richard Logan had a good partnership together after McAllister scored a hat @-@ trick for the reserve team .
On signing for Luton Town manager Gary Brabin described McAllister as " adaptable in any role ... he works hard , he 's strong and he chips in with his fair share of goals . "
= = Personal life = =
After his move to Oxford United in January 2008 , he stated that the reason for the move was so that he could be closer to his family home in Southampton . On his arrival at Exeter City in July 2008 , he moved into a house with fellow Exeter forward , Ben Watson . McAllister stated that it would make a huge difference living near the training ground , instead of travelling long distances to get to training and matches .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 23 May 2012 .
= = Honours = =
Crawley Town
Conference Premier winner ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Eastleigh
Conference South : 2013 @-@ 14
Sutton United
National League South : 2015 @-@ 16
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= Raskovnik =
The raskovnik or razkovniche ( Serbian Cyrillic and Macedonian : расковник , Bulgarian : разковниче , pronounced [ rɐsˈkɔvnitʃɛ ] , Russian : разрыв @-@ трава , Polish : rozryw ) is a magical herb in Slavic ( Bosnian , Bulgarian , Croatian , Macedonian , Montenegrin , Serbian , Slovene , Russian ) and Romanian ( iarba fiarelor ) mythology . According to lore , the raskovnik has the magical property to unlock or uncover anything that is locked or closed . However , legends claim it is notoriously difficult to recognize the herb , and reputedly only certain chthonic animals are able to identify it .
= = Names = =
The herb is known by a multitude of names among the South Slavs , and the names vary significantly by region . While razkovniche and raskovnik are the customary names in Bulgarian and Serbian respectively and the root is also preserved in the Leskovac dialect as raskov , in some parts of Macedonia it is known as ež trava ( " hedgehog grass " ) . In the vicinity of Bar ( southeastern Montenegro ) , the term is demir @-@ bozan , a Turkish borrowing meaning " iron breaker " . In Syrmia , the plant is referred to as špirgasta trava ( a hapax legomenon ) , in Slavonia it is known as zemaljski ključ ( " earth key " ) , and in Slovenia 's Savinja Valley as mavričin koren ( " rainbow root " ) .
= = Description and properties = =
Traditionally , it is considered that few people , if any , could actually recognize the herb . However , in Bulgarian sources the raskovnik is sometimes described as a grass resembling a four @-@ leaf clover . It grows in meadows and may be picked either while green and blooming or in hay , when it is already dry . While it is not necessarily rare , nor does it thrive only in remote locations , it is nevertheless impossible to recognize by the uninitiated . In the words of Serbian linguist and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , “ It is some ( may be imaginary ) grass for which it is thought that thanks to it ( when brushed by it ) every lock and every other closure would open by itself . ”
According to the legend , the raskovnik could unlock any gate or padlock , regardless of its size , material or key . It could also uncover treasures buried in the ground : in Bulgarian beliefs , it could split the ground at the place where a treasure lay so that people could locate it . In some regions of Serbia , the treasure itself was a black man in chains who requested that a raskovnik be brought to him . The raskovnik would break the chains and the man would disappear into the ground to be replaced by a cauldron filled with gold coins . Other supernatural properties attributed to the herb by Bulgarians include the alchemic ability to transmute iron into gold , the more general ability to make the one who picked it forever happy or wealthy . In some interpretations , the raskovnik is a wonderful plant that makes true whatever its owner desires .
= = Obtainment = =
The raskovnik is believed to have been sought after by treasure hunters , sorcerers and herbalists who desired its magic powers for personal benefit . In Serbia , it was believed that there exist certain treasures , such as the Treasure of Tsar Radovan , which could not be unlocked in any other way but employing a raskovnik .
As , according to Bulgarian mythology and some other traditions , tortoises were the only beings who knew the appearance of the herb and the location where it grows , such people would try to obtain the raskovnik by deceiving a tortoise . They would find a tortoise nesting site and hem it in with a fence while the tortoise is away . When it returns , the tortoise would be unable to access its eggs , so it would return with a raskovnik in order to breach the fence . Thus , the tortoise would reveal the herb and people would acquire it from the tortoise , which does not need it anymore .
While the tricking of a tortoise was the most popular method in Bulgarian mythology , in Dalmatia the legend refers to snakes , and among Serbs another version involves the locking of young hedgehogs in a box for their mother to unlock . In Serbia , one would also have to be quick to take the raskovnik , as the hedgehog would swallow it after use . In any case , turtles , snakes and hedgehogs are all animals with chthonic characteristics which were often variously associated with the underworld in South Slavic tradition .
Karadžić also mentions another Serbian method to obtain the raskovnik . He recorded a story from the town of Zemun about a merchant who desired to find the herb . The merchant locked an old woman into leg irons and let her wander in a field during the night ; if the irons unlocked by themselves at a certain place , that would be a place where the raskovnik grows .
= = Metaphoric use = =
The legendary herb has entered the modern Bulgarian vocabulary as a metaphor for a magic key or a panacea in the wider sense . The phrase “ to find the razkovniche ” ( „ да намериш разковничето “ „ da namerish razkovnicheto “ ) means to find the solution to a certain problem , usually a complex or difficult one . Razkovniche is also the common Bulgarian name for the plant European waterclover ( Marsilea quadrifolia ) which , in its appearance , has many similarities with the descriptions of the mythical raskovnik . In eastern Serbia , raskovnik also refers to a specific plant used in vernacular medicine , namely Laserpitium siler .
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= Donovan Warren =
Donovan Jamelle Warren ( born January 31 , 1989 ) is an American football cornerback who is currently a free agent . Warren was signed by the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent following the 2010 NFL Draft and has also played with the Detroit Lions , Pittsburgh Steelers and Chicago Bears . He attended the University of Michigan through his junior year .
During his three years playing for the Michigan Wolverines football team , he started in 34 of 36 games . As a member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , whom he led in interceptions , he earned 2009 first team All @-@ Big Ten recognition from the media and second team recognition from the coaches . He had chosen Michigan over his hometown favorite University of Southern California because he believed that he would be able to play immediately there . Warren had played high school football at Long Beach Polytechnic High School in California .
= = Early years = =
A native of Long Beach , California , Warren attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School , where he tallied 114 tackles , 15 pass breakups , five interceptions and three fumble recoveries during his prep career . Considered a five @-@ star recruit by Rivals.com , Warren ranked third among cornerback prospects and twenty @-@ fifth overall in the nation . Scout.com ranked him fourth among cornerbacks , and ESPN ranked him eighth . He was named to the USA Today All @-@ USA second team and the EA Sports All @-@ American second @-@ team at cornerback . Warren participated in the 2007 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl . Warren ran a 10 @.@ 6 seconds time in the 100 meters in high school .
At the beginning of the recruiting process , Warren was considered very likely to play for the USC Trojans football team , since they had four players from his high school on the roster and his godfather , Mark Carrier , was a USC alumn . However , USC had a lot of depth at cornerback at the time and Warren ( as well as his father ) had a good relationship with Michigan assistant coach Ron English . When Warren made Michigan his final decision , he was noted as feeling that his heart wanted him to choose USC , which was the school he had grown up rooting for , but his head led him to Michigan where he could play immediately and work under the tutelage of English , who had developed many defensive backs who went on to the National Football League .
= = College career = =
As a true freshman at Michigan , Warren played in all 13 season games while starting 11 of them at cornerback . He recorded 52 tackles , 1 @.@ 5 tackles for loss , one sack , one forced fumble , two fumble recoveries , one interception and six pass breakups . In the September 15 , 2007 Michigan @-@ Notre Dame rivalry game , which Michigan won 38 – 0 , he forced and recovered a Jimmy Clausen fumble on the Notre Dame 21 @-@ yard line while the score was 3 – 0 . The fumble led to a Mike Hart touchdown five plays later . He was named Big Ten Defensive Freshman of the Year by The Sporting News and also made TSN ′ s and College Football News ′ Freshman All @-@ American second team .
As a sophomore , he started ten games at cornerback and one at safety . During the November 1 , 2008 game at Purdue , he recovered a fumble on Purdue 's opening possession that led to a Brandon Minor 45 – yard touchdown run on the next play .
As a junior , he started all 12 games at cornerback . That season , he led the Wolverines with four interceptions , which ranked tied for sixth in the Big Ten Conference and 49th in the nation . He recorded one in each of Michigan 's first three conference games during the 2009 Big Ten Conference football season , including a controversial one to seal the team 's fourth consecutive victory to start the season in their conference opener against the Indiana Hoosiers that withstood instant replay video review . He ran back the third of these interceptions for a 40 @-@ yard touchdown in the first minute of the third conference game against the Iowa Hawkeyes . At the conclusion of the season , he was selected as to the 2009 All @-@ Big Ten conference team by the media ( first @-@ team ) and coaches ( second @-@ team ) .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
On December 20 , 2009 , Warren announced his decision to forgo his final season of collegiate eligibility and enter the 2010 NFL Draft . Warren stated that the NFL 's Draft Advisory Board advised him that if he entered the draft , he would be selected in the first three rounds . When Warren signed Drew Rosenhaus as his sports agent , he was projected as a first or second round draft choice . Warren was considered to be a man @-@ to @-@ man defense specialist who needed to develop his zone defense skills . Some sources , such as Todd McShay , who felt he was just a cut below the top five cornerbacks in the draft prior to the 2010 NFL Combine , had predicted that Warren could be selected in the second round . ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper , Jr. predicted Warren would be drafted in the third or fourth round of the draft , describing him as “ a physical corner " who " likes going head to head on an island with the best receivers in the country , he ’ s never had an issue with that . Anticipation is good . Gambler , though . Gave up some big plays . ” Warren aggravated an ankle injury shortly before the NFL Combine , where he struggled in position drills and ran the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 59 seconds . His disappointing performance was cited as damaging his draft stock .
= = = New York Jets = = =
Despite earlier predictions , Warren was not selected in the draft . He signed as an undrafted free agent with the New York Jets immediately after the draft . Warren 's godfather , former Pro Bowl defensive back Mark Carrier , is an assistant coach with the Jets . The 2010 New York Jets have several cornerbacks on their roster , including Darrelle Revis , Antonio Cromartie , Dwight Lowery , Drew Coleman , Marquice Cole and first @-@ round pick Kyle Wilson . Some sources speculate that Warren would be converted to safety . Jets head coach Rex Ryan said that although Warren would be practicing at both cornerback and safety , he felt that Warren 's best shot was at safety . Warren , who was sidelined during most of the Jets training camp sessions with a concussion , was waived by New York on September 3 , 2010 . Warren would be signed to the team 's practice squad on September 6 , 2010 . Warren would later be released from the team 's practice squad on September 7 , 2010 .
= = = 2011 = = =
Warren signed a contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers on January 7 , 2011 . He was cut September 4 , 2011 . Warren then signed with the Detroit Lions a few days later and was placed on the practice squad . Warren was released from the Lions practice squad on September 20 , 2011 . On January 6 , 2012 , he signed a reserve / future contract with the Chicago Bears . On June 12 , 2012 , he was waived by the Bears .
= = Personal = =
Warren 's uncle Chuckie Miller played for the Indianapolis Colts and his father , Alvin , played football at New Mexico State . His godfather , Carrier , is an assistant coach for the Cincinnati Bengals .
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= Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin =
Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin is a theme area at SeaWorld Orlando headlined by a first @-@ of @-@ its @-@ kind motion @-@ based , trackless dark ride . The attraction opened on May 24 , 2013 as the largest attraction at any SeaWorld Entertainment theme park . The area was generally well received by critics and the public at its opening .
= = History = =
= = = Rumors and announcement = = =
In August and September 2011 , SeaWorld Entertainment filed trademarks for " Antarctica " to be used for a theme area , and " Empire of the Penguins " to be used for an amusement ride . This led to rumors that SeaWorld Orlando would replace its " Penguin Encounter " exhibit with a dark ride . A report by the Orlando Sentinel in October 2011 confirmed these plans , citing " government filings and interviews with people familiar with various elements " . At the time , SeaWorld Orlando would not publicly reveal its plans .
On November 8 , 2011 SeaWorld Orlando announced a multi @-@ year expansion plan featuring the opening of Turtle Trek in 2012 and " Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin " in 2013 . Although details of the ride were not released , creative director Brian Morrow said that the ride would be the coldest attraction in the world and would follow the journey of a tiny penguin . On April 24 , 2012 , the park revealed further details about the attraction : guests would ride in eight @-@ person vehicles , choosing among two levels of intensity ( " Mild " or " Wild " ) . The surrounding area would also feature a new penguin habitat , restaurant and store .
= = = Construction = = =
To allow construction to begin , SeaWorld Orlando closed Penguin Encounter , Friends of the Wild and the Antarctic Market Restaurant on January 3 , 2012 . The former attractions were demolished during the first half of 2012 , with vertical construction beginning in July . Construction continued into 2013 , with construction walls coming down one week before the attraction 's opening . The cost of the attraction was reported to be in excess of $ 40 million .
= = = Opening = = =
On February 19 , 2013 , SeaWorld Orlando announced that " Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin " would open on May 24 . Unlike many attractions , the ride had no soft opening period ; instead , it was open to a select number of employees and their families , travel media and bloggers before its public opening .
On May 24 , 2013 , SeaWorld Orlando opened Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin to the public . The opening drew thousands of guests to the ride , with some waiting more than four hours to board . On May 25 , one of the penguins escaped the open @-@ air enclosure by leaping out of the water and into the public viewing area ; it was returned to the exhibit unharmed .
= = Ride experience and exhibit = =
Guests enter the queue from the Antarctica @-@ themed area of the park . Large groups of riders are admitted into a pre @-@ show room , where multiple projections of an Antarctic landscape are blended with 3D exhibits . In a narrated video , guests are introduced to a gentoo penguin colony in Antarctica featuring a newborn penguin named Puck . After the pre @-@ show guests follow a path to a junction , where they choose a " mild " or " wild " ride . They are then divided into groups of eight riders before boarding the ride vehicles at one of four stations . Riders are seated in two rows of four , and restrained by lap bars .
When the riders have boarded , the vehicle is dispatched . It travels around an indoor Antarctic environment , spinning to view a variety of scenery and projection screens . The story which began in the pre @-@ show continues , with Puck venturing out into the sea . When he is underwater , Puck is chased by a leopard seal before resurfacing on land . The ride 's theme song – " Antarctica : One World , One Family " by Lauren Alaina – is then played as guests watch a live penguin habitat behind glass before the vehicles return to a four @-@ platform unloading station .
Guests disembark in an open @-@ air penguin habitat with an air temperature of approximately 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) . This exhibit has minimal barriers between guests and inhabitants , and is designed so guests can hear sounds made by the penguins .
A total of 245 penguins live in the exhibit ; species include gentoo , king , Adélie and rockhopper penguins . Lighting in the exhibit allows the park to control the seasons for the penguins . A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) glass window allows guests to see them in their 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) pool from an underwater viewing area . The entire experience takes about 25 minutes . To minimise odors in the open @-@ air environment , SeaWorld staff clean the exhibit several times daily and replace the 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) of snow each day .
= = Theme area = =
The Antarctica @-@ themed area is spread across 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) inside SeaWorld Orlando . A 50 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 15 m ) entrance archway is adjacent to the Sea Lion & Otter Theater , and a smaller entrance is near the Journey to Atlantis ride . In addition to the Empire of the Penguin , the theme area is home to several other attractions . A looping 45 @-@ minute soundtrack is played throughout the area . A " South Pole " is in the center of the area , and penguin carvings decorate the surrounding walls . The Expedition Cafe , South Pole Beverages and Glacial Collections sell food , drinks and souvenirs .
= = Production = =
= = = Ride system = = =
Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin features a prototype , motion @-@ based , trackless dark @-@ ride system by Oceaneering International , producer of ride systems for The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man , Transformers : The Ride , and The Curse of DarKastle . The ride is the first of its kind in the world .
When Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin was announced in November 2011 , Oceaneering had already developed a working prototype of the ride vehicle . The first concept art for the attraction was released in April 2012 : a circular ride vehicle , seating eight riders in two rows of four . On May 11 , 2012 Oceaneering filed a patent application for the ride 's technology . At the November 2012 IAAPA Attractions Expo , SeaWorld Orlando and Oceaneering International revealed the trackless , motion simulator @-@ based ride vehicle to the public .
Each battery @-@ powered vehicle , or AGV , is made up of two platforms . Riders sit on the upper platform , which provides three degrees of freedom . A lower platform provides omnidirectional lateral movement . Unlike previous ride designs , the trackless system and the wheel and motor configurations allow movements diagonal to a rider 's perspective . The vehicles use a dead reckoning system developed by Frog AGV to navigate their way through the environment , allowing a vehicle to cross another 's path . Each vehicle features a built @-@ in controller , which wirelessly communicates with a central ride @-@ system controller . Movement commands are issued by the ride @-@ system controller , and executed by the vehicles ' controllers . A specially @-@ designed battery and charge system allow the vehicles to be quickly charged while docked at the loading and unloading platforms .
= = = Marketing = = =
SeaWorld Orlando announced Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin as part of the park 's largest expansion thus far . With 18 months between its announcement and its opening , the park wished to generate demand for the ride . As part of this campaign , SeaWorld released a promotional video in July 2012 and a series of videos ( Behind the Freeze ) featuring creative director Brian Morrow .
= = Reception = =
Dewayne Bevil of the Orlando Sentinel said that " the hottest attraction in Central Florida theme parks this week is also the coldest . " Bevil interviewed several park guests ; comments included " I thought it [ the ride ] was really cool " and " it 's beautiful " , and some described it as better than the attractions it replaced . Barbara Nefer of Examiner.com said that guests would love Puck , the ride 's central character . She preferred the wild version of the ride , describing it as " actually still very family friendly " and saying that the exhibit was a " huge highlight " of the attraction . Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider agreed that the highlight of the attraction was the penguin exhibit . Niles described the dispatch procedure as crucial to the ride : " if SeaWorld can dispatch a quartet of ride vehicles every minute or so , as designed , fans will find this a fun ride " . In a later article Niles highlighted some guests ' criticisms of the ride , describing it as " lacking an engaging story and not delivering enough on @-@ ride views of the attraction 's stars -- SeaWorld 's penguins " . However , he argues that SeaWorld 's promotions were too photorealistic creating " expectations for an experience that the ride did not deliver , perhaps setting up many of those visitors for disappointment " .
Lawrence Goldsmith of the Daily Mirror and Susan and Simon Veness of the Daily Mail , shared the sentiment of other reviewers : the penguins are the stars of the show . Goldsmith said that the ride options ( mild or wild ) allowed everyone , from children to thrill @-@ seekers , to " enjoy the experience equally " . Susan and Simon Veness described the ride section as thrilling , calling it " one of the highlights " of the attraction . Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride three out of five stars . Levine gave this moderate rating because he felt conflicted : the animations themselves were good , but the overall storyline was sparse ; the ride system was intriguing , yet it was under utilised . He concluded by applauding " SeaWorld for taking the bold initiative to build a major @-@ league attraction " , but stated " the ride feels rushed and too short " .
From a commercial perspective , the opening day of the area saw guests waiting in line for more than four hours to experience the flagship attraction ; SeaWorld had estimated queues of approximately half that time . Dennis Speigel of consulting firm International Theme Park Services expected attendance to increase between five and ten percent . Speigel speculated that this rise would be higher than if a single attraction were unveiled ; however , it would be less than the 36 @-@ percent increase for Islands of Adventure after the opening of The Wizarding World of Harry Potter .
In November 2013 , Oceaneering won a Thea Award from the Themed Entertainment Association for outstanding themed entertainment and experience design , for the trackless ride system developed for Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin .
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= Smithfield , London =
Smithfield is a locality in the ward of Farringdon Without situated at the City of London 's northwest in central London , England . The principal street of the area is West Smithfield .
A number of valued City institutions are located in the area , such as St Bartholomew 's Hospital , the Charterhouse , and Livery Halls notably those of the Butchers ' and Haberdashers ' Companies , but Smithfield is best known for its ancient meat market , dating from the 10th century , which is now London 's only remaining wholesale market in continuous operation since medieval times . The area also contains London 's oldest surviving church , St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great , founded in 1123 AD .
Smithfield has borne witness to many bloody executions of heretics and political rebels over the centuries , including major historical figures such as Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace and Wat Tyler , leader of the Peasants ' Revolt , among many other religious reformers and dissenters .
Smithfield Market , a Grade II listed @-@ covered market building , was designed by Victorian architect Sir Horace Jones in the second half of the 19th century , and is the dominant architectural feature of the area . Some of its original market premises fell in to disuse in the late 20th century and faced the prospect of demolition . The Corporation of London 's public enquiry in 2012 drew widespread support for an urban regeneration plan intent upon preserving Smithfield 's historical identity .
= = Smithfield area = =
In the Middle Ages , it was a broad grassy area known as Smooth Field , located beyond London Wall stretching to the eastern bank of the River Fleet . Given its ease of access to grazing and water , Smithfield established itself as London 's livestock market , remaining so for almost 1 @,@ 000 years . Many local toponyms are associated with the livestock trade : while some street names ( such as " Cow Cross Street " and " Cock Lane " ) remain in use , many more ( such as " Chick Lane " , " Duck Lane " , " Cow Lane " , " Pheasant Court " , " Goose Alley " ) have disappeared from the map after the major redevelopment of the area in the Victorian era .
= = = Religious history = = =
In 1123 , the area near Aldersgate was granted by King Henry I for the foundation of St Bartholomew 's Priory at the request of Prior Rahere in thanks for his being nursed back to good health . The Priory exercised its right to enclose land between Aldersgate ( to the east ) , Long Lane ( to the north ) and modern @-@ day Newgate Street ( to the south ) , erecting its main western gate which opened onto Smithfield , and a postern on Long Lane . The Priory thereafter held the manorial rights to hold weekly fairs , which initially took place in its outer court on the site of present @-@ day Cloth Fair , leading to " Fair Gate " .
An additional annual celebration , the Bartholomew Fair , was established in 1133 by the Augustinian friars and this over time became one of London 's pre @-@ eminent summer fairs , opening each year on 24 August . A trading event for cloth and other goods as well as being a pleasure forum , the four @-@ day festival drew crowds from all strata of English society .
In 1855 , however , Bartholomew Fair was closed down by the City authorities after degenerating into a magnet for debauchery and public disorder .
In 1348 , Walter de Manny rented 13 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 05 km2 ) of land at Spital Croft , north of Long Lane , from the Master and Brethren of St Bartholomew 's Hospital for a graveyard and plague pit for victims of the Black Death . A chapel and hermitage were constructed , renamed New Church Haw ; but in 1371 , this land was granted for the foundation of the Charterhouse , originally a Carthusian monastery .
Nearby and to the north of this demesne , the Knights Hospitaller established a Commandery at Clerkenwell dedicated to St John in the mid @-@ 12th century , and in 1194 received a Charter from King Richard I granting the Order formal privileges . Later Augustinian canonesses established the Priory of St Mary , north of the Knights of St John property .
By the end of the 14th century , these religious houses were regarded by City traders as interlopers — occupying what had previously been public open space nearby one of the City gates . On numerous occasions vandals damaged the Charterhouse , eventually demolishing its buildings . By 1405 , a stout wall was built to protect the property and maintain the privacy of the Order , particularly its church where men and women alike came to worship .
The religious houses were dissolved in the Reformation , and their lands broken up . The Priory Church of St John remains , as does St John 's Gate , traditionally regarded as the boundary between Smithfield and Clerkenwell . John Houghton ( later canonized by Pope Paul VI as St John Houghton ) , Prior of Charterhouse , went to Thomas Cromwell accompanied by two other local priors seeking an oath of supremacy that would be acceptable to their communities . This resulted in their being flung into the Tower of London , and on 4 May 1535 , they were taken to Tyburn and hanged — becoming the first Catholic martyrs of the Reformation . On 29 May , the remaining twenty monks and eighteen lay brothers were forced to swear the oath of allegiance ; the ten who refused were taken to Newgate Prison and left to starve .
With the monks expelled , Charterhouse was requisitioned and remained as a private dwelling until its reestablishment by Thomas Sutton in 1611 as a charitable foundation forming the school named Charterhouse and almshouses known as Sutton 's Hospital in Charterhouse on its former site . Some of the property was damaged during The Blitz , but it remains largely intact , whilst the school was relocated to Godalming in 1872 ; part of the site is also now occupied by Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry . Until 1899 Charterhouse was extra @-@ parochial , when it became a civil parish incorporated in the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury .
From its inception , the Priory of St Bartholomew treated the sick . After the Reformation it was left with neither income nor monastic occupants , but following a petition by the City Corporation , Henry VIII refounded it in December 1546 , as the " House of the Poore in West Smithfield in the suburbs of the City of London of Henry VIII 's Foundation " . Letters Patent were presented to the City , granting property and income to the new foundation the following month . King Henry VIII 's sergeant @-@ surgeon , Thomas Vicary , was appointed as the hospital 's first superintendent The King Henry VIII Gate which opens onto West Smithfield was completed in 1702 and remains the hospital 's main entrance .
The Priory 's principal church , St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great , was reconfigured after the dissolution of the monasteries losing the western third of its nave . Reformed as an Anglican parish church , its parish boundaries were limited to the site of the ancient priory and a small tract of land between the church and Long Lane . The parish of St Bartholomew the Great was designated as a Liberty , responsible for the upkeep and security of its fabric and the land within its boundaries . With the advent of street lighting , mains water and sewerage during the Victorian era , maintenance of such an ancient parish with so few parishioners became increasingly uneconomical after the Industrial Revolution . Thus , in 1910 , it agreed to be incorporated by the Corporation of London which guaranteed financial support and security . Great St Barts ' present parish boundary includes just 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 048 m ) of Smithfield — possibly delineating a former right of way .
After the Reformation , a separate parish likewise dedicated to St Bartholomew was granted in favour of St Bartholomew 's Hospital — named St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Less , it remained under the hospital 's patronage , unique in the Church of England , until 1948 when the hospital was nationalized in the National Health Service . The church benefice is nowadays joined again with its ancient partner , the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great .
Following the diminished influence of the ancient Priory , predecessor of the two parishes of St Bartholomew , disputes began to arise over rights to tithes and taxes payable by lay residents who claimed allegiance with the nearby and anciently associated parish of St Botolph Aldersgate — an unintended consequence and legacy of King Kenry VIII 's religious reforms .
Smithfield and its Market , mostly situated in the parish of St Sepulchre was founded in 1137 , and was endowed by Prior Rahere , who also founded St Barts . The ancient parish of St Sepulchre extended north to Turnmill Street , to St Paul 's Cathedral and Ludgate Hill in the south , and along the east bank of the Fleet ( now the route of Farringdon Street ) . St Sepulchre 's Tower contains the twelve " bells of Old Bailey " from the nursery rhyme Oranges and Lemons . Traditionally , the Great Bell was rung to announce the execution of a prisoner at Newgate .
= = = Civil history = = =
As a large open space close to the City , Smithfield was a popular place for public gatherings . In 1374 Edward III held a seven @-@ day tournament at Smithfield , for the amusement of his beloved Alice Perrers . Possibly the most famous medieval tournament at Smithfield was that commanded in 1390 by Richard II . Jean Froissart , in his fourth book of Chronicles , reported that sixty knights would come to London to tilt for two days , " accompanied by sixty noble ladies , richly ornamented and dressed " . The tournament was proclaimed by heralds throughout England , Scotland , Hainault , Germany , Flanders and France , so as to rival the jousts given by Charles of France at Paris a few years earlier , upon the arrival of his consort Isabel of Bavaria . Geoffrey Chaucer supervised preparations for the tournament as a clerk to the King .
Along with Tyburn , Smithfield was for centuries the main site for the public execution of heretics and dissidents in London . The Scottish nobleman Sir William Wallace was executed in 1305 at West Smithfield . The market was the meeting place prior to the Peasants ' Revolt and where the Revolt 's leader , Wat Tyler , was slain by Sir William Walworth , Lord Mayor of London on 15 June 1381 .
Religious dissenters ( Catholics as well as other Protestant denominations such as Anabaptists ) were sentenced to death in this area during the Crown 's changing course of religious orientation started by King Henry VIII . About fifty Protestants and religious reformers , known as the Marian martyrs , were executed at Smithfield during the reign of Mary I.
G.K. Chesterton observed ironically :
" It is foolish , generally speaking , for a philosopher to set fire to another philosopher in Smithfield Market because they do not agree in their theory of the universe . That was done very frequently in the last decadence of the Middle Ages , and it failed altogether in its object " .
-Heretics 1905
On 17 November 1558 , several Protestant heretics were saved by a Royal herald 's timely announcement that Queen Mary had died shortly before the wooden faggots were to be lit at the Smithfield Stake . Under English Law Death Warrants were commanded by Sign Manual ( the personal signature of the Monarch ) , invariably upon ministerial recommendation , which if unexercised by the time of a Sovereign 's death required renewed authority which , in this case , Elizabeth I did not give thereby freeing the Protestants . During the 16th century , Smithfield was also used to execute swindlers and coin forgers who were boiled to death in oil . However , by the 18th century the " Tyburn Tree " ( near the present @-@ day Marble Arch ) , became the main place for public executions in London . After 1785 , they were again moved , this time to the gates of Newgate prison — just to the south of Smithfield .
The Smithfield area was fortunate to emerge largely unscathed by the Great Fire of London in 1666 , which was abated near the Fortune of War Tavern , at the junction of Giltspur Street and Cock Lane , where the statue of the Golden Boy of Pye Corner is located . In the late 17th century , several residents of Smithfield emigrated to America where they founded the Town of Smithfield , Rhode Island .
= = = Today = = =
Since the late 1990s , Smithfield and neighbouring Farringdon have developed a reputation for being a cultural hub for up @-@ and @-@ coming professionals who enjoy its vast selection of bars , restaurants and night clubs .
Nightclubs such as Fabric and Turnmills pioneered the area 's reputation for trendy night life , attracting professionals from nearby Holborn , Clerkenwell and the City on weekdays and , at weekends , the clubs and bars in the area , having late licences , draw people into the area from outside London too .
Smithfield has also become a popular venue for sporting events . Until 2002 Smithfield hosted the midnight start of the annual Miglia Quadrato Car Rally , but with the increased night club activity around Smithfield the UHULMC ( a motoring club ) decided to move the event 's start to Finsbury Circus . Since 2007 , Smithfield has been the chosen location of an annual event dedicated to bike racing known as Smithfield Nocturne .
Number 1 , West Smithfield is Head Office of the Churches Conservation Trust .
= = Market = =
= = = Origins = = =
Meat has been traded at Smithfield Market for more than 800 years , making it one of the oldest markets in London . A livestock market occupied the site as early as the 10th century . In 1174 the site was described by William Fitzstephen as :
" a smooth field where every Friday there is a celebrated rendezvous of fine horses to be traded , and in another quarter are placed vendibles of the peasant , swine with their deep flanks , and cows and oxen of immense bulk . "
Costs , customs and rules were meticulously laid down . For instance , for an ox , a cow or a dozen sheep one could get 1 penny . The livestock market expanded over the centuries to meet demand from the growing population of the City . In 1710 , the market was surrounded by a wooden fence containing the livestock within the market ; and until its abolition , the Gate House at Cloth Fair ( " Fair Gate " ) employed a chain ( le cheyne ) on market days . Daniel Defoe referred to the livestock market in 1726 as being " without question , the greatest in the world " , and data available appear to corroborate his statement .
Between 1740 and 1750 the average yearly sales at Smithfield were reported to be around 74 @,@ 000 cattle and 570 @,@ 000 sheep . By the middle of the 19th century , in the course of a single year 220 @,@ 000 head of cattle and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sheep would be " violently forced into an area of five acres , in the very heart of London , through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares " . The volume of cattle driven daily to Smithfield started to raise major concerns .
The Great North Road traditionally began at Smithfield Market and mileages were measured from here . The specific start was Hicks Hall , and its former location continued to be used for mileages even after it was demolished , soon after 1778 . The road followed St John Street , and continued north , eventually leading to Edinburgh . This ended in 1829 , with the establishment of the General Post Office at St Martin 's @-@ le @-@ Grand , which became the new starting point .
= = = Local campaigning against the cattle market = = =
In the Victorian period , pamphlets started circulating in favour of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the City , due to its extremely poor hygienic conditions as well as the brutal treatment of the cattle . The conditions at the market in the first half of the 19th century were often described as a major threat to public health :
Of all the horrid abominations with which London has been cursed , there is not one that can come up to that disgusting place , West Smithfield Market , for cruelty , filth , effluvia , pestilence , impiety , horrid language , danger , disgusting and shuddering sights , and every obnoxious item that can be imagined ; and this abomination is suffered to continue year after year , from generation to generation , in the very heart of the most Christian and most polished city in the world .
In 1843 , the Farmer 's Magazine published a petition signed by bankers , salesmen , butchers , aldermen and City residents against further expansion of the meat market , arguing that livestock markets had been systematically banned since the Middle Ages in other areas of London :
Our ancestors appear , in sanitary matters , to have been wiser than we are . There exists , amongst the Rolls of Parliament of the year 1380 , a petition from the citizens of London , praying - that , for the sake of the public health , meat should not be slaughtered nearer than " Knyghtsbrigg " , under penalty , not only of forfeiting such animals as might be killed in the " butcherie " , but of a year 's imprisonment . The prayer of this petition was granted , audits penalties were enforced during several reigns .
Thomas Hood wrote in 1830 an Ode to the Advocates for the Removal of Smithfield Market , applauding those " philanthropic men " who aim at removing to a distance the " vile Zoology " of the market and " routing that great nest of Hornithology " . Charles Dickens criticised locating a livestock market in the heart of the capital in his 1851 essay A Monument of French Folly drawing comparisons with the French market at Poissy outside Paris :
Of a great Institution like Smithfield , [ the French ] are unable to form the least conception . A Beast Market in the heart of Paris would be regarded an impossible nuisance . Nor have they any notion of slaughter @-@ houses in the midst of a city . One of these benighted frog @-@ eaters would scarcely understand your meaning , if you told him of the existence of such a British bulwark .
An Act of Parliament was passed in 1852 , under the provisions of which a new cattle market should be constructed at Copenhagen Fields , Islington . The Metropolitan Cattle Market opened in 1855 , leaving West Smithfield as waste ground for about ten years during the construction of the new market .
= = = Victorian Smithfield : meat and poultry market = = =
The present Smithfield meat market on Charterhouse Street was established by Act of Parliament : the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act . It is a large market with permanent buildings , designed by architect Sir Horace Jones , who also designed Billingsgate and Leadenhall Markets . Work on the Central Market , inspired by Italian architecture , began in 1866 and was completed in November 1868 at a cost of £ 993 @,@ 816 ( £ 81 million as of 2016 ) .
The Grade II listed main wings ( known as East and West Market ) are separated by the Grand Avenue , a wide roadway roofed by an elliptical arch with decorations in cast iron . At the two ends of the arcade , four prominent statues represent London , Edinburgh , Liverpool and Dublin depicting bronze dragons charged with the City 's armorial bearings . At the corners of the market four octagonal pavilion towers were built , each with a dome displaying carved stone griffins .
As the Market was being built , a cut and cover railway tunnel was constructed underground City street level to create a triangular junction with the railway between Blackfriars and Kings Cross through Snow Hill Tunnel — closed in 1916 , it has been revived and is now used for Thameslink rail services . The construction of extensive railway sidings , beneath Smithfield Park , facilitated the transfer of animal carcases to its Cold Store , and directly up to the Meat Market via lifts . These sidings closed in the 1960s , and are now used as a car park , accessed via a cobbled descent at the centre of Smithfield Park . Today , much of the meat is delivered to market by road .
The first extension of Smithfield 's meat market took place between 1873 and 1876 with the construction of the Poultry Market immediately west of the Central Market . A rotunda was built at the centre of the old Market Field ( now West Smithfield ) , comprising gardens , a fountain and a ramped carriageway to the station beneath the market building . Further buildings were subsequently added to the market . The General Market , built between 1879 and 1883 , was intended to replace the old Farringdon Market located nearby and established for the sale of fruit and vegetables when the earlier Fleet Market was cleared to enable the laying out of Farringdon Street between 1826 – 1830 .
A further block ( also known as Annexe Market or Triangular Block ) consisting of two separate structures ( the Fish Market and the Red House ) was built between 1886 and 1899 . The Fish Market , built by John Mowlem & Co . , was completed in 1888 , one year after Sir Horace Jones ' death . The Red House , with its imposing red brick and Portland stone façade , was built between 1898 and 1899 for the London Central Markets Cold Storage Co . Ltd .. It was one of the first cold stores to be built outside the London docks and continued to serve Smithfield Market until the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = = 20th century = = =
During World War II , a large underground cold store at Smithfield was the theatre of secret experiments led by Dr Max Perutz on pykrete , a mixture of ice and woodpulp , believed to be possibly tougher than steel . Perutz 's work , inspired by Geoffrey Pyke and part of Project Habakkuk , was meant to test the viability of pykrete as a material to construct floating airstrips in the Atlantic to allow refuelling of cargo planes in support of Admiral the Earl Mountbatten 's operations . The experiments were carried out by Perutz and his colleagues in a refrigerated meat locker in a Smithfield Market butcher 's basement , behind a protective screen of frozen animal carcasses . These experiments became obsolete with the development of longer range aircraft and the project was then abandoned .
At the end of World War II , a V @-@ 2 rocket struck at the north side of Charterhouse Street , near the junction with Farringdon Road ( 1945 ) . The explosion caused massive damage to the market buildings , impacting the railway tunnel structure below , with the loss of over 110 lives .
The original Poultry Market designed by Sir Horace Jones was destroyed by fire in 1958 . Its Grade II listed replacement building was designed by Sir Thomas Bennett in 1962 – 63 , with a reinforced concrete frame , and external cladding of dark blue brick . The main hall is covered by an enormous concrete dome , shaped as an elliptical paraboloid , spanning 225 feet ( 69 m ) by 125 feet ( 38 m ) and only 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) thick at the centre . The dome is believed to have been the largest concrete shell structure built at that time in Europe .
= = = Today = = =
Smithfield is London 's only major wholesale market ( Leadenhall Market nowadays attracting more tourist trade ) which has escaped relocation out of central London to cheaper land , better transport links and more modern facilities ( as have Covent Garden , Spitalfields and Billingsgate ) . The purpose of the market remains to supply inner City butchers , shops and restaurants with quality fresh meat , and so its main trading hours are 4 : 00 a.m. to 12 : 00 noon each weekday . Instead of moving away , Smithfield Market continues to modernise its existing site : its imposing Victorian buildings have had access points added for the loading and unloading of lorries .
The buildings stand above a warren of tunnels : previously , live animals were brought to market by hoof ( from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards they arrived by rail ) and were slaughtered on site . The former railway tunnels are now used for storage , parking and as basements . An impressive cobbled ramp spirals down around West Smithfield 's public garden , on the south side of the Market , providing access to part of this area . Some of the buildings on Charterhouse Street on Smithfield north side maintain access to the tunnels via their basements .
Some of the former meat market buildings have now changed use . For example , the former Central Cold Store , on Charterhouse Street is now , most unusually , a City centre cogeneration power station operated by Citigen . Other former cold storage warehousing ( The Metropolitan Cold Stores ) has been converted into the acclaimed nightclub Fabric .
Smithfield comprises the market as its central feature surrounded many old buildings on three sides and a public open space ( or Rotunda Garden ) at West Smithfield , beneath which there is a public car park . The south side is occupied by St Bartholomew 's Hospital ( known as Barts in common parlance ) , and on the east side by the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great . The Church of St Bartholomew the Less is located next to the King Henry VIII Gate , the hospital 's main entrance . The north and south of the square are now closed to through traffic , as part of the City 's security and surveillance cordon known as the Ring of steel . Security for the market is provided by its market constabulary .
= = Demolition and development plans = =
Since 2005 , the General Market ( 1883 ) and the adjacent Fish Market and Red House buildings ( 1898 ) , part of the Victorian complex of the Smithfield Market , have been facing a threat of demolition . The City of London Corporation , ultimate owners of this property has been engaged in public consultation to assess how best to redevelop their disused property and regenerate the area . Former property developers Thornfield Properties had planned to demolish the historic site and build a seven @-@ storey office block , offering 350 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space with a retail outlet on the ground floor .
Several campaigns , promoted by English Heritage and Save Britain 's Heritage among others , are being run to raise public awareness of this important part of London 's Victorian heritage . Grade II listed building protection was approved for the Red House Cold Store building in 2005 by then @-@ Culture Secretary Dame Tessa Jowell , on the basis of new historical evidence qualifying the complex as " the earliest existing example of a purpose @-@ built powered cold store " .
Whilst the Market continues to trade , its future remains unclear following Government Planning Minister Ruth Kelly 's instigating a major public inquiry in 2007 . The Public Inquiry for the demolition and redevelopment of the General Market Building took place between 6 November 2007 and 25 January 2008 . In August 2008 , Communities Secretary Hazel Blears announced that planning permission for the General Market 's redevelopment had been refused , stating that the threatened buildings made " a significant contribution " to the character and appearance of Farringdon and the surrounding area .
On 12 October 2012 , Henderson Group unveiled its £ 160 million @-@ plan for redeveloping the western side of the Central Market . Henderson proposed that the fish market , General Market and Red House buildings , all over a century @-@ old , make way for restaurants , retailers and office buildings while restoring and retaining much of the Market building 's original perimeter walls , with a new piazza being created in the General Market .
Some of the buildings on Lindsey Street opposite the East Market were demolished in 2010 to allow the construction of the new Crossrail Station at Farringdon . The demolished buildings include Smithfield House ( an early 20th @-@ century unlisted Hennebique concrete building ) , the Edmund Martin Ltd. shop ( an earlier building with alterations dating to the 1930s ) and two Victorian warehouses behind them . Redevelopment proposals are ongoing as of 2014 .
In the March of 2015 , the Museum of London revealed plans to vacate its Barbican site and move into the General Market Building . The cost of the move is estimated to be in the region of £ 70 million and , if funding can be achieved , would be complete by 2021 .
= = Gallery = =
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= HMS Havelock ( H88 ) =
HMS Havelock was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Jutahy in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939 and later renamed . She participated in the Norwegian Campaign in May 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols with the Western Approaches Command afterwards . The ship was briefly assigned to Force H in 1941 , but her anti @-@ aircraft armament was deemed too weak and she rejoined Western Approaches Command . Havelock became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 5 of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in early 1942 and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for the next two years . The ship was converted to an escort destroyer and sank one submarine during the war . After the end of the war , she escorted the ships carrying the Norwegian government in exile back to Norway and served as a target ship through mid @-@ 1946 . Havelock was scrapped beginning in late 1946 .
= = Description = =
Havelock displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Havelock carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and enlisted men .
The vessel was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Havelock had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .
Havelock was completed without a director @-@ control tower ( DCT ) so the three remaining 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch low @-@ angle guns fired in local control using ranges provided by a rangefinder . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Havelock was fitted with a HF / DF radio direction finder before completion and she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun by October 1940 . The ship 's short @-@ range AA armament was later augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . It is uncertain if the ship 's director @-@ control tower was installed before a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge . At some point , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted and the HF / DF installation was moved to a pole mainmast .
= = History = =
Jutahy was ordered by Brazil on 8 December 1937 from J. Samuel White , Cowes . The ship was laid down on 31 May 1938 and was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of the Second World War and renamed HMS Havelock . She was launched on 16 October and commissioned on 10 February 1940 . After working up , the ship was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Western Approaches Command . Havelock was detached to Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign and supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . During the initial stages of this battle , she mounted a French mortar battery on her forecastle . She continued to provide fire support during the battle for the rest of the month . During the nights of 30 and 31 May , the ship helped to evacuate troops from Bodø to Harstad and Borkenes to await further evacuation . Havelock was one of the ships that escorted the troop ships evacuating the troops from the Narvik area on 7 and 8 June . She was commanded by Capt. E. Barry Stevens , DSC .
Later in June , the ship rejoined the 9th Destroyer Flotilla and spent most of the next two years escorting convoys . Late in 1940 the Flotilla was redesignated as the 9th Escort Group . Havelock was attached to Force H in Gibraltar to reinforce the escort during Operations Tiger in May 1941 . The ship returned to the Western Approaches command afterwards as her anti @-@ aircraft capability was believed by Admiral James Somerville to be too weak for operations in the Mediterranean .
In March 1942 , Havelock became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 5 team of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic until early 1944 . From 28 December to 14 January 1943 , the escort group defended Convoy TM 1 , a group of nine oil tankers sailing from Trinidad to Gibraltar . The convoy was attacked by several U @-@ boat wolfpacks en route and lost seven of its ships despite the best efforts of its escort . Havelock only managed to damage U @-@ 436 with depth charges whilst escorting this convoy . Havelock and her consorts escorted Convoy SC 122 through the largest convoy battle of the war some two months later . In mid @-@ 1943 , the escort group was deployed to the Bay of Biscay to attack U @-@ boats in cooperation with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) as they left their bases on the French Atlantic coast . In late September – early October , the group escorted ships carrying No. 247 Group RAF to the Azores to begin setting up airbases there .
In early 1944 , Havelock was transferred to the 14th Escort Group which was given the task of protecting the convoys supporting Operation Overlord , the impending invasion of Western Europe , in British coastal waters , captained by Earl H. Thomas . Together with the destroyers Fame and Inconstant , the ship sank U @-@ 767 on 18 June . She was refitted in Liverpool from July to September and rejoined the group upon completion . Havelock was under repair again in February – April 1945 , but they were completed by 30 April when the ship , together with her sister Hesperus , attacked the wreck of U @-@ 246 northwest of the island of Anglesey thinking that it was U @-@ 242 which had been spotted by a Short Sunderland flying boat earlier that day .
Two weeks later , Havelock and the 14th Escort Group escorted a group of surrendered German U @-@ boats from Loch Alsh to Lough Foyle . On 27 May , the ship , together with Hesperus , escorted the exiled Norwegian government back to Oslo and remained there until 1 June . Later that month , she began service as an aircraft target , a role that lasted for the next year . The ship was approved for scrapping on 18 February 1946 and was placed in Category C reserve on 2 August . Havelock was sold on 31 October and scrapped at Inverkeithing .
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= Sunda slow loris =
The Sunda slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ) or greater slow loris is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris native to Indonesia , western Malaysia , southern Thailand and Singapore . It measures 27 to 38 cm ( 11 to 15 in ) from head to tail and weighs between 599 and 685 g ( 21 @.@ 1 and 24 @.@ 2 oz ) . Like other slow lorises , it has a wet nose ( rhinarium ) , a round head , small ears hidden in thick fur , a flat face , large eyes and a vestigial tail .
The Sunda slow loris is nocturnal and arboreal , typically occurring in evergreen forests . It prefers rainforests with continuous dense canopies and has an extremely low metabolic rate compared to other mammals of its size . Its diet consists of sap , floral nectar , fruit and arthropods . It will feed on exudates such as gum and sap by licking wounds in trees . The species is generally solitary ; one study showed only 8 % of its active time was spent near other individuals . Social behavior makes up a very small part of the activity budget , though it has monogamous mating system with the offspring living with the parents . It sleeps during the day , rolled up in a ball in hidden parts of trees above the ground , often on branches , twigs , palm fronds , or lianas . The species is polyoestrous , usually giving birth to a single offspring after a gestation period of 192 days . The young disperses between 16 and 27 months , generally when it is sexually mature .
The species is listed as " Vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List . It is threatened with extinction due to a growing demand in the exotic pet trade , and has become one of the most abundant primate species on sale at Indonesian pet markets . Its teeth are often pulled out before being sold as pets which can result in infection and / or death , this process makes reintroduction to the wild impossible . It also suffers from habitat loss , which has been severe in the areas in which it is found .
= = Etymology = =
The common name , Sunda slow loris , refers to the Sunda Islands , a group of islands in the western part of the Malay archipelago where it is found . Another common name for the species is the Greater Slow Loris . The specific name , coucang , derives from kukang , its common name in Indonesia . It is commonly known as malu @-@ malu , meaning " shy " in Indonesian , and also as bukang or Kalamasan . It is sometimes called Kuskus , because local people do not distinguish between the slow loris and Cuscus , a group of Australasian possums . In Malaysia they are sometimes known as kongkang or kera duku ; kera is Malay for monkey while duku is the fruit @-@ bearing tree , Lansium parasiticum . In Thailand , it is called ling lom ( ลิงลม ) , which translates as " wind monkey " .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Sunda slow loris was first described ( in part ) in 1785 by the Dutch physician and naturalist Pieter Boddaert under the name Tardigradus coucang . However , its discovery dates to 1770 , when the Dutchman Arnout Vosmaer ( 1720 – 1799 ) described a specimen of it as a type of sloth . Vosmaer gave it the French name " le paresseux pentadactyle du Bengale " ( " the five @-@ fingered sloth of Bengal " ) , but Boddaert later argued that it was more closely aligned with the lorises of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) and Bengal .
Between 1800 and 1907 , several other slow loris species were described , but in 1953 the primatologist William Charles Osman Hill , in his influential book , Primates : Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy , consolidated all the slow lorises into a single species , N. coucang . In 1971 Colin Groves recognized the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) as a separate species , and divided N. coucang into four subspecies . In 2001 Groves opined that there were three species ( N. coucang , N. pygmaeus , and N. bengalensis ) , and that N. coucang itself had three subspecies ( Nycticebus coucang coucang , N. c. menagensis , and N. c. javanicus ) . These three subspecies were promoted in 2010 to species status — the Sunda slow loris , the Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) and Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) . Species differentiation was based largely on differences in morphology , such as size , fur color , and head markings . ( At the end of 2012 , the Bornean slow loris was itself divided into four distinct species . ) : 46
When Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire defined the genus Nycticebus in 1812 , he made the Sunda slow loris the type species . This was questioned in 1921 by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas , who noted that there was some confusion over which specimen was used as the type specimen . Instead , he suggested that the type specimen was actually the Bengal slow loris , Lori bengalensis Lacépède , 1800 . There was further confusion during the 1800s when Boddaert 's Tardigradus coucang was routinely mistaken for Carl Linnaeus ' Lemur tardigradus – a species he had described in the 10th edition of Systema Naturæ ( 1758 ) The fact that Lemur tardigradus was actually a slender loris remained obscured until 1902 , when mammalogists Witmer Stone and James A. G. Rehn finally cleared the air .
The species has 50 chromosomes ( 2n = 50 ) , and it genome size is 3 @.@ 58 pg . Of its chromosomes , 22 are metacentric , 26 are submetacentric , and none are acrocentric . Its X chromosome is submetacentric , and its Y chromosome is metacentric .
To help clarify species and subspecies boundaries , and to establish whether morphology @-@ based classifications were consistent with evolutionary relationships , the phylogenetic relationships within the genus Nycticebus have been investigated using DNA sequences derived from the mitochondrial markers D @-@ loop and cytochrome b . Although most of the recognized lineages of Nycticebus ( including the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) , Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) and the Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) ) were shown to be genetically distinct , the analysis suggested that DNA sequences from selected individuals of Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) and Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) shared a closer evolutionary relationship with each other than with other members of their own respective species . The authors suggest that this result may be explained by introgressive hybridization , as the tested individuals of these two taxa originated from a region of sympatry in southern Thailand ; the precise origin of one of the N. coucang individuals was not known . This hypothesis was corroborated by a 2007 study that compared the variations in mitochondrial DNA sequences between N. bengalensis and N. coucang , and suggested that there has indeed been gene flow between the two species .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
The Sunda slow loris has dark rings around its large eyes , a white nose with a whitish strip that extends to the forehead and a dark stripe that stretches from the back of the head along the spine . Its soft , thick , woolly fur ranges from light brown to deep reddish brown , with a lighter underside . The species is distinct from the Bengal slow loris due to the dark inverse teardrop markings around the eyes which meet the dark dorsal stripe on the back of the head . It tends to have a much more distinct white stripe between the eyes , more distinct dark coloring around the eyes , and a browner coat than the Bengal slow loris which is larger , grayer , and shows less contrast . The Sunda slow loris has less white facial coloring than the much smaller pygmy slow loris . Local color variations are known to occur .
It measures between 27 and 38 centimetres ( 11 and 15 in ) and weighs 599 and 685 grams ( 21 @.@ 1 and 24 @.@ 2 oz ) . Unlike the Bengal slow loris , the Sunda slow loris does not show sexual dimorphism by weight . The vestigial tail , hidden beneath the fur , is reduced to a stump . It has a toothcomb , six forward @-@ facing teeth on the bottom jaw , which includes the lower incisors and the canine teeth . The structure is generally used for grooming in other strepsirhine primates , but lorises also use it to scrape off gum when foraging . It has a shortened second digit , and the hands have a strong grip . Like other lorises , it excretes a strong @-@ smelling liquid from glands beneath its arms which is used in communication .
One major distinguishing feature between all loris species is locomotion : the Sunda slow loris moves slowly through trees on all four limbs , typically with three limbs attached to a support at a time . Its movement has been described as unique ; similar to crawling , or as if it was climbing in every direction , the Sunda slow loris changes direction or moves between branches with little noise or change in speed . In captivity , about a quarter of its time is spent moving quadrupedally , a quarter suspended or hanging , a quarter climbing , and a quarter clasping multiple branches ( bridging ) . It may hang below a branch by one or both feet for long periods of time .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Like other slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris is an arboreal and nocturnal primate , resting by day in the forks of trees , or in thick vegetation and feeding on fruit and insects by night . Unlike other loris species , it remains in trees most of its life : while the Bengal slow loris will often sleep on the ground , the Sunda slow loris sleeps in a ball in branches or foliage . It usually sleeps alone but has been observed to sleep with several conspecifics ( individuals of the same species ) , including other adults . Adults live in overlapping ranges of 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 25 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0015 to 0 @.@ 0965 sq mi ) .
Despite its slow metabolism rate , the Sunda slow loris has a high @-@ energy diet . Its slow lifestyle may be due to the energy costs of detoxifying certain secondary plant compounds in many genera of food plants their diets . The largest amount of time is spent eating phloem sap ( 34 @.@ 9 % ) , floral nectar and nectar @-@ producing plant parts ( 31 @.@ 7 % ) , and fruits ( 22 @.@ 5 % ) . It also consumes gums and arthropods such as spiders and insects . Gum is taken by licking wounds on trees . They are also known to feed on molluscs , including the giant land snail Achatina fulica , and birds ' eggs .
All slow loris species produce a toxin in glands on the insides of their elbows . This is spread across their bodies and those of their offspring using the toothcomb while grooming . When threatened with predators , the Sunda slow loris can bite , roll into a ball exposing its toxic saliva @-@ covered fur , or roll up and drop from the trees . However , the primary method of predator avoidance is crypsis , whereby it hides . The Asiatic reticulated python , the changeable hawk @-@ eagle and the Bornean orangutan have been recorded as predators of the Sunda slow loris .
= = = Social systems = = =
The Sunda slow loris may fit into the monogamous single male / single female social system , though are mainly known to be solitary . One study showed only 8 % of the species ' active time was spent near other individuals . Where home ranges overlap , spatial groups are formed . These groups consist of one male , one female and up to three younger individuals . The interactions between these individuals are largely friendly ; they include allogrooming , following , pant @-@ growling , and click @-@ calling , although social behaviors only make up around 3 % of the activity budget . When it comes into contact with conspecifics from other home ranges there is usually no reaction as home ranges are not defended . In captivity however , it can be aggressive with other individuals . Males have shown antagonistic behaviors such as attacks , pursuits , threats , assertion , fighting , and subordination . The fighting often results in serious injury . Despite this , they are known to be generally sociable in captivity , with allogrooming being the most common social behavior .
= = = Communication = = =
There are eight distinct call types made by Sunda slow loris adults , which can be divided into two categories : contact and contact @-@ seeking calls such as whistles and short keckers ( a social play and attention @-@ seeking call ) , and aggressive and defensive calls such as long keckers , screams , snarls and grunts . Because they rely on crypsis to avoid predators , they do not make alarm calls . Infants emits clicks and squeaks when disturbed . During estrus , females make whistle calls when in visual contact with a male . When exploring new environments and during handling , it makes ultrasonic vocalisations out of the human hearing range .
Olfactory communication is very important in this species . It has roles in alerting others of the identity , physical state and position of the individual . It is also important in reproduction . Like other slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris has glands on its elbows that exude oils . The gland is licked to spread scent and is thought to have evolved for communication , but it is toxic to humans . If the person is allergic to the animal they can go into shock and could even die . It also has glands on its anus and can signal conspecifics by perineal rubbing which deposits urine . When it locates the scent of another slow loris it may rub its face on the substrate where the scent was found . The Sunda slow loris may grin or bare its teeth . When stressed , infants may grin , while adults bear their teeth to show aggression or fear , but also during play .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Reproduction is one of the few times the Sunda slow loris aggregates with conspecifics , as it is largely solitary . One study recorded that the most slow lorises ever seen together was six ; this appeared to be a female in estrus and five males following her . This may suggest a more promiscuous mating system , where females mate with more than one male . Despite this , its testis size is small compared with similar sized promsimians , which is indicative of monogamy . In the wild the mating system of the Sunda slow loris is thought to vary between populations .
Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 18 and 24 months in females , and can be reached by 17 months in males . It is polyestrous , having many periods of sexual receptivity during a year . In captivity however , there is a clear birth peak between March and May . It has been observed that reproductive patterns of captive prosimians in the northern hemisphere are altered . The estrus cycle lasts 29 – 45 days , with most copulations occurring on the same day .
Females in estrus are followed by males , with copulation initiated by the female . The female will hang from a branch and may vocalise . The male will hold the female and the branch and copulate with her . Urine @-@ marking and vocalising are also used by the female to solicit mating . The male may create a mating plug following copulation .
The gestation period averages 192 @.@ 2 days , after which one young is born , although twinning has been observed . Both males and females will disperse in the wild , this occurs between 16 and 27 months .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Sunda slow loris is found in continuous canopy tropical rainforests . It is adaptable and will also live in other types of habitat . It is found in Indonesia , on the islands of Sumatra , Batam and Galang in the Riau Archipelago , and Pulau Tebingtinggi and Great Natuna ( Bunguran ) in the Natuna Islands ; in Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula and Pulau Tioman ; in the southern peninsular of Thailand ; and Singapore .
The Sunda slow loris is sympatric ( shares its range ) with the Bengal slow loris in Thailand and hybridisation has occurred .
= = Conservation = =
According to the 2008 International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List assessment , the Sunda slow loris was evaluated as " Vulnerable " . In June 2007 it was transferred from CITES Appendix II to Appendix I , indicating a true concern about the state of international trade in this species , an act now forbidden by international law . It is also protected by Indonesian law , though the law does not seem to be strictly enforced . Its population size is unknown and further studies need to be carried out to confirm their conservation status .
The Sunda slow loris is greatly threatened by the pet trade , and is sold as an exotic pet throughout southeast Asia . The slow lorises are the most commonly traded protected primates in southeast Asia . When sold as a pet it often will have its teeth pulled out to prevent injury to the owner . This may cause dental infections which have up to a 90 % death rate . Once it has lost its teeth , reintroduction to the wild is impossible . Due to a very high mortality rate in captivity due to stress , improper nutrition and infection , the pet trade is inflated by replacements . With a greater purchasing power , the increasing human populations in the species ' range could have an even more serious impact .
The Sunda slow loris is further threatened by gathering for illegal traditional medicine . The fur is reported to heal wounds , the flesh to cure epilepsy , eyes are used in love potions , and the meat is reported to cure asthma and stomach problems . It is also killed as a crop pest . Severe habitat loss and degradation over large areas of its range have caused large population declines , even though the species is more adaptable to anthropogenic habitats than other primates in the region . The resulting fragmentation has restricted species dispersal as it depends on continuous canopy cover to move from tree to tree .
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= Pichilemu =
Pichilemu ( Mapudungun : Small forest , pronounced : [ pitʃiˈlemu ] ) , originally known as Pichilemo , is a beach resort city and commune in central Chile , and capital of Cardenal Caro Province . The commune comprises an urban centre and twenty @-@ two villages , such as Ciruelos , Cáhuil , and Espinillo . It is located southwest of Santiago , the capital of Chile . Pichilemu had over 13 @,@ 000 residents as of 2012 .
The Pichilemu area was long populated by the indigenous Promaucaes . European @-@ Chilean development began in the mid @-@ sixteenth century , as conquistador Pedro de Valdivia gave Juan Gómez de Almagro the Topocalma encomienda ( which included the current territory of Pichilemu ) in January 1541 . Pichilemu was established as an " autonomous commune " on 22 December 1891 , by decree of the President Jorge Montt and Interior Minister Manuel José Irarrázabal . Agustín Ross Edwards , a Chilean politician and member of the Ross Edwards family , planned to develop it as a beach resort on the Pacific Ocean for upper @-@ class Chileans .
Pichilemu is home to five of the National Monuments of Chile : Agustín Ross Cultural Centre and Park ; the wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu ; El Árbol tunnel ; and the Caballo de Agua . Part of the city was declared a Zona Típica ( " Traditional Area " or " Heritage Site " ) by the National Monuments Council , in 2004 .
The city is part of District No. 35 and is in the ninth senatorial constituency of O 'Higgins Region electoral division . Pichilemu is home to the main beach in O 'Higgins Region . It is a tourist destination for surfing , windsurfing and funboarding .
Tourism is the main industry of the city , but forestry and handicrafts are also important . Pichilemu has many expansive dark sand beaches . Several surf championships take place in the city each year at Punta de Lobos , which according to Fodor 's is " widely considered the best surfing in South America all year @-@ round . "
= = History = =
Pichilemu was inhabited by Promaucaes , a pre @-@ Columbian tribal group , until the Spanish conquest of Chile . They were hunter @-@ gatherers and fishermen who lived primarily along the Cachapoal and Maule rivers . The remaining Promaucaes were assimilated into Chilean society through a process of hispanicisation and mestisation after the conquest of Chile .
Aureliano Oyarzún , professor of pathology at University of Chile , investigated pre @-@ Ceramic middens from Pichilemu and Cahuil . His book Crónicas de Pichilemu – Cáhuil ( Chronicles of Pichilemu – Cáhuil ) was published posthumously , in 1957 . Tomás Guevara published two volumes of Historia de Chile , Chile Prehispánico ( History of Chile , Pre @-@ Hispanic Chile ) in 1929 , which discusses the indigenous centre of Apalta , the Pichilemu middens , the Malloa petroglyphs , a stone cup from Nancagua , and pottery finds in Peralillo .
José Toribio Medina ( 1852 – 1930 ) , who was a writer and historiographer , spent most of his life in Colchagua Province , and completed his first archeological investigations in Pichilemu . In 1908 , he published Los Restos Indígenas de Pichilemu ( English : The Indigenous Remains of Pichilemu ) , in which he stated that the Indians that were inhabiting Pichilemu when the Spaniards arrived at Chile were Promaucaes , part of the Topocalma encomienda , given on 24 January 1544 , by Pedro de Valdivia to Juan Gómez de Almagro , therefore establishing Pichilemu .
During the colonial and Republican periods , agriculture was promoted by the government . Many Chilean haciendas ( estates ) were successful during this time , including the Pichileminian Hacienda San Antonio de Petrel . Part of the land where San Antonio de Petrel was created was given by the Captaincy General of Chile to Bartolomé de Rojas y Puebla in 1611 , who later acquired more lands in order to establish it . San Antonio de Petrel produced leather , jerky , soles , tallow , and cordovan , as well as other products which would later be exported to Peru , or sold in Santiago and Valparaíso . San Antonio de Petrel was bordered by properties of Lauriano Gaete and Ninfa Vargas , and Pedro Pavez Polanco .
The area around Pichilemu was very densely populated , especially in Cáhuil , where there are salt deposits that were exploited by natives . Pichilemu has had censuses taken since the 17th century .
In 1872 , President of Chile Aníbal Pinto commissioned the corvette captain Francisco Vidal Gormaz to perform a survey of the coast between Tumán Creek and Boca del Mataquito . He concluded that Pichilemu was the best place to construct a ferry . The family of Daniel Ortúzar , inheritors of the hacienda San Antonio de Petrel , constructed a dock in 1875 , which served as a fishing port for a few years , and would be decreed as a " minor dock " by President José Manuel Balmaceda in 1887 . Homes were built along the dock on what currently is the Daniel Ortúzar Avenue ( Avenida Daniel Ortúzar ) . The name Pichilemu comes from the Mapudungún words pichi ( little ) and lemu ( forest ) .
During the 1891 Chilean Civil War , Daniel Ortúzar and the priest of Alcones were transferred as prisoners from Pichilemu to Valparaíso via the dock , which was later burned . The dock was later reconstructed and used until 1912 , but it never reached " port " status .
The inheritors of Lauriano Gaete and Ninfa Vargas , who were proprietors of the land which is currently Central Pichilemu , founded the town in late 1891 after conceiving the design of the city with engineer Emilio Nichón . By decree of President Jorge Montt and his Interior Minister , Manuel José Irarrázabal , the city was officially established as an " autonomous commune " on 22 December 1891 . José María Caro Martínez became the first mayor of the city in 1894 , and regularised and improved the design of the city the same year . Caro Martínez held the mayor office until 1905 .
Agustín Ross Edwards , a Chilean writer , Member of Parliament , minister , and politician , bought a 300 @-@ hectare ( 740 @-@ acre ) tract of land , and named it La Posada , in 1885 . At the time , it was merely a set of thick @-@ walled barracks .
Agustín Ross turned Pichilemu into a summer resort town for affluent people from Santiago . He designed an urban setting that included a park and a forest of over 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) . He transformed La Posada into a hotel , named Gran Hotel Pichilemu , which has since been renamed to Hotel Agustín Ross . He built the Ross Casino ( currently a cultural centre ) , several chalets , terraces , embankments , stone walls , a balcony facing the beach , and several large homes with building materials and furniture imported from France and England . However , Ross was not able to build the dock he had planned for the city . He died in 1926 in Viña del Mar. Agustín Ross ' inheritors donated all of his construction ( streets , avenues , squares , seven hectares of forests , the park in front of the hotel , the perrons , the balcony , and the terraces ) to the Municipality of Pichilemu , on the condition that the municipality would hold them for recreation and public access . The Agustín Ross Casino , constructed in 1905 , and the Agustín Ross Park , constructed in 1885 , have since become an important part of the city , and have been declared Monumentos Históricos ( Historic Monuments ) by the National Monuments Council .
After the creation of the Cardenal Caro Province , by decree of General Augusto Pinochet on 3 October 1979 , Pichilemu became its capital . The province is named after the first Chilean Catholic Cardinal , José María Caro Rodríguez , who was born in Pichilemu .
Pichilemu was severely affected by the 2010 Chile earthquake and its subsequent tsunami , which caused massive destruction in the coastal zone . On 11 March 2010 , at 11 : 39 : 41 ( 14 : 39 : 41 UTC ) , a magnitude 6 @.@ 9 earthquake occurred 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) northwest of Pichilemu , killing one person .
= = Geography = =
Pichilemu is located 126 kilometres ( 78 mi ) west of San Fernando , in the westernmost area of the O 'Higgins Region , on the coast of the Pacific Ocean . It is within a three @-@ hour drive of the Andes Mountains . It is near the Cordillera de la Costa ( Coastal Mountain Range ) which rises to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) in elevation .
The city is bordered by Litueche to the north , Paredones to the south , and Marchigüe and Pumanque to the east . To the west lies the Pacific Ocean . Pichilemu covers an area of 749 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 289 @.@ 2 sq mi ) .
Pichilemu is located close to a geological fault ( Pichilemu Fault ) , which is according to reports between the city and Vichuquén at 15 km depth , 40 km in length and 20 km wide . It is not known whether the fault was formed during the March 2010 earthquake or if it was just reactivated .
Although the majority of the forest areas around Pichilemu are covered with pine and eucalyptus plantations , a native forest ( now the Municipal Forest ) remains . It contains species such as Litres , Quillayes , Boldos , Espinos , and Peumos .
The city consists of an urban centre and twenty @-@ two rural villages : Alto Colorado , Alto Ramírez , Barrancas , Cáhuil , Cardonal de Panilonco , Ciruelos , Cóguil , El Maqui , El Guindo , Espinillo , Estación Larraín Alcalde , La Aguada , La Palmilla , La Villa , La Plaza , Las Comillas , Pueblo de Viudas , Quebrada del Nuevo Reino , Pañul , Rodeillo , San Antonio de Petrel , and Tanumé .
Nearby bodies of water ( apart from the Pacific Ocean ) include the Nilahue Estuary , which flows to Cáhuil Lagoon , Petrel Estuary , which flows to Petrel Lagoon , and El Barro , El Bajel , and El Ancho lagoons , the latter of which provides the city with drinking water .
Pichilemu experiences a Mediterranean climate , with winter rains which reach 700 millimetres ( 28 in ) . The rest of the year is dry , often windy , and sometimes with coastal fog . Occasionally the city receives winds as high as 150 kilometres per hour ( 93 mph ) .
= = Demographics = =
By the 17th century , Pichilemu had 1 @,@ 468 inhabitants . In 1787 , Pichilemu held 1 @,@ 688 inhabitants , and the population rose to 11 @,@ 829 by 1895 . From there onward , the city 's population progressively decreased : 7 @,@ 787 inhabitants in 1907 ; 7 @,@ 424 in 1920 ; 6 @,@ 929 in 1930 ; and 6 @,@ 570 in 1940 . In 1952 , the city 's population increased to 7 @,@ 150 inhabitants ; however , the 1960 census showed it decreased to 5 @,@ 724 inhabitants , and to 5 @,@ 459 in 1970 . The number of people in Pichilemu reached 8 @,@ 844 in 1982 , and in 1992 , 10 @,@ 510 . As of the 2002 census , the population comprised 12 @,@ 392 people , and 6 @,@ 228 households .
The 2002 census classified 9 @,@ 459 people ( 76 @.@ 3 % ) as living in an urban area and 2 @,@ 933 people ( 23 @.@ 7 % ) as living in a rural area , with 6 @,@ 440 men ( 52 @.@ 0 % ) and 5 @,@ 952 women ( 48 @.@ 0 % ) . According to the 2002 Casen survey , 544 inhabitants ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) of the population live in extreme poverty compared to the average in the greater O 'Higgins Region of 4 @.@ 5 % , and 1 @,@ 946 inhabitants ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) live in mild poverty , compared to the regional average of 16 @.@ 1 % .
The National Statistics Institute of Chile has estimated that , as of 2010 , 78 @.@ 96 % of the inhabitants in the city were living in an urban area and 21 @.@ 04 % were living in a rural area , with 52 @.@ 4 % men and 47 @.@ 5 % women ; the population density was estimated as 19 @.@ 09 per square mile . In the 2012 census , the population of Pichilemu was 13 @,@ 916 inhabitants ; although earlier estimates put it higher .
Most of the people from Pichilemu are Catholic , as of the 2002 census , 7 @,@ 611 persons ( 83 @.@ 44 % ) , well above the national and regional average ( 69 @.@ 96 % and 79 @.@ 08 % , respectively ) ; the evangelical population is considerably lower , at only 689 people ( 7 @.@ 55 % ) ; 361 ( 3 @.@ 96 % ) said they were Atheists or Agnostic individuals , while the remaining 460 ( 5 @.@ 04 % ) are part of other religions . Based on information from the Casen survey , twenty @-@ four persons living in Pichilemu declared themselves as Aymaras in 2006 , and in 2009 , 390 people said they were part of the Mapuche indigenous ethnic group ; the survey revealed no one living in Pichilemu claimed to be either of the Atacameños or of the Rapa Nui indigenous peoples .
= = Governance = =
Pichilemu , along with the communes of Placilla , Nancagua , Chépica , Santa Cruz , Pumanque , Palmilla , Peralillo , Navidad , Lolol , Litueche , La Estrella , Marchihue , and Paredones , is part of Electoral District No. 35 and belongs to the 9th Senatorial Constituency ( O 'Higgins ) of the electoral divisions of Chile .
Pichilemu is governed by the mayor ( alcalde ) , who manages the executive function . The City Council ( concejo municipal ) manages the legislative function . The mayors and the councilors are elected popularly every four years , with possibility of re @-@ election . Marcelo Cabrera Martínez was elected in 2008 as the new mayor with 42 @.@ 08 percent of the vote ; he served from May to August 2009 , when he was permanently banned from holding public office after being convicted for adulterating tickets . Then , the municipal council elected Roberto Córdova as new mayor on 9 September 2009 . Between 2007 and 2009 , Pichilemu had seven mayors , after Jorge Vargas González was removed from the office for committing the crime of bribery ; he was mayor for over 10 years , from 1996 to 2007 . Vargas was succeeded by Victor Rojas , who was later accused of the same crime and eventually removed from the office too . Roberto Córdova was popularly elected mayor for the first time in 2012 with 47 @.@ 9 percent . The current councilors of Pichilemu are Aldo Polanco Contreras , Andrea Aranda Escudero , Marta Urzúa Púa , Mario Morales Cárceles , Felipe Bustamante Olivares , and Hugo Toro Galaz . Both the mayor and the councilors took office on 6 December 2012 , and their term will expire on 6 December 2016 .
The Pichilemu Police , known in Spanish as Carabineros de Pichilemu , and officially Tercera Comisaría de Carabineros de Pichilemu , are commanded by Tomás Molina Meza . The police station is located in front of the former Pichilemu post office building , in Daniel Ortúzar avenue .
= = Economy = =
Tourism is the main industry of Pichilemu , especially in the urban centre and some rural areas such as Cáhuil and Ciruelos . Forestry , mainly pine and eucalyptus , is another major industry . The area is also known for handicrafts . Although fishing is not very important to O 'Higgins Region , due to unsuitable coastlines , it is common in Pichilemu , Bucalemu , and Navidad .
Pichilemu has a clay deposit in the Pañul area . According to archaeological investigations , pottery was first manufactured in the area around 300 BCE . It is still a stalwart today — Ciruelos and El Copao are well known for the pottery created there .
= = Landmarks = =
The Bosque Municipal ( Municipal Forest ) was donated by the Ross family in 1935 . The main access to the forest is in front of Ross Casino , near Paseo el Sol ; or by a road near the Colegio Preciosa Sangre . The forest has a footpath surrounded by palms , pines , and many other varieties of trees .
Conchal Indígena ( Indigenous Midden ) is an archaeological site of pre @-@ Hispanic times . It is located on the site of an ancient fishing village 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from Punta de Lobos and 0 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 19 mi ) south of Los Curas Lagoon . Laguna Los Curas ( Los Curas Lagoon ) is a natural area used for eco @-@ tourist activities such as fishing located 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Pichilemu . Another lagoon , the Laguna del Perro ( The Dog 's Lagoon ) is located 8 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Pichilemu . It is used for recreational activities .
Laguna El Alto ( El Alto Lagoon ) is a small , rain @-@ fed lagoon located at Chorrillos Beach that is often used for camping and picnics . The lagoon is an hour and a half drive from Pichilemu , traveling to the north by Chorrillos beach . Poza del Encanto is a lagoon located 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from Pichilemu . It is home to a large variety of native fauna . The Estero Nilahue ( Nilahue Lagoon ) is located 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Pichilemu . It has several beaches , including El Bronce , El Maquí , and Laguna El Vado .
St. Andrew Church is located in Ciruelos , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from Pichilemu . It was constructed in 1779 , and its altar was built in the 1940s . It has a harmonium , confessional boxes , and ancient images of saints . Its original image of St. Andrew was made of papier mache . The old parish was created by Archbishop Rafael Valentín Valdivieso in 1864 . Cardinal José María Caro Rodríguez was baptized there . The feast day of St. Andrew is celebrated every November 30 at the church .
The Museo del Niño Rural ( the Rural Kid Museum ) was created as an initiative of teacher Carlos Leyton and his students . It is a modern building that utilises traditional architecture . Three rooms contain a collection of stone tools , arrowheads , and clay tools made by the indigenous people of the region . Also on display are domestic tools from early colonists .
El Copao is a hamlet located 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Pichilemu . Its main industry is domestic pottery production , using clay as a raw material . Pañul is a settlement located 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Pichilemu . Its name in Mapudungun means " medicinal herb . " Pañul produces pottery made with locally obtained clay . Cáhuil is a small settlement located 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Pichilemu . Its name in Mapudungun means " parrot place " . Cahuil lagoon is used for fishing , swimming , and kayaking ; kiteboarding lessons are offered on the lagoon . The Cáhuil Bridge is open to motor traffic , and has a view of the Cahuil zone . The bridge provides access to Curicó , Lolol , Bucalemu , and other nearby places .
Pichilemu was declared a Typical Zone by the National Monuments Council of Chile , by decree No. 1097 on 22 December 2004 .
The city is home to five other National Monuments : Ross Park , Ross Casino , El Árbol Tunnel , the wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu , and Caballo de Agua .
= = = Agustín Ross Cultural Centre = = =
The current Cultural Centre , in front of Ross Park , is a three @-@ floor casino constructed with imported materials in the early 1900s by Agustín Ross . It originally housed a mail and telegraph service , with a large store . The first casino in Chile was opened in this building on 20 January 1906 . It operated until 1932 , when the Viña del Mar Casino was opened .
The building was renovated and reopened in 2009 as a cultural arts center . It currently houses several gallery spaces and the public library . During its restoration , workers found many historical artifacts , including a copy of Las Últimas Noticias from February 1941 when Ross Casino served as a hotel ; an American telephone battery dating from the period of 1909 to 1915 ; and a tile from the casino 's ceiling signed by workers during the building 's construction in 1914 .
Ross Park , created by Agustín Ross in 1885 , contains hundred @-@ year @-@ old native Chilean palms ( Phoenix canariensis ) and many green spaces . It was restored in December 1987 , and is now a popular walking destination . The former casino was named National Monuments in 1988 .
Ross hotel was created by Agustín Ross in 1885 , and originally named Great Hotel Pichilemu ( Gran Hotel Pichilemu ) . It is one of the oldest hotels in Chile . Although it is still partially open to guests , it is in a state of disrepair .
= = = Railway station = = =
The old wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu , constructed around 1925 , is one of the National Monuments of Chile . In the O 'Higgins Region , 357 kilometres ( 222 mi ) of railway lines were constructed , but only 161 kilometres ( 100 mi ) still exist . The 119 kilometres ( 74 mi ) San Fernando – Pichilemu section was constructed between 1869 and 1926 . Passenger services operated on the line until 1986 and freight services were operational until 1995 . In 2006 , the Peralillo – Pichilemu section was removed completely .
It remained in operation until the 1990s , and became a National Monument on 16 September 1994 . It has since become an arts and culture centre and tourism information office . It exhibits decorative and practical objects from the 1920s , and features many old clothes .
= = = Beaches = = =
Pichilemu has several expansive dark sand beaches . The water is cool all year @-@ round , and many tourists choose to swim at the shore break during the summer months . Common activities include bodyboarding , surfing , windsurfing , and kitesurfing .
The northernmost of the beaches is Playa Las Terrazas or Playa Principal ( The Terraces Beach or Main Beach ) , which is in front of Ross Park . It is popular for surfing . Near the beach and at Ross Park , there are balustrades and long stairs dating from the early 1900s . There is a balcony over the rocks at the southern end of the beach . It is the busiest during the summer months . Several surf schools , such as La Ola Perfecta , and Lobos del Pacífico , are located nearby , as is the fish market at Fishermen Creek .
Located south of the town and around the other side of the Puntilla , Playa Infiernillo ( Little Hell Beach ) is rocky and has tide @-@ pools . This area is used for fishing . South of Infiernillo is Playa Hermosa ( Beautiful Beach ) , which is popular for walking and fishing .
Further south , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Pichilemu , Punta de Lobos has a beach sheltered from the southern winds . It is an increasingly popular destination for tourists and surfers . Several surf contests are held there every year . The size of waves varies throughout the year . Large swells in fall and winter can reach heights of up to 15 metres ( 49 ft ) . It is widely considered one of the best beaches for surfing worldwide . In 2012 , it was named one of the " 50 most thrilling surf destinations " .
Pichilemu is regarded as the prime location for surfing in Chile , particularly at Punta de Lobos . Every October and December , an International Championship of Surf is held at La Puntilla Beach . Punta de Lobos hosts the Campeonato Nacional de Surf ( National Surfing Championship ) every summer .
= = Media = =
There are three local newspapers : El Expreso de la Costa ( " The Express of the Coast " ) is a monthly newspaper directed by Félix Calderón Vargas , first published on 30 June 2000 ; El Faro del Secano ( " The Dryland 's Lighthouse " ) was founded in November 2013 by local journalist Óscar Rojas Connell , and is distributed throughout the Cardenal Caro Province ; and La Voz de la Región ( " The Voice of the Region " ) , published every two weeks , first appeared on 2 January 2014 , and is directed by Patricio Flores Retamales .
Radio services come from Radio Entreolas , Radio Atardecer , Radio Somos Pichilemu ( directed by former Mayor Jorge Vargas González and his wife and current Councilor Andrea Aranda ) , Radio Isla , and Radio Corporación . A television channel , Canal 3 Pichilemu , also broadcasts in the area .
= = Education = =
Education establishments in Pichilemu include Liceo Agustín Ross Edwards ( Agustín Ross Edwards High School ) ; a secondary school in El Llano ; the primary and secondary school named Charly 's School , and the primary school Escuela Digna Camilo Aguilar ( Digna Camilo Aguilar School ) , both also located in El Llano ; Colegio Libertadores ( Liberators School ) , a primary school in Infiernillo ; Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre ( Precious Blood School ) , a primary and secondary school located near El Llano ; Colegio Divino Maestro ( Divine Master School ) , a primary school located near Cáhuil Avenue ; Escuela Pueblo de Viudas ( Pueblo de Viudas School ) , a primary school in Pueblo de Viudas ; and Jardín Amanecer ( Dawn Garden ) , a kindergarten school in El Llano .
Higher education first arrived at Pichilemu in 1970 , when the Centro Medio Profesional de Pichilemu ( Pichilemu Secondary @-@ Professional Centre ) was created ; however , it was discontinued the next year . In 2002 , thirty @-@ one years after the Centro Medio Profesional was discontinued , the Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano ( Academy of Christian Humanism University ) began to give classes of Engineering in Public Gesture Management , and Engineering in Environment Gesture Management . The university worked at the dependencies of Liceo Agustín Ross Edwards until 2008 . At least ten people obtained their professional titles , while other ten are still in the process of obtaining their titles , as of December 2011 . In November 2011 , Governor of Cardenal Caro Province Julio Ibarra announced that an institute of higher education would be brought to the province , whose name , Instituto Profesional IPG ( IPG Professional Institute ) , was disclosed one month later . During the inauguration of the 2012 school year in Pichilemu , Education Regional Secretary Minister ( Seremi ) Pedro Larraín said IPEGE would work in the dependencies of Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre of Pichilemu .
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= Amber Room =
The Amber Room ( Russian : Янтарная комната , German : Bernsteinzimmer , Polish : Bursztynowa komnata ) is a world @-@ famous chamber decorated in amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors , located in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg . Originally constructed in the 18th century in Prussia , the Amber Room disappeared during World War II and was recreated in 2003 . Before the room was lost , it was considered an " Eighth Wonder of the World " .
Construction of the Amber Room first took place around 1701 in Prussia . The room was designed by German baroque sculptor Andreas Schlüter and Danish amber craftsman Gottfried Wolfram . Schlüter and Wolfram worked on the room until 1707 , when work was continued by amber masters Gottfried Turau and Ernst Schacht from Danzig . The amber cabinet remained in the Berlin City Palace until 1716 when it was given by the Prussian King Frederick William I to his then ally , Tsar Peter the Great of the Russian Empire . In Russia , the room was expanded and after several renovations , it covered more than 55 square metres ( 590 sq ft ) and contained over 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) of amber .
The Amber Room was looted during World War II by Army Group North of Nazi Germany and brought to Königsberg for reconstruction and display . Its current whereabouts remain a mystery . In 1979 , efforts were undertaken to rebuild the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo . In 2003 , after decades of work by Russian craftsmen and donations from Germany , the reconstructed Amber Room was inaugurated at the Catherine Palace near Saint Petersburg .
= = History = =
= = = Creation = = =
The Amber Room was begun in 1701 with the purpose of being installed at Charlottenburg Palace , the residence of Frederick , the first King of Prussia , at the urging of his second wife , Sophie Charlotte . The concept and design of the room was drafted by Andreas Schlüter . It was fabricated by Gottfried Wolfram , master craftsman to the Danish court of King Frederick IV of Denmark , with help from the amber masters Ernst Schacht and Gottfried Turau from Danzig .
Although originally intended for installation at Charlottenburg Palace , the complete panels were eventually installed at Berlin City Palace . The Amber Room did not , however , remain at Berlin City Palace for long . Peter the Great of Russia admired it during a visit and in 1716 , King Frederick I 's son Frederick William I presented the room to Peter as a gift , which forged a Russo @-@ Prussian alliance against Sweden .
The original Berlin design of the Amber Room was reworked in Russia in a joint effort by German and Russian craftsmen . It was Peter 's daughter Empress Elisabeth who decided the amber treasure should be installed at Catherine Palace , where the Russian Imperial family typically spent their summers . After several other 18th @-@ century renovations , the room covered more than 55 square metres ( 590 sq ft ) and contained over 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) of amber . The room took over ten years to construct .
= = = Evacuation during World War II = = =
Shortly after the beginning of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in World War II , the curators responsible for removing the art treasures in Leningrad tried to disassemble and remove the Amber Room . However , over the years the amber had dried out and became brittle , making it impossible to move the room without crumbling the amber . The Amber Room was therefore hidden behind mundane wallpaper , in an attempt to keep German forces from seizing it . Predictably , the attempt to hide such a well @-@ known piece of art failed .
German soldiers of Army Group North disassembled the Amber Room within 36 hours under the supervision of two experts . On 14 October 1941 , the priceless room reached Königsberg in East Prussia , for storage and display in the town 's castle . On 13 November 1941 , a Konigsberg newspaper announced an exhibition of the Amber Room at Königsberg Castle .
= = = Last days in Königsberg = = =
Orders given by Hitler on 21 and 24 January 1945 ordered the movement of looted possessions from Königsberg . This allowed Albert Speer , Reichminister of Armaments , and his administration team to transport cultural goods of priority . However , before the Amber Room could be moved , Erich Koch , who was in charge of civil administration in Königsberg during the final months of the war , abandoned his post and fled from the city , leaving General Otto Lasch in command .
In August 1944 , Königsberg was heavily fire bombed by the Royal Air Force . It suffered further extensive damage from artillery from the advancing Red Army before the final occupation on 9 April 1945 .
= = In popular culture = =
A fictional music box from the Amber Room is the macguffin plot device throughout the first two seasons of the USA television series White Collar
The Amber Room is also the central plot device in Steve Berry 's first novel The Amber Room ( 2003 ) .
= = Reconstruction = =
In 1979 , the Soviet government decided to construct a replica of the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo , a process that was to last 24 years and require 40 Russian and German experts in amber craftsmanship . Using original drawings and old black @-@ and @-@ white photographs , every attempt was made to duplicate the original Amber Room . This included the 350 shades of amber in the original panels and fixtures that adorned the room . Another major problem was the lack of skilled workers , since amber carving was considered a nearly lost art form .
The financial difficulties that plagued the reconstruction project from the start were solved with the donation of $ 3 @.@ 5 million from the German company E.ON. By 2003 , the work of the Russian craftsmen was mostly completed . The new room was dedicated by Russian President Vladimir Putin and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder at the 300th anniversary of the city of Saint Petersburg .
In Kleinmachnow , near Berlin , there is a miniature Amber Room , fabricated after the original . The Berlin miniature collector Ulla Klingbeil had this copy made of original East Prussian amber .
= = Architecture = =
The Amber Room is a priceless piece of art , with extraordinary architectural features such as gilding , carvings , 450 kg ( 990 lb ) amber panels , gold leaf , gemstones , and mirrors , all highlighted with candle light . Additional architectural and design features include statues of angels and children . Because of its unique features and singular beauty , the original Amber Room was sometimes dubbed the " Eighth Wonder of the World " . Modern estimates of the room 's value range from $ 142 million ( 2007 ) to over $ 500 million ( 2016 ) .
= = Disappearance and mysteries = =
After the war , the Amber Room was never seen in public again , though reports have occasionally surfaced stating that pieces of the Amber Room survived the war . Several eyewitnesses claimed to have spotted the famous room being loaded on board the Wilhelm Gustloff , which left Gdynia on 30 January 1945 , and was then promptly torpedoed and sunk by a Soviet submarine .
In 1997 , an Italian stone mosaic that was part of a set of four stones which had decorated the Amber Room was found in Germany , in the possession of the family of a soldier who claimed to have helped pack up the amber chamber . The mosaic came into the hands of the Russian authorities and was used in the reconstruction effort .
In 1998 , two separate teams , one German and one Lithuanian , announced they had located the Amber Room . The German team pointed to a silver mine while the Lithuanian team believed the amber treasure was buried in a lagoon ; neither of the two suggestions turned out to hold the Amber Room .
In 2004 , a lengthy investigation by British investigative journalists Catherine Scott @-@ Clark and Adrian Levy concluded that Amber Room was most likely destroyed when Königsberg Castle was heavily damaged , first during the bombing of Königsberg by the Royal Air Force in 1944 , when the castle completely burned down , and later by the Soviet shelling of the remaining walls . Documents from the Russian National Archives revealed this as the assessment of a Soviet report , written by Alexander Brusov , head of the Soviet team charged with locating the Amber Room following the war . The report stated :
These dates correspond with the end of the Battle of Konigsberg , which finished on 9 April with the surrender of the German garrison . A few years later , Brusov publicly voiced a contrary opinion ; this is believed to have been done due to pressure from Soviet authorities , who did not want to be seen as responsible for the loss of the Amber Room .
Among other information retrieved from the archives was the revelation that the remaining Italian stone mosaics were found in the burned debris of the castle . Scott @-@ Clark and Levy concluded in their report that the reason the Soviets conducted extensive searches for the Amber Room , even though their own experts had concluded that it was destroyed , was because they wanted to know if any of their own soldiers had been responsible for the destruction . Scott @-@ Clark and Levy also assessed that others in the Soviet government found the theft of the Amber Room a useful Cold War propaganda tool . Russian government officials have since denied these conclusions . Adelaida Yolkina , senior researcher at the Pavlovsk Palace , reportedly stated : " It is impossible to see the Red Army being so careless that they let the Amber Room be destroyed " .
After the report was made public , Leonid Arinshtein , who was a Lieutenant in the Red Army in charge of a rifle platoon during the Battle of Konigsberg , said : " I probably was one of the last people who saw the Amber Room " . At the same time , he explained that the whole city was burning due to artillery bombardments , but also denied allegations that the Red Army burned the city on purpose by saying : " What soldiers would burn the city where they will have to stay ? "
A variation of this theory by some present @-@ day residents of Kaliningrad ( formerly Königsberg ) , is that at least parts of the room were found in the Königsberg Castle cellars after World War II by the Red Army . The Amber Room was allegedly still in good condition ; this was not admitted at the time so the blame could fall upon the Nazis . To preserve this story , access to the ruins of the castle , which was allowed after World War II , was suddenly restricted to all , including historical and archaeological surveys .
Then in 1968 , despite academic protests worldwide , Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev ordered the destruction of Königsberg Castle , thus making any onsite research of the last known resting place of the Amber Room all but impossible . In more recent years , the search for the Amber Room has continued in different locations including near Wuppertal , Germany .
= = = Printed = = =
Denny , Isabel ( 2007 ) . The Fall of Hitler 's Fortress City : the Battle for Königsberg , 1945 . MBI Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1935149200 .
Khatri , Vikas ( 2012 ) . World Famous Treasures Lost and Found . Pustak Mahal Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 8122312744 .
Lucas , James ( 2000 ) . Last Days of the Reich : The Collapse of Nazi Germany , May 1945 . Cassell Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0304354481 .
Scott @-@ Clark , Catherine ; Levy , Adrian ( 2004 ) . The Amber Room : The Untold Story of the Greatest Hoax of the Twentieth Century . Atlantic Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 84354 @-@ 340 @-@ 0 .
Torney , Austin ( 2009 ) . The Guide to the All @-@ Embracing Realm of the Ultimate . Torney Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1448617272 .
Wermusch , Günter ( 1991 ) . Die Bernsteinzimmer Saga : Spuren , Irrwege , Rätsel ( in German ) . Yale University . ISBN 978 @-@ 3861530190 .
= = = Online = = =
" 60 @-@ year Hunt For Russian Czars ' Missing Amber Room May Be Over After Discovery in Germany " . Daily Mail . 2011 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" A Brief History of the Amber Room " . Smithsonian Institution . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Amber Room Hunt Makes Lake the Tsar Attraction " . Scotland on Sunday . 2006 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Amber Room Remnants Found ? — Discoveries Delight Russian Art Experts " . Seattle Times . 1997 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Catherine Palace " . St. Petersburg . 2001 . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .
" Erich Koch , Regarded as One of Cruelest of Hitler 's SS Men , Dies in Prison at 90 " . Los Angeles Times . 1986 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Greed , Glory and a Tsar 's Lost Treasure " . The Guardian . 2004 . Retrieved 22 February 2015 .
" Inside the £ 300 Million Room : Incredible Story of Amber and Gold Living Space That Once Belonged to Catherine the Great Revealed in BBC Documentary " . Daily Mail . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Mystery of the Amber Room Resurfaces " . ABC News . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Red Army , Not the Nazis , Destroyed Tsar 's Amber Room " . Telegraph . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Resurrecting Königsberg : Russian City Looks to German Roots " . Der Spiegel . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Restoration of the Amber Chamber is Coming to an End " . Pravda . 2007 . Retrieved 26 June 2007 .
" Russian Jeweller Recreates the Amber Room In His Workshop " . Russia Beyond the Headlines . 2013 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" Top 10 Famous Pieces of Art Stolen by the Nazis " . Toptenz . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" The Amber Room : History , Figures , Facts and Mysteries " ( in Russian ) . RIA Novosti . 2010 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 .
" The Amber Room : Long Lost Treasure " . AskMen . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
" The Amber Room " . About . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .
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= Lipid =
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats , waxes , sterols , fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( such as vitamins A , D , E , and K ) , monoglycerides , diglycerides , triglycerides , phospholipids , and others . The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy , signaling , and acting as structural components of cell membranes . Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology .
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules ; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles , multilamellar / unilamellar liposomes , or membranes in an aqueous environment . Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or " building @-@ blocks " : ketoacyl and isoprene groups . Using this approach , lipids may be divided into eight categories : fatty acids , glycerolipids , glycerophospholipids , sphingolipids , saccharolipids , and polyketides ( derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits ) ; and sterol lipids and prenol lipids ( derived from condensation of isoprene subunits ) .
Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats , fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides . Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives ( including tri- , di- , monoglycerides , and phospholipids ) , as well as other sterol @-@ containing metabolites such as cholesterol . Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids , some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet .
= = Categories of lipids = =
= = = Fatty acids = = =
Fatty acids , or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid , are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain @-@ elongation of an acetyl @-@ CoA primer with malonyl @-@ CoA or methylmalonyl @-@ CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis . They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group ; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar , hydrophilic end , and a nonpolar , hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water . The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids , and is commonly used as a building @-@ block of more structurally complex lipids . The carbon chain , typically between four and 24 carbons long , may be saturated or unsaturated , and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen , halogens , nitrogen , and sulfur . If a fatty acid contains a double bond , there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism , which significantly affects the molecule 's configuration . Cis @-@ double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend , an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain . Three double bonds in 18 @-@ carbon linolenic acid , the most abundant fatty @-@ acyl chains of plant thylakoid membranes , render these membranes highly fluid despite environmental low @-@ temperatures , and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13 @-@ C NMR spectra of chloroplasts . This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes . Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration , although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils .
Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids , derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid , that include prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and thromboxanes . Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems , particularly with respect to sight . Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides . Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters , fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives , fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines . The fatty amides include N @-@ acyl ethanolamines , such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide .
= = = Glycerolipids = = =
Glycerolipids are composed of mono- , di- , and tri @-@ substituted glycerols , the best @-@ known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol , called triglycerides . The word " triacylglycerol " is sometimes used synonymously with " triglyceride " . In these compounds , the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified , typically by different fatty acids . Because they function as an energy store , these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues . The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat .
Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols , which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage . Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells .
= = = Glycerophospholipids = = =
Glycerophospholipids , usually referred to as phospholipids , are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells , as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling . Neural tissue ( including the brain ) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids , and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders . Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes , based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the sn @-@ 3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria , or the sn @-@ 1 position in the case of archaebacteria .
Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine ( also known as PC , GPCho or lecithin ) , phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE or GPEtn ) and phosphatidylserine ( PS or GPSer ) . In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins , some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells , such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or , themselves , membrane @-@ derived second messengers . Typically , one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long @-@ chain fatty acids , but there are also alkyl @-@ linked and 1Z @-@ alkenyl @-@ linked ( plasmalogen ) glycerophospholipids , as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria .
= = = Sphingolipids = = =
Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature , a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long @-@ chain fatty acyl CoA , then converted into ceramides , phosphosphingolipids , glycosphingolipids and other compounds . The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine . Ceramides ( N @-@ acyl @-@ sphingoid bases ) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide @-@ linked fatty acid . The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono @-@ unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms .
The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins ( ceramide phosphocholines ) , whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose @-@ containing headgroups . The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base . Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides .
= = = Sterol lipids = = =
Sterol lipids , such as cholesterol and its derivatives , are an important component of membrane lipids , along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins . The steroids , all derived from the same fused four @-@ ring core structure , have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules . The eighteen @-@ carbon ( C18 ) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone . The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids . The secosteroids , comprising various forms of vitamin D , are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure . Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates , which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver . The plant equivalents are the phytosterols , such as β @-@ sitosterol , stigmasterol , and brassicasterol ; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth . The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol .
= = = Prenol lipids = = =
Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five @-@ carbon @-@ unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate that are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid ( MVA ) pathway . The simple isoprenoids ( linear alcohols , diphosphates , etc . ) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units , and are classified according to number of these terpene units . Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes . Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Another biologically important class of molecules is exemplified by the quinones and hydroquinones , which contain an isoprenoid tail attached to a quinonoid core of non @-@ isoprenoid origin . Vitamin E and vitamin K , as well as the ubiquinones , are examples of this class . Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols ( called bactoprenols ) in which the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated , whereas in animal polyprenols ( dolichols ) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced .
= = = Saccharolipids = = =
Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone , forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers . In the saccharolipids , a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids . The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram @-@ negative bacteria . Typical lipid A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine , which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty @-@ acyl chains . The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in E. coli is Kdo2 @-@ Lipid A , a hexa @-@ acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3 @-@ deoxy @-@ D @-@ manno @-@ octulosonic acid ( Kdo ) residues .
= = = Polyketides = = =
Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases . They comprise a large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal , plant , bacterial , fungal and marine sources , and have great structural diversity . Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation , methylation , hydroxylation , oxidation , and / or other processes . Many commonly used anti @-@ microbial , anti @-@ parasitic , and anti @-@ cancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives , such as erythromycins , tetracyclines , avermectins , and antitumor epothilones .
= = Biological functions = =
= = = Membranes = = =
Eukaryotic cells feature compartmentalized membrane @-@ bound organelles that carry out different biological functions . The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes , such as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles ; in animal cells the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment . The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules ( containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions ) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid @-@ derived " tails " by ester linkages and to one " head " group by a phosphate ester linkage . While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes , other non @-@ glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols ( mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes ) are also found in biological membranes . In plants and algae , the galactosyldiacylglycerols , and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol , which lack a phosphate group , are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues , including those of higher plants , algae and certain bacteria .
Plant thylakoid membranes have the largest lipid component of a non @-@ bilayer forming monogalactosyl diglyceride ( MGDG ) , and little phospholipids ; despite this unique lipid composition , chloroplast thylakoid membranes have been shown to contain a dynamic lipid @-@ bilayer matrix as revealed by magnetic resonance and electron microscope studies .
A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer . The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment . This is known as the hydrophobic effect . In an aqueous system , the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar , aqueous environment , while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together , forming a vesicle ; depending on the concentration of the lipid , this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles , liposomes , or lipid bilayers . Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile ( lipid ) behavior . Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics and is the subject of current academic research . Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect . When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment , the polar molecules ( i.e. , water in an aqueous solution ) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance , since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile . So in an aqueous environment , the water molecules form an ordered " clathrate " cage around the dissolved lipophilic molecule .
The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis , the origin of life .
= = = Energy storage = = =
Triglycerides , stored in adipose tissue , are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants . The adipocyte , or fat cell , is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals , with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone @-@ sensitive enzyme lipase . The complete oxidation of fatty acids provides high caloric content , about 9 kcal / g , compared with 4 kcal / g for the breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins . Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use stored energy of triglycerides to fuel their flights .
= = = Signaling = = =
In recent years , evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling . Lipid signaling may occur via activation of G protein @-@ coupled or nuclear receptors , and members of several different lipid categories have been identified as signaling molecules and cellular messengers . These include sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate , a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization , cell growth , and apoptosis ; diacylglycerol ( DAG ) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates ( PIPs ) , involved in calcium @-@ mediated activation of protein kinase C ; the prostaglandins , which are one type of fatty @-@ acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity ; the steroid hormones such as estrogen , testosterone and cortisol , which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction , metabolism and blood pressure ; and the oxysterols such as 25 @-@ hydroxy @-@ cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists . Phosphatidylserine lipids are known to be involved in signaling for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and / or pieces of cells . They accomplish this by being exposed to the extracellular face of the cell membrane after the inactivation of flippases which place them exclusively on the cytosolic side and the activation of scramblases , which scramble the orientation of the phospholipids . After this occurs , other cells recognize the phosphatidylserines and phagocytosize the cells or cell fragments exposing them .
= = = Other functions = = =
The " fat @-@ soluble " vitamins ( A , D , E and K ) – which are isoprene @-@ based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues , with a diverse range of functions . Acyl @-@ carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria , where they undergo beta oxidation . Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles , in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes . Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra @-@ cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions , in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis ( for instance , peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria ) , and in eukaryotic protein N @-@ glycosylation . Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane . They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation . Lipids also form the basis of steroid hormones .
= = Metabolism = =
The major dietary lipids for humans and other animals are animal and plant triglycerides , sterols , and membrane phospholipids . The process of lipid metabolism synthesizes and degrades the lipid stores and produces the structural and functional lipids characteristic of individual tissues .
= = = Biosynthesis = = =
In animals , when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate , the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides . This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl @-@ CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides , a process called lipogenesis . Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acetyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups , in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate enzymes perform each step in the pathway . The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver .
The synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids involves a desaturation reaction , whereby a double bond is introduced into the fatty acyl chain . For example , in humans , the desaturation of stearic acid by stearoyl @-@ CoA desaturase @-@ 1 produces oleic acid . The doubly unsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid as well as the triply unsaturated α @-@ linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in mammalian tissues , and are therefore essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet .
Triglyceride synthesis takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum by metabolic pathways in which acyl groups in fatty acyl @-@ CoAs are transferred to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol @-@ 3 @-@ phosphate and diacylglycerol .
Terpenes and isoprenoids , including the carotenoids , are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol .
= = = Degradation = = =
Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria and / or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl @-@ CoA . For the most part , fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to , but not identical with , a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis . That is , two @-@ carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation , hydration , and oxidation to form a beta @-@ keto acid , which is split by thiolysis . The acetyl @-@ CoA is then ultimately converted into ATP , CO2 , and H2O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain . Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl @-@ CoA when fat is being broken down for energy if there is little or no glucose available . The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP . Unsaturated and odd @-@ chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation .
= = Nutrition and health = =
Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides , cholesterol , and phospholipids . Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( A , D , E , and K ) and carotenoids . Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids , such as linoleic acid ( an omega @-@ 6 fatty acid ) and alpha @-@ linolenic acid ( an omega @-@ 3 fatty acid ) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet . Both of these fatty acids are 18 @-@ carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds . Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid ( safflower , sunflower , and corn oils ) . Alpha @-@ linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants , and in selected seeds , nuts , and legumes ( in particular flax , rapeseed , walnut , and soy ) . Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer @-@ chain omega @-@ 3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . A large number of studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega @-@ 3 fatty acids on infant development , cancer , cardiovascular diseases , and various mental illnesses , such as depression , attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder , and dementia . In contrast , it is now well @-@ established that consumption of trans fats , such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils , are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease .
A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes . However , a number of very large studies , including the Women 's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial , an eight @-@ year study of 49 @,@ 000 women , the Nurses ' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow @-@ up Study , revealed no such links . None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer , heart disease , or weight gain . The Nutrition Source , a website maintained by the Department of Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health , summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary fat : " Detailed research — much of it done at Harvard — shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn 't really linked with weight or disease . "
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= Don 't Wake Me Up ( song ) =
" Don 't Wake Me Up " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album , Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Brown , Alain Whyte , Allessandro Benassi , Brian Kennedy , Jean @-@ Baptiste , Marco Benassi , Michael McHenry , Nick Marsh , Priscilla Hamilton , Ryan Buendia and William Orbit . The song was produced by Benny and Alle Benassi , Free School , Orbit and Kennedy , and was released digitally on May 18 , 2012 , as the fourth single from the album . " Don 't Wake Me Up " is an EDM song that features heavy bass and a repetitive chorus . The lyrics of the song describe a lost loved one who exists only in a dream .
" Don 't Wake Me Up " received generally positive reviews from critics , who complimented its production . The song was commercially successful , peaking at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , the single peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia , Austria , Hungary , Ireland , Japan , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom , and the top twenty of the charts in Denmark , France , Germany , Sweden , Switzerland and Belgium . The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley and depicts Brown in three different dreams , all of which involve a mysterious woman , played by model Araya Nicks . The video received a positive reception from critics for its visuals . Brown promoted the song with live performances on televised shows , including Today and the 2012 BET Awards .
= = Background and release = =
" Don 't Wake Me Up " was written by Alain Whyte , Allessandro Benassi , Brian Kennedy , Chris Brown , Jean @-@ Baptiste , Marco Benassi , Michael McHenry , Nick Marsh , Priscilla Hamilton , Ryan Buendia and William Orbit . It was produced by Benny and Alle Benassi , Free School , Orbit and Kennedy . " Don 't Wake Me Up " was originally intended for American pop singer Madonna 's twelfth studio album MDNA ( 2012 ) ; however , she could not record the song because of her tight schedule , and Orbit gave the song to Brown . After an unofficial version of " Don 't Wake Me Up " was leaked online in January 2012 , websites reported that the song was produced by David Guetta . However , Guetta said on his Facebook and Twitter accounts , " I 'm credited for ' Don 't Wake Me Up ' ... but I did not produce this record . Best to CB ! " .
On May 12 , 2012 , Brown announced on his Twitter account that he would release " Don 't Wake Me Up " as the next single from his fourth studio album Fortune . It was made available for download via iTunes Stores worldwide on May 18 , 2012 . The Free School / William Orbit remix of the song was released in some European countries on May 22 , 2012 . In the United States , " Don 't Wake Me Up " was sent to contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on June 12 , 2012 . On June 22 , 2012 , it was released as a CD single in Germany and as a Digital EP in the United Kingdom . The EP contains the album version , remix and Brown 's previous singles " Till I Die " and " Sweet Love " .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Don 't Wake Me Up " is an EDM song that features heavy bass ; it lasts for 3 minutes and 42 seconds . The instrumentation is provided by an acoustic guitar and synthesizers . Brown uses auto @-@ tune on the hook and breakdown . " Don 't Wake Me Up " is written in the key of B ♭ major and is set in common time with a tempo of 128 beats per minute . Brown 's vocal range spans from the note of G4 to the note of C6 . The song contains lyrics about a lost loved one who exists only in a dream , as stated by Brittany R. Villalva of The Christian Post . " Don 't Wake Me Up " begins with a spoken introduction by an unidentified woman saying , " Dearly Beloved , if this love only exists in my dreams , don 't wake me up " . Robbie Daw of Idolator compared her voice to that of Rihanna . The song 's chorus consists of the hook " Don 't wake me up " . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy wrote that the chorus " flourishes into a pulse @-@ racing mix of thundering beats and squiggly electronic swizzles " . HitFix 's Melinda Newman noted that the song " resembles the sweet bounciness of ' Forever ' " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Don 't Wake Me Up " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy called it " this summer 's biggest anthem " , awarding the song five stars out of five and writing that Brown delivers it " with effortless swagger " . JusMusic of Singersroom described " Don 't Wake Me Up " as a " fun and bubbly track " , while a writer for Rap @-@ Up labeled it as an " electrifying Top 40 record " . Robbie Daw of Idolator complimented the song 's production as a " strobe light thumper " and wrote that if listeners enjoy Brown 's auto @-@ tuned tracks , " then you won 't be disappointed " . Time 's Melissa Locker viewed " Don 't Wake Me Up " and " Turn Up the Music " as the only potential hits from Fortune .
Nick Levine of BBC Music called the song " a smash " . AOL Radio 's Phil Kukawinski noted that " Don 't Wake Me Up " has " a nice juxtaposition of calm and energetic " and that it " seems to be one of those songs that merges the two sounds in a perfect way " . James Reed of The Boston Globe called the song " a thumping club cut that 's irresistible " . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush described " Don 't Wake Me Up " as a " fist @-@ pumping club jam " but felt that it is " not as catchy as ' Beautiful People ' " . In a review of Fortune , Barry Walters of Spin magazine wrote that " Don 't Wake Me Up " , along with " Sweet Love " and " Till I Die " , contain " thin melodies and stock shock lyrics " that make Brown 's previous singles sound better . " Don 't Wake Me Up " was nominated for World 's Best Song at the 2013 World Music Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
In New Zealand , " Don 't Wake Me Up " debuted at number 34 on May 28 , 2012 , and peaked at number two in its eighth week on the chart . It was certified platinum by RIANZ , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . On June 4 , 2012 , the song entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number five , becoming the highest new entry that week and Brown 's tenth top @-@ ten single in that country . " Don 't Wake Me Up " peaked at number two in its fifth week on the chart , and number one in its eighth week on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart . The song was certified triple platinum by ARIA , denoting sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . " Don 't Wake Me Up " reached the top ten in Hungary , Ireland , Japan and Norway , and the top twenty in Denmark , France , Germany , Sweden , Switzerland and both regions of Belgium . In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 89 in the issue dated June 9 , 2012 . " Don 't Wake Me Up " entered the top ten in the issue dated November 10 , 2012 at number 10 , where it peaked . It became Brown 's twelfth top @-@ ten single on the chart , and his second top @-@ ten single from Fortune , following " Turn Up the Music " . On the UK Singles Chart , " Don 't Wake Me Up " debuted at number three in the issue dated July 7 , 2012 , with sales of 89 @,@ 223 copies . The following week , the song peaked at number two with sales of 70 @,@ 702 copies . As of January 2013 , " Don 't Wake Me Up " has sold 416 @,@ 684 copies in the UK . In Austria , " Don 't Wake Me Up " reached number one on August 17 , 2012 , where it remained for one week , becoming Brown 's first number @-@ one single in that country .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The accompanying music video for " Don 't Wake Me Up " was directed by Colin Tilley and filmed in a desert on May 14 , 2012 . Several images from the shoot , showing Brown posing shirtless against a vintage car , and images of Brown posing with model Araya Nicks , who plays his love interest in the video , were posted on the Internet the following day . The video premiered online on June 11 , 2012 . Later that day , Brown made a guest appearance on 106 & Park and discussed the video 's concept :
With this video , we wanted to go completely into the dream world . A lot of my videos from ' Turn Up the Music ' and other videos I 'm doing now are in a dream state of believing what you want to believe . So that 's what Fortune kinda encompasses . So it 's basically dreaming and accomplishing your dreams . This video is me dreaming and being taken into this whole kind of maze . I keep waking up within a dream within a dream , almost on some Inception type ... but I don 't want to bite that .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Brown singing alone in a desert in front of a sunset backdrop . It then cuts to Brown waking up in a bedroom as he notices a mysterious woman ( played by Araya Nicks ) walking through the first of three doors behind him . Each door is labeled with hieroglyphics in gold . During the first chorus , Brown follows the woman through the door and enters a garden maze . This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing in the desert . He then returns to bed as the woman walks through the second door . Brown follows her again and appears in a city in the sky . This scene is also intercut with scenes of him in the desert . During the second chorus , Brown is hit by a tidal wave which sends him back to bed . He then enters the third door and appears driving a vintage car in the desert . Brown drives after the woman until he hits a sign that reads " Road Closed " , which causes him to drive off a cliff . The video then cuts to Brown and the woman lying in bed with electrodes attached to their heads .
= = = Reception = = =
Nicole Sia of Idolator called the clip Brown 's " Video of the Year " and complimented its " stunning dream imagery " . A writer for The Edge called it " another visually tantalising music video " from Brown , while Rap @-@ Up described it as surreal . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush described the video as " good visual fun " and wrote that it reminded him of the television series Day Break . He compared the ending to the 1999 film The Matrix . The video was nominated for World 's Best Video at the 2012 World Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
On June 8 , 2012 , Brown performed " Don 't Wake Me Up " on Today as part of its Summer Concert Series , for which he wore a New York Yankees cap , a multicolored Snow Beach Polo jacket , black jeans and white sneakers . The set list also included " Turn Up the Music " , " Yeah 3x " and " Forever " . At the 2012 BET Awards ceremony on July 1 , 2012 , Brown performed " Don 't Wake Me Up " and " Turn Up the Music " , for which he appeared shirtless with half his body painted gray . Brown performed acrobatic moves with six backup dancers under triangle @-@ shaped beams as green and red flashing lights appeared throughout the stage . Georgette Cline of The Boombox wrote that Brown " put on an energetic show " and described his dance routines during the performance as " eye @-@ catching " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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